Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Years Bilingual English‐Arabic Program
By Hiba Zein, Deputy Head Teacher
May 2009
This is a working document which is currently under
consideration by the Islamic Shakhsiyah Trust.
Table of Contents
Introduction …………………………………………………………3
1
Principle 3- Successful instructed language learning also requires
Opportunities for output………………………………..32
Principle 4- Providing opportunities for effective interaction……...33
A- The importance of oral interaction in language acquisition..33
B- Using appropriate teaching methods to develop children’s
Speech……………………………………………………….34
Conclusion………………………………………………………………55
2
ﺑﺴﻢ اﷲ اﻟﺮّﺣﻤﻦ اﻟﺮّﺣﻴﻢ
Introduction
The importance of teaching Arabic to our children at an early age cannot
be over emphasized. In addition of being a tool of communication as any
other language, Arabic is the language in which the Quran is conveyed to
Muslims.
Allah (SWT) chose Arabic to be the language of the Qur'an--His final
Message to humankind: "Lo! We have revealed it, a Lecture in Arabic,
which ye may understand." (Yusuf, 2), "Thus have we revealed it, a
decisive utterance in Arabic..." (Ar-Ra'ad, 37), "A Scripture where of the
verses are expounded, a Lecture in Arabic for people who have
knowledge." (Fusilat, 3).
The miracle of Quran is in Arabic and every verse in the Quran has its
own miracle.
It is possible to explain the meaning of a Quranic verse in any language
but it is impossible to capture the beauty and the miracle of it in a
language other than Arabic.
Arabic is a language of words with multiple nuances and deep meanings.
The Quran is very precise and no other language would give it justice.
Example the words ( )ﻧﻔﺲand ( )روحare both translated in English as Soul,
the words ( إﻧﺲ، إﻧﺴﺎن،) ﺑﺸﺮare translated as Human being, the words ()ﻗﻠﺐ
and ( )ﻓﺆادare translated as heart.
Moreover, Arabic is the language that Muslims need while making Hajj
and performing Salat. The khushu’ a key element in Salat can only be
achieved by understanding the precise meaning of Quran.
3
set out guidelines and clarify issues related to early childhood second
language acquisition.
The first chapter of this study deals with the theoretical process of early
language acquisition and clarifies certain misconceptions about early
childhood bilingualism while offering practical recommendations to
teachers.
The second chapter draws attention to important issues essential for a
successful early years’ foreign language program.
The third chapter introduces a set of practice principles for instructed
language acquisition, promoting both language skills and content
knowledge.
The fourth and last chapter focuses on foreign language teaching
methods, which are found effective in early years’ settings.
4
1. Second Language Acquisition in Early Childhood:
What Every Teacher Needs to Know
People everywhere have strong ideas about children learning a second
language. These ideas influence how people interact with their children
and how they look at other peoples children. These ideas also influence
how professionals such as teachers, doctors, and speech therapists advise
parents of children growing up bilingually. However, many ideas that
people have about children growing up with a second or third language in
childhood are not of a benefit to these children and many may in fact
have adverse effects.
The purpose of this chapter is to clarify a number of important issues
related to early childhood second language acquisition and to offer early
years’ second language teachers practical recommendations.
In fact, in order for teachers to make second language acquisition
beneficial for children, they need to first understand the process of second
language acquisition (section 1) and secondly to unlearn some commonly
held misconception about the acquisition of additional languages (section
2).
This section explores how young children acquire their first or home
language (A) and how they add a second language in an early childhood
setting (B).
5
A- First Language acquisition:
Children are born without knowing how to speak or even understand the
language spoken by their parents and caregivers. But they are born with
the ability to learn. Over time and with exposure, they begin to
understand what others say and to produce language themselves.
Language development is a complex process, involving the learning of a
system of rules about grammar, meaning, and usage. But how does this
learning occur?
All over the world, in all linguistic communities, children acquire their
home language in basically the same way. They learn language in a fairly
unconscious way as they listen and speak to communicate meaning. As
they are exposed to recurrent or repeated situations such as mealtime,
bathing, play, and dressing, the language they hear becomes associated
with these contexts and activities. Over time, that language becomes more
and more understandable. Oral language emerges as young children
interact with others to socialize, to convey needs and have them met, to
share ideas and learn about the ideas of others, and to entertain or be
entertained through play (Wells 1986).
Between 12-18 months, most babies produce their first word or words.
Their early vocabulary includes names of important people (dada),
objects (milk), functional words (down), and social words (hi) (Tabors
1997). Adults often attribute meaning and respond appropriately to the
baby’s early words. For instance, an 18 month-old may utter, “ Wawa,”
and the adult says, “Oh, you want some water,” and then hands the child
a cup of water. The child’s oneword utterance (holophrastic) conveys
extended meaning with limited language.
Throughout this period, children are also learning about the social use of
language. During face-to-face interactions with their caregivers, babies
are experiencing turn-taking well before they can hold a conversation
(Bruner 1983; Weitzman & Greenberg 2002). They also learn about how
the members of their language community use greetings and other social
pleasantries.
6
By the second year, children produce two- and three-word phrases or
utterances, developing the ability to express more complex relationships
with their words. While this language is not adult-like in completeness or
in grammatical accuracy, it effectively communicates. A toddler says,
“Daddy, bye bye,” intending to communicate ‘good bye’ or perhaps ‘I
want to go with you’ or maybe ‘Daddy is not here.’ This telegraphic
speech is understood in the context of the situation or activity in which
both the child and the adult are engaged. Adults respond as though the
language were accurate, complete, and meaningful. They honor the
child’s effort to communicate, which further reinforces the young child’s
confidence and motivation to use language.
Between 3-4 years, sentences become longer and more complex. Their
use of grammar becomes more sophisticated and accurate. In English,
children begin to acquire past tenses and the passive voice. They talk
about events that happened away from home and think ahead to the future
such as their upcoming birthday party or a special outing. Vocabulary
also grows in leaps and bounds; preschoolers may acquire 6-10 new
words a day while also expanding their understanding of the words they
already know (Tabors 1997).
