,LZel,

A TREATISE
ON

.ELECTRICITY

AND MAGNETISM
MAXWELL

VOL. I.

lLonbon
MACMILLAN AND CO.

PllBLISllERt;

TO

TllE

UNIVERSITY

01'

4hforl).

ctlartnbOll

Jrt~g

~tl'it~

TREATISE
ON

ELECTRICITY

AND MAGNETISM

BY

JAMES

CIJERK

MAXWELL,

M.A.

!.I.II. Ell)}".,

P. n, BS. LO!lDON A.ND EDINDUUGII

VOL.

®lforh
AT THE CLAHENDON PRESS

1873
[All 1'iUlds )'cBcmd]

PREFACE.
THE fact that certain bodies, after being rubbed,

appear to attract other bodies, was known to the ancients. In modern times, a great variety of other phenomena have been observed, and have been found to be related to these phenomena of attraction. They have been classed under the name of Electric phenomena, amber, ~Afi"'TpOI', having been the substance in which they were first described. Other bodies, particularly the loadstone, and pieces of iron and steel which have been subjected to certain processes, have also been long known to exhibit phenomena of action at a distance. These phenomena, with others related to them, were found to differ from the electric phenomena, and have been classed under the name of MagnetiG phenomena, the loadstone, Jla'Yv'1~, being found in the Thessalian Magnesia. 'I'hese two classes of phenomena have since been found to be related to each other, and the relations between the various phenomena of' both classes, so far as they are known, constitute the science of Electromagnetism. In the following Treatise I propose to describe the

vi

PItE}1'ACE,

most important of these phenomena, to shew how they may be subjected to measurement, and to trace the mathematical counexions of the quantities measured. Having thus obtained the data for a mathematical theory of electromagnetism, and having shewn how this theory may be applled to the calculation of phenomena, I shall endeavour to place in as clear a light as I can the relations between the mathematical form of this theory and that of the fundamental science of" Dynamics, in order that we may be in some degree prepared to determine the kind of dynamical phenomena among which we are to look for illustrations or explanations of the electromagnetic phenomena. In describing the phenomena, I shall select, those which most clearly illustrate the fundamental ideas of the theory, omitting others, or reserving them till the reader is more advanced. The most important aspect of any phenomenon from a mathematical point of view is that or a measurable quantity. I shall therefore consider electrical phenomena chiefly with a view to their measurement, describing the methods of measurement, and defining the standards OIl which they depend. In the application of mathematics to the calculation of electrical quantities, I shall endeavour in the first place to deduce the most general conclusions from the data at our disposal, and ill the next place to apply the results to the simplest cases that can be chosen. I shall avoid, as much as I can, those questions which, though they have elicited the skill of mathematicians, have not enlarged our knowledge of science.

PREFACE.

vii

The internal relations of the different branches of the science which we have to study are more numerous and complex than those of any other science hitherto developed. Its external relations, on the one hand to dynamics, and on the other to heat, light, chemical action, and the constitution of bodies, seem to indicate the special importance of' electrical science as an aid to the interpretation of nature. It appears to me, therefore, that the study of electromagnetism in all its extent has now become of the first importance as a means of promoting the progress of science. The mathematical laws of the different classes of phenomena have been to a great extent satisfactorily made out. The connexions between the different classes of phenomena have also been investigated, and the probability of the rigorous exactness of the experimental laws has been greatly strengthened by a more extended knowledge of their relations to each other. Finally, some progress has been made in the reduction of electromagnetism to a dynamical science, by shewing that no electromagnetic phenomenon is contradictory to the supposition that it depends on purely dynamical action. What has been hitherto done, however, has by no means exhausted the field of electrical research. It has rather opened up that field, by pointing out subjects of enquiry, and furnishing us with means of in vestigation. It is hardly necessary to enlarge upon the beneficial

viii

PRE Ii'ACE.

results of magnetic research on navigation, and the importance of' a knowledge of the true direction of the compass, and of' the effect of the iron in a ship. But the labours of those who have endeavoured to render navigation more secure by means of magnetic observations have at the same time greatly advanced the progress of pure science. Gauss, as a member of' the German Magnetic Union, brought his powerful intellect to bear on the theory of magnetism, and on the methods of observing it, and he not only added greatly to our knowledge of' the theory of attractions, but reconstructed the whole of magnetic science as regards the instruments used, the methods of observation, and the calculation of the results, so that his memoirs on Terrestrial Magnetism may be taken as models of physical research by all those who arc engaged ill the measurement of any of the forces in nature. TIle important applications of electromagnetism to telegraphy have also reacted on pure science by giving a commercial value to accurate electrical measurements, and by affording to electricians the use of apparatus on a scale which greatly transcends that of any ordinary laboratory. The consequences of this demand for electrical lmowledge, and of these experimental opportunities for acquiring it, have been already very great, both in stimulating the energies of advanced electricians, and in diffusing among practical men a degree of accurate knowledge which is likely to conduce to the general scientific progress of' the whole engineering profession.

PRE FACE.

ix

There are several treatises in which electrical and magnetic phenomena are described in a popular way. These, however, are not what is wanted by tl1088 who have been brought face to face with quantities to be measured, and whose minds do not rest satisfied with lecture-room experiments. There is also a considerable mass of mathematical memoirs which are of great importance in electrical science, but they lie concealed in the bulky Transactions of learned societies; they do not form a connected system; they are of very unequal merit, and they arc for the most part beyond the comprehension of any but professed mathematicians. I have therefore thought that a treatise would be useful which should have for its principal object to take up the whole subject in a methodical manner, and which should also indicate how each part of the subject is brought within the reach of methods of verification by actual measurement. The general complexion of the treatise differs considerably from that of several excellent electrical works, published, most of them, in Germany, and it may appear that scant justice is done to the speculations of' several eminent electricians and mathematicians. One reason of this is that before I began the study of electricity I resolved to read no mathematics on the subject till I had first read through Faraday's Experimental. Researches on Electricity. I was aware that there was supposed to be a difference between Faraday's way of conceiving phenomena and that of the mathematicians, so that neither he nor

PREPACE.

they were satisfied with each other's language. I had also the conviction that this discrepancy did not arise from either party being wrong. I was first convinced of this by Sir William Thomson *, to whose advice and assistance, as well as to his published papers, lowe most of what I have learned on the subject. As I proceeded with the study of Faraday, I perceivcd that his method of conceiving the phenomena was also a mathematical one, though not exhibited in the conventional form of mathematical symbols. I also found that these methods were capable of' being expressed in the ordinary mathematical forms, and thus compared with those of the professed mathematicians. For instance, Faraday, in his mind's eye, saw lines of force traversing all space where the mathematicians saw centres of force attracting at a distance: Faraday saw a medium where they saw nothing but distance: Faraday sought the seat of the phenomena in real actions going on in the medium, they were satisfied that they had found it in a power of action at a distance impressed on the electric fluids. When I had translated what I considered to be Faraday's ideas into a mathematical form, I found that in general the results of the two methods coincided, so that the same phenomena were accounted for, and the same laws of action deduced by both methods, but that Faraday's methods resembled those

* I take this opportunity of acknowledging my obligations to Sir ",V. Thomson and to Professor Tnit for many valuable suggestions made during the printing of this work.

PHEFACE.

Xl

in which we begin with the whole and arrive at the parts by analysis, while the ordinary mathematical methods were founded 011 the principle of beginning with the parts and building up the whole by synthesis. I also found that several of the most fertile methods of research discovered by the mathematicians could be expressed much better in terms of ideas derived from Faraday than ill their original form. The whole theory, for instance, of' the potential, considered as a quantity which satisfies a certain partial differential equation, belongs essentially to the method which I have called that of Faraday. According to the other method, the potentia], if it is to be considered at all, must be regarded as the result of a summation of the electrified particles divided each by its distance from a given point. Hence many of the mathematical discoveries of Laplace, Poisson, Green and Gauss finel their proper place in this treatise, and their appropriate expression in terms of conceptions mainly dcri ved from Faraday. Great progress has been made in electrical science, chiefly in Germany, by cultivators of tke theory of action at a distance. The valuable electrical measurements of \V. Weber are interpreted by him according to this the ory, and the electromagnetic speculation w hich was originated by Gauss, and carried on by \Veber, Riemann, J. and C. Neumann, Lorenz, &c. is founded on the theory of action at a distance, but depending either directly ()n the relative velocity of the particles, or on the gradual propagation of something,

xii

PREI·'ACK

whether potential or force, from the one particle to the other. The great success which these eminent men have attained in the application of mathematics to electrical phenomena gives, as is natural, additional weight to their theoretical speculations, so that those who, as students of electricity, turn to them as the greatest authorities in mathematical electricity, would probably imbibe, along with their mathematical methods, their physical hypotheses. These physical hypotheses, however, are entirely alien from the way of looking at things which I adopt, and one object which I have in view is that some of those who wish to study electricity may, by reading this treatise, come to sec that there is another way of treating the subject, which is no less fitted to explain the phenomena, and which, though in some parts it may appear less definite, corresponds, as I think, more faithfully with our actual knowledge, both in what it affirms and in what it leaves undecided. In a philosophical point of view, moreover, it is exceedingly important that two methods should be compared, both of which have succeeded in explaining the principal electromagnetic phenomena, and both of which have attempted to explain the propagation of light as an electromagnetic phenomenon, and have actually calculated its velocity, 'while at the same time the fundamental conceptions of what actually takes place, as well as most of the secondary conceptions of the quantities concerned, are radically different. I have therefore taken the part of an advocate rather than that of a judge, and have rather exemplified one

PREF ACE,

Xlll

method of both,

than attempted

to give an impartial

description which I

I have no doubt that

the method

ha vo called the German one will also find its SUI)porters, and will be expounded with a skill worthy of its ingenuity,
I have not attempted an exhaustive and account apparatus, of elec-

The student who desires to read all that is known on these subjects will find great assistance from the T1'ait6 d'Electriciu; of Professor A. de la Rive, and from several German treatises, such as Wiedemann's Galoanismus, Riess' Reilmngselekt1'iciUtt, Beer's Einleitllng in die Elektroetcaik, &c,
phenomena, experiments, I have thematical recommend mentally observed, confined treatment the student, to read myself' almost of the entirely to the maI would experito be subject, but

trical

after he- has learned, phenomena

if' possible, what are the

Researches

carefully Faraday's Exp erimeu tal 'in Electricity, He will there find a strictly

contemporary historical account of some of the greatest electrical discoveries and investigations, carried on in an order and succession which could hardly have been had been known

improved
first, and devoted

if the

results

from the
who of' ac-

expressed describing of great

in the language
scientific operations

of a man

much of his attention

to the methods

curately sults *.
It is

and their reof any subject, when

advantage to the student subject to read the original memoirs 011 that
for science is always most completely assimilated

Life and Letters

0/

J,'arwluy, vol, i. P: 395.

XIV

PRE I.'ACE.

it is in the nascent state, and in the case of Faraday's Iiesearchcs this is comparatively easy, as they are published in a separate fOI'111, and may be read consecutively, If by anything I have here written I may assist any student in understanding Faraday's modes of thought and expression, I shall regard it as the accomplishment of one of' my principal aims-to communicate to others the same delight which I have found myself in reading Farnday's Reseanhes. The description of the phenomena, and the elomentary parts of the theory of each subject, will be found in the earlier chapters of each of the four Parts into which this treatise is divided. The student will find in these chapters enough to give him an elementary acquaintance with the whole science, The remaining chapters of each Part are occupied with the higher parts of the theory, the processes of numerical calculation, and the instruments and methods of'experimental research. The relations between electromagnetic phenomena and those of radiation, the theory of molecular electric currents, and the results of speculation on the nature of' action at a distance, are treated of in the last four chapters of the second volume.

Ji'r.'), 1, ] 873.

CON

TEN

T S.

FHELIMINARY.

ON T]"'~ ~mARUnEMEN1'
Art.

OJ' QU,\N'I'ITIES. l'ago

l , The expression uf n quuntlty consists of t\VO factors, tho I1Umericul vuluo, und the name of the COil crete unit " 1 2. Dimensions of derived units 1 3-5. 'I'he three fundameutal units-Length, Time and Muss " 2, 3 (i. Derived units 5 7. Physical continuity nnd discontinuity 6 8. Discontinuity of u function of more than one variable 7 O. Periodic and multiple fuuctions , . 8 10. Helution of physical quantities to directions ill space 8 11. Mcnuing of the words Scalar and Vector .. 9 12. Diviaiou of physical vectors into two classes, FOl'CCS and Fluxo» 10 13. Relation between corresponding vectors of the two classes 11 11. Linc-integratlon appropriate to forces, surfuec-integration to fluxes 12 15. Longiturlinal und rotational vectors .. 12 Hi. Line-integrals lind potentials 13 17. Hnmiltou's expression ftll' the relation between a force nnd its potential.. 15 1B. Cyclic regions und geometry of position 16 19. The potential in an acyclic region ill single valued 17 20. System of values of the poteutial in a cyclic region.. 18 21. Surface-integrals .. 19 22. Surfaces, tubes, and lilies of HOIv 21 23. Right-handed lind left-handed relations ill space 24 24. 'I'ransformntlon of a line-integral into a surfece-Iutegral .. 25 25. Effect of Hamiltou'a operation V on a "ector function 27 26. Nature of the operation v2 .. 29

X 1'1

coSTBNTS,

PART
BLEC'l'HOSTATICS.

r.
r.
Pngo

CHAPTEH.
DESCRlI'TIOS"
Art.

OF PllF.NOMJ~)J A.

27. Electrificntiun IJY friction. Electrification is of two kinds, to which the 1I111llCS of Vitreous 1I11l1 UCSiIlOllS, 01' Positiv« nud Nq.rati\'C, have been given 28. Electrification by induction 2!1. Elcctrificatiou by couduction, Conductors and ills ulutors 30. In elcctriflcution by friction tho quuntity of tile positive dectriflcution is equal to that of the negative electrification 31. To charge II vessel with fI quanti ty of electricity equul U1Hl opposite to that of un excited body 32. To discharge u conductor completely into 1\ metal! ic vessel 33. 'I'est of electrification hy gold-leaf electroscope .. 3·1. Electrification, considered us IL measurahle quantity, IllUY he called Electricity 35. Electricity may be treated us n physical quantity 36. Theory of Two fluids .. 37. 'I'heory uf Que fluid 38. Measurement of the force between electrified bodies .. 39. Relation between this force Il.IlU the quantities of electricity 40. Vl1riatioll uf the force with the distunce .1], 42. Defluitiun of the electrostatic unit of electricity. - Its dimensions 43, Proof of the law uf electric force H. Electric fichl 45. Electric potential 46. EfjuipotClltiul surfaces. Exumple of their use ill reasoning about electricity 47. Lincs of furce 48. Electric tension .. 49. Electromotive force 50. Capacity of n conductor 51. Properties uf bodies. -HcsislllllCc

30 31 32 33 33 3·1 34
31i 3(j

37
39

40 41 ·12 12 13 1<1 ,15 45 47 17 47 48 48

,
,

CON'l'~: N'l'S.
.vr
t.

xvii
Pn,.;c

;)pl'citic lnduetivo cupacity of a dielectric of clcetricity ,i:!. , Absorption'

,j;! ,
v.

,.

50
;,)0 51 52 51

;i I. Impossibility
;)5. ;jtj,

of an absolute

c:luLrgt'

Disruptive tlisl'harg(',-Olow
Brush "

st, Rpm'" .,
Electrical pheuumcuu Ill' ;iH. PIIlJ1 of the treatise, and IjO. Electric polarization and Ii 1. 'I'hc motion of electricity
;')8,

Tourmaline " sketch of its results .lisplnccmcnt analogous to that of

,.

55 5G 57
!i!)
1111

iucomprvssihlc

fluid

(;2
of the theo)')' "I' this treatise fi2

li2. l\'culillritil's

eHAFrElt
J:J.I;~mN'I'.\J\Y ~lATII)';~IA'l'ICAI,

] 1.
01' :ELJo:CTlllCl'fY.

"'UJiUll~'

'" II,).

Definition

of electricity

as u mat.hcmatieul

quantity

.,

so
li7

sui-lucc-dcnsity, and line-density IiI. Volume-density, li;i. Definition of the clcctrcstntic unit of electr.icity liG. Law of force between electrified bodies li7. Resultant force between two bodies ..

ss
GO

GD
GD

(i8. Resultant force ILt a point ,. Ii!!. Linc-iutcgral of electric force j electromotive force iO. Elech'ic potential 7 I. Iicsultnut force ill tenus of the potential .. 72. 'I'he potential of HII points of It conductor is tho same 73, I'otcutinl due to fill electrified system i·1. Proof of the lnw of the inverse squal'e i 5 Surfucc-intcgrnl of electric induction.. in, Introduction through Il closed surface due to n single centre of force " 77, Poisson's extension of Lspluec's equntion 78, Conditions to be fulfilled at an electrified surface 79. Resultant force on an electrified surface 80, The electrification of a conductor is entirely 011 the surface 81. A distribution of electricity on lines 01' points is physicnlly impossible 82. Lines of electric induction .. 8:;' Speciflc inductive cnpncity .. vot., [,

71
72 72

73 7,1 7,1 77
77

70 80 82 83 8-1 8·1 Bf

X"III

CHAP'l'J~H. Ill.
SYS1'JmS .1 1'(. OF CONl)Cr"I'OJ(s .

J'n~"

H l. On t he superposition of clectritlcd HJstCllIH fl;3. Energy of 1111 electrified system .. 81j. General theory III' 11 system of COJl(lUl'iOI'R, Cocffleieuts of potcntiul 117. ('n~lTiciellts of iurluetion, UIj'l!lcity of a conductor, Dimensions of these cueflicieuts H8. Iicciprncnl property of tlie coeflicicnts R!J. A theorem dllo to Groen no. Ilolativc mnguitude of tIlt: cocflicicnts of putentinl !JI. AmI of induction
!)2, Tho rcsultnnt uicchnuical force
011 II

88 88
8n

00
f)

02 ()2

na

conductor

expressed

ill

terms of tIle (:itlll'g;cs of the dill'el"Clli conductors of the system and the vnriution uf tho coeflicicnts of potential .. !1:3. 'l'hc sallie ill tC!'J1JS of tl,c p otcut ials, nud the variation of tho eoeflielcn is of iurluction .. !H. Comparison "I' electrified S),Ht('IlIH

fJ.l

fH

CIlAprl'lW
Ii IlN

IV.

gn.u.

T JJ EOUJ.:lIS.

!Hi.

Two (ll)po~i tc methods of trentiug olectricnl IJllestiollS Chal'lu·tcristics of the' potential function .. !17. Conditlous und er wh i('h 1 he volumc-intcgrnl
!);).

!JR
!J!J

l~r(dr
/(..J.
(r.1. •

-f

rI ('!I

«r +1 tZr) dX(~Ij(h I.~ ~

1)
4·

~J8.

'l'IIOIIJ5DIl'S

vanishes . theorem

.. of (he unique (a' minimum

of

I no

.lJ!{

+ b'

-j

c') rlx(~ljd;.

..

10,1

!m. Applicut ion of the theorem

to the dCtCl'IlIilllLtioll
interpretation

tribution of electricity .. 100. Grecn's t hco rcm nnd its pliysicnl 101. Gl'ecII'sfuueiiolls

of the Ilis.. 107

.. .. 108 113

102. Jr[cthod of litHling liinit iug values of electrical

c(Jdlicielltf'

..

11;j

....

GONTBN'I'f;.

XIX

CHAIYl'ER V.
~n:CJlANIC,\l. .11"1. ACTIO!>' IlE'l'WEI·;N RM;Cl'IlH'lED BODlJo:H • PII~e

103. Compnrison
1OJ. 10;"i.

lOG.
107.

of the Iorce between different electrified ayatcms .. )[echllniclll act.ion (111 IlI1 element of an electrified surfnce .. Comparison between theories of direct notion null thern-ics of stress .. Tho kind of stress required to account for the pheuomcuon The hypothesi« of HtJ'CSR considered l1S it step in electrical
science

11 ~
121 122 123 12G

108. The hypothesis of ;;tI'NH shewn to account for the equilibrium of the mcdlum mul fill' tile forces nct.illg between electrified bodies .. 128 10!). :-itnt.rmcnts of' Furndny relative to tho longitudinul tension and 111t('1'1I1 pressure of the linos of force .. 131 110. Objections tu stross ill fL fluid considered .. .. 131 Ill. Statement of the theory of' elcct ric polnrizntion .. 132

CHAP'L'EH. VI.

Conditions of II point of CIJII ilihrium N lImlJCI' of points of equilibrium 1].1. At u point 01' lim' of r-quilibrium there is a conicul point line of self-iutersect ion of the cquipotr-ntiul surface 11 ;j. Angles nt which un equipotential surface intersects, itself 11 Ii. 'I'ho oqnililn-ium of an electrified IllldJ euunot he stuhlc
112. 113.

135 .. 136 Ill' a 137 138 139

CHAP'L'EU VII.
FOmlS OF J\(~l;JI'01'Jo:K'fIAL sunFM'J'~
:\NI) Ll!l'E8

OF },'LOW.
ill

117, 118.

P1'IIcticIlI importance
C'IlHCS

of

It

knowledge

of thcfil' forms

simple

142 Two electrified points, rntio .J : I, (I"ig, J) .. J.13 11!'l, Two eleorriflcd points, ratio .J : -- 1. (Fig. II) .. 144 120. An electr-ified point ill n uniform field of [one. (Fig, III) .. 115 121. Thl'PO elcctri fied ]lOilltS. Two sphcricul cquipotcntiul surfaces. (Fig. IV) H5 Fururlny's usc of' the C())I('l'l't ion of lines (If fol'l'(' .. J.16 ~Jdh(l(l (,1111.1o),c(l ill <1l'1lwillg the diagl'lIllIs " 1'17 I) 2

xx

coN'l'E:\'I'~,

CJJAP'l'EIt
sJ.'"'I.]<;
AI·l. (',\SEh 01'

v 111.
J;I.EC'J'IilFICA'I'IllX. f Jtll!l~

) 2,1. 'I'w« pnrullx-l planes .. I:!;;, '1'11'0 con cell trie spherical 12[i.

I ;'j(l slIJ'J:wes
"
111'" SUI'-

I J2

Two CIII~XI~1 cylill!ll'ic surfucr-s " 1 ~i'. I;ongil.tHlillill fOI'l'e till It ('ylilldt'I', t hc curls of which rounded hy I')' lin d('I'''; at tl ifli'l'l'lIt pot ('11tiuls ..

