A COMPARATIVE

STUDY OF ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE, LEADERSHIP STYLE AND PHYSICAL FACILITIES OF PUBLIC AND PRIVATE SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN PUNJAB AND THEIR EFFECT ON SCHOOL EFFECTIVENESS

Bv MUHAiVl1\11AD
(Dr./97-12)

IQBAL

Subm i u cd

ill

part i ul ful I"II!IIILilt o 1'1 he req

IIircmc

nts I'll!' Ihe

degree 01' Doctor of Philosophy in Education lnstiunc of Education and Research University of' the Punjab Lahore Julv 2005

at the

Accepted of the Punjab,

by the Faculty of the Institute Lahore- in partial fulfillment

of Education

and Research,

University of

of the requirement

for the Degree

Doctor of Philosophy

in Education

OATA 2:rrERED
--~f\f\}oJA
Director of Thesis

vlember ;.

I.

\~----'
.
'vI ember

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I express talented guidance Educational my very special thanks to Prof. Dr. Zulfiqar for completion of this study. Ali Khan who provided in the area of

His insight and expertise made a valuable Muhammad contribution. Ibrahim extended

Administration gratitudc

and Management to Prof. Dr.

Ivl1' special specialized research. knowledge,

K'halicl

lor his

expert opinion and encouragement to Prof. Dr. Muhammad

to me during this writing skills, the

My thanks abilities

Zafar Iqbal during

whose

communication value

and pains wking attention I admire Dr. A.R. Saghar

this research

enhanced

of this thesis.

for his direction, vc criticism was

and valuable of Prof. Dr. added

consultancy M. Nasim .contribution I provision fviuhamJ11uJ Assistant regarding

for completion Qaisrani during

of this research. the final review

The constructi

of the thesis

;\ value

for this research. thanks

to

0\\'<:

the Secondary made

School

heads ol public and private possib!c. I express Mr.

schools

lor _

of data

which

11m study

my thanks Muhammad

to Mr. Ahmed, me

Abiodullah.

:\ssislant

Professor.

ILl~ and

Professor, the analysis

Statistics

Department,

University

of the Punjab,

far helping

of the data Cor this study.

My recognition

and thanks also go to of this

Mr. Muhammad research.

offer

lnayat for his expertise

in word processing

in the production

thanks

to

111)

class

rdlo\\s

<:sp~cially who

Dr.

Muhammad

Khalid

Mahmood. refinement

Dr. Muhammad ot' this research. facilitated

Afz1I1 Ch., and others I am thankful and helped

all helped colleagues or data.

me for the and friends In this context

to my superiors,

who encouraged,

me in the collection

high cooperation Executive

or Senior

Headmaster

Iqbal Ahmad

Awan,

presently

working

as

District Officer (Education)

Jhang is being acknowledged a

101

particularly. of

l.ast but not the least is my family who sacrificed

for the completion

this research. July 2005

M.I

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter Topic Page No.

INTRODUCTION Statement Significance Objectives of the Problem of the Study of the Study

5
6 9 10 10 10 13 13
111

Null Hypotheses Delimitations Definition II of the Study

of Terms

REVIEW OF RELATED LlTERA TURE Historical Background History of Educational

Significant Policy Landmarks Development in Pakistan Education System of Pakistan

15 18 19 21

Private Sector Organization Organizational Key Components Types of Structure Formal Structure Hall's Approach The Aston Team Approach Mintzbergs Mintzberg's Structural Perspective Framework Applied to Schools in School Structure of Structure

22 23 27

39 40 44 46

47

Ch apter
Configurations

Topic of School Structure

Page No. 52 5] 57 - 57

A Theory of Loosely Coupled School Structure Leadership Administration Administration Evolution Overview in Education

58 60

of Leadership of Leadership Theories

64 69 72 76 77 78

An Overview Leadership Physical

of School Leadership Styles

Facilities

Criteria of a Good School Site Instructional Equipment for Professional Growth

Physical Arrangements Facilities Pakistan's Scenario

79 80

in the Light of Important

Policy Landmarks

84 89 90

What is Effectiveness? Definitions of School Effecti vencss and Research Studies

Historical Evolution of School Effectiveness on School Effectiveness Factors of Effectiveness School Effectiveness Research Studies

91

92

94
96
100

Stages of School Effectiveness Characteristics Effective of Effective Schools

Leadership

100

Chapter
III

Topic

Page No.
103 103 103 of Sample lOS 107 109 Questionnaire

METHOD AND PROCEDURE Population of the Study

Sample of the Study Districtwisc Distribution

Null IJypotheses Instruments of the Study

Organizational Structure Measurement and Conceptual framework Leadership Style Measurement