By the time English-speaking children are 5 years old, most of the basic
skills of oral language have been mastered. They can construct long and
detailed sentences, produce most sounds correctly, and engage in
extended conversations. However, more advanced uses of language as
well as vocabulary continue to be acquired during the school years and
beyond.
7
B- Early Second Language Acquisition:
According to Tabors and Snow (1994) children after the age of three,
whose first language is partly established and who are going now in a
setting where the second language is in use go through three stages of
“sequential acquisition” before reaching the productive language stage.
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This stage begins when children start to realize that their language is not
being in use.
They will become quiet, often using non-verbal means to communicate
their interest and needs.
They will watch and listen intently as the new language is used in various
activities, seemingly collecting and storing information about the new
language, its sounds and vocabulary.
At times, children will appear to comprehend and behave accordingly,
even if they do not completely understand.
In some instances, children will signal the end of this stage by beginning
to make sounds that are like those of the second language –In our case,
Arabic- but which may not be recognizable as real Arabic words.
During this stage, the Arabic teacher should:
- Use language tied to experience to help children understand what is
being said.
- Explain procedures and use concrete referents in activities and lessons.
- Allow children to rehearse before saying anything in public.
- Provide a starter language to help children formulate a message.
- Elaborate on a child’s limited communication.
- Use props or appropriate actions that will help promote comprehension.
- Use linguistic structures such as look at this…, hold this…, where did it
go/where is it? , give me the…, watch me do…, this is a…, notice that…,
tell me…, show me….
- Remember that the length of time a child is in the non-verbal period
varies depending on many factors including:
• .The child’s age, as 2 to 4 years old children move more slowly
through the stages of second language acquisition than older
preschoolers and school-aged children, who have better
understanding of how language works.
• The child’s personality, a more outgoing and risk-taker child has an
easier time learning a second language than a shy and reserved
child.
• The exposure to the language, the more time a child spends in
contact with the new language being engaged in meaningful
activities and with speakers of the new language, the grater her
competence in the second language.
• The Characteristics of the particular setting.
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During this time, children intentionally use individual vocabulary words
or put them together in a short sequence or in whole sentences to
communicate. A child may say, “Teacher book” when asking the teacher
to read a story. While the language is often incomplete or grammatically
awkward, the child nonetheless communicates in that specific context.
Some mixing of the Arabic and Home Language may occur, especially
when the child lacks the confidence or ability to communicate
consistently in one language only.
For example, a child at this stage who is thirsty might say: “I want Juice”.
This child may not know exactly what word “Juice” means but the end
result will be that she will be given something to drink.
During this stage, the Arabic teacher should:
- Engage children in conversations constantly. If they do not understand,
say it another way.
- Listen to a child’s communicative intent, rather than judging whether
she is speaking correctly or not.
- Simplify Arabic when speaking to children by using simpler sentences
“Teacher – Talk”.
- Accept all attempts of communication even if it involves a mixing of
Arabic and the child’s home language. The two will separate with time.
- Avoid overcorrecting a child’s speak.
- Expand a child’s language by continuing with the next logical step in
the conversation.
- Encourage new Arabic speakers to play and work with more Arabic
proficient children.
- Introduce new conversation topics and model different purposes for
language use.
- Listen intently to a child without interrupting, adding examples to the
child’s message, sharing personal anecdotes and clarifying the message
intent.
10
During this stage, the Arabic teacher should:
In fact, research on second language learning has shown that there are
many misconceptions about how children learn languages. Teachers need
to be aware of these research findings and to unlearn old ways of
thinking. For the most part, this means realizing that quick and easy
solutions are not appropriate for complex problems. Second language
learning by school-aged children takes longer, is harder, and involves a
great deal more than most teachers have been led to believe. We need
consciously to rethink what our expectations should be.
11
The purpose of this section is to clarify a number of important issues in
the area of second language acquisition by discussing commonly held
misconceptions.
Misconception 1:
A child is not capable of developing successfully both languages
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that will enhance their students’ language and development in a rich
environment that involves different games and activities.
Misconception 2:
Hearing two or more languages in childhood is a cause of language
delay
All over the Western world, there are speech therapists and medical
doctors who believe that early bilingualism has a negative effect on
language acquisition. According to them, young children need ONLY to
use the language that is in use in the overall environment. The common
reasons for this advice are two. First, it is often claimed that hearing two
or more languages will lead to grave problems in language acquisition.
Second, it is claimed that the acquisition of the main language of the
environment will stand better chance without competition from the other
language.
It is important to differentiate between the popular use of the term
language delay in reference to a child who is perceived to take longer
than average to begin to speak but who is well within the normal range of
productive vocabulary development (Fenson et al., 1994) and the clinical
use of the term to refer to significant delays in the development of
language, which can be either primary (not associated with another
disorder) or secondary (associated with conditions such as autism). A
lack of understanding of the different uses of the term may result in
undue concern for some parents interested in raising their children with
two languages.
Terminology issues aside, the research is quite clear; No empirical
evidence links bilingualism to language delay of any sort. As De Houwer
(1999) summarizes, “There is no scientific evidence to date that hearing
two or more languages leads to delays or disorders in language
acquisition. Many, many children through the world grow up with two or
more languages from infancy without showing any signs of language
delays or disorders” (p1). Likewise, Petitto and Holowka’s (2002)
extensive literature review leads them to argue that “every early bilingual
language exposure does not cause a young child to be delayed with
respect to the semantic and conceptual underpinnings at the heart of all
natural language, and this is true regarding each of the young bilingual’s
two languages” (p 23).
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and that parents do not need to worry about language delay as children
have the ability to learn two or more languages at an early age.
Teachers should consider bilingualism as an asset and should encourage
parents to foster it.
In order to better inform parents, teachers them selves need to learn about
early childhood bilingualism and need to be aware of the theories and
researches related to early second language acquisition.