1:;,1

CHAP'rEB. 1X,

128, Sill~lllal' poillt,~ lit which thu potentiul IJCCOIllCH infiuite.. .. ];')7 12!l, Sillgulal' points of' diflcrent 01'llCI'8 ddiure! It,Ytheir nxcs .. " 158 ) :30. EX}lI'C5Silln fur the potcntiul duo ttl a :;ill~ullll' point referred to its nxos .. IljO l:~ I. 'I'his expression is pcd'cetl,1' defiuite alld represent» the most j.(cllcl'nl tYJIC uf tho lmrmouiu of i (lcgl'ees .. J 62 132, TIll' ~(JIlIII, tossornl, a 1111 soctoriul types lIi:J 1:1:1. I'lolill hnrrnouics of' po~iti vc dq;rcl', 'J'hcil' relat ion to those (If' !lPg-aLi"t! d('gl'ee .. .. lli!i 131. "\ pplicution to the theory of I'lcdl'ificd 1-]>hcric:d surfaces .. Hili 1:15. The external net.ion of un dc(,tl'ificd sphcrical SUl'fl~CC cOlllpared with t hat of 1111 illllLgilllU'Y Hill~lllal' point lit its centre.. .. 1117 I ali • .1'I·Uof' that if rj nud Yj ure two surface hurmouics of diffcrcnt

(Il'g,.ec~, the surfucc-intcqrul

bcing extended 1 :17, 'Value

/1' r, Y, rlS =
t,ypcs

0,

tIle illtcgmliull
.. 100

ur./.l J', r,£is where

/'/'1'

O\"CI'

the ~J1II(:l'ie:dsurface Y, and

rj arc surface JIHI'muuic,'I

of' the same degree but of differcut I :lH, On conjugate hurrnonics .. I :m, If r, in the z01l1l1 hnrmouie uud same ticgI'C('
,•
j

r,

allY other

.. I (if) .. 17f) type of tIle

J'.i' is = :;'~'. }' j Ii I J IT a"1 ,,) ~t i

where 1';"1 is the VIII lie of J'j at the pole tlf.rj .. •• 140, J rcvclopmcnt uf II function ill terms (If spherical surfueo hur. monies .. 1·::'1. Surfucc-intcgrul of the ~(JUIlI'l~ of II synuuctricul hnrmunic

Iii
172

17:l

C'OXTE X '1'5.
A,'t.

xxi
PUKe

H2. D iflcreu t methods 143. 011 till' lliogl'lIl1l~

Or tl'l'lltillg
oj' spherical

spheri en] IUll'Il1011icH

vnr,

hnrmouics,

(Fi~~. V,

vr,

17·1

VII,
.. 175

IX)

] ·1 ,I. II' the potent iul i,; ['I)w,LlIllt throughout llll)' finite portiou of spac(' it iH so throughout till' whole mgion eonti uuous with it within which Laplace's equut inn is sutisflcd .. .. 17(j 115. To nnnlyso it spherical harmonic into a system of conjugate
luumonics by means to sphr-ricnl of a finite
HllII

number

of mcnaurcments

at

J
*f

selcetnd points of

t.IlC Aphcl'(, ..
neut-ly sphoricnl conductors

..
..

177 178

146. Application

CHAPTER
COSFOCAI, Sl' 11I·',\CI·:S 01-'

X.
DF.()HF.E.

Till,; ~F.COSJJ

117. Till: lines of intersection

IJY the third system ]·18. Tile chnmclcristio

of two of

systems

nnd their

intercepts .. 181 co-

equation

ill

terms

of ellipsoidal

.. 182 fl, ")'ill terms of elliptic functions .. .. 183 I !i0. Particular solutions of electrical distribution Oil the confocnl surfaces und tltdr limiting forms .. .. 18·1
I·H). Expression of
tI,

ordiuntcs

151. Continuous transformatiou the axis of z 152. 'I'runsformntion 153. 'l'ransformntion into into
II
[1

in!o

It

liglll'e of revolution

about

.. 187
188 18!) 1 an

figure of revolution nhout the nxis of[c system of cones and spherca .; .. ..

15·1. Confocal paraboloids

CHAP1']~lt XI.
TUEOI(Y OF El.EC'l'JIIC DI"OE~.

I fiG.

Thomson's

method

or

electric imnges

..

I!H

15[;' \Vhell two points nrc oppositely uud uuequully «Icctrified , the surface for which the potuntiul it:i :'.('1'0 ir; a sphcro .. 1!)2
1;37. Electric 158. images.. of electricity .. 1 !),l

011tile surface of the Aphere.. 150. Image of nny given distribution of electricity .. 160. Resultnnt force between 1\11 olectrlflod point and sphore 161. Images ill an infinite plnne conducting surface
Distribution ] 62. HH. Elcctrie inversion theorems about inversion of Art. HiH.. of the inethorl to the problem 1G3. Geometrical A pplicntiou

.. l!)ti .. 1 D6

c.

..
.. .. ..

HI7 )!H) 201 202

.. 1 D8

xxii
AI'l,

CONTJm'rS,
I'ng"

IG5, llili,

Finite systems of' successive images .. Case of two spherical surfaces intersecting' at au lingle 1r

"
71

203 201

107, Enumcrntion of the cases in which the number of images l~ finite .. 168, Case of two spheres intorscoting orthogonnlly .. .. I ()fl, CHile of three spheres iutcrsecting orthogonally " 170, Case of foII I' Hphcrcs intersecting' orthogonally " ] 71, Infinite series of illlng(''', OIS() of' two concentric spherca " ] 72, All)' two spheres Hot intersecting each other .. ., ] 73. Culeulation of the cocflicieut« or cnpucity uud iuductiun .. .. 17·1, Calculation of tlw c1mrgcs of the SphCl'C8, und of the furco
IlCtWCCIl

20U
207

210
211

212
213 2 IIi 217 2 J!J

them

.,

175, Distribution
sphere 170. Thomson's

of electricity Oil two spheres

in coutuct.

Proof' 221 221 222 223

223 22·1

177,
178,

179,
180,

1B 1.

in vestigation of au elcctritied spherical bowl ,; Disn-ihution un all ellipsoid, and 011 It circular disk lit potential V Induetiou UJI an uninsulutod disk UI' howl by 1111 electrified point in the continuutiou of the plane UI' sphericul SUl'f'[I(,C 'fhe rest of the sphere supposed unifurmly electrified " The bowl muiutnincd ut potential V ruul uninfluenced .. Induction 011 the howl due to It point placed anywherc.. ..

CHAP'l'ER XII.
t'()~,JUGA'fE !,'UNOTIONS IN rwo DDmSHIONS,

182, Cascs ill which the qunutities nrc fuuctions of ,c and y only .. 18·[, COlljugatc functions inuy be IIlldl~d 01' subtracted
183, Conjugate functions functiona 185. Coujuunte of conjugate fuuctiou» ure

.. ::?::?G .. 227 .. 228

.. .. " .. .. 229 23] 232 232 233 23,1

themselves

conjugnto
186, Trunsformutiou

of Poisson's

cquution

187, Additionul theorems 011 cOlljng'ate fuuctious 18B, Iuversiou iu two dimensions I WJ. Electric 1 flO, illlageH ill two dimensiuns ..
II

trnnsfommtiou uf this CIII>C 1!11, Distrihutiou of electricity nenr the clIge uf lJY tWIJ plane surface» I fl2, ElJil'~l's alltl hypcrbclas. (Fig,:\:) .. 193, 'I'rnnsformntiou of this case. (Fig, XI) ..
NClIlIlIIIIU':;

conductor formed
~:J(j

.. ..

237 238

( 'ON'rIlN'l'fl,
Art,

XXIII Page

HH, Application
,.

to two
.. to two

cases of the flow of electricity

C(lS('S

in

!I

con..

ducting sheet
105. Application 1

231)
239

Cu pacity of' u condenser consisting of [t circulnr disk between two infiuite planes .. .. 2,10 197. Case of II series of equid istant pluncs cut ofT by II. plnnc at right
augles to them 198. Case of It furl-owed 199. Case of
It

au.

of electrical

induction

" surface groove when the groove is circular plano. "

2·12

2,13
2,13 2'j.J

single straight

200. 1t[o(lificntioll of the results 201. Appllcatiou 202. Case 203. 20J. of two parallel

to Sit' W, Thomson's

guard-ring.. plates cut off by a perpendicular

wires, (Fig. XIII)

.. 2,J5 2'16

(Fig. XII) Case of II grating Case of

II

of pnrallol electrified
It

..

248

single

wire trunsforiucd

gmting
205, The grating

..
used as shield to protect

into thnt of the .. 2,18 .. 2·Hl ,. 25]

n body from electrical

iuliucnce 2(10, Method of upprox iuiution nppliod to the ease of the gmting

CHAPTER XIII.
Jo;f,ECTHOS'r ATIC I:SSTItIJ~IF.N'fS.

207, 'I'he frietionnl electrical machine 208, The clcetrephorus of' Yolta 209, Production of elcctriflcntion IJY mechanical wOl'k.-Nicholson'fl Revolving Doubler 210, Principle of Varley's and Thomson's electrical mnchines ..
211, Thomsou's wntcr-droppir.g 212, Holt;t,'s electrical machiue 213. 'rhC01'Y
0('

25'J 255

2[jU
2 ;"jfj 258 2130

mnchiuc

regenerators

21-1. On

electrometers

applied to clectrlcal nmchines .. 2UO and electroscopes. Indieating instruments Difference between rogistrntiou charges Snow Absolute Quudrant .. and mea-

uml null methods, surcment

.. 2(32
.. nnd
"

215. Coulomb's
T!tOl1lS01l'H

'I'orsion

21G. ]~lectl'omctel's 217. Principle 219. Self-acting

Bulm.ce fUI' measuring fur measuring potentials.

Thomson's

2G3
2G(j

Hnrris's

of the guard-ring. method -,

Electrometer .. Electrorueter .. ..

2G 7 2(39

21B. Hutorostatic

clcotromcters.c-Thumson'a

271
2i-l 275

220. Mcn.sUl'cllltmt of th o electric potential of a small body 221. Measurement of the potential at II. point in the nir -,

xxiv
,\rt.

(,ONTJ~NTS.
I'tlj!;O

222. 223.

Measul'cmcnt Measurement proof plano

of the potoutiul of the

of

II conductor

without

touching

it 2;6 'I'he .. 277 278 27f) 282 28 I>

superficiul

density

(It' clcclriflcntion.

22'1. .A hemlsphoro
225. 227. 228. 229. A circular Accumulators The guard-ring Comparison

used as n test The Leyden jill'

capacity at' uccumulntora ..

"
.. .. ..

disk ., of ruensuruble

226. On electric nccumulutors. accumulator

.. 281 .. 283

of the capacities

PAR'f
g L E("rIWK

II.

J N I";~L\ T res.

CII.AP'I'EH I.
rn F: Er.F.C'l'IIIt' ('UmmN'J'.

~:W.
23].

ClIITCllt

produced when

conductors ..

arc ,lis{'i1al'gctl ..

'I'rnnsfcrcnec

of olcctri flcation force "

.. .. .. ..

288 288 28() 2DO

~.'32_ Description
:!3 3. Electromotive

(If tho voltaic buttery

23-1. 235. 236 237.

238.

Production of It steady current Properties of the current .. Electrolytic notion Explanation of terms connected Different modes of pnssnge ..

.. 2nO .. 29]

with electrolysis

.. .. .. ..

2fll 292 292 2!l3

of the current

230. lI[llgncf ic action of the current 2·10. The Gllh-IlIi01JwtOI'

.. 291

CHAPTER II.
coxmrcrrox
2·12. Generation 2·13. Anlllogy 2·1-1. Differences 2·15. Furruluy's
AND HESISTASCF..

.. 2%
of hen! by the current, between the conduction between the two doctrine of the
c1I1SSCS

Joule's of electricity of' of

1111

Law
"

..
•.

2fl(; 2fl7 2f); 2!18

and tlint of hent

phCIIOIl1ClIfl

impossibility

uhsoluto

clmrge

..

('ONTENTS.

xxv

CHAPTER III.
EI,ECTltOl'l!OTI\'j':
Art.

I"OnC!~ llRTWEEN

nOOJES

IN CONT,\CT.

2·JG. Vulla's law of tho contnct force between different metnls at the AtUne tcmpcrnture .. .. 2H, Effect of electrolytes " " 218, Thomson's voltuic current in which gravity performs the part of chemical notion " " 2·J!). Peltier's phenomenon. Deduction of the thermoelectric electromotive force nt It junction .. ., 250. Scchcclc's d iscovory of thermoelcetric currents .. " 251. )[ngllus'H law of II circuit of one mctnl " 2:i2, Cumming'« discovery of thcrmoolcctrie inversions .. .. 2:i3. 'I'homson's deductions from these fucts, nnd discovery of the reversible thermal effect .. of clectrio currents ill copper and ill iron .. 2ii·1. Tnit.'H law of thn electromotive force nf n thcrmoelectric pair ..

2fl9

300 300 300 302 302 30·1

301

30:i

CHAprl'EH

IV.

Furaday's lnw of' olcctrochcnricnl equivalents .. CI<l11HillS':; theory of molecular ogitntion .. Electrolytic polnrizatiou .. 'rcRl. of an electrolyte by pclnrizution Difficultics in the theory of electrolysis .. Molcculur charges Secondary uctions observed at the electrodes .. Conservation of energy ill electrolysis 2G 3. Measurement of chemicnl nffiuity ne fin electromoti ve force

255. 2!3G. 257. 258. 250. 2130. 213 1. 262,

.. .. .. .. ..

307 30!) 30!) :310 310

.. 311 .. 313 .. 315

.. :nli

CHAPTER V,
gr,~:C'l'Ro!,Y'l.'IC I'OLAIUZATlON.

Difficulties of applying Ohm's law to electrolytes .. Ohm's law nevertheless applicable .. .. The cfleot of' polnrlzation distinguiahcd from that of resistance Polurization due to the Pl'CSCI1CC of the ions I1.t the electrodes. The ions not ill II free stutc .. .. 2 Ii 8. Relation between the electromotive force of polarization nnd the state of the ions fit the electrodes .. ..

2G·1. 2G5. 2(Hl. 2() 7.

:nH 3 HI 318 31!) 320

____ a ~ dUl

Lat

-. . 1'..
CON'rB:\"I':'-:.
l'II!;O

XXVI

2(j0. 270. 271. 272.

Arlo

Dissipation uf [Ill! iUlIS uutl loss 01' polurizntion Limit of polm'izatioll Ritter's secondary pile compared with the Leyden jill' Constant voltaic eJcll1ellts.-DIlUicll's cell

.. 32] .. 321 .. 322

.. 325

CIIAPTElt VI.
~IATJIp.lr,\TIL'AL TlIlWIlY 01-' 'nm nrSTRIllUTION
O}'

m,!':CTltICcunnsxrs. 32D
32D 32!J
3.'30 331

273. Linen]' conductors .. :n·J. Ohlll'~Law 275. Lineur conductors ill series .. 27(j. Linear CUIll!ud()I'S ill multiple nrc .. 277. Hesistunee of conductors of uniform section .. 278. Dimensions of t he quuntities involved ill Oluu's luw .. 2ifl. Spe('ific rcsistuncc IIl1(l conductivity ill clcct.l'olllllgnctic measure 280. Linear systems (If conductors ill general 281. licciprocnl PI'Opcl·ty of lilly two conductors ofthe system .. 282. COJljugate conductors .. 28:l. Heat g'L'lIcl'lIted ill the system .. .. :!8 I. The heat ill It minimum when the current is dist.rihutod IIC' etll'llillg to Ohm's law ..
.r ..

3:32 333 333

:335 33G
33G 337

CHAPTEH VII.
CONDllCTIOX IN TIIBER DBmNSIONS.

285. Nutation .. 28G. COllllluRitiull !l1H1 resolution 2Ri.

288. 2Rf). 2!JO.

:2!11.

2!12.
2!l:1.

.. uf electric currents .. Dctermiuntiun of the quantity which flows thl'ough !lllY surface Erjlutli()l1 uf a surface of' flow .. .. Hclation between uny three systems of suifueos of flow.. .. 'l'ul.cs of' flow .. Expression for the eompolI(>lItB of the flow ill t01'l119 uf surfaces of flow .. Simpliflcntion of this expression by a propel' choice uf pllmmeters .. Unit tubes of flow IIs('ll IlS n complete method of determining
.. ..

338
338 330

3·10
3-10

:HO
311 3·J J 3-1] 3·12

the current 2!11. CUl'l'ulit-slwctH nnd curront-fuuctlons 2fJ:i. Equutiou 2Dli. (~uantity

of' continuity' .. of electricity which flows through a given surface

.. 3·12 .. 3.J.1

"';ia. .

;5I.

('0 N'l'8N'l'$,

X.XVll

CHAP'rEH VIII.
ItEf;JSTANUJo;

AND <;ONDUC'rrYITY

IN

'l'llHEE

DDU:)o1SIONS. 1'11/0("

.t rt.

2D7.

2gB.
29D.

300, 301. 302. 303. 30.1, 305. :300,

El[lI!ltiolls of resistance Equations of concluctiun " Hate of generut ion of heat Conditions of stability Equution of continuity in It homogeneous
Solution of tho equation "

medium

..

.. " .. .. ..
..

3-15 3,1(i 3·1(; 3-17 3'18

3·18

Theory of the ccefflcieut T. It probably docs not exist .. Gcnoralizod form of Thomson's theorem .. .. Proof without symbols .. Strutt's method npplied tu u wire of variable scction.c--Lowcr limit of' tho value of the resietuuce .. 307. Higher limit .. 308. Lower limit for the correction I'UI' the cuds of the wire.. .. ::lll!). Higher limit ..

3·ID 350 351 353 3:3(; 358 358

CHAP'l'Elt IX.
CONDUC'!'IOX 'I'UHUl:uIl IIETEUQGENEUUS ~[JWfA.

:H o. Surface-conditions

a 11.

..

3GO

312, :313. 3 H. 315. 31 G. 317. 318. 319.

320. 321. 322. 323. 321.

Spherical surface .. Spherical shell .. .. Spherical shell placed in II field of uniform flow ., Medium in which smnll spheres nrc uniformly dissemiuntcd .. Images ill u pluue surface .. .. Muthod of' iuvcrsion 110t npplicnhle ill three dimensions .. .. Case uf conduction through [L stratum ho uuded by parnlle I planes .. Infinito series of inmgcs. Application to mugnotic induction i. On strntillcd conductors. Coeflicicnts of condueti vity of' a conductor consisting of nlternate :;tl'llta of two different substances " If neither of the substunces has tho rotatory property denoted by l' the compound conductor is free from it .. If the substuncca ure isotropic the direction of greatest resistHIlCU is 1IU1'lIla] to the strata .. .. MetliullI containing pnrnllclcplpcds of another mcdium.. .. The rotntory property cannot be introduced by menus of eunducting channels .. Construction of nu nrtificinl solid having given coefficients of longitudinul uml transverse conductivity ..

:·Hl2 3G3 3U·j 305

3(W

307

3u 7 3G8

3(jfl

370 371 371 :~72 373

xxviii

ClI.AP1'EU X.
CO:-;"Ol!('1'lu:\ IN DIEl,):I''I'UI('S.

T It II skid I,}" IllllllogClIl'(I\IS medium tllI'I'l' cnn lie Ill' inte mul .. charge . :)26, Thcul'Y of' II COI1l1ClISCl'ill which the dielectric is Hut n perfect iUHuJlltur .. .. .. :!27. No residual e111lJ'gc clue to simple conrluction :128, Theory of II composite nccumulntor ,. .. :12G, Itesidual cJl!ll'gc uud electrical ubsorption .. :1:3 O. Tutu I tl ischurgo .. .. with tile conduction of II(':1t .. .. :l:lI. Cumpnrison :1:12. 'l'hcory uf tdcg'l'flph eal,les aml l'fJllI)llll'isllH of the equations with thnse of tlie couduction "f' hml .. :1:~3, Opinion of Ohm 011this sulJjc('f .. .. :1:lJ, l\h'c1l1l11ica] illustration of th(' properties of II dielectric "
:;2!),

:l if 375 37G 37G 378

380 :l81
:381 :.l81 ~l8;j

CHAP'!'ER
~1F:,\fmllmH~~T

XI.
OF CONDU("!,OIts.

OF '1'][1.: 1,['ECTltrC IlESrs'r.ISCF.

standards "I' resistance ill electrical mcusurcmen til .. 388 :1:W, Different stnndnrds which have been used nut! rliflcrent systems which have I'CCll proposed .. 388 :137, 'I'hc uleutromugnetic system of units .. 3S!) :J38, Weber's unit, mal the British Assuc iution unit 01' Ohm .. :~89 :l30, Professed \':L1l1c of the' Ohm 1 O,OOO,OO() metres pCI' second ,,389 :1in. Hqll'odllcti,)JJ uf stuudnrds " aDO :l·1I. Forms of resistnncc coils " " 3nI :112. Coils of gl'ent resistance .. 3!J2 :J.13. ,\I'l'illlgl'IlICII{ of ('oils in series .. .. :lfI:d :; lI, '\l'l'1lllg['n:clli in multiple [\J'C " :l!J3 :;·L3, Oil the c.nnpnrisnn of resistances. (1) Ohm's method .. .. :J!H :1·J(j, (2) lty the differc ntinl gulvanomctcr " 3!J.1 :loli. (:3) 1Iy Whentstollc'S Hridgo 398 3·J8, Estimation of limits of error in the dctorminnt JUB .. 39!) :J.J!I, Ilest nrrnngement of the conductors til I,c WIlIIIIU'CII ., ·100 :350. Oil the usc of Wllmtstone's IlJ'idgc .. 402 :lii 1. 'l'homsou's method rUI' smull rcsistuuccs .. ·10,1 :1;j2, lfntthirsscn and Hockin's method for smull I'c.~i.;tIlJlCIJS.. ·IO{j

3:15. Adl":lI1ta~c of USillg mutcriul

". iI'~

CON'1'.El'i'1'8.
A,·!.

XXIX:

of great roslstuncos Ily the electrometer :331. BJ uccumulut ion ill Il condenser :135. Direct elcctrostutic rnothod :l;iG. Thomson's method for the resistnncc of a gn.IVllIJOllwtL'I·.. ;l;i7. Mlllice's met hod 0[' determining th c resistance of' a buttery :l:i8. Compurison of electromotive forces .. :3;33. Compurison

.. -l08 .. ·HlfJ
.. -IO!)
..

'J 10

.. J I l .. 'J l:~

CJIAP'l'l~lt XII.
ELEU'l'IIIC nESI~TAl\('E OF Hl'1:STA!S <:1·;1-'.

;i.iO. Metals, clectruly

:lIi I. Resistance

t('H,

and diclccl rics

..

..

..

.J 1;,

:l(ill. n('~iHtlllltC of metals of mere

Ul'}'

:!Ii 2 . 'fable of resistance of metals :W3. Ilcsistancc of c1cctl'olJtcs .. :W.J, Experiments of I'unlzow .. :Hi5. l~xI,crilllcntH of Kolilruusch iuul N ippoldt :Hifi. Hc~iHtllllcll of dielectrics :lfii, UuHa-pcl'cha :IIiB. Glass .. ;l!i~l. :a~(';; (

.. '111i .. ·1 1 i ... J 1H .J J!)

.. .. .Jl!) ·120

·121 .. ·12:3 ,121 12!i

:liO,

Experiments

of' Wiedemann

nurl Il iihlmnnn

.~

..

--~-

----~------

ELECTRI CITY AN D ~[A G NETISM.

i. \
,I

1 ERRATA.
Page

VOL.

I. &C'.
Alit!

down

3 from bottom, dele I. 7 of' p, 27, 'the substitute us follows :26,

10

I.

'As we have rnarlo no assumption', expression may then 1)0 written'.