Questionnaire
Questionnaire

(LSMQ)

I I

(QSMQ) 109 110 I 12 IlJ 114 117 118

Physical F aci lilies Measurement

(PF1Q)

School Effectiveness

Measurement

Questionnaire

(SEMQ)
I

Val idation of Instruments Collection of Data

Data Analysis Case Studies of Public and Private Secondary IV

ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

Schools

OF OAT

1
of

120 126

Part I:

Comparison of Organizational Public and Private Schools Comparison

a)

structurls

128

Part II:

of Leadership

Styles

Comparison of Leadership Styles of Public and Private Secondary School Heads Effect of Leadership Styles on School Effectiveness of Public I
I

145 146 16S

b)

Part Ill: Part IV:

Comparison , of Physical facilities and Private Schools

184 240

Comparison of School Effectiveness on Public and Private Secondary Schools

Chapter

Topic

Page No. 249 279 308 317 ]17

Case Studies of Public- Secondary Schools Case Studies of Private Secondary Schools Summary of Findings of Case Studies of Public and Private Secondary Schools
V

SUMMARY, FINDINGS, RECOMMENDATIONS Summary Findings:

CONCLUSIONS

AND

Part I (Organizational Part II(a) (Leadership

Structure) Style of Heads) Style on School)

]19
]21

Part II (b) (Effect of Leadership Effecli veness) Part III (Physical Facilities) Part IV (School Effectiveness) Conclusions Part I (Organizational Part lI(a) (Leadership Structure)

323 326 332

;.

]]4 336
011

Style of Heads) School)

Part II (b) (Effect of Leadership Style

Effecti veness)

337 338 342 342 351 354 370 381 ]92

Part III (Physical Facilities) Part IV (School Effectiveness) Discussions Recommendations BIBLIOGRAPHY APPENDIX APPENDIX APPENDIX A (List of Schools) B (Questionnaire) C (Interview Schedule)

LIST OF TABLES
Table No. Title
In private sector before 20 105 structure and corresponding

Page

Enrolment by level of education nationalization (t 968) 2 3 4 Districtwise distribution of sample

Components of organizational number of items in questionnaire Leadership style Showing

109
to the leadership
Iu

style of heads and items related name of facility and its related items of items regarding according

5
6 7 8

112 of school

Distribution effectiveness Summary Mean

schools

to the indicator

114
type of data and method of analysis in public and private secondary 129 of support staff in public and private secondary 128

number

of teachers

9 10

Mean number schools

130
officers
III

Mean number of controlling secondary schools. Percentages of accountability

public

and private

131
of staff to principal 132 lind private 133

II 12

Availability of written secondary schools Percentages Percentages opportunities Percentages of mechanism

objectives

in public

13 14

to achieve the objectives

134
135 137

of provision of professional development in public and private secondary schools of monitoring of schools' functions

15 16 17

Appointment/transfer schools Source of financing

authority

in public and private secondary

138
in public and private secondary schools 139

Table No. 18
19 Financial secondary

Title
decision schools making authority
In

Page
public and private

140
(power)
In

Source of authority schools

public and private

secondary

141
about teaching in public and private 142
In

20

Decision making authority secondary schools Method schools. Personnel secondary Percentages style of communication who resolve schools of heads

21

public

and private public

secondary

143
the conflicts having
111

22

and private

144
task/people-oriented having leadership

23

146
heads authoritative/democratic

24

Percentages of leadership style

147
school heads

25 26
27 28

Percentages of public and private secondary having task/people-oriented leadership style Percentages of public and private secondary having authoritative/democratic leadership style Comparison of task/people oriented and private secondary school heads leadership

148
school heads

149
style of public.

150
leadership style of

Comparison of authoritative/democratic public and private secondary school heads

151
style of

29 30 31 32 33

Comparison of task oriented/people oriented leadership male and female heads of public secondary schools Comparison of authoritative/democratic male and female heads of public secondary leadership schools

152
style of

153
style of

Comparison of task oriented/people oriented leadership male and female heads of private secondary schools Comparison of authoritative/democratic leadership male and female heads of private secondary schools Comparison of male heads' leadership style oriented) of public and private secondary schools

154
style of 155

(task/people-

156

Table No.
34

Title
of

Page 157
of

Comparison of leadership style (authoritative/democratic) mate heads of public and private secondary schools Comparison of leadership style (task/people-oriented) female heads of public and private secondary schools Comparison of authoritative/democratic leadership female heads of public and private secondary schools Analysis of variance school heads style