Misconception 3:
Early childhood bilingualism causes language confusion
Often it is claimed that small children who are learning to speak two
languages go through a stage of mixing and confusing the two. The use of
words from both languages in a single sentence is cited as evidence that
the child cannot distinguish between the two languages, but in reality, this
not a sign of confusion. In fact, code switching is a normal aspect of
second language acquisition. Young bilingual children tend to insert
single items from one language into the other (McClure, 1977), primarily
to resolve ambiguities and clarify statements. Children over nine and
adults however, tend to switch languages at the phrase or sentence level,
typically to convey social meanings.
Teachers and parents need to understand that code switching is not a sign
of language confusion. They need to understand that children use words
from both languages in the same sentence not because they are confused
but because they know that the people they are talking to can understand
both languages and do not get upset with them for using such sentences.
Therefore, teachers should not stop children from code switching,
remembering that the goal must always be to encourage children to
communicate rather than making them follow rigid rules about which
language can be used in a given circumstance or at a given time.
Misconception 4:
Children learn second languages quickly and easily
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child learners speak without a foreign accent, whereas this is impossible
for adult learners.
15
relatively small when compared with what is necessary for adults to
speak at the same level of competence in a second language as they do in
their first language. The child does not have to learn as much as an adult
to achieve competence in communicating. In fact, languages are very
complex. To learn their complexities, one needs a lot of life experience. It
may not take very long to learn how to carry on a simple conversation
(although it does take monolingual children approximately 3 years before
they can carry on a conversation with strangers), but it takes a lot more
time to be able to develop the skill to give a formal speech.
Hence there is the illusion that the child learns more quickly than the
adult, whereas when controlled research is conducted, in both formal and
informal learning situations, results typically indicate that adult (and
adolescent) learners perform better than young children.
Nor should it be assumed that children have fewer inhibitions or are less
embarrassed than adults when they make mistakes in a second language.
If anything, children are likely to be shyer and more embarrassed before
their peers than are adults. Certainly, children from some cultural
backgrounds are extremely anxious when singled out and called upon to
perform in a language they are in the process of learning. Teachers need
to be sensitive to these feelings and not assume that, because children
supposedly learn the second language quickly, such discomfort will
quickly pass.
Also, teachers need to know that children do not just pick up a language,
they need to provide them with a strongly supportive and rich learning
environment.
Misconception 5:
The younger the child, the more skilled in acquiring a second
language
16
to learn a second language, the better (e.g., Krashen, Long, & Scarcella,
1979). However, at least with regard to school settings, the research
literature does not support this conclusion.
It may be that these findings reflect the mode of language instruction used
in European countries, where heavy emphasis has traditionally been
placed on formal grammatical analysis. Older children are more skilled in
dealing with such an instructional approach and hence might be expected
to do better. However, this argument does not explain findings from
French immersion programs in Canada, where little emphasis is placed on
the formal aspects of grammar, and therefore, older children should have
no advantage over younger ones. Yet English-speaking children in late
immersion programs (in which the second language is introduced in
grades seven or eight) have been found to perform just as well or better
on tests of French language proficiency as children who began their
immersion experience in Nursery or grade one (Genesee, 1981, 1987).
The research does not always show an advantage to children who begin at
an older age, but differences in performance are by no means as great as
relative amount of classroom exposure would lead one to expect.
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Aside from the question of pronunciation, however, the younger-is-better
hypothesis does not have strong empirical support in school contexts. The
research suggests that younger children do not necessarily have an
advantage over older children and, because of their cognitive and
experiential limitations when compared to older children, are actually at a
disadvantage in how quickly they learn a second language--other things
being equal.
But teachers should not expect miracles of their young language learners.
The research suggests that older students will show quicker gains, though
younger children may have an advantage in pronunciation. Certainly,
beginning language instruction in Nursery or first grade gives children
more exposure to the language than beginning in fifth or sixth grade. But
exposure in itself does not predict language acquisition. This is the next
misconception.
Misconception 6:
The more time students spend in a second language context, the
quicker they learn their second language
For many educators, the most straightforward way for children to learn a
second language is for them to be in an environment where they are
constantly exposed to this language. This is the rationale behind what is
called "structured immersion," an instructional strategy in which children
from language minority backgrounds receive all of their instruction in L2
and have the additional support of second language classes and content-
based instruction that is tailored to their language abilities.
Such a program has the advantage of providing more time on task for
learning the second language than in a bilingual classroom. On the face of
it, one might expect that the more L2 children hear and use, the quicker
their L2 language skills develop. However, research evidence indicates
that this is not necessarily the case. Over the length of the program,
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children in bilingual classes, where there is exposure to the home
language and to L2, have been found to acquire L2 skills equivalent to
those acquired by children who have been in L2 only programs
(Cummins, 1981; Ramirez, Yuen, & Ramey, 1991). This would not be
expected if time on task were the most important factor in language
learning.
The research indicates that, over the long run, children in bilingual
programs will acquire as much L2 as children who have more exposure
from an earlier age. Furthermore, if the child is able to acquire literacy
skills in the first language, as an adult he or she may be functionally
bilingual, with a unique advantage in technical or professional careers.
Misconception 7:
Children have acquired a second language once they can speak it
19
has not necessarily achieved proficiency in the more abstract and
disembedded academic language needed to engage in many classroom
activities, especially in the later grades. For example, the child needs to
learn what nouns and verbs are and what synonyms and antonyms are.
Such activities require the child to separate language from the context of
actual experience and to learn to deal with abstract meanings.
Misconception 8:
All children learn second language in the same way
Most likely, if asked, teachers would not admit that they think all children
learn a second language in the same way or at the same rate. Yet this
seems to be the assumption underlying a great deal of practice. There are
two issues here: the first relates to differences among linguistically and
culturally diverse groups and the second to differences among learners
within these groups.
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arrogant forms of behavior (Philips, 1972). Likewise, some children
might be embarrassed by a teacher saying, “You should be proud of
yourself”; more effective praise for them might be, “Your family will be
proud of you”.