Let us now SllPPORO that the curves fol' which a if'! constant form n series of closed curves, surrounding the point on the surface for which a has its minimum value, ao' the last curve of the series, for wh ich a = at' coi ncitling with the original closed curve s. Let us also suppose that the curves for which 1'3 is constant form a series of lines drawn from the !,oint ut which a ao to the closed cline s, the first, /3,,, and the la~t, #IJ IJf'ing identical. Intcgrnting (8) by parts, t.JIC first term with respect to a and the second with respect to jj, the double integrals destroy ench other. Tho line integral, fll d.v

[ • flo ( ..1:

dj:3). ,,=a~l{3, to
[I.

is zero, because the c1I1'\'e a == ao is reduced there is but one value of and of x. 'I'he two line intcgruls,

~r

point

at

which

_ raj (XtZ.
J
flO

lJ

,za+ fal
fl = III

da

J .0

(XlZ:!) da

da,
fl- flo

destroy each other, point (a, /30),

because

the point

(a,13I)
to

is identical

with

the

The expression (8) is therefore

flo Since tho curve a a1 is identical may write this expresaion

1 =

reduced

#1 (X

(!~) (lf3. JrJ '''''1

with the closed curve

(9) s, we fOi'

\.

'read .Y. p. 82, l. 3, for ill ,'ea,l R

p, 83, "

p. 80, in equations

(3), (-1), (G), (8), (17), (18), (19),

(20),

(21), (22),

»t.
(20), (30), (31), for

iu

equations

(28), (2rl),

dZ

-,-..! (.'1:'

v:

rl2 V' "c(I(l rl-I '

X(

insert - ',e[1)1'6 tho second member. p. 105, I. 2, for Q "eatl 87rQ. p. 108, equation (1), for p read jl. " " (2), f(Jr l read p. " " (3), for (1" read a'. " " (4), fOI' (1"' read cr.
in equation

p.

113, I. 4, for JlE

read

471"

_!_ /{ R.

p. 114, I. 5, Jill' 81 read. S. p. 12,1, last lino, jur el +el read 81 e~. p, 125, Iinea 3 and '1, transpose within ani] without read V j and I. 18, for V )'ea(l v. p. 128, lines 11, 10, 8 from bottom, jor dx read dz. p.149, 1. 24, for equpotentiul read equipotential.

"

1.

5, for K R R' cos e I'ead ..

t;r
+

J{ R

R' cos

f.

I. 16,

/01'

IJ

EURATA,
" I. 2 from bottom, 1 G3, I. 20, /01' Ai-HI

VOL,
read. .;1[2'

.r.

p. 150, I. 3, .f01' F read j.

p.

jOl'
read

Jl[

Ai-a+I'

p. UH, oquntion (3'1), p, 185 equution

few

(_1)1-' 2~'
x2
?'p'(l(l ,,2

p. 179, C(lUfttion (7G), for i + 1 • p. 18n, p. 180, p. 188, 1'. lOu, p.l!l7,

P8 ;i-'~2i
1_1._

+ 1,

read (1)'-" 1,2 .... 2

..

1211

2~0'

'-

I i I~'

(2'.1) for .--.:::....=: 1 read. ::. _ _:.... = 1 'b" c" b~ C~-b2 ' 1. 5 from bottom, [or 'The surfucc-rlcnsity 01\ the elliptic plate' raul 'I'hc snrfacc-density Oil either side of the elliptic plnte, equut.iun (30). fUi' 27T read. '17T. c,!l1utioll (38), jon' 1i'2 read 27f~, I. 27, JOI' e .. r. read el"r.~· equnt ion (1O)t;llOuld
,

be

~[=

}--~I2Cf2-a?f

He

(}a3

I'. 20'1, 1.15 from hot tom, dele either. ),.21 s, J. ·1, for J'ead ,\/21.'.

.../21.

1'. 23·J, ('[lllntion (13), for 2B

]I. 3:1 ]I. 33(j,

E rcarl-·

s,

27T

rfde last. 1<1 I ines. I. 1, dell! therefore. current, C, from X to I. 'I, f.rr 'C' to j) will cause the potential

" "

I. 2, for

'the potential at C to exceed thut at D by P,'

r.

read
that

II

1J hy the same quantity P,' read X to Y will cause un cquul ('UJ'I'Put G from .A to B. p. 3:31, 1.3, for Rt2U2+R}i'!+R/w2 ~'ead Rl1(2+R2V2+R3W2. ~" rlV ell' <lr I. 5, read + It- . + v -1- + ?(J -l~ ) cl,'cJ.ydz. Z ~ •• (,); <!l (~ " r 3:35, lust line, f01' S' 1'f(trl S.

at

to exceed

ut

2/11 (
-.)

p. 35G, C'qllutlOIl (12), p. :365, ill equations

o

for ((

dl'l"
.1/

]'eatl;d u.

-2

(12), (J 5), (IG), for A read AI'.

I': 36(;, cLJun tilUll (3).t,,/0,·

A\ -= I'ear l E .. --=.
~/'1 ';'",

p.

367, I. 5, .fo/' 2~'lS 1Wl(Z 21.·~S" p. 3GB, Clluutioll (J.J), jv,. read I/.

p, 3Di,

I. I, for

I)'

IJ' H 0' rccu] 1:-',0',

p. '104, at the

CIlI}

of Art. 350 insert

as follows :-

""hen y, the resistance to be mcnsurcd, a, the resistance of the huttory, nnd a, the resistance of the galvanometer, nrc given, the hest vulues of' the other resistnneos Lave beeu shewn lJY ~Ir. Oliver H~II\'isi(lc (Phil, .Llla:;., 1~c!2_!873) to be _

c == ,~,

b = .jay

a+y

~'t..,

i~== "../ ay '!_:+:'..!:, a+y

ELEeTRI CITY AND MAGNETISM,

PRE
ON TilE

L I i\'l I N A R v.
OJ.' QUANTITIES.

MJ~ASUnEJI[]~NT

l.J l:vmtY expression of a Quantity consists of two factors or components. One of' these is the name of a certain known quantity of the same ki nd as the quant ity to be expressed, which is taken us a standard of reference. 'I'ho other component is the
number of times the standard is to be taken in order to make up the: required quantity. 'I'he standard quantity is technically called the Unit, and the number ill called the Numerical Value of the

quantity,
There must he as many dillereut 11JIits as there are different kinds of quantities to lJl' measu red, hut in all dynamical sciences it is possible to define these units in terms of the three fundamental units of' Length, Time, and lV[ass. Thus the units of area and of' volume am defined respectively as the square and tho cube whose sides arc tile unit of length. Sometimes, however, we find several units of the same kind founded on independent considerations. Thus the gallon, 01' the volume of ten pounds of water, is used as a unit of capacity as well as the cubic foot. The gallon may he a convenient measure in some cases, hut it is not a systematic one, since its numerical reIation to the cubic foot is not a round integral number. 2.J In framing a mathematical system we suppose the fundamental units of length, time, and mass to be given, and deduce all the derivative units from these by the simplest attainable definitions. The formulae at which we arrive must he such that a person
11

PHELli\LIN;\

H Y.

of nny nation, hy substituting for the different symbols the numerical value of the quantities as measured by his own national units, would a rriv« nt n 1·1'1!!' result. Hence, in all scientific studies it is of' the greatest importance to employ nnits lJdonging to II properly defined system, and to know the relations of t hose units to the fundamental units, so that we IlIny lre able at once to trausform our results frorn one system 10
11110t1l(,1'.

This is most conveniently done by ascertaining the dimellsiolls of' every unit ill terms of the three fundamental units. 'Vhen a. given unit varies ns the 11th power of one of these units, it is said to be of 1/ dimensions as r('gll!"(ls that unit. 1<'01' instance, the scientific unit of volume is always the cube whose side is the unit of' length. If the unit of length varies, thc unit of volume will vary as its third power, and the unit of volume is said to be of' three dimensions with respect to the unit of length. A knowledge of the dimensions of units furnishes a test which ollght to lJe applied to the cq nations resulting from any lengthened investigation. The dimensions of' evcl'Y term of such an equat.ion, with respect to each of' the three fundamental units, must be the same. If not, the equation is absurd, and coutains some error, as its interpretation would be different according to the arbitrary system of units which we adopt

*.

1'!te Thee PIlII-r!a llte/ltat Units.

The standard of length for scientific purposes ill this country is OllC foot, which is the third part of the standard yard preserved in the Exchequer Chambers. In France, and other countries which have adopted the metric system, it is the metre. 'I'hu metre is theoretically the ten millionth part of the length of II meridian of' the earth measured from the pole to the equator j but praetically it is the length of' a standard preserved in Paris, which wrvs constructed by Borda to correspond, when at the temperature of melting ice, with the value of the preceding length IlS measured hy Delumbre. The metre has not been altered to correspond with new and more accurate measurements of the earth, but the arc of the meridian is estimated in terms of the original metre.

3.1

(1) LeJ/gth.

The theory of diuienaions WM first stated hy Fourier. 'i'MQrie de C'l,aleul', § 160.

I
,~

.?' :..
-

..

.,__----

5·J

'I'm:

'I'IIREfoj

Jt'IJNDA.l'rlBNTA

Y,

ITN ITS.

In astronomy the mean distance of the earth from tho sun ia sometimes taken as a unit ofIcngth. In the present state of science 1 he most universal standard of length which we could assume would be the WlLVe length in vacuum of u particular kind of' light, emitted hy some widely eli ffused substance such as sodium, which has well-defined lines ill its spectrum. Such a standard would be independent of' any changes in the dimensions of the earth, and should Ill' adopted by those who expect their writings to be more permanent than that Lady. In treating of the dimensions of units we shall call tho unit of length [L]. If t is the numerical value of n length, it is understood to be ex pressed in terms of t he concrete unit [LJ, so that the actual 1~lJgth would be fully expressed hy t [L]. 4.J (~) '1'i IiW. The standard unit of' time in all civilized countries is deduced from the time of rotation of the earth about its aXIS. The sidereal day, or the true period of rotation of the earth, can be ascertained with great exactness by the ordinary observations of astronomers j and the mean solar day can be deduced from this by OUl' knowledge of the leng-th of the year. The unit of time adopted ill all physical researches is one second of' mcnn solar time. In astronomy a ymr is sometimes used as a unit of time. A more universal unit of' time might be found by taking' the periodic time of vibration of the particular kind of' light whose wave length is the unit of length. We shall call the concrete unit of time [1'], and the numerical measure of time t. 5.J (3) 11[([88. 'I'he standard unit of mass is in this country tho nvoirdunois pound preserved in the Exchequer Chambers. The gmin, which is often used as a unit, is defined to be the 7000th part of this pound. In the metrical system it is the gramme, which is theoretically the mass of' a cubic centimetre of' distilled water at stundard temperature and pressure, but practically it is the thousandth part of a standard kilogramme preserved in Paris. The accuracy with which the masses of bodies can be compared by weighing is far greater than that hitherto attained in. the measurement of lengths, so that all masses ought, if possible, to be compared directly with the standard, and not deduced from experiments on water. I Il descriptive astronomy the mass of the sun 01' that of the
B2

PHELDfiNARY,

[5·

in treating of the dimensions of other units. 'rile unit or mass will be taken as one of the three fundamental units. When, as in th e French system, a particular substance water, is taken as a standard of' density, then the unit of mas" is no longer independent, but varies as thc unit of volume, 01' as [1,:1]. as ill the astronomical system, the unit of mass is defined with respect to its attractive power, the dimensions of' [JJ1] are [DI l'-~J. For the acceleration due to the attraction 0(' a mass 111at a
J

earth is sometimes taken as H unit, hut in t.he dynamical theory of astronomy the unit of mass is deduced from the units of time find lenU'th, combined with the fact of' universal gravitation. 'rIH~ ustl'ono;nical unit of JlHlS:'; is that mass which attracts nnothcr body placed at thc unit of distunce so as to produce in thut JJOdy tho unit of uccelerution. III frarni ng' It universal system of units we may either deduce the unit of mass in this wily from those length and time already defined, and this we can do to a rough approximation ill the presenf statc of science ; or, if we expect SO 011 to he able to determine the mass of a single molecule of' a standard substance, we may 'wait for this determination before fixing a universal standard of mass. 'We shall denote the concrete unit. of mass hy the symbol [jll]

or

It:

. , I distance r lS by tie Newtoni (,W OIlIHIl I ~a\V

lit I'~'

S nppose t Ilis attraction

to ad
CUW:ie

for
it
to

It

describe

very small time /, on a hody ol'iginI11Jy at rest, and to a space 8, tlWII hy the formula of Galileo,
•Y -:J

_lj'~_lm - ~.--.,2. t t, • 1'· rand

.9

whence

III

= 2 7'
1.28

Since

arc hath

lengths,

and t is a

time, this equation cannot he true unless the dimensions of il/. arc [/;:11'-2]. The same can he shewn from ally astronomical equation in which the mass of a. holly appears in some hut not in all
of the terms

t.

• Hec Prof .• 1. L",,,hllli,lt, 'ZlIr (;,'ii,"c der LlIftlll"lc.·uie,' :!"w/emy of l'imlla, Oct. 12, 1H6fi; n. ,I. Htflnoy on 'TIll.' l nturnn) :lIot.ioIIH of U"~l'R.' /'1';/. ,llafl., Aug. 1Rt]H; and Sir \\'. 'J'hOIllSOII on 'The Hize nf ,\(lllll".' Notare, l\Iurch 31. 18711. t If a fout and a second :II'" taken II' IIIdt". ti,e lI~t""II"'llic:d unit uf 110;"'" would he about !i32,OOO,OO(J pound»,

6.]

nEHl\,ED

UNITS,

J)erirell Uui:«. Ii._! The unit of Velocity is that velocity in which unit of' length is described in unit of' time. Its dimensions arc [t 11--1], It' we adopt the units of' length and time derived from the vibrations of light, then till! unit of velocity )S the velocity of light. The unit of' Acceleration is that acceleration ill which the velocity increase- 1JYunity in unit of' time. Its dimensions arc [L17- 2]. 'rhe unit of Density is the density of a substance wh ieh contains unit of rnnss ill unit of volume. Its dimensions are [J1L--aJ. Th« unit of Momentum is the momentum of unit of mass moving' with unit of' velocity. Its dimensions arc PIE1'-1]. Tho unit of Force is the force which produces unit ofmomentum in unit of time, Its dimensions arc [Jlfil'-2]. 'I'his is the absolute unit of' force, and this definition of it. is implied in cvcry equation ill Dynamics, Nevertheless, in many text books in which these equations nre gil'en, a different unit of force is adopted, namely, the weight of the national unit of mass j nnd then, in order to satisfy the equations, the national unit of mass is itself' ubandoncd, and all artificial unit. is adopted as the dynamicnl unit, equal to the national unit divided by the numerical value of' the force of' gravity at the place, In this way Lot It the unit. of force and the unit of mass are mrulo to depend on the value of the force of gravity, which varies from place to place, so that stutemeuts involving these quantities [Ire not complete without a knowledge of the force of gra vity in the pluces where these statements were fou nd to IJC true, 'I'he abolition, for all scientific purposes, of this method of measuring forces is mainly due to the introduction of' a general system of making observations or magnetic force ill countries ill which the force of gravity is different. All such forces arc now measured ae('ol'lling' to the strictly dynamical method deduced from OUt· definitions, and the numerical results are the same in whatever country the experiments arc made, 'I'he unit of·W 01'1;: is tho work done by the unit of force acting through the unit of length measured ill its own direction, Its dimensions a~e [Jl[L~ 1'-2J. 'l'he EIIt'rg-y of a system, being its capacity of' performing work, is measured by the work which till' system is eupable of' performing by the expenditure of its whole cl1Cl'gy.

The definitions of' oLhC'I' quanf ities, nud of the units to which they are referred, will be given when we require them, In transforming the values of' physical qun ntities determined in terms of one unit, so as to express them in terms of an'y other unit of the same kind, we have only to remember that every eXI1r£>Ssion for the quantity consists of two factors, the unit und the numerical parf, which expr('ssl's how often tho unit is tn be taken. Hence the numerical part of the expression varies in verscly as the magnitude of'the unit, thnt is, inversely as the various powers of' the fundamental units \I' hieh are indicated lJY the dimensions of the derived unit.
Oil

Ph.IJ.I·il'tlZ COJltimti(1J alullJiIJCOIdilluil!/.

7,J A quantity is said to vary continuously when, if' it passes from one value to unothnr, it assumes all the intermedinte values. w e may obtain the conception of continuity from n eonsidcra t ion of the continnons existence of' It particle of matter in t.ime and S}llwe. Such a particle cannot pass from one posi Lion to another without c1es(,I'iLing a continuous line in space, and the coordinates of' its position must be continuous functions of the time. In tho so-called' equation of' continuity,' as given in treatises on Hydrodynamics, the fact expressed is that matter cannot appcar ill or disappear from an clement of volume without passing' in or out through t.he sides of that element, A quantity is said to he a continuous function of its variables when, if the variables alter continuously, the quantity itself alters continuously, 'I'hus, if It is a function of ,J', und if, while x passes continuously from ,To to .1'» It }lasses continuously from 110 to 'ilL' hut when ;v passes from ;2'1 to ;r~, It pnsses from 11/ to 1I:!., lit' being different from 1/1> then Il is said to huvo :1 discontinuity in its variation with respect to ,'v for the value x i2'lJ because i L passes abruptly from 1(1 to u/ while :r passes continuously through ~'I' If we consider the diflerentiul coefficient of' 1t with respect to ;~. or f the value ;r. =: a'i as the limit of' the fraction

o ---x'!,-x[)
U'!.-lI

when ,7'~ and ,7'0 are both made to approach .1'} without limit, then, if:Va and :£'2 Me always on opposite sides of ;1'1' the ultimate mille of t.he numerator will be 111' - Ifl' and that of the denominator will be zero, If It is a quantity physically continuous, the discontinuity

8.J
can exist

CONTINUITY

AND DISCONTINUITY.

only wi til respect to the particular variable e, We must ill this case admit that it has an infinite di fferentinl coefficient when x = ;2'1' If' 'I( is not physienlly continuous, it cannot be difquestions to get rid of the idea of discontinuity without sensibly altering the conditions of' the case. If ilJO is a very little less than .1'" and ;I'~ a VCl'y little grenter than ;1'11 then '/10 will be very nearly equal to 111 and 11! to "ltl'. \Vc may now suppose u to vary in any arbitrary but cout.inuous manner from 110 to 11~ between the limits .1'0 and .r.~. In many physical questions we may begin with a hypothesis of this kind, and then investigate the result when the values of :Co and .1~2 are made to approach that of' ;)"1 and ultimately to reach it. The result will in most cases he independent of' the arbitrary manner in which we have supposed It to vary between the limits.

fererrtinted at all. It is possible ill physical

Discolltii/ui<1J

q! a Function

qj'1/l0l'C tltall

aile flo·iable.

8.J If we suppose the values of all the variables exr-ept z to be constant, the discontinuity of the function will OCC111" for particular values of 3', and these will be connected with the values of the other variables by an equation which we may write

The discontinuity

&c.) = O. will occur when rp = o. When cp is positive the

Z,

(p = cp (.l~,y,

funct.ion will have the form p~(;~', /J,::, &c.). When cp is negative it will have the form PI (x, ,1/,::, &c.). 'I'here need he no necessary relation between the forms 11; and l(~. To express this discontinuity in a. mathcmutical form, let one of' the variables, say ;1', be expressed as II function of (p and the other variables, and let 1(~ and F2 be expressed as functions of c/J, .'/, Z, &c. e may now l'xprcss the gcncml form of the function by any forrnulu which is sensibly equal to i'~ when (/I is positive, and to }~ when (/I is negative. Such It formula is the following-

,r

.F; +e"',1 P; F - --------- -".

1 + eO</>

As long as 11 is a finite quantity, however great, P will IJC a continuous function, hilt if' we make n infinite P will be equal to Ji~ when (/) is positive, and equal to _[;~when (/) is negative.

fJiscolllilluil!J
'I'ho

r!f the [)criwtiL'IJs qf a

of a continuous

COIl[/mt01l8

Function: may be discon-

first derivatives

function

PHEI,IMIN.AltY,

tinuous. Let the values of the variables for which the discontinuity of the derivatives occurs be connected by the equation

cp = ¢ (,vry,:: ... ) =
and let PI and p~ be expressed

0,

in terms of ¢ and It - 1 other variables, say (y, s: ... ). 'J'hCII, when q) i~ negative, }; is to IJC taken, and when rp is positive 1'~ is to he taken, and) since }I' is itself continuous, when rp is zero, FI J'~,

Hence,

. when 1) IS zero, bu t the

tIC

rtP deri . errvatives rlPI and -I ~ may be drp

with respect (rj> to any of' the

different,
variables,

deri vntives
~,I/

other

rtP] d nu ~/I tinuity is therefore confined tho other derivatives being

such as -{-

dR, -, -, must

e the same,

'rho diseon-

to the derivative continuous.

with respect to £/>, all

Periodic ({lid l1flllti)Jle Fu.ictions,

of .1: such that its value is the snrno for and all values of x differing- by n) it is called a periodic function of' ,'1:, and a is called its period, If .'1) is considered as a function of It, then, for a given value of It, there must lye an infinite series of values of oX diffl·ring Ly multiples of a. III this case .1: is called a multiple function of tt, and a is called its cyclic constant.
1t

g,J

If

is a function

a', :1'+0, X+1/f7,

'I'he diflcrential corresponding-

coefficient (,lr has only a finite number

~It

of values

to a given value of u,

Oil the Relati()1l qf Ph,lJsicnl QII(tlltilie,v to Directions in Space,

10,J In distinguishing the kinds of physical quantities, it is of to know how they are related to the directions of those coordinate axes which we usually employ in defining thu positions of things. 'I'he introduction of coordinate axes into geometry by Des Cartes was one of the greatest steps in mathematicnl progress, for it reduced thl' methods of g'eOlllL'tl'Y to calculations performed on numerical quantities. The position of' a point is made to depend on the length of three lines which are always drawn in determinate directions, and the line joining' two points is in like manner considered as the resultant of three lines, But for muny purposes in physical reasoning, as distinguiahod

great importance

n.]

VEc'rORS, ou

DIUE(;'l'lm QUAN'l'J'rll~S.

it is desirable to avoid explicitly introducing the Cartesian coortlinutcs, and to fix the mind at once on a point of space instead of its three coordinates, and on tho magnitude and direction of a force instead of' its three components. This mode or contemplating geometrical and physical quantities is more primitive and more natural than the other, although the ideas connected with it dill not receive their full development till Hamilton made the next gt'oat step ill dealing with spu(''C, y the invention of his h
from calculation, Calculus of (..lllatcl'l1ions. As the methods of Des Cartes nre still the most familiar to students of science, and as they are really t.he most useful for purposes of' calculation, we shall eXIH'l'sS all our results in the Cartesian form, I am convinced, however, that the introduction of the idens, as distinguished from the operations and methods of (~l1aterllions, will he of' great lise to us ill the study of' all parts of our subject, and especially in electrodynamics, where we have to deal with a number of physical quarrtities, the relations of which to each other can be expressed far more simply by It few words of Hamilton's, than by the ordinary equations. l1.J One of the most important features of Hamilton's method is the division of quantities into Scalars and Vectors. A Scular quantity is cnpable of being' completely defined by a single numerical spccificntion. Its numerical value does 110t in allY way depend on the directions we assume for the coordinate

axes.
A Vector, or Directed quantity, requires lor its definition three numerical specificat.ions, and these may most simply bc understood as having reference to the directions of the coordinate axes. Scalar quantities do not involve direction. The volume of a geometrical figure, the mass and the enel'gy of a material body, the hydrostaticul pressure at a point ill a fluid, and the potential at a point in space, arc examples of scalar quantities. A vector quantity lias direction as well as magnitude, and is such that n reversal of its direction reverses its sign. The displacement of a point, represented by a straight line drawn from its original to its final position, may be taken as the typical vector quantity, from which indeed the name of Vector is derived. The velocity of a uody, its momentum, the force acting on it, an electric current, the magnetization of a particle of iron, arc instnnccs of vector quantities, 'I'hero nrc physical quantities of' another kind which arc related
!

