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10 - 080116 Comparative Advantage and Forest (1) .3 Malaysia Published
10 - 080116 Comparative Advantage and Forest (1) .3 Malaysia Published
1. Introduction
We show that water endowment plays a role in determining comparative advantage in
agricultural products, especially for net importing countries. Across sectors, agriculture is
the most intensive water user, accounting for more than 70 percent of global fresh water
withdrawal1. Water endowment across countries also differs, hence, following the
Heckscher-Ohlin (HO) model; water endowment is important in explaining comparative
advantage in agricultural products. Furthermore, the virtual water (VW) hypothesis shows
that a country can reduce its water withdrawal substantially by importing the embedded
water in the agricultural products instead of producing them domestically. Virtual water is
thus an alternative water source, next to domestic water sources. At the global level, trade
also save water if exporters use water more efficiently than importers, or when exporters
cultivates under rain-fed conditions, while importers rely on irrigated agriculture. The
importance of water in the agricultural sector, the potential global water saving because of
trade and the differences in water endowment across countries, justify the study’s objective
in examining the importance of water endowment in determining comparative advantage in
agricultural products.
2. Trade in Agricultural Products and Water Endowment – Background
Even though water is an important factor of production for agricultural products, the
literature on international trade has not examines the importance of water directly. The
1
Withdrawal is the gross amount of water extracted from any sources either permanently or
temporarily for agriculture, domestic or industrial use.
The Empirical Economics Letters, 7(5): (May 2008) 506
exceptions are Hakimian (2003) and Sayan (2003). They show that water endowment is
important in determining the direction of trade in agricultural products for the Middle East
and North African countries. However, the results from Hakimian (2003) are sensitive to
the definition of water used. On a related literature, Leamer (1984) who study the sources
of international comparative advantage across industries, and, Peterson and Valluru (2000)
who study the effect of government policy interventions on agricultural comparative
advantage, indirectly test the importance of water endowment by embedding water in the
type of lands. Meanwhile the literature on virtual water (see Hoekstra, 2007) measure water
used in the production of different products, but not the direction of trade or the importance
water in determining comparative advantage in agricultural products.
2.2. VW and HO
VW is the volume of water required to produce a commodity or service. Allan (1993)
introduced the concept when studying the option of importing virtual water as a partial
solution to problems of water scarcity in the Middle East. Virtual water import, which
come along with food imports, provide a tool to release the pressure on the scarcely
available domestic water resources in the region as the importation of agricultural products
indirectly import water. Meanwhile, following the HO model, trade in goods is an indirect
way of trading factors of production. The HO model is based on two essential premises: (i)
2
Source: World Development Indicators CD-ROM and Pacific Institute. www.worldwater.org
3
1 m3 = 1000 kg
The Empirical Economics Letters, 7(5): (May 2008) 507
countries factor endowments varies, and (ii) resources intensity for production varies for
different products. Applying the HO model to water resource yields similar results to that
of the virtual water hypothesis. Given that production of agricultural products is water
intensive, both the HO model and the VW hypothesis predict a specialization pattern that is
based on imports of agricultural products from relatively water abundant to relatively water
scare countries.
Y = A −1V (3)
where Y is the vector of outputs, V is the vector of endowments and A is the vector of factor
intensities. A is invertable as long as the production technologies are different across
sectors so that the ratios of factor intensities across sectors are not identical. Consequently,
world production is given by:
YW = A −1VW (4)
where YW is the vector of world outputs and VW is the vector of world endowments.
Assuming identical homothetic preference, a country consumption levels (C) is:
C = sYW (5)
where s is the country’s consumption share. Under balanced trade, from (3), (4) and (5), the
vector of net exports is the product of the inverse of the vector of factor intensities across
product clusters and the difference between each country’s vector of endowments and the
world’s vector of endowments, i.e.:
NX = Y − C = A −1 (V − sVW ) (6)
The Empirical Economics Letters, 7(5): (May 2008) 508
A country with balanced trade will export the services of its abundant factors and import
the services of its scarce factors. However, the balanced trade assumption for a single year
can be relaxed when panel data is used. Deardorff (1994) points out that the model holds in
multiple periods as long as trade is balanced over all periods together.
4. Empirical Approach
To examine the importance of water endowment in determining comparative advantage we
estimate the following model, for product cluster i (cereal, animals and tropical
agricultural).
NX jt = α j + A −1V jt + µ jt (7)
where NX is the net export of product cluster i by country j at time t, A is the factor
intensities matrix, V is the matrix of country-specific relative factor endowments and α is
the individual country effect. We use the cluster shares of the sum of the absolute value of
net exports (NXij) as a proxy for net export (see Leamer et al, 1999):
nx ij
NX ij = (8)
∑ nxij
i
where nxij is the net export of product cluster i from country j. The variable NXij ranges
from –1 to +1 where a positive value mean that the country has a comparative advantage
and hence exporting the product, while a negative value mean that the country is a net
importer of the products. We divide the product cluster into (i) raw materials, (ii) forestry,
(iii) tropical agriculture, (iv) animals, (v) cereal, (vi) labor intensive, (vii) capital intensive,
(viii) machine, (ix) chemical (see Leamer, 1984; Xu, 2001). Only the results for
agricultural products i.e cereal, animals and tropical agricultural products are reported. To
measure relative endowment (adjusted for openness) we follow Spilimbergo et al. (1999),
where adjusted relative endowment (REjf) is:
E jf
RE jf = ln * (9)
Ef
And
⎛ ⎞
⎜ E pop ⎡ X + M ⎤ ⎟
∑ ⎜ jf j ⎢⎣ gdp ⎥⎦ ⎟
* j ⎝ j⎠
Ef = (10)
⎛ ⎡X +M ⎤ ⎞
∑ ⎜⎜ pop j ⎢⎣ gdp ⎥⎦ ⎟⎟
j ⎝ j⎠
The Empirical Economics Letters, 7(5): (May 2008) 509
4
Only the coefficient for water endowment is elaborated as the objective of the paper is on the
importance of water.
The Empirical Economics Letters, 7(5): (May 2008) 510
5. Conclusion
Water is important in the production of agricultural products. Following the HO model and
the virtual water hypothesis, relatively water abundant countries will have comparative
advantage in agricultural products. We show that results of the two models support
especially for net importing countries. For animal products water endowment does explain
the probability of being a net exporter or importer.
The Empirical Economics Letters, 7(5): (May 2008) 511
References
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The Empirical Economics Letters, 7(5): (May 2008) 512