21
of the student’s culture, the use of communication patterns familiar to the
student and other strategies that take the children's diversity of experience
into account.
22
2. Planning and scheduling a content-related
program:
The purpose of this chapter is to identify some common pitfalls in
program planning and focus attention on issues that must be considered in
the planning stages if early years’ foreign language program is to
succeed.
23
Domain does not necessarily mean knowing how to use it in others. The
integration of second language instruction with subject content respects
the specificity of language use.
24
speakers made possible by the skills acquired in the classroom. In fact, a
few hours a week limited instruction will not lead to mastery, but it may
build motivation and a taste for language learning. However, as the
children advance through the grade levels, their proficiency in the second
language will increase, and the expectations for their use of that language
should increase with their proficiency.
C- Programs should provide a minimum of 4 to 6 years of bilingual
instruction to participating students:
Programs should plan to begin in Nursery and continue through the
elementary grades. This requires that potential bilingual instruction
programs draw on a student population that is reasonably stable. This
criterion is based on research indicating that language acquisition is a
slow process, and full proficiency can take up to 10 years to develop
(Collier, 1995). In fact, increasing numbers of established elementary
bilingual instruction programs are now extending their programs into
secondary level as they see the continued benefits of this educational
approach.
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use it repeatedly, it takes more time to correct them than to teach
beginners. Therefore, head teachers should be careful when they are
employing Arabic teachers and should take steps to ensure their
pronunciation is accurate.
B- Teaching experience and training:
Early years second language teachers should have teaching experience
with young children or should have been trained to teach second language
to young children.
There are two misconceptions that sometimes influence the hiring of
foreign language teachers, first that a native speaker is always a better
choice than a teacher who has learnt the language, and second that
teachers at the beginning levels of instruction do not need the same
degree of language proficiency as those who teach at more advanced
levels. In reality teachers at all levels need to be fully proficient in the
language they teach. However, native or near-native language is not the
only requirement. Language teachers also need to be knowledgeable in
second language acquisition, especially in children, and about appropriate
second language teaching strategies and practices.
Teachers who cannot comfortably use the taught language for classroom
purposes will not be able to surround learning with language, an essential
component of an effective language-learning environment, they will also
find it difficult to develop and create curricula and activities in the target
language. Even fluent speakers of the language may be ineffective in the
classroom if they are not knowledgeable about second language
acquisition, child development, teaching strategies for primary school
students.
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to play some games and there is less interpersonal communication”
(Dunn, 1990:30).
B- Class time:
There is a widespread misconception that children learn foreign
languages easily even with very limited exposure, some programs operate
on the assumption that a little bit of language instruction is better than no
language instruction at all. This perception contradicts the
recommendations of foreign language professionals and the experts of
successful programs (Crilzow & Branaman, 2000).
Met and Rhodes (1990) suggest that regarding primary schools “foreign
language instruction should be scheduled daily and no less than 30
minutes” (p 438). Their suggestion should also be appropriate for
nurseries, the foreign language course should be provided daily,
otherwise children will forget what they have learned previously.
5- Involving parents:
Because parents are their children’s primary teachers, it is essential for
programs that serve young second language learners to build on
collaboration between parents and teachers. According to Nissani (1990)
“the home and school should ideally work effectively together and
support one another in the job of nurturing and educating young children”
(p6)
To this end, parents should be given frequent opportunities to provide
output into their children’s education. Teachers should share information
with parents about the standards of the curriculum, and instructional
methods that are used in their child’s class and help parents understand
the results of various placements and achievement assessment measures
that are used in the classroom.
Some schools offer language classes to parents to help them develop
bilingualism along with their children and some others encourage parents
to volunteer in the classroom and learn as much as they can about
bilingual teaching. While volunteering in classroom is often a good way
for parents to be involved in their child’s education, parents are advised
to be careful that their volunteering efforts don’t compromise children’s
use of the second language. Some programs designate days for parents to
volunteer for activities that do not involve classroom second language
interaction.
Parents and teachers should also meet frequently to discuss program
design and theory, performance expectations and their children’s
academic, social, and language development. However, in order to
maintain the program integrity, one project director recommends
weighing parents’ requests against what is possible or necessary for the
program’s overall well-being.
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3. Practice principles for instructed language
acquisition:
The purpose of this chapter is to introduce a set of practice principles for
instructed language acquisition. These 9 practice principles that I have
drawn from other studies and researches are intended to enable teachers
to help ensure that their learners gain proficiency in language skills and
master content knowledge.
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technical vocabulary and concepts. At ISF, the Arabic teacher, aims to
discuss in Arabic sessions the concepts being learnt during English,
Science or Halaqah lessons (Circle Time). This contextualises the
learning and the child is able to transfer knowledge making the learning
fluid. The thematic nature of Islamic shakhsiyah schools allows bilingual
teaching to be practiced within broad perimeters of curriculum
accusation.
29
Concentrating on the concept of learning strategies is especially
important because this enables the learners to thoroughly acquire,
structure and retain all kinds of new knowledge.
In a sociolinguistic context, the language is no longer the subject matter,
but serves as the medium instruction.
What Greenburg (1990) calls the cognitive/developmental approach is
generally considered to be most effective, as it considers what children
are able to do at various stages of development. This approach involves
different types of learning, such as social learning, physical learning and
play, emotional learning, and intellectual and academic learning.
Nissani (1990) summarize this approach as one in which “children are
encouraged to become involved in purposeful and creative activities with
other children, to make major choices among hands-on learning activities,
to initiate and accomplish self-motivated tasks in a rich environment, and
to construct knowledge at their own individual pace by discovering and
engaging in activities that reflect all areas of their development” (p3).
This kind of approach tends to be highly student centred and keeps
children’s developmental needs in mind by allowing them to learn at their
own pace in their own styles. It involves a great deal of creativity on the
part of the teacher, who continually develops ways for children to interact
in hands-on tasks and activities in which they may construct their own
meaning through interaction.