10

[ 12.

to directions in space, hut which are not vectors, Stresses and strains in solid bodies are examples of these, and t.he properties of bodies considered in the theory of elasticity and in the theory of double refraction. Quantities of this class require for their definition nine numerical specifications, They are expressed in the language of Quatc'rniolls hy linear ancl vector functions of a vector, 'rho addition one vector quuntity to another of the same kind is perioJ'llwrl Hec{Jrdillg' to the rulc given in Statics for the comIJosit.ioIl of forces, J n fact, the proof wl: ieh Poisson gives of the 'paraJldogram of forces' is applicable to the composition of any quant.it.ies such that a reversal of their sign is equivalent to turning them end for end. When we wish to denote a vector quantity by a single symbol, and to call attention to the fact that it is It vector, so that we must consider its direction as well as its magnitude, we shall denote it by 3 German enpital Icttcr, as Ill, Q3, &c. In the calculus of' Quatcl'l1ions, the position of II. point in space is defined hy the vector drawn from a fixed point, called the origin, j () t ha t point. If at j hat point of space we have to consider any physical quantity whose value depends on the position of the point, that quantity is treated as a function of the vector drawn from the origin. The function may he itself either scalar or vector. The density of a body, its temperature, its hydrostatic pressure, the potential at a point, arc examples of scalar functions. TIlC resultant force at the point, the velocity of a fluid at that point, the velocity of rotation of an element of tho fluid, and the couple producing- rotation, nrc examples of vector functions, 12. J Physical vector quantities may be eli vided into two classes, in one of which the quantity is defined with reference to a line, while ill the other the quantity is defined with reference to all

or

area.
For instance, the resultant of an attractive force in any direction mny be measured by finding the work which it would. do on I~ body if the body were moved a short distance in that direction and dividing it. by that short distance. Here the attractive force is defined with reference to a line. On the other hand, the flux of heat in any direction at any point of a solid body may he defined as the quantity of heat which CI'OS~CS a small area drawn :perpendicular to that direction divided by that area and lJY the time. Here the flux is defined with reference to an area.

3.J
'l'horo arc certain

FORCES ~\N])

lILUXgS.

11

cases in which a quantity may be meusurcd [1S well as with reference to an area. 'I'hus, in treating of the displacements of elastic solids, we may d irect our attention either to the original and the actual position of a particle, in which case the displacement of the particle is measured by the line drnwn from the) first position tho second, or we may consider a small mea fixed in space, and determine what quantity of' the soliu pa.SSC5 across that area during the displacement, In the same way the velocity of It fluid m:ly be investigated either with respect to the actual velocity 01' tho individual partides, or with respect to the quantity of the fluid which Haws through any fixed area. But ill these cases we require to know separately the density of the body as well as the displacement or velocity, in order to :tpply the first method, and whenever we attempt to form It molecular theory we have to use the second method. In the case of the flow of electricity we do 110t know anything of its density or its velocity in the conductor, we only know the value of what, on the fluid theory, would correspond to the product of the density and the velocity. Hence in all such cases we must apply the more general method of measurement of' the flux across an urea. In electrical science, electromotive force and magnetic force belong to the first class, being defined with reference to lines, \Yhen we wish to indicate this fact, we ma.y refer to them as Forces. On the other hand, electric and mag-netic induction, and electric currents, belong to the second cluss, beillg defined with reference to areas, \:Vhcn we wish to indicate this fact, we shall refer to them as Fluxes, Each of these forces may he considered as producing, or tending to produce, its corresponding flux. Thus, electromotive force produces electric currents in conductors, and tends to produce them in dielectrics. It produces electric induction in dielectrics, and pl'Obably in conductors also. In the same sense, magnetic force produces magnetic induction, 13.J In some cases the flux is simply proportional to the force and in the same direction, but in other cases we can only aflirrn that the direction and magnitude of the flux are functions of the direction and magnitude of the force.

with reference to a line

to

i
I

J.

12

}'HELIMIN.AHY.

[14·

'fhe case in which the 00111}10ncllts of the flux nrc linear functions of those of the force is discllsscd in the ehaptor 011 the Equations of Conduction, Art. 2U£i. There are in gencral nine coellicients which determine the relation between the force and the /lux. 111 certain cases we have reason to believe that six of these coefllcicnts form three pairs of ('(pIlII quantities. In such cases the relation hetween the line of direction of the force and the normal plane of tho flux is of the same kind as that between a diurneter of an ellipsoid and its conjugate diumetral plane. In Qllatcl'llioll language, tile one vector is said to be a lineal' and vector function of the other, and when there arc three pairs of equal coefficients the function is said to be solf-conj ugate. In the case of mngnetic induction in iron, the flux, (the magnetization of the iron.) is Dot It linear function of the magnetizing' force. In all eases, however, the product of the force and the lim: resol vcd ill its direction, g-ives It result of scientific importance, and this is always a scalar quantity. 14.J There are two mathcmutical operations of' frequent OCCUl'renee which arc appropriate to these two classes of' vectors, or eli reel ed quantities. I n the case of forces, we have to take the integral along a line of the product of an element of' the line, and the resolved part of' the force along that clement. 'I'he result of' this operation is called the Line-integral of' the force. J t represents the work done on a body cnrried along the line. In cer-tain cases in which the line-integral docs not depend on the form of the line, but only on the position of its extremities, the line-intogral is called the Potential. III the ease of fluxes, we have to take the integral, over a surface, of' the flux through every clement of the surface. The result of this operation is eallerl the Surfhce-intcgral of the flux. It l'cpresents the quantity which 111lsSCSthrough tl)(· surface. 'I'here are certain surfaces across which t hero is no flux. If' two of these surfaces intersect, their line of intersection is It line of tlux. In those cases ill which the flux is in the same direction as the force, lines of' this kind are often called l .. of Force. ines It would be marc correct, however, to speak of them in electrostatics and magnetics as Lines of Induction, and in electrokinemntics as Lines of' Flow. 15.J 'I'here IS another distinction hetwocn different kinds of' directed quantifies, which, though very important in a physical

.:». "

~r . . ".

16.J

LINIHNTEGRALS,

13

point of view, is not so necessary to be observed for the sake of the mathcmntical methods. 'I'his is the distinction between 1001gitudinul and rotational properties. 'I'he direction ana magnitude of a. quantity may depend upon some action or effect which takes place entirely along a certain line, 01' it may depend upon something of the nature of rotation about that line as an axis. The laws of combination of directed quantities are the same whether they arc longitudinal or rotational, so that there is no difference in the mathematical treatmerit of the two classes, out there may be physical circumstances which indicate 10 which class we must refer a particular phenomenon, 'I'hus, electrolysis consists of the transfer of certain substances along a line in one direction, and of certain other S11Ustanoos in the opposite direction, which is evidently a. longitudinal phenomenon, and there is no evidence of any rotational effect about the direction of the force, Hence we infer that the electric current which causes 01' accompanies electrolysis is a longitudinal, :IIlU not a rotational phenomenon. On the other hand, the north and south poles of a magnet do not diller as oxygen and hydrogen do, which appeal' at opposite plneos during electrolysis, so that we have 110 evidence that mugnet ism is a longitudinal phenomenon, while the eflect of magnetism in rotating tile plane of polarized light distinctly shews that magnetism is a rotational phenomenon,

Oil Liue-interrals.
16.J The operation of integration of the resolved part of a vector quantity along a line is important in physical science generally, and should IJCelearl y understood, Let :I',!I, :; be the coordinates of a point P on a. line whoso lr.nr.,:,th, measured from a. certain point A, is 8. 'I'hese coordinates will hc functions of a single variable s. , Let R he the value of the vector quantity nt P, and let the t:LngenL to the curve at P make with the direction of R the angle e, then Rem; f if; tho resolved part of R Ulullg tho line, and the integral ~I L Ii cos Ii Il,~

= )0

'~J

is called the line-integral of' R along the line '" e may write this expression

8.

~:{,:

'I'~
<

~·~)tt

i-iI:

L=

•0

(X~'~ + y(~¥ + Z (,(~NIi~)(t.v,

II,v
rI.9 (

14

PRELIMIN

AHY,

where X, Y, Z are the components of Ii parallel to x, y, z respectively, 'This quantity is, in general, different for different lines drawn bctwecn z! and P, 'When, however, within a certain region, the quuntity that is, it> lin exact

XdJ.'+ Yd//+Zt!:
differential L

=-.DIJi,

within

that region,

the value of L

becomes

= 'JiA-'lt",

and is the Fume for uny two forms of' the path between 11 and P, provided the one furm CUll he changed into the other by continuous motion without passing out of this region.

On Potelltia18,
Tho quantity 'It is a scalar function of' the position of' the point, and is therefore independent of the directions of reference, It is called the Potential Function, and the vector quantity whose components arc XJ 1~ is said to have a potential '1', if Z

= _ (rl'l') d»

= -(I!._'¥) , Z = _(d~),
(~V dz

When a potential function exists, surfaces for which the potential is constant arc called Equipotential surfaces. 'I'he direction of R at any point of such a surface coincides with the normal to the surface, and if n be
11

normal

at the point P, then R

=-

(d1'lt •
1~

The method of considering the components of a vector as the first derivatives of a certain function of the coordinates with respect to these coordinates was invented hy Laplace in his treatment 01' the theory of' attrnctions. The name of Potential was first given to this function by Green t, who made it the basis of his treatment of electricity, Green's essay was neglected by mathematicinns till 184G, and before that time most of' its important theorems had been rediscovered I),)' Gauss, Chasles, Sturm, and Thomson t, In the theory of gravitation the potential is taken with the opposite sign to that which is here used, and the resultant force in any direction is tben measured by the rate of increase of the

.. lIfee. Cdleste, liv. iii. t EhKl!.)' Oil the AI'I'!ieutioll of Mnthemnticnl Anl\ly"i~ 10 the TlICories of ]~Iectricity and ]If nglleti"lll, !\ ',ttill~h:~:u, 1828. Reprinted ill Crtilld Jow-7Iell,and in Mr. Ferrer's edition of Green'» Works. ::: Thomson lind Tait, Natural Pbi/~sopby, § 483.

17,]

RELATION

BETWEEN

FORCE AND POTENTIAL,

15

potential function in that direction, In electrical and magnetic investigat.ions the potential is defined so that the resultant force in any direction is measured by the decrease of the potential in that direction, This method of usillg the expression makes it correspond in sign with potential energy, which always decreases when the bodies arc moved in the direction of' the forces acting 011 them, 17, ] 'I'he geometrical nature of the relation between the potential and the vector thus deri ved from it receives great light from Hamilton's discovery of the form of the operator by which the vector is derived from the potential. The resolved part of the vector in any direction is, as we have seen, the first derivative of the potential with respect to a coordinate drawn in that direction, the sign being reversed. Now if i, j, !.: are three unit vectors at right angles to each other, and if X, Y, Z are the components of the vector 3 resolved parallel to these vectors) then

I-

ff

= iX +jY-l;-kZ;
,rl~ ,rl\jl

(1)
(l~)

and by what we have said above, if' 'II is the potential, ff=-1---+J---+A: ( d» d!l If we now write V' for the operator)
I- -----

-. de

(2)

,il £1.1'

+ J,rl + It! d!J dz

A: --

(3)
(4)

ff

=-

V'IJI,

The symbol of operation V' may he interpreted as directing- us to measure} ill each of three rectangular directions, the rate of increase of \jI, and then, considering the quantities thus found as vectors, to compound them into one, 'I'his is what we are directed to do lJY the expression (3). Rut we may also consider it as directing us first to find out in what direction q. increases fastest, and then to layoff in that direction a vector representing- this rate of increase. U, Lame, in his J'rllitt! dea Fouctlon« Innersee, uses the term Diflerontial Parameter to express the magnitude of' this greatest rate of increase, hut neither the term itself, nor the mode in which Lame uses it, indicates that the quantity referred to has direction as well as magnitude, On those rare occasions in which I shall have to refer to this relation us It purely geometrical one, I shall call the vector if the Slope of' the scalar function \jI, using the word Slope

16

I'RELnllN ,\RY.

[18.

to indicate the direction, as well as the magnitude, of the most rapid decrease of IJI. 18.J There arc cases, however, in which the conditions dZ rlX dZ rlY .... - () - --0 and -_ -- - 0 d!J ds , r/:; d.-v , d;1' d!l -- ,

tty

«x

which ure those of X d» + Yrl;1j + Zdz being a complete differential, are fulfilled throughout a certain reg-ion of SllaCC, and yet the lineillu>gral from A to P may be different for two lines, each of' which lies wholly within that region. This may be the case if the rejrion is in the form of a ring, and if the two lines from .tl to P pasH through opposite segments of the ring. In this case, the one path cannot be transformed into the other IJY continuous motion without passing out of' the region. 'VI' arc here led to considerations belonging to the Geometry of' Posit.ion, a subject which, though its importance was pointed out. by Leibnitz and illustrated by GllU;;S, has heen little studied. 'I'he most complete treatment of' this subject has been given by J. Listing Let there he p points in space, and let llinl!s of any form be drawn joining these points so that no two lines intersect each other, and no point is left isolated. We shall call a figure composed of lines in this way a Diagram. Of these lines, jJ - 1 are sufficient to join the JI points so ItS to form a connected system, Every new line completes a loop or closed path, or, as we shall call it, u Cycle. The num her of independent cycles in the diagram is therefore" l-p+ 1. Any closed path drawn along the lines of the diagram is composed of these independent cycles, each being taken any number of t.imes find in either direction. The existence of cyl'll's is called Cyclosis, and the number of cycles in 11diagram is culled its Cyelomatic number,

n.

*.

Cyclo.vi8 lit Sm/aces either infinite

anil Regiou8.

Surfaces arc either complete 01' bounded, Complete surfaces arc 01' closul. Bounded surfaces arc limited l)y one Ol' more closed lines, which may in the limiting cases become finite lines or points. A finite region of space is bounded by one or more closed surfaces, Of these one is the external surface, the others are
• Iter
CP.IUUB

Raiimlicher

C()ml,lf..u, Giitt. Abh, Bd,

x.

H. 97 (186l).

19·J

CYCT,IC REGIONS.

17

included In it and exclude each other, and arc called internal surfaces. II' the region has one bounding surface, we may suppose that surface to contract inwards without breaking its continuity 01' cutting itself. If the region is one of simple continuity, such as It sphere, this process may be continued till it is reduced to a point; hut if the region is like n ring, the result will be a closed curve; and if the region has multiple eonnexions, the result will be a diagram of lines, and the oyclomatic number of the diagram will be that of the region. The space outside the region has the same cyclomntie number as the region itself. Hence, if the region is bounded by internal as well as external surfaces, its cyclomntic number is the sum of those due to all the surfaces. When a region encloses within itself other regions, it is called a Pcriphraetio region. The number of internal bounding surfaces of n region is called its periphrnctic number, A closed surface is also periphractic, its number being unity. The cyclornatic number of It closed surface is twice that. of the region which it bounds. To find the cyclomatic number of a hounded surface, suppose all the boundaries to contract inwards, without breaking continuity, till they meet. The surface will then be reduced to a point ill the case of an acyclic surface, 01' to a linear diagram in the case of cyclic surfaces. The cyclomatic number of the diagram is that of the surface,

19.J

Tm:ollE3[ I. If throughout (In!! aC.!Iclic regio/t Xd;c+ Yd!!+ Zt/:: = -])~, the raiue of the line-iuteqra! from a }Joint .A to a point P taken. alo1lg ali!) )latlt v)ith£n the region wilt be the same.

We shall first shew that the line-integral taken round any closed pnth within the region is zero. Suppose the equipotential surfaces drawn. They arc all either closed surfaces or are bounded entirely by the surface of the region, so that a closed line within the region, if it cuts any of the surfaces at one part of its path, must cut the same surface in the opposite direction at some other part of its path, and the corresponding' portions of the line-integral being equal and opposite, the total value is zero. Hence if AQP and A.Q'P are two paths from A to P, the line. integral for A Q' P is the sum of that for AQ P and the closed path YOI.. I. c

18
AQ'PQ.l.

pn£Llm~AHY.

[20.

But the line-integral of the closed path is zero, therefore those of the two paths arc equal. Hence if the potential is giyen at, anyone point of such a region, that at any other point is dcterminnta,

2(}.J 'l'm,:oluD[ II. liz a ('!leli(' J'egion iii lI'hidt Ihe equatltn;
.\(1.1'+ rr1!1+~d:

= -lJ'4J

is el'el:ljwhere ,Iit/Jilled, tlta lilw-illtc(Jl'r/l ji'oJ/l A to P, a!ollY a line draion Ii'ithill till! reqion, 'witt nut ill general be determinate -1/ldC8,~ thc [·It flil/let Itl conunuiuca! ion. ~etlt'ee/l. .Ii awl P be ,YfJer:ijierl. Let 1\ be the cyclumut ic number of the region, then K suctions of the regioll may IJC made by surfaces which we may call Diaph1'l1gll1s, tiO as to dose up K of the channels of communication, und reduce the region to an acyclic condition without destroying'
its continuity. 'I'he line-integral from .A to any point P taken along a line which does not cut ,my of these diaphragms will be, by the last theorem, determinate in value, Now let A and P be taken indefinitely near to each other, but. Oil opposite sides of' 11 diaphragm, and let A" be the line-integral lrom .il to P. Let A' and _JY he two other points on opposite sides of the same diuplnugm and indefinitely neal' to each other, and let K' be the line-integral from A' to P'. 'rhen K' = K. For it' we draw .-1.-1' and PP', nearly coincident, but on opposite sides of the d iaphrngm, the line-integrals aloug these lines will be equal. SUPJJose each equal to L, then the line-integral of A']>' is equal to that of ,l'A+:1.P+l'l>'=-i-+K+L = K = that of AP. Hence the line-integrul round ;L closed CIIl'\'e which passes through one diaphragm of the system in a given direction is It constant quantity K, This quantity is culled the Cyclic constant correspending to the givcn cycle. Let. any closed curve he drawn within the region, and let it cut the dinphrag m the first cycle J) times in the positive direction und / times in the negative direction, and let jJ-p' = ?II' Then the line-integral of the closed curve will be 1/1 KI• Similarly the line-integral of [IllY closed curve will be

or

ill iI~1 1l:!..K~ +

+ .,. + Ul(

KK ;

where UK renresents die excess of the number of' positive passages of the curve through the diaphragm of the cycle K over the number of negative pnssagos,

---_-------- -------

21.J

SUHFACE-INTEGHALB.

19

If' two curves arc such that one of them may be transformed into tIJC other by continuous motion without at any time passing through any part of space for which the condition of having It potential is not fulfilled, these two curves nre called Reconciloable curves. Curves for which this transformation cannot be effected are called Irreconcileable curves 'I'he condition that Xdx+ Yt7!1+Zd:: is IL complete differcnt.iul of some function >¥ for all points within a certain region, OCClll'S in several physical investigations in which the directed quantity and the potential have diflerunt physical interpretations. In pure kinematics we may supposc X,l~ Z to IJC the components of the displacement of a point of' a continuous body whose original coordinates are iiJ,!I, z, then the condition expresses that these displacements constitute a uon-rotatiosa; sira iii t. If' X, 1', Z represent the components of the velocity of a fluid at the point X, !I, r, then the condition cxprcoscs that the motion of the fluid is irrotational. If X, J', Z represent the components of the force at the point x, !I, =, then the condition expresses that the work done on a particle passing from one point to another is the difference of the potentials at these points, and the value of this difference is the same for all reconcileablc paths between the two points.

*.

On SuJj'llce-llttc[jl'uls.
21.J Let dS be the clement of a surface, and e the angle which a normal to the surface drawn towards the positive side of the surface makes with the direction of the vector quantity R, then

ff

COl:! E

tl S is called the surface-in tegl"{lt rtf' H ore)' Ihe surface 8.

THEOltEl[

oj' the flu» (!trollgh a dosed surface may be eX_}JJ'c88erlas the volume-integral 0/ its eonreroeuce

III. The surface-intcqra!

taken. within the surface.

(See Art.

25.)
JIl, It

Let X, Y, Z be the components of H, and let i, direction-cosines of the normal to S measured outwards. surface-integral of II over S is

be the Then the

Jf
+

RcosErlS

=IJXldS+

=
* See Sir

11

ffY7JlrIS+

Xd!Jdz+

1f

if

ZndS Zr/;cdy; (1)

Ydzdx+.fJ

Thomson' 011 Vortex See Thomson and Tllit'~ Natural

'v.

Motion,' Trans. R. S. Edin., 1869. l'hil(J,ol'it!l, § 190 (i).

20

I'H1~LmINAHY,

the values of X, 1~ Z being those at a point in the surfuce, and the integrations being extended over the whole surface. If the Sl1l'f:1CC ill a dosed one, then, when ."1 a nd .« are given, the coordinate ;r. must have an even number of values, since a line parallel to IV must enter and leave the enclosed space an equal 11l1mlJC1'of times provided it meets the surface at all, Let a point travelling from to = - 00 to .1: = + Xl first enter the space when {)J Xl> then leave it when x = a:~, and so on; and let the vnlues of at these points be Xl' X~, &c., then

fXd!ltl:=

I!{(X

,x

-XI)

+ (Xt-

.. ,) \

+&c.

+ (X:.!II-X~"_l)}

((yd:. (2)

If X is II quantity which is continuous, between leI and .r2' then

and has no infinite values

r/;v;

X~-Xl

x! {
• ~'.

«x
-l~

(3)

{/·.v

where the integration is extended from the first, to the second intersection, that is, along the first segment of ;v which is within the dosed surface. 'I'aking' into account all the segments which lie within the closed surface, we lind

'.

fJXd!/dz

fff

~t~d;lJd!/r1z,

(4 )

the double integration being confined to the closed surface, but the triple integ-ration being extended to the whole enclosed space. Hence, if X, Y, Z arc continuous and finite within a closed surface 8, the total surface-integral of R over that surface will be

Jj

Rcos

Ii dS:::::

!ff(0-5_ t/.JJ

+ d!

t1!/

+ dZ)
dz

dJJr/.!lr/z

'

(5)

the triple integration being extended over the whole space within S. Lei us next suppose that X, 1~ Z are not continuous within the closed ~udhce,' but that at a certain surface F (;r, !I, z) = 0 the values of' X, Y, Z alter abruptly from X. r, Z on the negative side of the surface to X', Y', Z' on the positive side. If this discontinuity occurs, say, between a'l and x~, the value of X~- XI will h<.>

j or.