35
J6 37 38

158
of

159 160

for scores on LSivlQ by various types of

LSD post-hoc test of multiple comparisons for task/peopleoriented and authoritative/democratic leadership style of male and female heads of public and private secondary schools Pearson correlation of leadership and au tho ri tati ve/dcrnocrauc Comparison of encouragement private schools styles mode task/people-oriented

162 163

39

40 41

between

public

and

164

Summary of coefficients of regression analysis for finding effect of heads leadership style (task/people-oriented) on school effectiveness Summary of regression authoritative/democratic cffecti veness coefficients for finding leadership style the effect of on school

165

42

166

43

Summary of regression coefficients for finding effect of male heads' leadership style (task/people-oriented) on school effectiveness Summary of regression coefficients for finding the effect of male heads' leadership style (authoritative/democratic) 011 school effectiveness Summary of regression coefficients for finding effect of female heads' leadership style (task/people-oriented) on school e ffecti veness Summary of regression (authoritative/democratic) school effecti veness coefficients for finding the effect of female heads' leadership style on

167

44

168

45

169

46

170

Table No. 47

Tille

Page

Summary of regression coefficients for finding effect of public school heads' leadership style (task/people-oriented) on school effectiveness Summary of regression coefficients for finding the effect of public school heads' leadership style (authoritative/ democratic) on school effectiveness Summary of regression coefficients for finding the effect of private school heads' leadership style (task/people-oriented) on school effectiveness Summary of regression coefficients for finding the effect of authoritative/democratic leadership style of private secondary school heads on schoo! effectiveness Summary of regression coefficients for finding the effect of public male heads' leadership style (task/people-oriented) on school effectiveness Summary of regression authoritative/democratic on school effectiveness coefficients for finding the effect' of leadership style of public male heads

171

48

172

49

17J

50

174

51

[75

52

176

53

Summary of regression coefficients for finding the effect of task/people oriented leadership style of public female heads all school effectiveness Summary of regression (authoritative/democratic) school effectiveness coefficients leadership for finding the effect of style of public female on

177

54

178

55

Summary of regression coefficients for finding the effect of task/people-oriented leadership style of male private school heads on school effectiveness Summary of regression coefficients for finding the effect of authoritative/democratic leadership style of male heads of private secondary schools on school effectiveness Summary of regression coefficients for finding the effect of task/people-oriented leadership style of private female heads school effectiveness

179

56

180

57

on
58

181

Summary of regression coefficients for finding the effect of authoritative/democratic leadership style of private secondary schools female heads on school effectiveness

182

Table No.

Title

Page

59

Summary of coefficients of regression analysis for finding the effect of organizational structure, leadership style and physical facilities on school effectiveness Comparison of ownership private secondary schools of school buildings
III

183 184

60
61 62
63

public and

Difference between mean area occupied secondary schools in Punjab

by public and private

185
in public

Difference between mean number of classes existing and private secondary schools

186 187 188

Difference between mean number of sections existing in public and private secondary schools Difference of mean classroom pri vate secondary schools Difference Difference Availability schools Availability Availability schools of classrooms of percentage according number between public and

64
65

10

the number of classes

189 190 191

66
67 68 69 70
71

for airy and well lighted building in public and private secondary

of staff room

of hall in public and private secondary schools of store room plots in public between and private public secondary

192 193

Difference of grassy secondary schools Comparison of inadequate . secondary schools Provision secondary of drinking schools

and

private

194
facilities between public and private

195
water facility
In

72

public

and

private

196 198
supply
In

73 74
75

Mean of drinking schools

water facility in public and private secondary public and private

Availability of electricity secondary schools Availability ec nd of lights

199
of public and private

In classrooms

Table No. 76 77
78'

Tille
of electric fan In public in public and private and private secondary

Page
202

Adequacy schools Availability schools Provision schools Existence Existence

of dispensary of first aid service

secondary 203 secondary 204

In public and private

79 80 81 82 83

of mosque in public and private secondary of canteen in public and private secondary

schools schools

205 206 207

Comparison of provision of good quality canteen 'private secondary schools Comparison of co-curricular secondary schools Comparison about existence private secondary schools activities
111

in public and and private 208 public and 209 existing 210 in 212
III

public

of playgrounds

III

84

Summary of information about the size of playgrounds in public and private secondary schools Summary of information about provision public and private secondary schools Comparison of existence private secondary schools Summary of information pri vate secondary schools of science