30
Karshen’s opinion, the good language learner is an acquirer and young
children are acquirers.
31
the acquirer. Therefore, deliberately programmed grammar is not
necessary (Karshen, 1989: 10).
“When communication is successful, when input is understood and
supplied in quality, quantity and variety, i+1 will be provided
automatically and recycled in optimum quantity for language acquisition”
(Karshen, 1989: 39).
d) The Affective filter hypothesis:
According to Karshen, we acquire when messages are interesting and
comprehensible and when we obtain it in a low-anxiety situation (1989:
10). People who are motivated and who have a positive self-image
possess a lower filter and will consequently obtain more input.
Karshen insists that students should not be forced to produce early
speech. When forced to speak too early, first language interference occurs
because children try to think in their first language. Through listening and
reading, spoken fluency will emerge on its own.
The Affective filter hypothesis also claims to reduce anxiety in the
classroom. Errors should not be corrected directly, but in many cases, the
correct version is included in the teacher’s response to the student.
32
to automatize existing knowledge, and it provides opportunities for
learners to develop discourse skills. For example, by producing long turns
in conversations.
One way to achieve this is through the use of highly engaging and
interactive classroom discourse styles, such as instructional
conversations, a teaching practice that provides students with
opportunities for extended dialogue in areas that have educational value
as well as relevance for them (August & Hakuta, 1998, Thrap &
Gallimore, 1989).
Other instructional techniques such as cooperative learning provide
students with more opportunities to engage in conversation with each
other, thus furthering their thinking and that of the other students.
33
during the silent period children are still “building” competence in the
second language and that through listening and speaking, spoken fluency
will emerge on its own. However, if the teacher wants to wait until
students feel ready for their speech to emerge, he/she can hardly expect
that students will show that they are ready to say something in class.
34
learn rules of usage, because they want to communicate naturally through
language acquisition.
In fact, early researches into naturalistic second language acquisition
showed that learners follow a natural order and sequence of acquisition.
However, studies that are more recent showed that, by large, the order
and sequence of acquisition were the same for instructed and naturalistic
learners, that instructed learners generally achieved higher levels of
grammatical competence than naturalistic learners, and that instruction
was no guarantee that learners would acquire what they had been taught.
This led to the conclusion that it is beneficial to teach grammar, but that
must be taught in a way that is compatible with the natural processes of
acquisition.
This can be achieved by adopting a zero grammar approach, where the
teacher corrects the errors that learners make as they make them. In this
way, large number of grammatical structures will be attended to
repeatedly over a period of time.
Further, because this kind of instruction involves a response to errors
each learner makes, it is individualized. Loewen (2005) showed that
learners who experienced this kind of instruction demonstrated
subsequent learning.
What does this means for early years second language teachers?
This means that teachers should correct students’ mistakes in early stages.
In the beginning, it may seem useless to correct them, because they will
repeat the mistakes. However, if corrected, they will improve gradually.
If language learners have memorized key sentences using the correct
grammatical form, they should be able to incorporate that in formulating
their own sentences.
On the contrary, if teachers do not correct the learners’ mistakes in early
stages, they will not be aware of the correct sentence structure and they
will become accustomed to speaking incorrectly.
Furthermore, it will be harder for them to correct their speaking mistakes
in the future.
Early years’ second language teachers should make learning interesting
and fun, and should keep children motivated even when correcting their
mistakes. Teachers should also adopt appropriate strategies, which aid
children understanding and encourage them to respond.
This can be achieved by, as Karshen suggested, using a simplified
language such as “Teacher Talk” and “Care taker Talk” and by using
methods similar to the way in which first languages are learned. These
methods consist of repeating single words clearly and using those same
words in simple sentences. When learners are trying to express
themselves by using single words, the teacher should provide them with
well-formed phrase with the same meaning, “so that children frequently
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hear their telegraphic phrases expanded to well-formed version” (Tough,
1991: 226).
For example, Child: “Car”, holding a car.
Teacher: “Bicycle?”
Child: “Car”
Teacher: “Car, Yeah! This is a car” pointing at the car.
Child: “Fast”
Teacher: “Fast, Yeah! This is a fast car”
If a child incorrectly names an object or action, a teacher could directly
correct her mistake while praising the child for her effort or indirectly by
giving the correct version in his/her response.
As mentioned above, children learn their second language better, when
they can see and hear the second language being used, in the same
manner in which they learn their first language. Nevertheless, “this
potential can only come into play if they are immersed in experiences of
the language being used” (Tough, 1991: 220).
In other words, it is important to provide a second language rich
environment where the teacher is willing to repeat, correct errors and give
children time to express themselves in a joyful atmosphere.
If the environment that support children’s development of learning
foreign language can be created in school by using similar way that
parents use when talking to their young children, the teaching will be
effective for young learners (Tough, 1991: 226).
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There are some second language teachers, for example Ting (1998: 49),
who argue that without using the students’ first language, they cannot
understand the exact meaning of what they are learning. This is
particularly true when teaching grammar for over 6 years schoolchildren,
adolescents and adults.
However, for under 6 years children, teaching Arabic using only Arabic
is optimal. One of the reasons this is preferable, is that early years
children have the ability to learn with greater ease than older students.
Young children learn foreign languages directly through the target
languages and understand them well.
Another reason instruction in the target language is an asset, is that is not
necessary to teach early years children direct grammatical rules because
children can be taught their second language in the same way their
parents have taught them their first language. As explained earlier, this
can be achieved by adopting a zero grammar approach in the classroom,
which consists of repeating simple key sentences and correcting the
learners’ mistakes.
Never less, I strongly recommend that the Arabic teacher at ISF, in
addition to her fluency in Arabic would be herself an English speaker and
that is for reasons related to the children’s well-being.
I believe, during the home language use stage and the non-verbal period,
it would be beneficial to formulate few phrases in English to greet the
child, ensure her involvement in activities, check on her comprehension,
provide her with directives, complement her effort and check on her
comfort.