-J'~

ax
-1

(/;])

d.1J+(X

- X), only

(6) the finite

where values In closed

in the expression under the integral sign of the derivative of' X arc to be considered. this case therefore the total surface-integral surface will he expressed hy

of R over the

:. /.i

,',

J~
"""

22.J

SOLENOIDAL

DISTRI13UTION.
I '

21

if
•

llcoSH1S=

«r rlZ) ffJ(rlXr/;c +r/y +r: d.cllyrZz+.f'r (X -X){1;lJcl~ J

+.fJ(F'-Y)d:d.V+ !!(Z'-Z)

rlxd!f; (7)

or, if I', ill', n' arc the direction-cosines of the normal to thc surface of discontinuity, and d8' an clement of that surface, dX rlY dZ)

ff

]lcos

tl8

fff(
+

fJ

-rl,

+ --,- -" + {_ I!J

rl:cd!J (/::: Y)

{l'(X' -

..ll + 7Jl1( T'-

+- 1/"(Z'

- Z)}

as,

(8)

where the integrntion of the last term is to be extended over the surface of discontinuity. If at cvery point where X, Y, Z are continuous ell' dZ (n) c'," + .c d!J + -,--- 0, a.: =

ax

and at every surface where they arc discontinuous l' X' + 1I( 1" + n' Z' = l' X + m' Y + n' Z, (10) then the surface-integral over every closed surface is zero, and the distribution of the vector quantity is said to be Solenoidal. \Ve shall refer to equation (9) as the General solenoidal condition, and to oquntion (10) as the Superficial solenoidal condition. 22.J Let us now consider the case in which at e\'ery point within the surface 8 the equation rlZ - + -.- + dz.. 0 (11) d» d!J is fulfilled. 'Ve have as a consequence of this the surface-integral over the closed surface equal to zero. Now let the closed surface S consist of three parts SI' Sal and 82, Let 81 be a sur race of any form bounded by a closed line hI' Let 80 be formed by drawing lines from every point of L, always coinciding with the direction of R. If I, 111, 1l are the directioncosines of the normal at any point of the surfhce So, we have ::~. R cos E X t + Y m + Zit = o. (12) Hence this part of the surface contributes nothing towards the value of'the surfaoe-intcgrnl. Let S~ be another surface of any form bounded by the closed curve L2 in which it meets the surface SII' Lct Qp Qo' Q~ be the surface-integrals of the surfaces 81, So, 82, and let Q be the surface-integral of the closed surface S. Then Q= Ql+QO+Q2=Oj (13) '"

«x .n:

22
awl we know thnt therefore
01',

PRF.,LTMIN

xuv.
j

[']"2.
(14 ) (15 )

Qu

= OJ Q:~ = - QI

in other words, the surfhce-int.egral OVCI' t.JIC surface 82 is equal and opposite to that O'-Cl' 8, whatever be the form and position of S~, provided that the intermediate surface 80 is one for which R is alu..ays tangential. If we :=lUPll0SC£1 a closed curve of small urea, So will he a tubular surfuce lun-ing' the propprty that the surface-integral over every complete section of the tube is the same. Since the whole space can be divided into tulles of this kind provided

ax + --- + .-.-rlY dZ d»
tly

a distribution of a called a. Solenoidal Distribution.

vccl~~-'q;la~~tfty CO~;;lstent
OIL Tltoes lIlId Lines

ds -

(16) with this equation is

12/ Plow.

If the space is so divided into tubes that the surface-integral for f'very tube is unity, the tubes are called Unit tubes, and the surfucc-iutegral over any finite surface S hounded hy a closed (,IlITe L is equal to the llI/IJdJeJ' of such tubes which pass through S in the positive direction, or, what is the same thing, the number which pass through the closed curve L. . Hence the surface-integral of S depends only on the form of its boundary L, and not on the form of the surface within its boundary.

Oil Perlpkractic

RegioJt,~.

If, throughout the whole region hounded closed surface 81> the solenoidal condition

externally hy the singJC'

0

- - + - + _(/;'e (~~ d=

dX

«r

rlZ

is fulfilled, th en the surface-intogrnl taken over !lny closed surface drawn within this region will be zero, and the surface-intej-ral taken over a bounded surface within the region will depend only on the form of the closed CIll'VC which forms its boundary. It i,.; not, however, geIlerally true that the same results fo1Jow if the region within which the solenoidal condition is fulfilled is bounded otherwise than hy 11 single surface. Par if it is bounded by more than one continuous surface, one of these is the external surface and the others are internal surfaces,

22.J

PERIPHRACTIC

REGIONS.

23

and the region S is n pcriphractic region, having within it other rcgiolls which it completely encloses. If within filly of these enclosed reg-ions, 81, the solenoidal condition is not fulfilled, let

l21 =
I)L'

lin

cos e rl81

the surface-integral for the surface enclosing this region, and let Q2' Q:p &c. be the corresponding quantities for tile other 011closed regions. 'I'hen, if It closed surface S' is drawn within the region 8, the value of its surface-integ-ml will he zero only WIt!'11 this surface B' docs not include any of the enclosed reg-ions 81, 82, &c. If it includes any of these, the surfaee-integ-rnl is the sum of the surfaceintegrals of thc different enclosed regions which lie within it .. For the same reason, the surface-intejrrnl taken over a surface hounded by a closed curve is the same for such surfaces ouly hounded by the closed curve as arc rcconcileahle with the given surface by continuous motion of the surface within the region 8. When we have to deal wi th It pcriphrnetic region, the first thing to he done is to l:edticc-it fo an nporiphrnetic region by drawing lines joining the different bonn ding surfaces, Each of these lines, provided it joins surfaces which were not already in continuous conuexion, reduces the periphractic number hy unity, so that the whole number of lim's to he drawn to remove the pcriphraxy is equal to the periphractic number, 01' the number of internal surfaces. When these lines have been drawn we mar assert that jf the solenoidal condition is fulfilled in the region 8, any closed surface drawn entirely within S, and not cutting any of t1IC lines, has its surface-integrnl zero.
In drawing these lines we must remember that ;tny lint- joining surfaces which are already connected does not diminish the periphrnxy, hut introduces cyclosis. The most familiar example of' a periphractie reg-ion within which the solenoidal condition is fulfilled is the region snrrormding n mass attracting or repelling inversely as the square of the distance. In this case we have v 'I :: ; X' :::: ?n - I Y = in ,!_ , Z OJ 11l -

.,3

1"

1"

where

is the mass supposed to be at the origin of coordinates. At any point where r is finite r1X rlY dZ ,I.," + --I u.c ~!I + -I = 0, az
11l

24

PIU:LI1I1INARY.

hut at the ongm these quantities become infinite. For any closed surface not including the origin, tho surface-integral is zero. If a closed surface includes the origin, its surface-integral is ,j 1TlJl. If, [01' any reason, we wish to treat the region round 1H as if it were not periphructic, we must draw a line from m to all infinite distance, and in taking surface-integ-rals we must remember to add 47]'111 whenever this line crosses from, the negative to the positive side of the surface.

On. l?ight-hallded ([Iul .Lq/~-h{l1ulr:tl Iielations ill Space.

23,J In this treatise the motions of translation along any axis and of rotation about that axis, will be assumed to he of the same sign when their directions correspond to those of the translation and rotation of an ordinary or right-handed SCl'CW *. For instance, if the actual rotation of the earth from west to cast is taken positive, the direction of' the earth's axis from south to north will bel taken positive, and if a. man walks forward in the positive direction, the positive rotation is iu the order, head, right, hand, feet, left-hand. If' we place ourselves on the positi ve side of a surface, the positive direction along its bounding curve will be opposite to the motion of the hands of a watch with its face towards us. This is the right-handed system which is adopted ill Thomson and 'l'ILit's Natura! Philosoph.lf, § 243. 'I'ho opposite, or left-handed system, is adopted in Hamilton's and Tait's QuatCl'lliOJl8. The operation of passing from the one system to the other is called, by Listing, Perversion, The reflexion of an object in a mirror it; a perverted image of the object. 'Yhen we usc the Cartesian axes of x, !/, z, we shall draw them
• The combine, I action of the muscles of tho arm when \1'0 turn tho uppel' Hidl' of the right-hnnrl outward», and at the snme time thr-ust the hand fOl'wII.r(19, will impress tho right-halllle.1 screw motion on the memory more firmly than any \,1'rLI~1 defluition. A COIJIIlIUII corkscrew may be used n" n nmterial symbol of the same rulatiun. 1'1'of,';sHr \V_ H. ~!iIJ"r ling ~l1gj:(c;te,1 to lila that as the tenrlrils of the vine are ri~hl-!""Idcd screws nrul thnse of the hop lcft-hnnde.l, the tWn "yt!tt:I1IH of relntions in 61"le" IIdl,(ht be calico! those uf the vine awl the hop respectively. 'I'hu HyHtclU of the vine, which we adopt, is that of Liumeus, and of acrew-mnkera in all civ-ilized countries except Jupnn, De Candolle waH the first who called the hop-tendril right-handed, and ill thin he iK foll ..wed Ily Listing, nnrl by most writers 011 the r[)tntory polarization of light. Screws like the hop-tendril are made for the couplings of rnih"lly-cnrriagcH, IlIIII fill' the fittings of wheels on the left side of ordinary carriages, but they ore ulways called luft-hnnded screws by those who use them,

LINE-IN'l'EGIUIJ

AND

SURFACE-IN'l'J~GRA]J.

25

so that the ordinary conventions about the cyclic order of the symbols lead to a right-handed system of directions in space. Thus, if x is drawn eastward and !J northward, z must be drawn upward. The areas of surfaces will be taken positive when the order of integration coincides with the cyclic order of the symbols. Thus, the area. of a closed curve in the plane 01' ;I:!I may be written either

~I

;" 1 .,1
jl

~f

.r

aJ

d!J

01'

J d;c ;

II
~

the order of integration being ai, ,11 in tho first expression, and!l,.1: in the second. This relation between the two products d» d!J and fry dJJ may he compared with that between the products of two perpendicular vectors ill the doctrine of Quutel'llions, the sign of which depends on the order of multiplication, and with the reversal of the sign of a determinant when the adjoining rows 01' columns are exchanged. For similar reasons a volume-integral is to be taken positive when the order of integration is in the cyclic order of the variables XJ 1/, Z, and negative when the cyclic order is reversed. 'Ve now proceed to prove a theorem which is useful as eatablishing a connexion between the surface-integral taken over a finite surface and a line-integral taken round its bounuary,
.,\...

.' ."\ '1' i-: (

24.J

TIIEOJtElI

IV. A lille-integral ta ~~'\'oulld a

8It·/, ~~ \' '. \',

. -' Let X, Y, Z be the components of a vecto 'iruantity sn. whoJ lineintegral is to be taken round a closed curve 8. ..~Let S be any continuous finite surface bounded entirely hy the closed curve 8, and let " 7], (" be the components of another vector quantity ~, related to X, Y, Z 1>y the equations

?flay be e.7:jJJ'csse(l i,t terms oj a suifaoe bOlt1lded oy the CUr!7C.

~-i1~~e~I'(4~~1~l~~''iP7J ra
t.l ZJ.I l ...

closJ}.. 'furue
o:

't

./'

..

dZ ~= -_ - --_, d!l rlz

iv

1"J

= ... - .--, liz dJJ

ss se

("

= ar - ax . -- -..d» rt!J

(1)

Then the surface-integral of ~ taken over the surface S is equal to the line-intcgrnl of III taken round the curve 8. It is manifest that f, J/, (fulfil of themselves the solenoidal condition

i 1 ,

dE + dl] da: dy

+ ~( = 0,
tls of the normal to an element

Let I, m, n be the direction-cosines

26

PR1~LD[)NARY,

of the surface dS, reckoned in the positive direction. value of the surface-integral of ~ may be written

Then

the

JJ(1~+JllT)+?l()dS. .d S, we shall suppose

(2)

In order to form a definite idea of the meaning- of' the element that the values of the coordinates a~, , z for y every point of the surface nrc given as functions of two independent variables a and {:J. If' /3 is constant anti a varies, the point (':1', /J, .:) will describe a curve on the surface, nnd if a series of values is given to /3, a series of 811ch curves will be traced, all lying on the surface S, In the same way, hy giving a. series of constant values to a, a second series of curves may be traced, cutting' the Iirsb series, and dividing' the whole surface into elementary portions, anyone of which may he taken as the element d S. The projection of this element on the plane of :Y, z is, hy the ordinary formula, ldS=((~1j
d S

Tho expressions for m stituting ,1', y, z in cyclic order. '}'he surfaca-integral which we have to find it!
d S

d: _ r~1J ~I_::__)d da. (3) ria rift tift do: t3 and n arc obtained from this by sub-

fJ(tE+1Il11+11()d8;
or, substituting dX dY 1n --_ - 11 --+ 1/. -(/.1: - 1·-- + t rlZ - 1lt (/'Z) d8. ..~ d: rI!J de d!J (/.1: Tho part of this which depends on X may be written •.

(4)
terms of X, Y, Z,

fr(
1

the values of dX

E, 1], C in

«r

(5)

_ r1: dJJ)_ r!!. (d~ ~~ _ r/x (~IJ)/ d d a : /"/' {rf_:! (I: ~'! t/f3da / dz darlf3 d!J rlarlf3 d(3da f f3 ,
1 ,rlX -1·_· d» -I I d.r t hi1S Iiecomos
(;1:

(6)

I a d (mg ant su rtracting rlJJ )"/".1 / df3 (d}:' • dx

fI.c ria

a a (,.(3

+ (l.~ ~1!J_ + d_-"__~tl:)

