THERMO A SUPPLEMENTARY TEXT FOR INTRODUCTORY THERMODYNAMICS 2008 R.A. CHAPLIN UNIVERSITY OF NEW BRUNSWICK © copyright R.A. ChaplinPREFACE This is a text for those confounded by thermodynamics. Thermodynamics is a difficult subject and one has to keep going back to the basics to understand it. In this book only the basics are covered with just enough supporting information to understand the theory that is required to do practical problems. It has a practical bias and proceeds quickly into engineering applications. An effort has been made to show clearly the derivation of all mathematical formulae but at the same time to restrict the scope of the mathematics to only that which is necessary to apply the scientific theory to engineering applications. Although the written text and figures are not cross referenced the nomenclature and arrangement should allow the reader to make the appropriate connections. Two phase thermodynamics using water and steam and ideal gas thermodynamics using air are dealt with equally. With the first and second laws of thermodynamics as a base the emphasis is on the analysis of power cycles. Several major prime movers producing work from heat energy for electricity or transport are considered. Combustion is dealt with briefly to emphasize the importance of energy and mass balances, Since this text is based on a twelve week course it is of necessity brief and incomplete with respect to the traditional scope of thermodynamics. Nevertheless a few key aspects are addressed in depth to demonstrate the real value of thermodynamics in engineering. With appropriate knowledge and understanding students should be able to apply themselves to any number of other important aspects not covered here. Robin ChaplinPREAMBLE TABLE OF CONTENTS Reference Texts Acknowledgements Preface Table of Contents Philosophy INTRODUCTION Section 0 Section 1 Section 2 Section 3 Section 4 Section 5 Section 6 Section 7 Section 8 Section 9 Section 10 Section 11 Section 12 Section 13 ‘Appendix A Appendix B Calculation Notation and Accuracy Nomenclature Constants Equations FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS NON-FLOW PROCESSES STEADY FLOW PROCESSES HEAT ENGINES AND ENTROPY STEAM TABLES POWER CYCLES GAS PROCESSES STEAM POWER CYCLES GAS POWER CYCLES - NON-FLOW GAS POWER CYCLES - STEADY FLOW COMBUSTION COMPRESSIBLE FLOW REFRIGERATION ENERGY BALANCES LABORATORY ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES USE OF STEAM TABLESCHE 2012 Introduction Page Intro-1 INTRODUCTION CALCULATION NOTATION AND ACCURACY USE OF UNITS In thermodynamics the basic units are kg and kJ since the fundamental units are too small. Hence we have kJ/kg (not J/g). Heat and work have the same units but when converted to a rate of heat transfer or a rate of doing work a distinction should be made by using kd/s for the former and KW for the latter. When power outputs become larger use MW as is normal in the power industry. ENGINEERING NOTATION When numbers are very small or very large use powers of 10 in multiples of 3 so as to be able to convert easily to milli- and micro- or to kilo- and mega-. The following are given as examples 0.000 00123 1.23x 10° 0.0648 64.8 x 10° 82 600 82.6 x 10° 965 000 000 = 965x 10° 3480 000 000 = 3480 x 10° Note that in the above when numbers are written out in full the zeros should be grouped in threes to make for easier reading. Also if the final answer has four places it is sometimes convenient to write out the four figures rather than use an exponential form or an unusual unit. For example 3480 MW is better than 3.48 GW or 3.48 x 10° MW. ‘SIGNIFICANT FIGURES Remember that the answer cannot have a greater degree of accuracy than the data given. Generally work to four significant figures and give the answer to three significant figures (three figures represent an accuracy of 1 part in a thousand which is very seldom achieved in practical engineering). GRAPHICAL ANALYSIS In Thermodynamics many problems may be solved quickly and easily by plotting the processes on a chart. To obtain accurate answers, to say two significant figures, the plotting must however be very precise.Page Intro-2 Introduction CHE 2012 DESCRIPTIVE WORK When preparing a descriptive answer ensure that the question is fully answered with sound explanations. Generally for a 5 mark question at least five significant points need to be presented. Each may take two or three sentences to explain fully so that the full answers should take up a full page in handwritten form. Where appropriate, sketches should be used to support the explanations. Sample solutions are not given for descriptive problems as reference should be made to notes. CALCULATIONS Generally follow the following guidelines when doing calculations: * For calculations from given data work to four significant figures and give the answer to three significant figures. Assume that the given data has a three figure accuracy even if only one or two figures are given. * For calculations from steam tables record all five figures given in the tables, work to four significant figures and give the answer to three significant figures. * For calculations from charts or diagrams or from scaled drawings read the values. to at least two significant figures, three if possible, work to three significant figures and give the answer to two significant figures. ‘When doing continuing calculations keep the