In fact, children starting Nursery or Reception often cry for being away
from home and family, the Arabic teachers should be welcoming them
and make them feel safe in their new environment. I recommend during
this starting stage that the Arabic teacher when communicating with a
distressed child would formulate Arabic sentences with English key
words in order to provide a mutually reinforcing bond between the home
and the school.
In addition, other situations might make a child unwilling to
communicate, such as toilet accidents, refusal of eating for particular
reasons, sickness and misbehaviour. In these cases, it is important for the
Arabic teacher to make her self eligible and to make the child cooperate
with her even if this means that she has to use some English words in her
dialogue.
Although this practice might seem beneficial in starting stages, it is
important to note that care should be taken when employing it in order to
avoid generalising its use or extending it to other stages.
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Beside of teaching children to read and write Arabic, the main purpose of
teaching Arabic is that students will be able to understand and use the
language in real situations.
It is important that Arabic teachers introduce realistic practice to children
at an early age. Therefore, it is better to use the target language to teach
young children at the beginning of foreign language learning.
Moreover, if other subjects are also taught in Arabic, students have more
opportunities to hear the target language in different situations, and this
can be done by implementing at ISF a content related program with
effective language instruction.
As for the other subjects that could be taught at ISF in Arabic, I suggest
the Islamic Studies, Knowledge and Understanding of the Word and
Creative Development and that is for 3 reasons.
When planning, teachers usually spread the teaching of one topic over
many days, each day delivering a specific input related to the main topic.
In that case, it is possible for the Arabic and English teacher to plan
together the teaching of one topic, at different times and with different
groups, while setting up multiple activities and using different resources
and methodologies that reinforce the children’s understanding.
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and provides children with further concept practices and understanding
opportunities.
C- The amount of instruction delivered in the second language at
ISF:
The reason why many children whose first language is not English quite
naturally learn English is because; they live in an environment that
promotes the developing of the English language.
Before starting school, children are familiar with hearing and seeing
English. At home, they may hear their parents, older siblings or relatives
speaking English, outside wherever they go they hear people speaking
English. Written English is also everywhere, on the neighbourhood
streets, on food packages in the kitchen, in titles on television programs,
or on the labels on their belongings.
After children start school, they become more aware that almost all of the
helpful sings are in English. Children not only have fewer chances to hear
the spoken Arabic and to get used to the written Arabic words, they may
become to think that Arabic is a less helpful language, wondering why
they have to learn it and ending up refusing to do so.
To avoid children refusing to learn Arabic, teachers and parents have the
responsibility of keeping them motivated.
Schools would keep their students interested in Arabic, by creating a rich
environment appropriate for learning and using the Arabic language.
Inside the classroom, I think the daily presence at ISF of the Arabic
teacher is very beneficial for children. In fact, being present with the
English teacher in the same classroom during the school day, would give
the Arabic teacher the opportunity to stress on oral Arabic. This daily
practice would let children get used to an Arabic speaking environment
so that speaking Arabic will not constitute a psychological obstacle to
them.
However, this presence will not be beneficial, if not carefully planned.
I suggest that beside teaching 30 minutes of Arabic (CLL) and Halaqah
subjects, the Arabic teacher should participate effectively in the afternoon
activities instead of only assisting the English teacher.
If the Arabic teacher is present during the teaching of English (CLL) and
numeracy, she should assist the children with their tasks while speaking
only in English in order to avoid confusing them. Nevertheless, during
the afternoon activities, both Arabic and English teachers should plan for
two different activities related to the same topic. Each teacher would be
responsible of one group and would plan for making with children
displays and other creative activities in order to put in practice the taught
concepts. For example, if the children are learning about winter, the
Arabic teacher could decide to make a hat with children while the English
teacher could decide to make snowflakes with the other group.
39
Further more, the practice of creating an environment for learning and
using Arabic, should not only be limited to classrooms but should be
extended to affect the school environment, and this could be done by for
example having all school sign boards both in Arabic and English.
40
have not experienced something. Children of this age learn best with
concrete experiences.
They need to know how to feel about something in order to learn it well
(Curtain/Pesola 1994: 69). They need to have plenty of objects and
pictures to help them in their teaching (Scott / Ytreberg 1993: 5).
In comparison with pictures, real objects are easier for young children to
understand. Therefore, it is better that the Arabic teachers bring real
objects or models to class when they teach new words (Dunn 1990: 23).
This is different when teaching over 5 years school children and teaching
under 5 years children.
For over 5 years schoolchildren, pictures and flash cards are enough in
Arabic classes. However, for under 5 years children, concrete objects
(real objects or props) are better than pictures. If the Arabic teacher
cannot bring concrete objects to class and has to use pictures as
substitution, it is better to bring pictures which are large.
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When it comes to telling stories in a second language, Scott and Ytreberg
(1993: 21) give some suggestions: “… when we are talking and the
children are listening, it’s important to say things clearly, and to repeat
them. When you are telling a story, for example, you don’t have to tell it
from beginning to end without breaks. You can re-tell it again and again
as you go along.” In fact, many stories are full of repetition in themselves.
It helps children remember the words and sentences (Scott and Ytreberg
1993: 97).
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“Research indicates that for many Language 2 learners, especially
children, Gestalt speech (prefabricated language) serves as a short cut
to allow social interaction and interpersonal communication with a
minimum of competence.” (Dunn 1990: 5). Therefore, in the initial stages
of learning, the Arabic teacher should teach children more rhymes and
pattern sentences.
At the beginning of learning a second language, Gestalt language
(prefabricated language) is used more frequently. However, creative
language (analytic language) is developed gradually and eventually
becomes dominant, when learners attempt to express specific and
individual ideas (Dunn 1990: 5).
Since children have a great capacity to imitate and memorize long
utterances when they learn their first language, they can also do it well
when learning another language. When children have memorized some
prefabricated language, they feel they can speak a lot of Arabic. Once
they know how to transfer language, they have the ability to use the little
language they know in different situations for maximum communication.