(~IJ d a

tl.:: ria

= .. «(l~ ;,~ -

lor d X (I.e

«x d.l:)
110

r (1;1) _ d.t· tla d» rlf3

(1·

+ r1X

d!J II!! df3

+ ~~~ d:::)l.
d: dp

f3

ria'

.'

(7) (8)

dH ~1~ df3da,

assumption as to the form of the functions a is a function of .t, or, in other words, that the curves for which a is constant are those for which As we have made

a and ;3, we may assume that

25·J
.X is constant.
lJY integration

HAMIJ}l'ON'~

OPERATOR 'V.

27
b ecomes
,l

tlX .' I 11 thi case {t{3 = 0, anu.1 t 1 expressron 11S --ie

with respect;

to a.

fftJ.:,[

rlx d {3 {l IX, = d« d{3

IX

dp

dJJ. «f3 .

(9)

where the integration is now to be performed round the closed curve. Since all the quantities are now expressed ill terms of one variable {3, we may make s, the length of the hounding curve, the independent variable, and the expression mny then be written r (1,r.(8, I (10) ,lY where Lhe integration is to be performed round the curve may treat in the same way the parts of the surface-integral depend upon Fund Z, so that we get finally,
.~

J
J

8.

'life
which

ff(lf+

1IL1

1+7tC)

«s = (X

J ~:i+ y*
011

+ Z~:)ds ;

(11)

. ,.

where tho first integral is extended over the surface second round the bounding curve .v*.

8, and the

On

tlle

1[fe()t 0/ the operator 'V

a veciorfunction,

25.J We have seen that the operation denoted by V' is that by which n vector quantity is deduced from its potential. The same operation, however, when applied to a vector function, produces results which enter into the two theorems we have just proved (III and IV). The extension of this operator to vector displacements, and most of its further development, is duo to Professor Tnit +, Let (1' he a vector function of p, the vector of 11 variable point. Let us suppose, as usual, that
p and
CT

= ix+ jy+/.;z, = iX+ jY +kZ;

where X, Y, Z are the components of CT in the directions axes. We have to perform on CT tho operation V Performing this

of the

.d d.c

+J d!J + .('; .
remembering the rules for the

.d

J,; d

operation,

and

« This theorem was givoll by PI'OfeRROr Stokes .• '·mUIl's Prize .b'xami1Iaeion, 185-1, question 8. It i. proveri in Thomson nTHI Tait'. Natural Pllilo~op"Y' § 100 (j). t See t'roc. R, S, Edin., April 28, I R62. • On Green's IIlId otllllr allied Theorems,' ']·,a118. R. S. Edin., 11169-70. 11. VCI')' vnluable pnper: anti • On some Quatcmion

Integr:.h,' Proc. R. S.

su«.

18;0-71.

--..".,

28

I'U1U..HIlNARY.

multiplication of i, .i, le, we find that one scalar and the other vector. The scalar part is

V' tr consists

of two

parts,

S' V' U = - (IIX + til' dZ) ,see Theorcm III , -,-- --,-+ --,{(.;r. (!/ az
and the vector part is

rV = i (iZ. _ ~!)j(lX +
(7'

d!J

ds

rl::

~!_)+ k (I?X _ (~J!).

dJJ d» d.!J given

If the relation between X, l', Z and f, 7/, ( :is thai equation (1) of the last theorem, we mny write

by

r'V

it + j '1 + 1.: t.

See Theorem

IV.

It appears therefore that the functions of X, J', Z which occur in the two theorems are both obtained by the operation V' on the vector whose components are X, Y, Z. The theorems themselves may be written

ff(sV'

(Jds

= ff

8.

U'

11v d&,

(II]) (Ir)

and

fSrrdp

if

S.'ilrrUvd&;

where cis is an clement. of a volume, de of a surface, (1p of a curve, and Uv a unit-vector in the direction of the normal. To understand the meaning of these functions of a vector, let us suppose that Uo is the value of a at a point P, and let lIS examine the value of (J-Un in the neighbourhood of P. If we draw a closed surface round P, then, if the surface-integral of a over tIlLS surface is directed inwards, S \7 o will IJC positive, and the vector --E--l' rr-lTo near the point P will be on the whole directed towards P, as in the figure (1). I propose therefore to call tho scalar part of 'V U the COIW(Jl'(Je1tce of U at the point P. Fig. 1. To interpret the vector part of 'V 0", let us suppose ourselves to be looking in the direction of the vector whose components are [, 7], (, and let us examine the vector U-(Jo near tho point P. It will appear as in the figure (2), this vector being arranged on the whole tangentially in the direction opposite to the hands of' a watch . .Fig. :2. I propose (with great diffidence) to call the vector part of V' (T the curl, 01' the version of (7' n.t the point P.

.c'_--

26.]

CONCl<:N'l'R.&. TION.

29
with con-

At Fig. 3 we have an illustration of curl combined vergence. Let us now consider the meaning of the equation rVrr O.

This implies that V tr is a scalar, or that the vector rr is the slope of some scalar function '1'. These applications of the operator V are due to Professor I"ig.3. 'I'ait A more complete development of the theory is given ill his papel' 'On Green's and other allied Theorems to which I refer the reader for the purely Quatcrnion investigation of the properties of the operator V. 26.J One of the most remarkable properties of the operator V' is that when repeated it becomes

*.

""'."
/

;/

+,'

=-(-T" + ~!r+ ~ -,', -l")' aeZ"

d2

d2

rP

an operator occurring in all parts of Physics, which we may refer to as Laplace' s Operator. This operator is itself essentially scalar. When it acts on a scalar Function the result is scalar, when it acts on a vector function the result is a vector. If, with any point P as centre, we draw a small sphere whose radius is r, then if 1]0 is the value of '1 at the centre, and the mean value of q for all points within the sphere,

qo-q

1~ /,2

\12

q;

so that the value at the centre exceeds or falls short of the mean value according as V2 I] is positive 01' negative. I propose therefore to call 'i{2q the eoncentration of q at the point P, because it indicates the excess of the value of q at that point OVOl' its mean value in the neighbourhood of' the point. If'1 is a scalar function, tho method of finding its mean value is well known. If it is a vector function, we must find its mean value by the rules for integrating vector functions. The result of course is a vector.
• Procee,lill(J~ R. S. Edill., 1802,

""

'.

t Trans. R, S. su«,

1809-jD,

~
.,'

.~

l
1
I

.~

PAR
ELECTRO

T I.
STATICS.

!
!

CHAPTER
DESCRIPTIOX

1.

OF PHENOl\rENA.

Blectrijictlti{Jn u!J Friction. 27.J EXPEHIMENT I *. Let a piece of glass and a piece of resin, neither of which exhibits any electrical properties, be rubbed together and left with the rubbed surfaces in contact. They will still exhibit no electrical properties, Let them be separated. 'Ihey : will now attract each other. If a second piece of glass be rubbed with a second piece of resin, and if the pieces be then separated and suspended in the neighbourhood of the former pieces of glass and resin, it may be observed(1) That the two pieces of glass repel each other. (2) That each piece of glass attracts each piece of resin. (3) That the two pieces of resin repel each other. 'I'hese phenomena of attraction and repulsion are called Electrical phenomena, and the bodies which exhibit them are said to be electrified, or to he charged with electricit!J. Bodies may be sleetrifict] in many other ways, as well as by friction. The electrical properties of the two pieces of glass are similar to each other but opposite to those of the two pieces of resin, the glass attrncts what the resin repels and repels what the resin attracts .
awl Dul,z," .~rCitJIt:ll'(ltiral Jonruul,
.. See l:-5ir

'v. Thomson

• On the M[lthcmntical MarcIl. 18·18.

Theory

of Electricity:

Cambridge

Ef,Ec'rlUFICA'l'ION.

31

If It body electrified in any manner whatever behaves as the glass docs, that is, if it repels the glass and attracts the resin, the body is said to be 'vitreo7ls!!} electrified, and if it attracts the glass and repels the resin it is said to be 1'elJinoltsl!} electrified. All electrified bodies are found to be either vitreously 01' resinously electrified. It is the established practice of' men of science to call the vitreous electrification positive, and the resinous electrification negative. 'I'he exactly opposite properties of the two kinds of electrification justify us in indicating them by opposite signs, but the application of' the positive sign to one ruther than to the other kind must he considered as a matter of arbitrary convention, just as it is a matter of convention in mathematical diagrams to reckon positive distances towards the right hand. No force, either of' attraction or of repulsion) can be observed between an electrified body and a body not electrified. When, in any case) bodies not prcviously electi-ified arc observed to be acted Oil by an electrified body) it is because they have become electl'iJietl b!J lJt(fllctirJll. RlectJ'{licatiult b!J Induction.

28.J EXPERI.\IENT II Let a hollow vessel uf metal he hung up by white silk threads, and let a similar thread be attached to the lid of the vessel so that tho vessel may be opened or closed without touching it. Let the pieces of glass uud resin be similarly suspended and electrified as before. Let the vessel be originally unoluetrifled, then if an electrified piece of glass is hung UIl within it by its thread without touching the vessel, and the lid closed, the outside of the vessel will be found to he vitroously electrified, and it lUuy be shewn that the electrification outside of the vessel is exactly the Fig,4. same in whatever part of the interior space the glass is suspended. If the glass is now taken out of the vessel without touching it, the electrification of the glass will be the same as before it was put in) and that of the vessel will have disappeared. 'I'his electrification of the vessel) which depends 011 the glass

*.

* This, lind aeveral experiments which follow, are due to 1,'amday, 'On Electl-ical Inductive Action: rs« ltfa[J., 1843, or E;ep. R~., vol. ii. il, 279.

Static

32

m,]~CTROSTATIC

PHHNO~IENA.

being within it, and which vanishes when the glass is removed, is called Electrification by inunction. Similar effects would be produced if the glass were suspended Ileal' the vessel OIl the outside, hut in that case we should find an electrification vitreous in one part of' the outside of the vessel and resinous in another. "'hcn the glllss is inside the vessel the whole of the outside is vitreously and the whole of the inside resinously electrified.

Electrifrcatio1l

by Condllction.

29.J EXPEIlBmNT III. Let the metal vessel be electrified by induction, as in the last experiment, let a second metallic body be suspended by white silk threads near it, and let n metal wire, similarly suspended, be Lrought so as to touch simultaneously the electrified vessel and the second hody. 'l'he second body will now be found to he vitrcously electrified, and the vitreous electrification of the vessel will have diminished. The electrical condition has been transferred from the vessel to the second body by means of the wire. The wire is called a conductor of electricity, and the second body is said to be electrified

h!l coJt(luction. Conr1ltctor8 {tlld 1Il8111ato/·8.

EXFERIMENT IV. If a glass rod, a stick of resin or guttn-perclw, or a white silk thread, had been used instead of the metal wire, no transfer of electricity would have taken place, Hence these latter su 'bstanees arc called Non-conductors of electricity. N on-conductors are used in electrical experimeuts to support electrified bodies without carrying off their electricity. They are then called In-

sulators. The metals arc good conductors; ail', glass, resins, gutt.'l-percha, vulcanite, paraffin, &c. arc good insulators; hut, us we shall see afterwards, all substances resist the llllssnge of electricity, and all substances allow it to pass, though in exceedingly different degrees. This subject will be considered when we come to treat of the Motion of electricity. For the present we shall consider only two classes of bodies, good conductors, and good insulators. In Experiment II nn electrified body produced electrification ill the metal vessel while separated from it by air, a non-conducting medium. Such a medium, considered as transmitting these electrical effects without conduction, has been called by Faraday 11 Dielectric

1
3 r.]
SUMMATION OF ELECTUIC which takes EFFECTS.

33
it is called

I
j.

medium, and the action Induction.

place through

II

I II Experiment III the electriflctl vessel produced electrification in the second metallic body throug-h the medium of the wire. Let I1S suppose the wire removed, and the electrified piece of glass taken out of the vessel without touching it, and removed to n. sufflvient distance. The second body will still exhibit vitreous olectrification, but the vessel, when the glass is removed, will have resinous electrification. If we now bring the wire into contact with both bodies, conduction will take place along the wire, and all electrification will disappenr from Loth bodies, shewing that the elcetri Iication of the two bodies was equnl aud opposite. 30.J EXl'EltDn::"T V. In Experiment II it was shewn that if a piece of glass, electrified by rubbing- it with resin, is hung up in nn insulated metal vessel, the electriflcation observed outside docs not depend Oll the position of the glass. If we now introduce the piece of rosin with which the glass was rubbed into the same vessel, wi thout touching it 01' the vessel, it will be found that there is 110 electrification outside He vessel. From this we conclude that the clectrilicntion of the resin is exactly equal and opposite to that of the glass. By putting' in :my number of 1>0<1i08, lectrified in e ~ny way, it may be shewn that the electrification of the outside of the vessel is that due to the ulgclm\.ic sum of all the electrifications, those being reokoncd nogat.ivo which are resinous. 'Yo have thus a practical method of' nulling the electrical effects of several bodies without altering the electrification of each. 31.J EXPEItD[};NT VI. Let a second insulated metallic vessel, 13, be provided, and let the electrified piece of glass be put into the first vessel A, and the electrified piece of' resin into the second vessel B. Let the two vessels he then put in communication by the metal wire, as in Experiment III. All signs of electrification will disappear. Next, let the wire be removed, and let thc pieces of glass and of resin be taken out of the vessels without touching them. It will be found that A is electriflcd resinously and B vitreously. If now the glass and the vessel A be introduced together into a larger insulated vessel 0, it will be found that there is no electrification outside C. This shews that the electrification of A is exactly equal and opposite to that of the piece of glass, and that of B may be shown in the same \Yay to be equal and opposite to that of the piece of resin. VOl •. I. u

..

I
r
i
(

1
~

.j
i

./

\Ve have thus obtained a method of' ehnl'ging a vessel with a quantity of electricity exaetly ell ual anti opposite to that of' an electrified body without ultering' t.he olcctriflcutiou or the lat.ter, and we may in this way charge any number of vessels with exactly equal quantities of' electricity of' either kind, which we may take

1'01' rovisional p

units,

32.J EXl'EltnlENT VII. Let the vessel JJ, charged with a quantity of positive electricity, which we shall call, -for the present, unity, he introduced into the Im'gol!r insulated vessel C without tonchillg it. It will produce a positive electrification on the outside of C. N ow let R he made to touch the inside of' C. No change of the external electrificntion will he observed. I1'13 is now taken ant 01' C without touching' it, and removed to a suflicicnt distance, it will he found that. B is completely discharged, and that C has lieeome clutrgl·d with :t unit of positive electricity, 'VI! have thus a method of'truusferring the charge of B to U. Lei lJ be now l'eehul'ged with a unit of' oleetricity, introduced into C already charged, made to touch the inside of' C, and removed. It. will IJC found that B is again completely discharged, so that the chal'ge of C is doubled. If this process is repented, it will he found that however highly C is previously charged, and in whatever way B is charged, when B is first entirely enclosed in C, then made to touch C, ami. finally removed without touching G~the charge of' Ii is completely trunsferret! to C, and B is entirely free from electrification. This experiment indicates a method 01' charging II. body with any number of units of electricity. 'Vc shall find, when we come to the mathematical theory of electricity, that the result of this experiment ullords an uccurnte test of the truth of the theory. 33.l Before we proceed to the investigation of the law of' electrical force, let us enumerate the facts we have already estaIJlished. By placing any electrified system inside an insulated hollow eondueting vessel, and examining' the resultant effect on the outside of the vessel, we ascertain the character of the total electrification of' the system placed inside, without allY communication of eleetrieity between the different bodies of the system. The electrification of the outside of the vessel may he tested with great delicacy hy putting it in communication with an elec-

troscope.
W e may suppose the electroscope to consist of a strip of gold

34']

ETJECTRlCI'l'Y

AS A QUANTITY.

35

leaf' hanging between two bodies charged, onc positively, and the other negatively. If the gold leaf becomes electrified it will incline towards the hody whose electrification is opposite to its 0\\'11. By incl'casillg' the electrification of the two bodies and the delicacy of' th« suspension, an exceedingly small electrification of' the gold leaf may oc detected. ,rhCll we come to describe electrometers and multipliers we shall find that them me still more delicate methods of detecting clectriflout.ion and of' testing the accuracy of our theorems, but at present we shall suppose the testing to be made by connecting the hollow vessel with a gold leaf electroscope. This method was used by Faraday in his VOl'y admirablo dcmonstrntion of the laws of electrical phenomena *. 34.1 'rile total electrification of' a body, 01' system of bodies, remains always the same, except in so fill' as it receives electrificutio n from 01' gin·s electrification to other bodies. In all electrical experiments the electrification of bodies is found to change, hut it is always found that this change is due to want of' perfect insulation, and that as the means of insulation arc improved, the loss of' electrification becomes less. "\Ye may therefore assert that the electrification of a hotly placed in a perfectly insulating medium would remain perfectly constant. II. "'hen one lJOeI}' electrifies another by conduction, the total electrification of the two bodies remains the same, that is, the one loses as much positive or gains as much negative electrification as the other gains of positive or loses of' negative electrification. F(I]' if the two bodies are enclosed in tho hollow vessel, 110 change of the total electrifleation is observed. III. When electrification is produced l)y friction, 01' by any other known method, equal quantities of positive and negative e1l'etrifieation are produced. For the electrification of the whole system may IJC tested in the hollow vessel, or the process of' electrification may be carried on within the vessel itself, and however intense the electrification of' the parts of the system mny be, the electrification of the whole, as indicated by the gold leaf' electroscope, is invariably zero. The electrification of a body is therefore a. physical quantity cnpahle of' measurement, and two or more electrifications can be combined experimentally with It result of the same kind as when

r.

>I< 'OIL Static Electrical Iu.lnctlve Actio».' PMl. 1'. 2·19.

,l/u!!., 1843, or E.l:J1. RCJ., vol. ii.

D2

36

ELECTROSTATIC

PHENOMENA.

two quantities are ndded algebraically, ,\T e therefore arc entitled to use language fitted to deal with electrification as a quantity ns well as it quality, and to speak of any electrified body as (clml'g'cd with a certain quantity of positive 01' negative electricity! 35.J 'Vhile admitting electricity, as we have now done, to the rank of a physical quantity, we must not too hastily assume that; it is, or is not, a substance, or that it is, 01' is not, a fOl'ID of energy, 01' that it belongs to any known category of physical quantities. All that we have hitherto proved is that it cannot be created or annihilated, so that if' the total quantity of electricity within a closed surface is increased 01' diminished, the increase 01' diminution must have passed in 01' out through the closed

surface.
'Ihis is true of matter, and is expressed by the equation known as the Equation of Continuity in Hydrodynamics. It is not true of heat, for heat may be increased 01' diminished within a closed surface, without passing in or out through the surface, by the transformation of some other form of ellergy into heat, 01' of heat into some other form of energy. It is not true even of energy in general if' we admit the immediate action of bodies at a. distance, For a body outside tile closed surface may make an exchange of energy with a body within the surface. But if all apparent action at It distance is the result of' the action between the parts of an intervening medium, and if' the nature of' this action of the parts of' the medium is clearly understood, then it is conceivable that in all cases of the increase or diminution of' the energy within a closed surface we may be able to trace the passage of the energy ill Or out through that surface. There is, however, another reason which warrants lUI in asserting that electricity, as a physical quantity, synonymous with the total electrification of' a body, is not, like heat, a form of energy. An electrified system has a. certain amount of energy, and this energy can be calculated by multiplying the quantity of electricity in each of its parts by another physical quantity, called the Potential of that part, lind taking half tho sum of the products. The quantities '}:lectricity' and 'Potential,' when multiplied together, produce the quantity ':Energy.' It is impossible, therefore, that electricity and energy should be quantities of the same category, for electricity is only one of' the factors of energy, the other factor being' Potential.'

THEORIES

OF ELECTRIC[TY.

3'T

Energy, which is the product of these factors, may also be considered as the product of several other pairs of factors, such as A Force A Mass A Mass A Pressure A Chemical throngh which the force is to act. x Gravitation acting through a certain height. X Half the square of its velocity. x A volume of' fluid introduced into a vessel at thut pressllrc. Affinity x A chemical chango, measured by the number of electro-chemical equivalents which enter into combination.

x A distance

If we obtain distinct mechanical ideas of the nature of electric potential, we may combine these with the idea of energy to
determine placed.

Ow physical

category

in which 'Electricity'

is to be

on the subject, Electricity is treated as a substance, but inasmuch as there arc two kinds of electrification which, huiJlg combined, annul each other, and since we cannot conceive of two substances annulling each other, a distinction has been drawn between Free Electricity and Combined Electricity.

36.J In most theories

The01'!J oj Two Plltir1,~.

In the theory called that of Two Fluids, all bodies) in their un electrified state, are supposed to be charged with equal quantities of positive and negative electricity, These quantities are supposed to he so great that no process of electrification has ever yet deprived a body of' all the electricity of either kind, The pro .. cess of electrification, according to this theory, consists in taking a certain quantity P of positive electricity from the body A and communicatingit to B, or in taking a quantity N of negative electricity from B and communicating it to A, or in some combination of these processes. 'I'he result will be that A will have P + N units of negative electricity over and above its remaining positive electricity, which is supposed to he in a state of combination with an equal quantity of' negative electricity. This quantity P+N is called the Free electricity, the rest is called the Combined, Latent, 01' Fixed elec-

trieity.
In most expositions of this theory the two electricities Fluids,' because they arc capable of being transferred body to another, and arc, within conducting bodies,
t

are called from one extremely

38
mobile. The

EIJEUTROSTATIO

PHEN01IIEX

A,

properties or Iluids, such us their inertia, are not attributed to them hy those who have used the theory 101' merely mathematical Plll'}lOSCS; but the lise of tho word Fluid has been apt to mislead the vulgar, including mUIlY men of' science who are 1I0t natural philosophers, and who have seized on the word Fluid as the only term in the stutemcnt of the theory which seemed intelligillle to them, We shall sec that the mathematical treatment of' the subject lilts been grl'atly developed by writers who exprc:-;Iilthemselves in terms of the "1'wo Fluius' theory. Their results, however, I!:lVC been (11·[11lC'ml entirely from data which enn be proved by experiment, and which must therefore he true, whether \\'0 adopt the theory of two fluids 01' not, The experimental vcrifieution of' the rnathemat.ical results therefore is 110 evidence for 01' ag-ainst the peculiar doctrines of this theory The introduction of' two fluids permits us to consider the negative electrification ~f and the positive electrification of JJ as the effect of ([II!J OIW of three different processes which would lead to the same result" \\'c han: ahead), supposed it produced hy the transfer of P units of' positive electricity from .,J to B, together with the transfer of N units 0(' negative electricity from jJ to A. But if P + N units of positive electricity had been transferred fI'OIU A to B, 01' if P+N units of negative electricity had been transferred from B to A, the resulting ( free electrieity' on A and on B would have been the same us before, but thc quantity of (comhined electricity ' in A would ha VL' heen In;,; in the second case and gl'l'ater ~ll the third than it was in the first, It would appear therefore, according to this theory, that it is )lDssible to alter not only the amount of' free elect ricity ill a lwdy, hut the amount of eumhined electricity. But no phenomena have ever been observed in electrified bodies which CILn Le traced to the vnrjing aninunt of their combined electricities, Hence either the combined electricities have no observable properties, or the amount of the combined electricities is incapable of variation, 'I'he first of' these ulternativcs presents no difficulty to the mere mathemat.iciun , who attributes no properties to the fluids except those of ut.t.rnction und repulsion, for ill this point of' view the two fluids simply annul one another, ant! their combination is a true mat.he, maticul zero, Hut to those who cannot use the word Fluid without thinking of a Sl1!Jst.'lIlCC it is difficult to conceive that the combination of the two fluids shall have no properties at all, so that other

weight, and elasticity,

or

'

.. ~
;

37,J

'!'HEORIES

01<' ONE

AND Ol!' TWO FLUIDS,

39

the addition of more 01' less of the combination to a body shall not in any WlLy affect it, either by increasing its mass 01' its weight, 01' altering some of'its other properties. Hence it has been supposed by some, that in every process of' electrification exactly equal (llHtntities of the two Iluids me transferred in opposite directions, so that the total q uuntity of' the two Huids in any body taken togl'iher remains always the same. By this new law they C contrive to save appearances,' iorgdting that there would have been no need of' the law except to reconcile the C two fluids' theory with facts, and to prevent it from predicting non-existent. phenomena. 'l'!tCUI',Y of aile Flllid, 37.J In tho theory of One Fluid everything is the same as in the theory ofTwo Fluids except that, instead of supposing the two substances equal and opposite in all respects, one of' them, generally the negative one, has been endowed with the properties and name of Ordinary Matter, while the other retains the name ofTho Electric Fluid. The particles of' the fluid are supposed to repel one nuother according to the law of the inverse squllre of' the distnnce, and to uttract those of' matter according to the same law. Those of' matter arc supposed to repel each other and attract those of electricity. 'rho attraction, however, l.etween units of the different substunces at unit of distance is supposed to be :t very little greater than tho repulsion between units of' tho same kind, so that a unit of matter combined with It unit of' electricity" ill exert a force of' attrnction on [L similar combination at It distance, this force, however, being exceedingly small compared with the force hetween two uncombined units. 'I'his residual force is supposed to aeeount for the attraction of gmvitation. Unelectrificd bodies arc supposed to be charged with ns many units of' electricity as they contain of ordinary mutter. ·When they contain more elect rieity 01' less, they are said to be posit ivcly or negati vely electrified. 'I'his theory docs not, like the Two-Fluid theory, explain too milch. It. requires us, however, to suppose the mass of the electric fluid so small that no attainable positive 01' negative electrification has yet perceptibly increased 01' diminisln.d either the mass or the weight of a body, and it has not yet been uble to assign sufficient reasons why the vitreous rather than the resinous electrification should he supposed dill' to an eccess of' eleetricity. One objection hus sometimes been urged against this theory lJY

,;I

40

ELECTROS'l'ATI C l'lIENOUEN A.

men who ought to have reasoned better. It has been said that the doctrine that the particles of matter uncombined with electricity re)Jel one another, is in direct antagonism with the wellestablished fact that every particle of matter aitraci« every other particle throughout the universe. If the theory of' One Fluid were true we should have the henvenly hollies repelling on'! another. But it is manifest that the heavenly bodies, according to this theory, if they consisted of matter uncombined with electricity, would be in the highest state of negative electrification, and would repel each other. 'Ve have no reason to believe that they are in such a highly electrified state) 01' could be maintained in that state. The earth and all the bodies whose attraction has been observed are rnt.her in an unelectrified state, that is, they contain the normal charge of' olectricity, and the only notion between them is the residual force lately mentioned. 'I'he artiliciul manner, however, in which this residual force is introduced is a much more valid objection to the theory. In the present treatise I propose) at different stages of the investigation, to test the diflerent, t.heorics in the light of additional classes of phonomena. For my own part, I look for additional light. on the nature of electricity from a study of what takes place in the space intervening between the electrified bodies, Such is the essential character of the mode of investigation pursued by Faraday in his E-r]!el'imclI{al Ilcsearcke», and as we go on I intend to exlribit, the l'csuHs, as developed hy Faraday, ,Yo Thomson, &c., in a connected and mathematical form, so that we mny perceive what phenomena are explained equally well by all the theories, and what phenomena indicate the peculiar difficulties of each theory.
1I[ea8UrCIJJellt

q! the

P()]'ce

/.;etIlH:ell

EleeiJ'(/ied Bodie.~.

