scientific concepts. The Science Teacher, 62(9), M. (1995). Conceptual bridges: Using analogies to explain 7, Brigg | NALOGIES OFTEN PLAY AN IM- | portant role in scientific discov- | exy-not a5 proof, but as a source of inspiration. For example, Jo- seph Priestley was thinking ana- logically when he proposed a law of electrical force. Priestley was familiar with Newton's law of | | universal gravitation, which holds that the gravi- tational force between any two bodies is inversely Proportional to the square of the distance be- eween them. Priestley speculated, correctly as it | tumed out, that the electrical force becweea two charges is also inversely proportional to the square of their distance. This law of electrical force was experimentally confirmed by Charles Coulomb and today bears his ‘ame. The analogy becween Newton's law of universal gravitation and Coulomb's law of electrical force is ‘mapped out in Figure 1. However, like any analogy, it breaks down in places. Gravitational force only attracts, whereas electrical force attracts or repels. Also G is 2 Conceptual Using analogies to explain scientific concepts small constant, whereas k is a large one. Analogies also play an important role in scientific explanation. For example, an experiment by Ernest Rutherford led to the modern model of the auclear atom. Rutherford bombarded 2 metal foil with charged par- ticles, and some of them bounced back. Late:, when explaining this finding, Ruthesford drew an analogy: “It ‘was almost as incredible as ifyou fired 2 15-inch shell at 1 piece of tissue paper and it came back and hit you, Tewas then that I ad the idea of an atom with a minute ‘massive center, carrying 2 charge.” | TEACHERS’ ANALOGIES Ina recentin-service workshop, teachers discussed their use of analogies during lessons. Many teachers reported drawing an analogy berween a water circuit and an electric circuit (Figure 2). Other popular analogies were: A DNA molecule is like a ladder, ceil is like a factory, mA heart is like a force pump, MA Kidney is like a waste file: | An eye is like a camera, 1A pulsar is like a lighthouse, and = Photosynthesis is like baking bread (both are food- ‘making processes in which the ingredients are combined and converted by energy). | I was not surprised chat workshop participants used analogies frequently. For many years { have videotaped 25 leesSimilar feotvres of Newton’ law of universal grewittion and Coulomb’ law of electrical force. * distance squared: Similor features of o woler circuit ond an electrical circuit WATER cIRCUT vane reduced tow | pump ELECTRIC CIRCUIT switch ee resistance exemplary science teachers to lear how they used analogies. Most of the teachers I observed used them ‘without really thinking about it. Each time they said “It's just like..." “I's no different than. ..,” and “It's similar to..." they were drawing analogies. AN EXEMPLARY TEACHER ‘Whea Becky Wheeler, one of the teachers I videotaped, ‘taught about the human eye, she and her students built simple camera that she used to explain optic principles. Becky explained that the camera is analogous to the | human eye and, using a physical model of the eye, she compared its features to those of the camera (Figure 3). Finally, she drew conclusions about important visual processes, such asaccommodation, the automaticadjust- | ments of the eye for seeing at different distances. She also drew conclusions about defects such as astigmatism, nearsightedness, and farsightedness. Becky built a conceptual bridge for her students between the mechanics of a camera and those of the human eye. Forleaming to be meaningful, studentsneed conceptual bridges between their existing knowledge and new knowledge. Analogies can serve as these bridges, DOUBLE-EDGED SwoRDS Unforrunately, using analogies can hinder as well as help earning. When stretched t00 far, analogies lead to mis- conceptions. For example, the analogy berween the camera and the human eye breaks down with respect 0 focusing, A camera is focused by changing the distance 26 THE SCIENCE \| | Some similar Features of « comera and a human eye Comera be lens lens operure pupil diophrogm iis | fen retina inverted image inverted imege The components of an anclogy compared with o Analogue L Fectures 1, 2, 3, oe Torget || L Feotres 1, 2,3, a. | | 2 between the lens and the film, whereas a human eye is Focused by the cornea and the ciliary muscle around the lens. Becky pointed out this difference when she drew her analogy, but some teachers might not, and their | students might form 2 misconception. One solution to this problem is to adopt guidelines for using analogies. | TEACHING-WITH-ANALOGIES MODEL ‘The Teaching: With-Analogies (TWA) Model Giynn, Duit, and Thiele, 1995) was developed by examining the analogies of exemplary teachers, suchas Becky Wheeler, and textbook authors, such as Paul Hewitt. In this model, ideas trom a familiar concept (the analogue) are trans- ferred to an unfamiliar one (the target) If the analogue and che target share some similar/eatures, ananalogy can be drawn between them. The process of comparing the features is called mapping. An “X ray” of an analogy appears in Figure 4 The basis of the TWA model consists of six operations that the teacher carries out when drawing an analogy: 1. Introduce the target concept, 2. Review the analogue concept, 3. Identify the relevant feacures of | carget and analogue, 4. Map the similarities (Figure 3), 5. Indicate where the analogy breaks down, and, 6. Draw conclusions. The orderin which thesix TWA operations are carried out can vary. itis usually important, however, «0 performallthe operations. Ifsome of them are skipped, students might misunderstand the concept being | caught. Misunderstandingislesslikely to occur, of course, when students | are cautioned about the limitations of analogies. ‘An analogy drawn between a concept covered earlier in a course and one covered later is particularly effective because the earlier concept is familiar to every student. The previously discussed concept, however, should be reviewed co refresh students’ memories. In effect, the analogy functions as an initial model of the target concept—a model that draws on the students’ existing knowledge. Later, when students learn more details about the target concept, they will outgrow the analogy and adopt more sophisticated models of the concept, LEARNING WITH ANALOGIES | All the teachers who participated in the recent work: | shop use the TWA Model when planning lessons. In addition, many of the teachers have taught the six TWA operations to their students. These teachers have cre- ated a Leamning-With-Analogies strategy. The students use the six operations as guides when constructing analogies. Sometimes these analogies are even more ‘meaningful chan those provided by teachers because the students draw on their own knowledge co con- | struct them, Constructing analogies also helps students take a more in- dependent approach to learning, ‘They can tackle an unfamiliar con- cept using analogical reasoning to | gain a beter understanding. Scu- dents are also less anxious about | tackling anunfamiliar concept once they realize that itis just like. ... Shawn Chyan Ba professor of od cational psychology, and scence ‘education, 325 Aderhold Hall, Unt: versity of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602. Glyn, S.,R. Duit, and. Thiele. 1995, Teaching with analogies: A strategy for constructing knowledge. Ins, Glynn and. RR. Duit (Eds.) Learning Science in ibe | Schools: Research Reforming Practice (pp. 247-273), Mahwah, NJ.: Erbaum. maer 27 tos