Through communicating with others, children can acquire more language
and gradually speak more fluently. If children are exposed to planned
opportunities to acquire prefabricated language, their second language
acquisition will be quicker (Dunn 1990: 5).
In the foreign language classroom it is preferable to give children the
linguistic environment in which to learn prefabricated patterns and
routines. This gives children an opportunity to predict the meaning of the
language used, since much of it will be the same. With practice and
regular repetition of the same prefabricated language, children may
quickly understand situations and memorize the language involved (Dunn
1990: 5).
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Principle 8- Motivation is essential in second language
acquisition:
Learning will be more successful when the students are motivated.
Initially, the children’s motivation comes from their parents who enrol
them in the foreign language course (Fröhlich-Ward 1991: 98).
Therefore, during the learning of a second language parental support and
encouragement are also important (Gardner/ Lambert 1972: 133). If
parents have a positive attitude towards foreign language, it gives
children motivation to learn that language. On the contrary, if parents
have a negative attitude towards the foreign language, it will decrease the
interest in learning that language.
Secondly, while it is probably true that a teacher can do little to influence
students’ extrinsic motivation, there is a lot they can do to enhance their
intrinsic motivation. The teacher can give children encouragement and
praise to motivate them. The personality of the second language teacher
and the teacher’s treatment of students also have an influence on young
children’s ability to learn a second language (Gardner/Lambert 1972:
133). Children often seek their teachers approval, they want their teacher
to notice them and appreciate what they are doing (Harmer 1998: 7).
Whether or not the students like the teacher, may also affect their
motivation. A teacher’s positive attitude and behaviour can motivate
children’s interest in learning the second language
Thirdly, if the teaching is appropriate, children will discover that learning
another language is within their capacity, and this knowledge will
strengthen their motivation (Lee, William K, 1988). Teachers should keep
their students motivated through age-appropriate enjoyable lesson
activities, many involving pair or small-group work. For under 6 years
learners, Anasheed are popular, especially those that fit new lyrics to
familiar tunes. Most activities should have a strong focus on
communication and student’s interaction and minimum of “listen and
repeat after me” instruction. Teachers could devise creative guessing
games, simulations that educate, entertain, and motivate learners, and that
bring together students from different grade level.
For example, Year5 children could help Year1 children review Arabic
numbers, animals’ names, colours and verbs of motions by leading them
in guessing games using numbered animal puppets.
Another example is that the teacher could tell a story of a mother cat on a
journey to find its baby cat. Students in small groups would move a cat
figure across a big size local street map, and answer questions about the
means of transports the cat is using, buildings and shops the cat is
entering or passing by, etc...
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According to Fröhlich-Ward (1991: 98), children’s motivation comes
from the enjoyment and pleasure experienced in the learning situation. If
the class is boring, children will become unmotivated. A crucial aspect of
language teaching is to raise students’ motivation with enjoyable teaching
methods. Children have the ability to learn language through games and
activities which they find joyful. Fröhlich-Ward, suggested a foreign
language class full of “play combined with structured teaching, so that the
children are only aware of the play content and learn the foreign language
almost without noticing” (Fröhlich-Ward, 1991: 99).
Classroom atmosphere, teaching methodology, teaching content, teaching
aids and teaching materials can also influence children’s motivation in
learning the second language. According to Dornyei, “the best
motivational intervention is simply to improve the quality of our
teaching” (Dornyei, 2001 p 26). Dornyei points in particular to the need
for “instructional clarity” by “explaining things simply” and “teaching at
a pace that is not too fast and not too slow”.
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Develop Lesson
According to Teaching
Principles
Make Teach
Adjustments Lesson
to Improve
Student Work
Assess
Analyze
Student
Method and
Products
Content of
Lesson
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4. Methods of teaching foreign language:
There are many methods of teaching languages. Some have had their
heyday and have fallen into relative obscurity; others are widely used
now, still others have a small following, but contribute insights that may
be absorbed into the generally accepted mix.
Every teaching method has its specific goal, either for listening, speaking,
reading, or writing. It is difficult to determine which one is the best. It
depends on many factors, like the age and the level of students, class size,
teaching time, teaching goals, and qualifications of the teachers. All
teaching methods work but every method has its limitations.
Recent developments in course design have seen a shift from using a
particular method as the focal element of a syllabus to using different
methods only as a background for instruction and material design.
In practice, it therefore lies in the responsibility of the educator to adapt
flexibly methods or select from them what is appropriate or applicable,
and to incorporate their ideas into materials and procedures.
Appropriate early years methods are based on psychological aspects of
language learning; they are also language-learner oriented and tend to be
concerned with practical segments of the whole spectrum of learning
(Dubin and Olshtain, 1986).
In this chapter, I will first (section 1) describe three teaching methods, the
Direct Method, the Total Physical Response and the Natural Approach
which seem to be compatible and most effective in early years school
settings. Than (section 2), I will expose the Accelerative Integrated
Method, a recent teaching methodology implemented successfully in an
early years’ foreign language teaching program.
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1- Effective early years’ foreign language teaching methods:
The Direct Method, the Total Physical Response and the Natural
approach seem to relate ideally to the objectives of a successful early
years Arabic teaching program and to the characteristics of the young
learners as they are based on a theory of language learning derived from
processes in mother tongue and second-language acquisition in early
childhood.
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based on the principle of selection and gradation. They are taught through
material association, explanation or use in suitable context.
In the Direct Method, grammar of the target language is not taught for its
own sake. It is a means to an end. Its aim is to enable the learner to
correct errors in his speech and writing. Although the teacher is in the
obligation of preparing his/her lessons according to some grammatical
plan, Grammar is taught inductively. The quantum of exposure to the
language enables the learner to form his own hypothesis and rules of the
language.
The Direct Method has the advantage of being a natural method that
teaches the second language in the same way as one learns one’s mother
tongue. The language is taught through demonstration and conversation
in context. Pupils, therefore, acquire fluency in speech. and are quick at
understanding it.