38.1 Forces may lJC measured in various ways. For instance, one of the bodies may he suspended from one arm of a delicate balance, and weights suspended from the other arm, till the body, when unelectr iflod, is in equilibrium. Tho other body may then be placed at a known distance beneath the first) so that the attract ion 01' repulsion of the bodies when electrified may increase or diminish the upparent weight of the first. 'I'ho weight which must be added to 01' taken from the other arm, when expressed in dynamical measure, will measure the force between the bodies. This arrangement was used by Sir Snow Harris) and is that adopted ill Sir Thomson's absolute electrometers. See Art. 217.

'V.

'V.

39·]

l\1EASUlmMENT

011 EIJEOTltIC FORCES,

41

It IS sometimes more convenient to use a torsion-balance in which a horizontal arm is suspended by a fine wire 01' fibre, so as to be capable of' vibrating about the vertical wire as an axis, and the body is attaohed to one end of the arm and acted on by the force in the tangent.ial direction, so as to turn the arm round the vertical axis, and 80 'twist the suspension wire through a certain angle, 'rho torsional rigidity of the wire is found by observing the time of oscillation of the arm, the moment of inertia of' tho arm lH'ing' otherwise known, and from the angle of torsion and the torsional l'igitlity the force of uttruetion or repulsion con be deduced. The torsion-bnlnnce was devised by Michell for the determination of' the force of gravitation between small bodies, and was used by Cavendish for this llUrpose. Coulomb, working independently of' these philosophers, reinvented. it" and. successfully applied it to discover the laws of' electric and magnetic forces; and the torsion-balauce has ever since been used in all researches where small forces have to he measured. See Art. 215. 39,J Let us suppose that by either of these methods we can measure the fOI'CO between two electrified bodies. We shan suppose the dimensions of the bodies small compared with the distance between them, so that the result may not he much altered by any inequulity of distribution of tho electrification on either body, and we shall suppose that both bodies are so suspended in air as to be at a considerable distance from other bodies on which they might induce electrification, I t is then found that if the bodies are placed at a fixed distance and charged respectively with c and e' of our provisional units of electricity, they will repel each other with It force proportional to the product of c and e'. If either e or e' is negative} that is, if one of the charges is vitreous and the other resinous, the force will he attractive, but if both e and e' ore negative the force is again repulsi ve, \Y lJ may SUllpose the first hotly, A, charged with in. units of vitreous and n units of resinous electricity, which may be eonccived separately placed within the body, as in Experiment V. Let the second body, B, be charged with 11/ units of positive and il' units of negative electricity, Then each of the III positive units in A will repel each of the m' positive units ill B with a certain force, say j; making a total effect equal to 1iJJIl:;: Since the eflceb of negative electricity IS exactly equal and

ELECT1WS'L'ATIC

1'IlENm.lEN A.

opposite to that of positive electricity, each of the III positive units in A will attract each of the Jt' negative units in )J with the same fOl"C!cf, making II total effect equal to Illlt'}'. Similarly the 11 negative units in A will attract the 11/.' positive units ill B with It force IHll'/, and will repel the It' negative units in B with a force )l1tJ. 'rile total repulsion will therefore JJC (Jill/l' lIil')Jj aud the total nttraetion will be (IIW' + lIl'u)j: The resultant repulsion will be

,':

(lllI//

+ /III' -

JllIt' -1111/')'/

or

(Ill-II)

(Ill' -1/)/

Now

iIl-ll

== e is the nlgebruicnl value of the clwrge on A, lind

m'-1t'=e' is that of the charge on Ii, so that the resultant repulsion may 1)0 written ee',!; the quantities e and e' ucing always understood to he taken wit h their propel' signs. Fariation. 40.J

0/ the Force

milh the Dieiauce.

".
<.

Having established the law of force at a fixed distance, we may mensnre the force between bodies chnrged in a constant manner and placed at di(fel'cllt distances, It is found JJy direct measurement that the force, whether of attraction 01' repulsion, varies inversely us the S(JIUll'll of' f.hc distance, so that if,! is the repulsion between two units at unit distance, the repulsion at distunce r will be and the general expression for the repulsion between e units and e' units at distance I' will he

r-:~,

lJ~/illili{Jll

I!l tile Fledrostrdic Unit f!/ J(led,.ici~lj.

41.J We have hitherto used a wholly arbitrary standard for 0111' unit of electricity, namely, the electrification of a. certain piece of glass as it happened to lie electrified at the commencement of our experiments. "'c are now able to select a unit 011 a definite principle, alia in order that this unit mny Lelong to a gelJeral system we define it so thatfmay be unity, or in other wordsJ'I/I: eicctrostutic 'III/it 1/ e/eclricil;y is that quanti!;,! ~fel(:clricil;lJ u/ticli, 'lchell /ltu('cll at u ul] I!l distance jj'Olll all eq/(al qualltity. I't'}wl.v

it u·ith

ui/il

~jf()rce.

'I'his unit is called the J~lcctl'ostatie unit to distinguish it from the ]~lectl'Omllg'netic unit, to be afterwards defined. We may now write the general law of electrical action III the simple form F = Ce'!·-2 j or,

43·J

LA W OF E1,ECTnIC FORCE.

43

The repulsion oetweeJt two .YIllUUDodies c1Utr(JedI'e.~jlectil,et!/ -witlt e a /lIt e' unit« 'If' electricit!! is nllllleri('(tl~¥ equal to the produc! q/" tlte c1ta/'ges tlirided ~Ij (he square 'If the distance.
DilllIJlI8iOIlS (1/ th.c E'lectl'ostat.ic
Uuii

q/

Ql/(tlltit,lJ.

42.J If [Q] is the concrete electrostatic unit of quantity itself, and e, e' the numerical values of particular quantities; it' [1,] is tho unit of length, and r the numerieul value of'the distance; 11.11[1 if [Jt'] is the unit of force, and P the numerical value of the force, then the cq uation becomes

PCP]
whence

= er:',.-2

[Q~] [L-~J;

[Q] = [L P~] = [J3 ,]'-1 Jln].

This unit is called the Electrostatic Unit of' electtioity. Other units may he employed for practical plll'pOlieS,and in other departments of electrical science, but in the equations of electrostntics quantities of electricity are understood to be estirnatud in electrostatic units, just as in physical astronomy we employ :t unit of mass which is founded on the pheuornena of gravitation, and which differs from the units of' mass in common Usc. Proof

1/ the

Law of"Etvctricttll'lm:e.

43.] The experiments of Coulomb with the torsion-balance may be considered to have established tho law of force with a certain approximation to accuracy. Experiments of' this kind, however, arc rendered difficult, and in some degree uncertain, hy several disturbing causes, which must be carefully traced and corrected for. In the first place, tho two cleet rilicd bodies must be of' sensible dimensions relative to the distance between them, in order to be capable of carrying charges sufficient to produce measurable forces, 'J'he action of each body will then produce an effect on the distrilmtion of electricity on the other, so that th~ charge cannot be considered as evenly distributed over the surface, or collected at the cent re of gmvity j hut its effect must he calculated hy an intricate investigation. This, llOWCVOl', has been done as regards two spheres by Poisson in an extremely able manner, and tho investigation has been greatly simplified by Sir W. Thomson in his l'heol,!} (1' Electrical Images. See Arts. 172-17 -1. Another difficulty arises 1'1'000 the action of the electricity induced on the sides of the case containing the instrument. By

44

ELEC'l'ROSTATIC

PHENOMENA.

making tho inside of the instrument accurately cylindric, and making its inner surface of' metal, this effect can he rendered definite and measuruble. An independent dilliculty arises from the imperfect insulation of the bodies, on account of which the charge continually decreases. Coulomb investigated the law of dissipation, and made corrections for it in his experiments. The methods of' insnlat.ing charged conductors, and of measuringelectrical effects, have been gr(latly improved since the time of Coulomb, particularly lly Sir Thomson; but the perfect aecuracy of' Coulomb's law of force is ostablished, not hy any direct experiments and measurements (which may he used as illustrat.ions of the law), hut by a mathematical consideration of the phenomenon described as Experiment VII, namely, that an electrified conductor B, if made to touch the inside of a hollow closed conduetor C and then withdrawn without touching 0, is perfectly discharged, in whatever man ncr the outside of G may be electrified. By means of delicate electroscopes it is easy to shew that no electricity remains on B after the operation, and by the mathematical theory given at Art. 71 I this enn only he the case if the force varies inversely as the square of' t11C distance, for if the law had been of any different form]) would IIUW been electrified.

'V.

'l~e Electric .Piehl.

44.J The Electric Field is the portion of space in the neighbourhood of electrified bodies, considered with reference to electric phenomena. It may he occupied by air 01' other bodies, or it may be a so-called vacuum, from which we have withdrawn every 811 bstance which we can act upon with the means at our dis-

posal.
If an electrified body he placed at

any part of the electric field

it will he acted on by a force which will depend, in g-eneral, on the shape of the body and 011 its charge, if the body is so highly
charged as to produce a sensible disturbance in the previous electrification 0(' the other Ladies But if the hody is very small and its charge also very small, the elcctrifiention of the other bodies will not. be sensibly disturbed, and we may consider the hody as indicating hy its centre of gravity a certain point of the field. 'I'he force acting on the IJOdy will then be proportional to it!' charge, and wi 11 he reversed when the charge is reversed.

46.J

ELECTRIC l'O'l'EN'l'IAL.

45

Lot e be the charge of the body, and P the force acting on the lJody in a certain direction, then when e is very small P is proportional to e, or p = R e, where R is a quantity depending on the other bodies in the field. If the charge e could be made equal to unity without disturbing the electrification of other bodies we should have l' = fl. We shall call R the Resultant electric force at the given point of the field.

Electric Potential.
45.] If the small body carrying the small charge e be moved from the given point to an indofinite distance from the electrified bodies, it will experience at each point of its course a force Re, where R varies from point to point of the course, Let the whole work done on the holly by these electrical forces he Fe, then J7 is the potential at the point of the field from which the body started. If the charge e could be made equal to unity without disturbing the electrification of other bodies, we might define the potential at nlly point as the work done on a body eharged with unit of electricity in moving from that point to an infinite distance. A body electrified positively touds to move from places of greater positive potential to places of smaller positive, or of' negative potential, and a body negatively electrified tenus to move in the opposite direction. In a conductor the electrificntion is distributed exactly as if it were free to move in the conductor according to the same law, If therefore two parts of a conductor have different potentials, positive electricity will move from the part having greater potential to the part having less potential as long as that difference continues, A conductor therefore cannot be in electrieal equilibrium unless every point in it bas tho same potential. 'I'his potential is called the Potential of the Conductor.

EquijJotelttial Surfaces.
46.J If a surface described or supposed to be described ill the electric field is such that the electi-ic potential is the same ut every point of the surface it is called an Equipotential surface. An electrified point constrained to rest upon such a surface will have no tendency to move from one part of' the surface to another, because the potential is the same at every point, An equipotential surface is therefore a surface of equilibrium or a level surface.

46

ELECTHOSTATIC PHENO)1ENA.

The resultnut force at any point of the surface is ill the direction of the normal to the surface, und the magnitude of' the force is such that tho work done on an electrical unit in passing from the surface r to the surface V' is r - F', No two equipotential surfaces having different potentials can meet one another, because the same point. cannot have more than one potential, but one equipotential surface rna}' meet itself, and this takes place at all points und lines of' equilibrium. The surface of' a conductor in electrical equilibrium is necessnrily 1111 equipotential surface, If the electrification of the conductor is positive oyer the whole surface, then the potential will diminish as we move away from the surface 0]1 eVl'ry side, and the conductor will be surrounded by a series of SUI'filCl'S of lower potential. But if (owing to the action of external electrified bodies) some regiolls of t.he conductor nre electrified positively and others negatively, the complete equipotential surface will consist of the surface of the conductor itself together with a. system of other surfaces, meeting the surface of' the conductor in the Iines which divide the positive from the negative regions. These lince will lJO lilies of equilibrium, so that an electrified. poin t placed 011 one of' these lines will experience no force in any direction. When the surface of a conductor is electrified positively in some parts and negatively in others, there must be some other electrified. body in the field besides itself. For if we allow a positivcly electrified point, starting from a positively electrified part of the sllrfnce, to move always in the direction of the resultant force upon it, the potential at the point will continually diminish till the point reaches either a negatively electrified surface at a potential less than that of the first conductor, 01' moves off to an infinite distance. Since the potential at an infinite distance is zero, the latter case can only occur when the potential of the conductor is positive. J n the same way a negatively electrified point, moving off' from a negatively electrified part of the surface, must either reach a positively electrified surface, or pass off to infinity, and the latter case can only happen when the potential of the conductor is negative. Therefore, if both positive and negative electrification exists on a conductor, there must be some other 110dy in the field whose potential hns the same sign as that of the conductor hut a g'renter numerical value, and if a conductor of any form is alone in the field the electrification of every part is of the same sign I1S the

:
.

.-

:~~ }f1
'"1': .

1
-

_-;'-

I
'1
~
';

potential of the conductor.

49·J

r.T,ECTItIC TENRION.

47

Lille,~ 0/ Porce.
47.J The line described hy a point moving always in the direction of the resultant force is called a Line of force. It cuts the equipotential surfaces at right angles. The properties of lines of force will be more fully explained afterwards, because Faraday has expressed many of the laws of electrical action ill terms of his conception of lines of force drawn ill the electric field, and indicating both the direction and the magnitude of the force at every point.

Electric Tension.
48.J Since the surface of' a conductor is an equipotential surface, the resultant force is normal to the surface, and it will IJC shewn in Art. i 8 that it is proportional to the superficial density of' the electrification. Hence the electricity on any small area of the surfuee will be acted on hy a force tending .Ii-om tho conductor and proportional to the product of' the resultant force and the density, that is, proportional to the squarc of'the resultant force This force which acts outwards as a tension on every part of the conductor will he called electric 'I'ension. It is measured like ordinary mechanical tension, by the force exerted on unit of area. 'I'he word 'fension has been used. by electricians in several vague senses, and it has been attempted to adopt it in mathematical language as a synonym for Potential; but 011 examining tho cases in which the word has been used, I think it will be more consistent with llsage and with mechanical analogy to understand by tension It pulling force of' so many pounds pel' SqlHL1'C inch exerted on the surface of a conductor or elsewhere. 'Vc shall find that the conception of Faraday, that this electric tension exists not only at the electrified surface but all along the lines of' force, leads to !1 theory of' electric action as a phenomenon of' stress in It medium.

ElcctroJllotire Force,
49.] Whe» two conductors at di (fcrent potentials arc connected

by a thin conducting wire, the tendency of electricity to flow along the wire is measured by the difference of tho potentials of
the two bodies, The difference of potentials between two conductors or two points is therefore culled the Electromotive force between them. Electromotive force may arise from other causes than difference

48

BLECTllOSTATIC

PHENOMENA.

[so.

of potential, hut these causes arc not considered in treating of statical electricity. 'Ve shall consider them when we come to chemical actions, motions of magnets) inequalities of tempernturo, &c. ULJ)acif!J

if

a COIull1l'1o/,.

50.] If one conductor is insulated while all the surrounding eonduetors me kept at the zero potential by being put ill com munication with the earth, and if the conductor, when eharged with a quantity E of electricity, has a potential V, the ratio of 13 to V is called the Capacity of .thc conductor. If the conductor is completely enclosed within a conducting vessel without touching it, then the charge on the inner conductor will be equal and opposite to the charge on the inner surface of the outer conductor, and will be equal to the capacity of the inner conductor multiplied by the difference of tho potentials of the two conductors.

Electn'(! Accn III ulaiors.

whose opposed surfaces of an insulating medium is called an electric Accumulator. Its capacity is directly proportional to the area of the opposed surfaces and inversely proportional to tile thickness of the stratum between them. A Leyden JILl' is an accumulator in which glass is the insulating medium. Accumulators are sometimes called Condensers, but I prefer to restrict the term l condenser' to an instrument which is used not to hold electricity but to increase its superficial density. A system consisting of two conductors

are separated from each other by a thin stratum

PltoPEltTI]O;S

os

BODIES

rx

RELATION

TO STATICAl,

ELECTRICITY.

Iiesistauce to the Pal/sage

0/' Electricitff

thl'07lg1t a Bod!!.

51.] When a charge of electricity is communicated to any part of a muss of metal the electricity is rapidly transferred from places of high to places of low potential till the potential of the whole mass becomes the same, In the case of pieces of metal used in ordinary experiments this process is completed in a time too short to he observed, hut ill the case of very long and thin wires, such as those used in telegraphs, the potential does not become uniform till after a sensible time, on account of the resistance of' the wire to the passage of electricity through it. The resistance to the passage of electricity is exceedingly different ill different substances, as may he seen from the tables at

51.]

EIJECTRIC

RESIS'l'ANCE.

49

Arts. 3G2, 3GB, and 3G!l, which will be explained In treating of' :Electric Currents, AllOw metals arc good conductors, though the resistance of lead is 12 times that of copper 01' silver, that of iron 6 times, and that of mcrcury GO times that of' cOPller. 'rile resistance of all metals increases as their temperature rises. Selenium in its crystalline state may also be reg:U'llecl as It condueler, though its resistance is 3.7 x 1012 times that of' It piece of eOPIler of' the same dimensions. Its resistance increases as the temperature rises. Selenium in the amorphous 101'111 is a good insulator, like sulphur. Muny liquids conduct electricity by electrolysis. This mode of conduction will hc considered in Part II. For the present, we may regard all liquids containing water and all damp bodies [IS conductors, far inferior to the metals, but incapable of insulating a charge of electricity fill' a sufficient time to be observed. On the other ham], the gases at the atmospheric prcssure, whether dry 01' moist, are insulutors so nearly perfect when the electric tension is small that we have :IS yet obtained 110 evidence of electricity passing through them by ordinary conduction. 'I'he g rndunl loss of charge by electrified bodies may in every case be traced to imperfect insulation in the supports, the electricity either passing through the Sllb~t:IIICC of tho support. 01' creeping over its surface, Hence, when two charged bodies arc hung up near each other, they will preserve their charges longer if they arc electrified in opposite ways, than if they ara electrified in the BRIne way. I?Ol' thoug-h the electromotive force tending to make the electricity pass through the air between Hem is much greater when they are oppositely electrified, no perceptible loss occurs in this way. The actual loss takes place through Ute supports, and the electromotive force through the supports is greatest when the hollies arc electrified in the same way. 'I'he result tlP}lCll.l'S anomalous only when we expect the loss to occur lJY the passage of electricity throug-h the air between the bodies. Certain kinds of' glass when cold are marvelously perfect insulators, and Silo W. Thomson has preserved charges of' electricity for years in bulbs hermetically scaled. The same glass, however, becomes a conductor at a temperature below that of boiling water. Guttn-pereha, caoutchouc, vulcanite, paraffin, and resins arc good insulators, the resistance of gutta-pcrchu at 7:; 1". being about (j x lOB times that of' copper. Icc, crystals, and solidified electrolytes, arc also insulators.
D

VOT.. I.

50

ELECTROSTATIC

PHEXO]IENA.

Certain liquids, such as naphtha, turpentine, and some oils, are insulators, but inferior to most of the solid insulators. 'I'he resistance of most substances, except the metals, und selenium and carbon, seems to diminish as the temperature rises.
DIEUCTIlICS.

Sjm·!/l(' Inductiie OljJ{(cit!/.

52.] All bodies whoso insulating power is such that when they arc placed between two conductors at different potentials the electromotive force acting Oil them does not immediately distribute their electricity so as to reduce the potential to a constant value, are culled by Fnrnduy Dielectrics. Faraday discovered that the capacity of an accumulator depends un the nature of the insulating' medium between the two conductors, :IS well as on the dimensions and relative position of the conductors themselves, By substituting' other insulating media. for ail' as the diell'etric of tIll! accumulator, without altering it in any other respect, he found that when ail' and other gases were employed as the insulating' medium the capacity of thc accumulator remained the sume, but that when shell-lac, sulphur, glass, &c., were substituted for ail', the capacity was increased ill a ratio which was different fur each substance, 'I'he ratio the capacity of an accumulator formed of uny dielectric medium to the capacity of an accumulator of the same form and dimensions filled with ail', was named by Faraday the Specific Inductive Capacity of the dielectric medium. It is equal to unity for ail' and other gases at all pressures, and probably at all temperatures, and it is greater than unity for all other liquid 01' solid dielectrics which have been examined. If the dielectric is not a good insulator, it is difficult to meaBUrl' its inductive capacity, because the aecumulator will not hold a charge for a sufficient time to allow it to be measured ; but it is certain that iuducti ve capacity is a property not confined to good insulators, and it. is probable that it exists in all bodies.

or

AbaoJ'jJtioJt

rtf Elcc!l'icit!/.

53.J It is found that wl;en an accumulator is formed of certain dielectrics, the following phenomena occur. \Vhcn the accumulator has Leon for some time electrified and is then suddenly <.lisehargcd and again insulated, it becomes recharged

_ .1

_"

54.J

ELECTRIC

ABSORPTION.

51

in the same sense as at first, but to a smaller degree, so that it may be discharged again several times in succession, these discharges always diminishing, This phenomenon is called that of tho Residual Discharge. 'l'hc instantaneous discharge appears always to he propnrtional to the diflerence of potentials at the instant of' discharge, and the ratio of' these quantities is the true capacity of the accumulator; but if the contact of' the discharger is prolonged so us to include some of the residual discharge, the apparent capacity of the accumulator, calculated from such a discharge, will be too great. The accumulator if charged and left insulated uppcars to lose its charge by conduction, hut it is found that the proportionate rate of loss is much greater at first than it is afterwards, so that the measure of conductivity, if' deduced from what takes place at first, would be too great. Thus, when the insulation of It submarino cable is tested) the insulation appears to improve as the eleetrification continues. 'l'l!ermal phenomena of a kind at first sight analogous take place in the case of tho conduction of heat when the opposite sides of a body nrc kept at different temperatures. In the case of heat we know that they depend on the heat taken in and given out by the body itself. Hence, in the case of the electrical phenomena) it has been supposed that electricity is absorbed and emitted by the parts of the body. We shall sec, however, in Art. 32!J, that the phenomena can IJe explained without the hypothesis of absorption of electricity, by supposing the dielectric in some degree heterogeneous. That the phenomenon called Electric Ahsorption is not an actual absorption of' electricity by tho substance may he shewn hy charging the substance in any manner with electricity while it is surrounded by a closed metallic insulated vessel. If, when the substance is charged and insulated, the vessel he instantaneously discharged and then left insulated, no charge is ever communicated to the vessel by the gradual dissipation of the electrification of the charged substance within it. . 54.] 'This fact is expressed by the statement of Faraday that it is impossible to charge matter with an absolute and independent ohnrge of' one kind of electricity I n fact it appears from the result of every experiment which has been tried that in whatever WrLy oleetrienl actions may take

*.

.. E.(p. Res.,

\'01.

i. series xi.

'fI

ii.

• 011 the AbH0111te Uharge of Mntter,' ,.: 2

1\Jl(1(1244).

52

ELECTROSTATIC

I)HE~OUENA,

[55,

t
i

place among' a system of bodies surrounded by a metallic vessel, the charge on the outside of that vessel is not altered, Now if any portion of electricity could he forced into a body so a" to IJC absorbed i;\ it, 01' to become latent, 01' in allY way to exist in it, without being- connected with an equal port.ion of the opposite electricity by lilies of induction, or if', after havingbeillg absorbed, it could gradually ('merge nnd return to ils ordinary mode of action, we should find some change of' electrification in the surrounding vessel. As this is never found to be the case, Faraday concluded that it is impossible to communicate an absolute charge to matter, and that 110 portion of mutter can by any change of' state evolve or render latent one kind of electricity 01' the other. He therefore regarded iuduct.ion as (the essentia 1 function Loth in th e first development and tho consequent phenomena of electricity." His 'induction' is (12flil) a polarized state of the particles of the dielectric, enr-h particle be:ing- positive on one side uud negative on the other, the positive and the negative electrification of each particle being always exactly equal.

Disruptive

JJiscTiarf}c*.

55,J If the electromotive force acting at any point of a dielectric is gradually increased, a limit is at length reached at which there is ~L sudden electrical disehm'ge th rough the dielectric, generally accompanied with light and sound, and with a temporary or per-

manent rupl.nro ofthe dielectric.

The intensity of the electromotive force when this takes place depends 011 the nature of tho dielectric. It is greater, for instance, in dense nil' than in rare air, and g'l'catel' in glass than in all', but in every case, if the electromotive force be made great enough, the dielectric gives way und its insulating power is destroyed, so that a current of' electricity takes place through it. It is for this reason that distrrbutions of electricity for which the electric resultant force becomes anywhere infinite cannot exist in nature.

1'he Electric Glum,

Thus, when a conductor buying a sharp point is electrified, the theory, based 011 the hypothesis that it retains its charge, leads to the conclusion that as we approach the point the superficial density of the electricity increases without limit, so that at the point itself' the surface-density, and therefore the resultant
.. See Faraday,

Erp, RC8., vol. i, series xii.

ILlIl!

xiii.

55·J
electrical

RT,ECTRIC GLOW.

53

force, would be infinite. If the air, or other surrounding 1)[1.(1an invincible insulating power, this result would actually OCCllI' i but the fact is, that as soon as the resultant force in the neighbourhood of' the point has reached a. certain limit, the insulating- power of the ail' gives way, so that the air dose to the point becomes a. conductor. At a certain distance from the point the resultant force is not sufficient to break through the insulation of the nil', so that the electric current is checked, and the electricity accumulntes in the air round the point. The point is thus surrounded by particles of air charged with electricity of' the same kind with its own. The effect of this charged air round the point is to relieve the ail' at the point itself from part of the enormous electromotive force which it would have experienced if the conductor alone hall been electrified, In fact the surface of the electrified body it! no longer pointed, because the point is enveloped by a rounded mass of electrified ail', the surface of' which, ruther than that of the solid conductor, may be reganled as the outer electrified surface. If this portion of electrified air could be kept still, the electrified body 'Would retain its charge, if not on itself at least in its neighbourhood, hut the oharged particles of air being free to move under the action of electrical force, tend to move away from the electrified body because it is charged with the same kind of electricity. The charged particles of air therefore tend to move off in the direction of the lines, of force and to approach those surrounding- bodies which arc oppositely electrified. When they are gone, other uncharged particles take their place round the point, and since these cannot shield those next the point itself from the excessive electric tension, u new discharge takes place, after which the newly charged particles move off, and so on as long as the body remains electrified. In this way the following phenomena nrc produced :-At and close to the point there is n steady glow, arisillg from the constant discharges which arc taking place between the point and the air \'Cl'y neal' it. The churged particles of ail' tend to move in the same general direction, and thus produce a. current of ail' from the point, consisting of the chllrg!'cl particles, and probably of' others carried along lJY them. By artificially aiding this current we may increase the glow, and by checking the formation of' the current we may prevent the contiuuance of the glow. .