number in the calculator but only write down the appropriate number of significant figures for the intermediate steps. The above are guidelines and not rules since the number of significant figures does not ensure a particular degree of accuracy. Note that for an accuracy of approximately 1% only two significant figures are required for numbers just less than 100 (e.g. 97-98) while three significant figures are required for numbers just greater than 100 (e.g. 104-105). In engineering it is the degree of accuracy that is important so the number of significant figures may vary depending upon the first digit of the number. Another consideration is the addition or subtraction of numbers of different magnitudes (e.g. 121 +4 = 125). The first figure has three significant figures while the second has only one to give an answer with three significant figures. To avoid rounding off errors in the preceding calculations the first number should be calculated to four significant figures while the second need only be calculated to two significant figures. Generally use judgment in the calculations and be aware of the impact of different numbers on the accuracy of calculations. The most important rule is that excessive numbers of significant figures must not be used as this will indicate an unrealistic degree of accuracy in the calculations.CHE 2012 Introduction Page Intro-3 NOMENCLATURE MASS m kg LENGTH Loom ELEVATION z om AREA A m@ TIME t os TEMPERATURE t ABSOLUTE TEMPERATURE T * VELOCITY Vv oms ACCELERATION amis? FORCE FON (kg m/s?) WEIGHT wi oN (kg m/s*) PRESSURE p Pa (Nim?) VOLUME vo om DENSITY p kg/m? SPECIFIC VOLUME v milkg *SPECIFIC GRAVITY s HEAT QJ (Nm) ENERGY ed (Nm) WORK wid (Nm) TORQUE + Nm HEAT FLOW Q Js POWER Pls 1) INTERNAL ENERGY uid (Nm) ENTHALPY HJ (Nm) ENTROPY Ss JrK ‘SPECIFIC HEAT Cc — dikg’C (kukg°C) ‘SPECIFIC HEAT c, — Jhkg°C (kd/kg°C) SPECIFIC ENERGY i) tig (kJ/kg) ‘SPECIFIC ENTHALPY ho Jikg (kJ/kg) ‘SPECIFIC ENTROPY s Jikg°k (kJ/kg?) HEAT PER UNIT MASS. a Jikg WORK PER UNIT MASS w dik MASS FLOW RATE M kgs VOLUME FLOW RATE Q ms GRAVITATIONAL ACCELERATION g ——mis* SPECIFIC GAS CONSTANT R Jikg°k (ku/kg?K) UNIVERSAL GAS CONSTANT to _Jikg-mole*K (kJ/kg-mole*K) RATIO OF SPECIFIC HEATS k GAS EXPANSION INDEX nPage Intro-4 Introduction CHE 2012 CONSTANTS In engineering calculations a high degree of accuracy is seldom attained due to the neglect of minor influences or the inaccuracy of available data. For consistency in calculations however the following reasonably accurate constants should be used: Gravitational Acceleration g = 9.81 mis* Atmospheric Pressure p = 100kPa Universal Gas Constant Ro = 8.314 ku/kg mole*K Density of Water p = 1000 kg/im® Specific Heat of Air Cp = 1.005 kd/kg’C Specific Heat of Air © = 0.718 kd/kg’C Specific Gas Constant for Air R= 0.287 kilkg’KCHE 2012 Non-Flow Processes Page 1-1 SECTION 1 NON-FLOW PROCESSES THERMODYNAMIC RELATIONS Thermodynamics is, according to the Concise Oxford Dictionary, the science of relations between heat and other (mechanical) forms of energy and, according the Chambers Etymological Dictionary, the branch of physics which treats heat as a mechanical agent. It is evident therefore that there is a close relationship between sensible heat, various forms of energy and mechanical work. Actually all have the same scientific units (joules) but are very different in physical form. Itis therefore necessary to define each and to establish the relationships between them. It is even more important to determine the limitations governing their relationships. In engineering the conversion of heat to work is of fundamental importance in the production of power but what are the limitations? In the conversion of energies into different forms can all heat be converted into work? DEFINITIONS The following definitions come from an old Chambers Etymological Dictionary. These English definitions are remarkably close to the correct mathematical definitions commonly used in science. Heat, n. that which excites the sensation of warmth Energy, n. power of doing work Work, n. effort directed to an end Heat Q is an interaction due to a temperature difference between two bodies. The amount of heat flowing from the hot body to the cold body depends upon the temperature difference AT and an interface constant Q = (interface constant ) AT (Joules) The interface constant is high for a conducting interface and low for an insulating interface. The flow of heat excites the sensation of warmth. Energy E is the power or potential of doing work. A body at an elevation above the datum has potential energy due to its mass m and elevation z. Enotential = Mg Z (Joules) A body in motion has kinetic energy due to its mass m and velocity VPage 1-2 Ekinetc = 2m V? Non-Flow Processes CHE 2012 (Joules) Any body at a positive absolute temperature has internal energy by virtue of the motion and interaction of the molecules. Work Wis the effort or force F directed to an end or applied over a distance L. We FxL (Joules) Heat, energy and work all have the same units but are distinctly different. HEAT - ENERGY - WORK. THERMODYNAMIC RELATIONS RELATIONSHIPS HEAT - ENERGY - WORK HEAT Interaction due to temperature dterence G1 = (INTERFACE CONSTANT) AT (Joules) ENERGY ‘The potential of doing work Eprom = mae (Goutes) Coens = mVEZ ‘at nena ° ERoY work Effort dircted to an end Were (Wout) THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEM Consider a thermodynamic system within a boundary across which heat and work can flow. Heat Q crosses the boundary due to the temperature difference AT between the system and its surroundings. Work W is produced at the boundary by the displacement of the boundary through a distance Ax. The intemal energy of the system changes by an amount AU equal to the difference between the heat Q entering and the work W leaving the system. AU = Q-W Note that in this equation the flow of heat to the system and the flow of work from the system are both taken as being positive. This is the convention in engineering where, in a heat engine, fuel is burnt to produce a heat input and the result is a useful work output. Fuel flow rate and power output are always positive.CHE 2012 Non-Flow Processes Page 1-3 In this process heat, energy and work are all measured in joules. There is no loss and all energy is accounted for. This is conservation of energy and is a statement of the First Law of Thermodynamics to be defined later. REVERSIBILITY AND IRREVERSIBILITY In thermodynamics a clear distinction must be made between reversible processes and irreversible processes. Reversible processes are processes that can recreate the initial conditions without additional energy input. This implies no losses or degradation from the original conditions. Irreversible processes are ones that cannot be reversed and hence cannot restore the initial conditions. MIXING OF FLUIDS FLOW OF HEAT {seat fow rom a hot body toa cold body reversible? 5 mixing ovorsbio? The mixing of two fluids at different temperatures is an irreversible process. Once mixed the hot and cold fluid particles share their energy and separation into two bodies at different temperatures is not possible. The flow of heat across a temperature difference is an irreversible process. When boiling water in a pail heat flows from the fire to the water but can never flow in the opposite direction The heat generated by friction is an irreversible process. A block sliding down a slope with friction will generate heat. Applying heat to a block at the bottom of the slope cannot drive the block up the slope.Page 1-4 Non-Flow Processes CHE 2012 The compression of a spring is a reversible process. Once compressed by a force it can expand, upon the release of that force, to its original condition. MECHANICAL FRICTION COMPRESSION OF SPRING [LOCK ON FRICTIONAL SURFACE wonon SN = " 22g a FRICTIONAL HEAT GENERATED Weeiseenaes ests = Be i A ae ext npuT Is this process reversible? Can heat input dive the block tits original position? The adiabatic compression of a gas in a cylinder is a reversible process. The pressure built up in the cylinder can drive the piston back to its original position, upon release of the initially applied force, provided there is no energy loss due to. heat transfer. The adiabatic pumping of water to a high elevation is a reversible process. This water can be returned to the lower elevation through a turbine to generate an equivalent amount of power as was required by the pump to lift the water initially. Note that reversible processes are generally idealistic processes since any mechanical or fluid friction that may occur in the process wil itself develop a mini- itreversible process which will prevent the supposedly reversible process from achieving exactly the initial conditions. HEAT AND WORK It should be evident from the above that work can always be completely converted into heat by allowing all the mechanical energy to be dissipated by friction. The application of heat however does not necessarily create work. The conversion of heat to work requires some manipulation and has inherent limitations. This is what makes Thermodynamics such a fascinating and difficult subject. Heat and work have the same units and can be converted from one to the other within certain limits but are not equivalent and are generally very different from one another.CHE 2012 Non-Flow Processes Page 1-5 ADIABATIC GAS COMPRESSION POTENTIAL ENERGY STORAGE canoes ™ ENERGY INTO SYSTEM i ene — ‘COLD GAS AT LOW PRESSURE saeeeeeeeeaee rf work our sveney outor wveran Lemmmemabl, ‘woe |] See coco pen oe REVERSIBILITY: LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS Areversie process is any process performed so that ‘he system and all is surounalngs can be restored fo thelr inva states by performing the process In revores ‘One of te many consequences of th second aw of ‘thermodynamics isthe conclusion that all natural Droceseae are ireveribie, thas already been shown {hat the presence of ction willeause a process to be lnreversble, Some processes that ae reversible are 1. Mixing of ude of erent temperatures. 2 Any process in which works transformed into Internal energy via the agency of mechanical ition orinelastc action. 3. Any process in which inelastic molecular action (Pate tetion) occurs. 44 Any proctssthat transfers heat from one portion of ‘yet to another by vituo ofa fine temperature ‘difference. 5. Any process Involving combustion or chemical teattions. ZEROTH LAW (nature of heat) “wo objects that ae in thermal equim with # harmal egulbrium with FIRST LAW (conservation of energy) Energy can neither be created nor destroyed, but only converted from one for to another. ‘SECOND LAW (conversion af heat to work) [No heat engine can generate work without nst ‘ejection of eat oa low-temperature res0rvOKr