Moreover, this Method is based on sound principles of education, it
believes in introducing the particular before general, concrete before
abstract and practice before theory.
The Direct Method has the defects of not taking into account all aspects
of language teaching, not always being comprehensible and concentrating
on listening and speaking without reading and writing.
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In a TPR class, students do a large amount of listening and acting. TPR
uses a lot of imperatives, even in proficiency levels. For example, when
the teacher says, “stand up”, “sit down” or “open the window”, students
perform the activities the teacher has named. No verbal response is
necessary. The commands can also be given by one student, and the
others do as instructed (Tseng, yueh-hung 2000: 87). More complex
imperative sentences can also be used in TPR, e.g. “Draw a rectangle on
the chalkboard, walk quickly to the door and hit it” (Asher 1977:55,
cited from Brown 1987: 164).
In early years’ settings, physical movement is seen as one of the main
areas of learning, as it provides an opportunity for children to use their
bodies to express ideas and feelings. TPR has the advantage of combining
commands and activities. Translation through L1 (language one) is not
necessary. If the teacher can demonstrate clearly with gestures, facial
expressions or other teaching aids, students can understand without the
assistance of L1. Thus the principles of TPR tie in very well with the
developmental processes of children with the effect that they usually
enjoy these activities very much. In an integrated approach, the second
language can come whenever these functions are trained. Instructions
during a unit in the gym can be given (and initially demonstrated) in the
mother tongue and in the second language alike. New vocabulary can be
reinforced by mime, gesture and movement to convey meaning. A story-
telling activity, which is accompanied by gesture can be repeated with the
children performing while the teacher is telling the story. The
understanding of verbs can be introduced, extended and consolidated by
asking children to follow commands. A Nasheed can be accompanied by
gesture and movement. Fine motor skills can be trained by giving
instructions to work with scissors, pencils and crayons, construction
materials or tools.
TPR gives the teacher the opportunity to find a balance between ‘stirring
and settling activities’ (Halliwell, 1992: 20) which is essential for
keeping children interested and engaged.
As with any other teaching method, TPR also has its limitations.
Although TPR is especially effective in the beginning levels of language
proficiency, it is not as suitable for more advanced learners. Moreover,
when students have overcome the fear of speaking out in class, the class
is like any other “communicative” language classroom (Brown 1987:
164).
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C- The Natural Approach:
According to S. Karshen and T. Terrell (1983), principles and practices of
the Natural Approach relate to naturalistic second language acquisition in
young children. Emphasis is placed on exposure to input which enables
the learners to go through a period of reception before they start
producing language. These principles are based on Karshen’s Input
Hypothesis (1985) which regards the ‘Silent Period’ as a normal and
natural aspect of second language acquisition. ‘…Children in a new
country, faced with a new language are silent for a long period of time,
their output limited to a set number of memorised phrases and sentences
that they hear frequently and whose meanings they do not understand
completely. […] The child, during this time is simply building up
competence by listening, via comprehensible input.’ He also argues that
the anxiety experienced by adult students about learning is due to the fact
that they are not allowed to go through a silent period in language classes.
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Bruce argues that ‘in play a child always behaves beyond his average
age, above his daily behaviour; in play it is as through he was a head
taller than himself. As in the focus of a magnifying glass, play contains
all developmental tendencies in a condensed form and is itself a major
source of development. ’In play children are more likely to use the
foreign language naturally and thus can be prepared for real-world
communication. This especially applies to the type of role-play where
language is used creatively.
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vocabulary in a way that parallels L1 learning, and acquisition is
accelerated by ensuring exposure to high frequency vocabulary, whereby
the most highly frequently used lexical, grammatical and functional items
are to be presented early in acquisition, and, as new items are introduced,
the words introduced initially are reviewed constantly. Thus, the student
receives maximum exposure to the vocabulary that was presented early in
the program.
One of the covenants that is established from the first day in the program
is the “second language” only rule. The expectation that second language
will come without exception, be the exclusive language of
communication in the classroom by the students (and teacher) is naturally
supported in many ways, since the program is designed specifically to
accelerate fluency. The GA techniques are used very effectively to
answer this support.
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without feeling connected to what is happening in the classroom. And
yet, through storytelling, how quickly they enter the activity, making
sense of what is happening, building their own versions, listening, telling,
retelling, talking about, reflecting upon – responding” (p 38).
It is essential when one’s goal is to have students use and understand new
vocabulary that it is provided to them in a comprehensible context, in
which they see how the language flows in narrative discourse as well as
dialogue. By using the language base of a meaningful story with which
the students become intimately familiar over an extended period of time,
teachers are provided with a wide range of possibilities for language
manipulation activities that help reinforce students’ knowledge of
vocabulary and help them to develop confidence and competence in self-
expression within the familiarity of long-term study.
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Conclusion
Hiring qualified teachers, establishing a bilingual program with sufficient
planning and careful selection of teachers and materials and being clear
about the connection between program goals and the amount of time
allocated to the program are essential determinants of successful early
bilingual programs.
For young children, starting early can lead to mastery of foreign language
only if it is taught through a well-developed program.
Young children will acquire Arabic as a second language when the new
language is expected, nurtured and used purposefully.
Instructional approaches that integrate content and language are likely to
be more effective than approaches in which language is taught in
isolation, an activity-centred approach that creates opportunities for
extended student discourse is to be beneficial for second language
learning and language objectives should be systematically targeted along
with academic objectives in order to maximize language learning.
In this context, it is critical for teachers to have the knowledge necessary
to teach and assess the knowledge, skills, and language of a content area.
According to Darling-Hammond (1998, p 7-8), in order to cover the
curriculum and prepare students for content-based instruction, teachers
need to:
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References:
Helena Curtain & Carol Ann Pesola Dahlberg (2000): Planning for
success: Common pitfalls in the planning of early foreign language
programs.
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Rod Ellis (2008): Principles of Instructed Second Language Acquisition.
Tara W. Fortune & Diane J. Tedick (2003): What parents want to know
about foreign language immersion programs.
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