dielectric,

orr

54

ELEC'l'IWSTA'fIC

1'IIE~mIE~A.

[56.

'I'he electric wind in the neighbourhood of the point is sometimes very rapid, but it soon loses its velocity, and the air with its charged particles is carried about with the general motions of the atmosphere, and eonstit utes 11.11 invisible elect ric cloud. 'Vhen the charged particles come ncar to any conducting surface, such ns a wall, they induce on that surface an electrification opposite to their own, and are then attracted towards the wall, but since the nleetromotivo force is small they may remain for a long ti me ncar the wall without being drawn 11]1 to the snrfaec and discharged. They thus form an electrified atmosphere clinging to conductors, the presence of' which may sometimes be detected by the electrometer. 'I'ho electrical forces, however, acting between chargee] portions of' air and other bodies are exceedingly feeble compared with the forces which produce winds arising from inequalities of density clue to di ffercnccs of temperature, so that it is very improbable that any observable part of' the motion of ordinary thunder clouds arises frorn electrical causes. 'I'he }Jassage of electricity from one l1111co to another hy the motion of charged particles is called Electrical Convection or Con-

veetive Discharge.
'I'he electrical glow is therefore produced by the constant passage of electricity through a small portion of nil' in which the tension is very high, so as to charge the surrounding particles of' air which arc continually swept ofI'hy the electric wind, which is nn essential part of tho phenomenon. The glow is more easily formed in rare air than in dense air, and more easily when the point is positive than when it is negative, 'I'his and many other differences between positive and negative electrification must be studied hy those who desire to discover something about the nature of electricity. 'I'hey have not, however, been satisfactorily brought to beur upon allY existing theory,

'l'lte Electric

JJJ'/Islt.

56.J The electric brush is a phenomenon which may be produecd by ('Iectri(ying a blunt Jloint or small Lull so as to produce an electric Iielrl in which the tension diminishes, but in a less rapid manner, as we lea ve the surfuc«. It consists 0 f :L succession of discharges, ramifying- :IS they uiv\'l'ge from the hall into the air, and tl'rminating' either by e11al'ging portions of air 01' hy reaching SOUle other conductor, Jt is aeoompunied by a sound, the pitch of which depends on t.he interval between the successive dischurges, and there is no ell rrent of air ns in th« ease of the glow.

57·J
57.J When

ELECTRIC

SPARK.

55

'l"he

mectric

/S'j){t rk.

the tension in the space between two conductors is considerable the wny between them, as in the ease of"two balls whose distance is not great compared with their radii, the discharge, when it occurs, usually takes the form of a spark, by which nearly the whole electrification is discharged at OIlCC. In this case, when any part of the dielectric has given way, the parts on either side of it in the direction of the electric force :11"C put, into a sta te of greater tension so that they also give way, and so the discharge proceeds right through the dielectric, just as when a little rent is made in the edge of 11 piece of paper a tension applied to the ]laper ill the direction of the edge causes the paper to 1J('torn through, beginning at the rent, but di"l'rging occasionally where there are weak places in the pallel'. The electric spark in the same wily begins at the point where the electric tension first overcomes tho insulation of the dielectric, and proceeds from that point, in an apparently irregular path, so as to take in other weak points, such as par tie les (If dust floating in air.

an

On the Electric Force required to produce

Il

Spu)'k in Air.

In the experiments of Sir 'Y. Thomson the electromotive force required to produce a spark across strata of air of vurious thicknesses was measured by means of" an electrometer. 'I'he sparks were made to pass In-tween two surfaces, one of which was plane, and the other only sufficiently convex to make the sparks occur always at the same place, The difference of potential required to cause a spnrk to puss was found to increase with the di-tuncc, but in a less rapid ratio, so that the electric force at any point between the surfaces, which is the quotient of the difference of potentia I eli vided by the distance, can be raised to a grcater value without a discharge when tho stratum of air is thin. "'hen the stratum of nil' is vcry thin, say,002i'i4 of n centimetre, the resultant force required te produce :I spark was found to he 52i.7, ill terms of centimetres and gramme!:>. This corresponds to nn electric tension of I J .2n gramme" wcight per square centimetre. 'WIH'1l the distane« between the surfaces is about a millimetre the electric force is about 130, and the electric tension ,U8 grnmmcs weight pel' square centirnet rc. It. is probable thnt tho value for

56

ELECTROSTAT

rc

]'lIENO:l[ liN ,\.

[58,

greater distances is not much less than this. 'I'he ordinary pressure of' the atmosphere is about ]0:12 g"r:unmes pCI' s(jllflre centimetre. It is difllcult to expluin why a thin stratum of air should require u greater force to produce a disruptive dischnrgc across it than a thicker stratum. Is it possible that tho ail' very ncar to the Sl1rface of dense bodies is condensed, so as to become a better insulator? or does t.hl' potential of all olectrilled conductor differ from that of the air ill contact with it by a quantity having n maximum value just before discharge, so that the observed difference of potential of' the conductors is i11 eve!'y case greatcr than the difference of potentials on the two sides of the stratum of ail' by 11 constant quantity equivalent to the addition of about ,005 of' an inch to the thickness of the stratum? Sec Art. 370, All these phenomena difler considerably in different gases, and in the same gas at different densities, Some of the forms of electricn l clisch:uge through rare gases are exceedingly remarkable, In some cases there is It regular alternation of' luminous and dark strata, so that if the electricity, for example, is passing along a tube containillg a very small quantity of gas, a number of luminous disks will he seen arranged transversely at nearly equal intervals along the axis of the tube and sepurated hy dark strata. If the strength of the current he increased a new disk will start into existence, and it and the old disks will arrange themselves in closer order. In a tube described by Mr. Gassiot the light of each of the disks is bluish on the negative and reddish on tho positive side, and IJl'ight red in the central stratum, 'I'hcse, and many other phenomena. of electrical discharg-e, are exceedingly important, and when they are better understood they will pro hably throw great light on tho nature of electricity as well as on the nature of' gases und of the medium porvnding space, At present, however, they must be considered as outside the domain of tho mathematical theory of electricity,

"-.'

ElfJctrie

PheIUJJlU?/1fl

(1'

Tourmatine.

58,J Certain crystals (If tourmaline, and of' other minerals, possess what may be called Electric Polarity Suppose II crystal of tourmaline to he at a uniform temperature, and apparently free from electritieution on its surface, Let its temperature be now raised, the crystal remaining insulated. One end will he found positively
• Iniellecum! (}f18crver,

II

I
I I

l.brch, 1866,

59·]

RTJECTRIFICATION

OF TOUlUlAI,INE.

57

and the other end negatively electrified. Let the surface be deprivcd of this apparent electrification by means of a flame 01' oj herwise, then if the crystal be made still hotter, electrification of' the same kind as before will appear, but if the crystal be cooled the end which was positive when the crystal was heated will become negative. These elcotrifications are observed at the extremities of the erystallographie axis. Some crystals me terminated by II six-sided pyramid aj. one end and by a throe-sided pyramid at the other. In these the end having" the six-sided pyramid becomes positive when the crystal is heated. Sir W. 'I'homson supposes every portion of these and other hemihedral crystals to have a definite electric polarity, the intensity of which depends on the tompera.turo. 'Vhen the surface is passed through a flame, every part of the surface becomes electrified to sneh an extent as to exactly neutralize, for all external points, the effect of the internal polarity. 'I'ho crystal then has no extcrual electrical action, 1101' any tendency to chango its mode of elcctriflcation. But if' it be heated or cooled the interior polurizution of each particle of the crystal is altered, and can no longer be balanced by the superfieial electrification, so that there is a resultant external action.

Plan

0/

this 'liwtli.l'e.

59.] In the following treatise I proposo first to explain the ordinary theory of electrical action, which considers it as depending only on the electrified bodies and on their relative position, without taking account of any phenomena which may take place in the surrounding media. In this way we shall establish the law of the inverse square, the theory of tho potential, and the equations of Laplace and Poisson. 'Ve shall next consider the charges and potentials of a system of electrified conductors as connected by a system of equations, the coefficients of which may he supposed to hc determined by experiment in those cases in which our present mathematical methods arc not applicable, and from these we shall determine the mechanical forces acting' between the ditlerent electl'i tied bodies. ·We shall then investigate certain general theorems by which Green, Oa.IlSS, aud Thomson have indicated the conditions 01' solution of' problems in the distribution of electricity. One result of these theorems is, that if Poisson's equation is satisfied by any

58

ELECTROSTATTC

PHENOMENA.

function, and if at the surface of every conductor the function has the value of the potential of that conductor, then the function expresses the actual potential of the system at ('very point. 'Y e also deduce a method of finding problems capable of exact solution. In Thomson's theorem, the total energy of the system is expressed in the form of the integral of It certain quantity extended 0\'1.'1' t he whole space between the electrified bodies, and also in the form of an integral extended over the electrified surfaces only. The equation between these two expressions may be thus interpreted physically. 'Vc may conceive the relation into which the electrified hod ies are thrown, either as the result of the state of the intervening medium, or as the result of a direct action between the electrified bodies at a distance. If we adopt the latter coneeption, we may determine the law of the action, hut we can go no further in speculating on its cause, If, on the other hand, we adopt tlie conception of action through a medium, we arc led to enquire into the nature ofthut action in each part of the medium. It appears from the theorem, that if we arc tu look for the seat of the electric energy in the different parts of the dielectric me. dium, the amount of energy in any small part must depend on the square of the intensity of the resultant electromotive force at thnt place multiplied by It coefficient culled the specific inductive capacity of the medium. It is better, 1IOWt·V('1', in considering the theory of dielectrics in the most genera,l point of view, to distinguish between the cleotromotive force at any point and the electric polarization of the medium at that point, since these directed quantities, though reluted to one another, are not, in some solid substances, ill the same direct ion. The most gl·neral expression for the electric energy of the medium per unit of volume is half the product of the electromotive force and the electric polarization multiplied by the cosine of the angle between their directions. In all fluid dielectrics t lu- electromotive force and the electric polarization are in the sume direction and in a constant ratio. If we calculate on this hypothesis the total energy residing in the medium, we shall find it cqnal to the energy duo to the electrification of the conductors 011 the hypothesis of' direct action at a distance. Hence the two hypotheses nrc mathematically equivalent.

'.
" -,

\'

IC we now proceed to investigate the mochunical state of the medium on the hypothesis that the mechanical action observed

60.]

STRESS

[N DIEr~EC'J'HlCS.

5U

between electrified bodies is exerted through and by means of the medium, as in the familial' instances of the action of one body on another by means of the tension of a rope or the pressure of a rod, we find that the medium must be in a state of mechanical stress. The nature of this stress is, as Faraday pointed out *, a tension along the lines of force combined with an equal pressure in all directions at right angles to these lines. The magnitude of these stresses is proportional to the energy of the electrification, or, in other words, to the square of' the resultnnt electromotive force multiplied by the specific inductive capacity of the moll ium, This distribution of' stress is the only one consistent with the observed mechanical action on the electrified bodies, and also with the observed equilibrium of the fluid dielectric ",11 ich surrounds them. I have therefore thought it a warrantable step in scientific procedure to assume the actual existence of this state of stress, and to follow the assumption into its conseq uences, Finding the phrase electric tCIl8i01t used in several vague senses) I have attempted to confine it to what I conceive to have been in the mind of some of' those who have used it, namely, the state of stress in the dielectric medium which causes motion of the electrified bodies, and leads, when continually augmented, to disruptive discharge. Electric tension, in this sense, is It tension of exactly the same kind, and measured in the same way) as the tension of It 1'0})0, and the dielectric medium, which can support a certain tension and no more, may he said to have a certain strength in exactly the same sense as the rope is said to have [L certain strength. Thus, for example, Thomson has found that air at the ordinary pressure and temperature can s11111)ortan electric tension of !lfiOO grains weight per sC}ual'efoot before a spark passes. 60.J From the hypothesis that electric action is not a direct action between bodies at a distance, but is exerted by means of the medium between tho bodies, we have deduced that this medium must he in a state of stress. ,Ve have also ascertained the character of the stress, and compared it with the stresses which may occur in solid bodies. Along the lines of force there is tension, and perpendicular to them there is pl'essUl'e, the numerical magnitude of these forces being equal, and each proportional to the 8q uare of the resultant force at the point. Having established these results, we are prepared to take another step, and to form
• E'.rJl. Ilcs., series xi. 12D7.

60

ELECTROSTATIC

PHENOMENA.

[60.

an idea of the nature of the electric polarization of the dielectric medium. An elementary portion of a body may bc said to be polarized when it acquires equal and opposite properties on h\'o opposite sides. 'I'he idea of internal polarity mny he studied to the gl'Ca.tcst advantage as exemplified in permanent magnets, and it will be explained at g'wukr length when we come to treat of magnetism, 'rile electric polarization of an elementary portion of' 1\ dielectric is a forced state into which the medium is thrown by the action of electromotive force, and which disappears when that force is removed. \Ve may conceive it to consist in what we may call an electrical displacement, produced by the electromotive force. Whon the electromotive force acts on a conducting medium it produces a current through it, but if the medium is a non-conductor or dielectric, the current cannot flow tlll'ough the medium, hut the electricity is displaced within the medium in the direction of the electromotive force, the extent of this displacement depending on the magnitude of the electromotive force, so that if the electromotive force increases or diminishes the electric displacement increases and diminishes in the same ratio. Tho amount of the displacement is measured by the quantity of electricity w hieh crosses unit of area, while the displacement increases from zero to its actual amount. 'I'his, therefore, is the measure of the electric polarization. The analogy between the action of electromotive force in producing electric displacement and of ordinary mechanical force in producing the displneement of an clastic body is so obvious that I have ventured to call the ratio of the electromotive force to the corresponding electric displacement the coeJlicicJlt '!/' electric elasticity of t he medium, This coefficient is di llcrenf in different media, and varies inversely as the specific inductive capacity of each medium. The variations of electric displacement evidently constitute electric currents. These currents, however, can only exist during the variation of the displacement, and therefore, since the displacemont cannot exceed a certain value without causing disruptive discharge, they cannot be continued indefinitely in the same direetion, like the currents through conductors. In tourmaline, and other pyro-electric crystals, it is probable that a state of electric polarization exists, which depends upon temperature, and docs not require an external electromotive force to produce it If the interior of a body were ill a state of permanent

60,]

ELECTRIC DISPLJ\ClnmNT,

61

electric polarization, the outside would gradually become charged ill such a manner as to neutralize the action of the internal electrification for all points outside the body, This external suporflciul charge could not be detected by any of the ordinary tests, and could not he removed by any of the ordinary methods for dischat'ging superfleial electrification. 'I'he internal polarization of the substance would therefore never be discovered unless by some means, such as change of temperature, the amount of the internal polarization could be increased or diminished. 'I'he external electrification would then IJC no longer capable of neutralizing' the external effect of the internal polarization, and an apparent elcetrifieation would he observed, as in the case of tourmaline, It' a charge e is uniformly distributed over the surface of a sphere, the resultant force at auy point of the medium surrounding the sphere is numerically equal to the charge e divided hy the square of the distance from the centre of' the sphere, This resultant force, according to OUl' theory, is accompanied by a displacement of electricity in a direction outwards from the sphere. If we 1I0W draw a concentric spherical surface of radius 1', the whole displacement, E, through this surface will IJtJ proportional to the resultant force multiplied by the area of the spherical surface, But the resultant force is directly as the charge e and inversely as the square of the radius, while the area of the surface is directly as the square of the radius, Hence the whole displacement, E, is proportional to the charge 11, and is independent of the radius, 'l'o determine the ratio between the charge e, and the quantity of electricity, B, displaced outwards through the spherical surface, let HI; consider the work done upon the medium ill the region between two concentric spher-ical surfaces, while the displacement is increased from B to E + aJiJ. If'~ and r2 denote the potentials at the inner and the outer of these surfaces respectively, the electromotive force by which the additional displacement is produced is V1- JT2, so that the work spent in augmenting the displacement is (Vj- "2)oE, If' we now make the inner surface coincide with that of the electrifiCll sphere, and make the radius of the other infinite, 171 becomes J~ the potential of the sphere, and TT'!. becomes zero, so Hat the whole work done in the surrounding medium is But uy the ordinary theory, the work done in augmenting the charge is roc, and if this is spent, as we suppose, in augmenting

roE.

62
the displacement,

EIJECTROSTATIC

PIIENOIllENJL

[6 I.
e vanish
together,

DE = Se, and

since E

and

B= 0, 01''l'lte rlitljJ!([cellleul 01l1Il'(IJ'r/S t!tr(lligh an.1f lljjherical surface concentric lI:ilh lite sphere is equal to the cha/'ge OIl the 8pltcre. '1'0 fix our ideas of electric displacement, let us consider an nccumulutor formed (If two conducting plates A and B, separated by a stratum of a dielectric C, Let 7Y be a conducting wire joining A and B, and let us suppose that by the action of an electromotive force a quantity Q of positive electricity is transferred along the wire from ]J to A. 'The positive electrification of A and the negative electrification of B will produce a certain electromotive force acting from A towards B in the dielectric stratum, and this
will produce an electric displacement from A towards .B within tho dielectric. The amount of this displacement, as measured by the quantity of electricity forced across an imaginary section of the dielectric dividing it into two strata, will he, according to our theory, exactly Q. Sec Arts, 75, zu, 111. It a JlPI'ars, therefore, that at the snrue time that a quantity Q of elccl.ricity is Ill'ing transferred along tho wire by the electromotive force from J1 towards A, so as to cross every section of the wire, the same quantity of electricity crosses every section 01' the dielectric from A towards B by reason of the electric displacement. '!'he reverse motions of electricity will take place during the (lis('harge of the accumulator, In the wire the discharge will be Q from "L to BJ and in the dielectric the displacement will subside, and a quantity of' electricity Q will cross every section from B towards A, Every case of electrification 01' dischnrge mny therefore be considered as a motion in a closed circuit, such that at every section of tho circuit the same quantity of' electricity crosses in the same time, and this is the case, not only in the voltaic circuit where it has always been recognised, but in those cases in which electricity has been generally supposed to be accumulated in certain places.

61.J We arc thus led to a very remarkable consequence of the theory which we arc examining, namely, that the motions of electricity lire like those of un incullIjJressihle fluid, so that the total quunt ity within an imaginary fixed closed surface remains always the same. 'I'his result appears at first sight in di rect contradiction to the fact that we can charge a conductor and thcn introduce

62.]

THEORY

PROPOSED.

63

it into the closed space, and so alter the quantity of electricity within that space, nut we must remember that the ordinary theory takes no account of the electric displacement in the substance of dielectrics which we have been investigating, but confines its attention to the electrification at the bounding surfaces of the conductors and dielectrics. In the case of the charged conductor let us suppose the charge to be positive, then if the surroundingdielectric extends on all sides beyond the closed surface there will be elect ric polarization, accompanied with displacement from within outwards all over the dosed. surface, nnd the surface-integral of the displacement taken over the surface will be equal to the chal'ge -on the conductor within. 'I'hus WIWll the charged conductor is introduced into the closed space there is immediately a. displacement of a quantity of electricity equal to the charge through the surface from within outwards, and the whole quantity within the surface remains the same. The theory of electric polarization will be discussed at g-reater length ill Chapter V, and a mechanical illustration of it will be given ill Art. 33·1, Imt its importance cannot be fully understood till we arrive at the study of' electromagnetic phenomena. 62.J The peculiar features of the theory as we have now developed them are ;'I'hat the energy of electrification resides in the dielectric medium, whether thaf medium IJe solid, liquid, or gaseous, dense or rare, or even deprived of ordinary gross matter, provided it be still capable of transmitting" electrical action. That the energy in any part of the medium is stored up ill the form of !1 state of constraint called electric polarization, the amount of which depends ou the resultant electromotive force at the place. 'I'hat electromotive force acting on a dielectric produces what we have called clectric displacement, the relation between the force and the displacement being in the most general case of a kind to be afterwards investigated in treating of' conduction, but in the most important cases thc force is in the same direction as the displacement, nnd is numerically equal to the displacement multiplied by a quantity which we have called the coefficient of electric elasticity of the dielectric. That the energy per unit of volume of the dielectric arising from the electric polarization is half the product the electromotive

or

64

EL1~CTROSTATIC

PHENOMENA.

[62.

force and the electric displacement multiplied, if necessary, by the cosine of the angle between their directions. 'I'hat in fluid dielectrics the electric polarization is accompanied by 1I tt-nsion in the direction of the lines of force combined with an eq ual pressure in all directions at right angles to the lines of force, the amount of the tension or pressure per unit of area being numerically equal to the energy per unit of volume at the same place. 'I'hat the surfaces of any elementary portion into which we mlLy conceive the volume of the dielectric divided must be conceived to be electrified, so that the surface-density at any point of the surface is equal in magnitude to the displacement through that point of" the surface reckoned imoards, so that if' the displacement is in the positive direction, the surface of the element will be eleetrifled negatively 011 the positive side and positively OIl tho negative side. 'I'hese superficial electrifications will in general destroy one another when consecutive elements arc considered, except where the d ielectric has an internal charge, or at the surface of the dielectric. Thut whatever electricity mny be, and whatever we mny understand by thc movement of electricity, the phenomenon which we have called electric displacement ill a movement of electricity ill the sa me sense as the transference of a definite quantity of electricity through a wire is a movement of' electricity, the only difference lJPillg that in the dielectric there is a force which we have called electric elasticity which acts against the electric displacement, and forces the electricity back when the electromotive force is removed j whereas in the conducting wire the electric elasticity is continually giving' way, so that a current of true conduction is set uPJ and the resistance depends, not 011 the total quantity of electricity displaced from its position of' equilibrium, but on the quantity which crosses IL section of the conductor in a given time. 'l'hut in every case till' motion of' electricity is subject to the same condit iou us that of' an incompressible fluid, namely, that at every instant us much must flow out of nny given closed space as flows into it. It 1(,1101'1<; from t his that ('VL'ry electric current must form a closed circuit, The importance ofthis result will be seen when we investigate the laws of' clectro-mngnetism. Since, as we have seen, the theory of direct action at a distance is mat.hcruut.imlly idcntieul wit.h that of action by means of l\

62.J

METHOD O}1~THIS WORK.

65

medium, the actual phenomena may be explained by the one theory as well as by the other, provided suitable hypotheses be introduced when any difficulty occurs. 'l'hus, Mossotti has deduced the mathematical theory of dielectrics from the ordinary theory of attraction by merely giving an l'lettrie instead of a magnetic interpretation to the symbols in the investigution hy which Poisson lias deduced the theory of mag-netic induction from the theory of magnetic fluids. lIe assumes the existence within the dielectric of small conducting elements, capable or having their opposite surfaces oppositely electrified hy induction, but not cupable of losing or gaining electricity on thc w 1101e, owing to their being insulated from each other by a non-conductiug medium. This theory of dielectrics is consistent with the laws of electricity, and may be actually true. If it is true, the specific inductive capacity of a dielectric may IJe gl'eater, hut cannot be less, than that of air or vacuum. No instance has yet been found of u dielectric having all inductive capacity less than that of air, but if such should be discovered, Mossotti's theory must he abnndoned, although his formulae would all remain exact, and would only require us to alter the sign of a coefficient. In the theory which I propose to develope, the mathematical methods arc founded upon the smallest possible amount of hypothesis, and thus equations of the same form nrc found applicable to phenomena which arc certainly of quite different natures, as, for instance, electric induction through dielectrics j conduction through conductors, and magnetic induction. In nll these eases the relation between the force and the effect produced is expressed by a set of equations of the same kind, so that when a problem in one of these subjects is sol ved, the problem and its solution may he translated into the language of the other subjects and tho results in their new form will also be true.

VOL. I.

}'

CHAPTER
gLE~lENTARY !>IATIIEMATICAJ. gI_EC'l'H!CI'l'Y.

II.
TlmORY 01<' ST"\'rrCAL

IJtjiniliOll

f!/ Electrieit.!/

((S

a JlcdltelllatiNd

QlIllllfi(lj.
.-j
i

63.] "Ve have seen that the actions electrified bodies arc such that the electrification of one body may he equal to that of another, or tu the sum of the electrifications of two bodies, und that when two bodies arc equally awl oppositely elcetriflod they IIlLVC no electrical effect on external bodies when 1)lacNI togetllCr within a closed insulated conducting vessel. 'Ve may express all these results in a concise and consistent manner IJYdescribing an e1ectrifieu body as charged with a certain q/(({Iltit!l rtf electrieil.!/, which we may denote bye. 'Vlten tile electrification is positi ve, that is, according to the usual convention, vitreous, a will he j1 positive quantity. "'hell the electrification is negative or resinous, () will be negative, and the quantity -{! may be interpreted either as a negative quantity of vitreous electricity 01' as a positive quantity of resinous electricity. 'I'he effect of adding' together two equal and opposite charges of' electricity, + e and -1:, is to produce a state of no electrification expressed by zero. We mny therefore regard a Lody not electrified us virtually charged with equal and opposite cliargcs of indefinite magnitude, and. all electrified body as virtually charged with unequal quantities of positive and negative electricity, the algebraic sum of these charges constituting the observed electrification. It is manifest, however, that this way of regarding an eleetrilled body is entirely artificial, and may IJC compared to the conception of the velocity of a body as compounded of two 01' more different velocities, no one of which is the actual velocity of the body. When we speak therefore of a body being charged with a quantity (J of electricity we mean simply that tile body is elect.rifled, and that the electrification is vitreous or resinous uceordiug as e is positive 01' negative.

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