85 86

of sports facilities public

laboratory

and 214

87

about

laboratories

III

public

and 215

88

Comparison about the provision of lab apparatus and chemicals according to the need in public and private secondary schools Availability schools of science teacher in public and private secondary

216

89

218 practical conducted

In

90

Comparison about science private secondary schools

public

and 219

91

Comparison about the availability of blackboard classroom in public and private secondary schools Summary of information about the usc of A.V.Aids public and private secondary schoolteachers

1I1

every 220 by the

77 I

92

Table No.
93

Tille
used in

Page
222 In 224

Comparison of information about the type of A.V.Aids public and private secondary schools Summary of information about the existence public and private secondary schools

94

of library

95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105. 106 107 108 109

Summary of information about the number of books available in libraries of public and private secondary schools Comparison of purchase of newspapers and private secondary schools Comparison about the issuance alld private secondary schools for library III public

225 227

of books to students

in public 228

Comparison about the use of library by teachers private secondary schools Comparison about sufficient private secondary schools chairs for staff secondary

in public and 229

111

public schools

and 230 for 231 232

Comparison of public and private provision of furniture to students Condition schools

of furniture provided in public and private secondary schools regarding 233 public and private 234 found
In

Comparison of public and private secondary teaching of computer as a subject Number of computer secondary schools Number schools of computer teachers serving
In

public and private of teachers

secondary 235 working

Comparison of (post-wise) public and private secondary

number schools

In

236 of teachers of schools of public and 241 schools for school 242 working 238 240

Comparison of qualificationwise number in public and private secondary schools The effectiveness score of various categories

Difference of mean scores private secondary schools Comparison effectiveness of public

of effectiveness

male and female

Table No.
110 III 112 113 114 Comparison effectiveness Comparison effectiveness

Title
of private of public male and female schools and private male schools for school

Page
243 for school 244 and private female 245 246

Comparison of mean scores by pubic secondary schools for school effectiveness

Analysis of variance for male, female of public and private secondary schools on school effectiveness score LSD post-hoc test of multiple comparisons for school effectiveness type (public vs private) and gender (male vs female) wise Pearson correlation of leadership styles and effectiveness in public and private secondary schools school

247 248

115

ABSTRACT
This study aimed to compare the organizational structure, heads leadership style and physical facilities of public ami private secondary schools. The effect of head's leadership style was also seen 011 school effectiveness. It was survey study in nature. The researcher prepared :.I!1d validated the following questionnaires for data collection.
l.

ii.
Ill.

IV,
v.

Organizational Structure Measurement Questionnaire (OSMQ). Leadership Style Measurement Questionnaire (LSMQ). Physical Facilities ivlcaSllrCmC!lt Questionnaire (PFMQ and School Effectiveness Measurement Questionnaire (Sr:MQ) Interview Schedules for principal, teachers, students and parents for the purpose of case studies. 280 secondary schools located at 34 district into ISS public schools and 122 private schools. schools through mail or personally ~ distributed could be received from 131 public schools and rate questionnaire W;tS 84.5u/.1.

The sample of the study was headquarters of the PUlljab Province split The U,l!a were collected 1'1'0111sampled quesuonnuircs Only n7 qucstionnarres I U(l private schools. :\5 such the response

or

Analysis 01' d,lta \\as run through testing of 22 null hypotheses i.c. 110 I-G for leadership styles of heads, lip 7-1 (J 10 IIlld {hc rclarionslup of organizational structure, leadership style and phY'sictl ('IC;lllil.:.'5 wilh school effectiveness and Ho 17-22 101' comparison of schools Cft'CCtl\·CI11.'SS of public and private schools by applying t-tcst r\NOV.-\ and linear regression. Nominal data were analyzed and presented in percentages and graphs i.e. Pie and Bar br;lphs. 111 addition to questionnaires six case studies (three from public and three from priv.uc schools} were also conducted for in-depth study 0[' schoo len vi ronmcnt and leudcrshi p heha v.or 0 r schoo I heads both, A s such views 0 r the beads, teachers, students and parents \\ ere found through interview schedules Till: purpose ot' these case studies was \0 enhance gcncralizability of the research. Sixteen interviews were I'c'cOILil'd trom c.ich school. The key conclusions hascd 011 statistical and descriptive evidences of this study indicated thaI 4()%J of private schools heads were task oriented and authoritative as compared (0 14u/o public school heads which means private school heads were found 10 be more lask oriented ;111\1authoriuuivc. Public male and female heads had 110 diffcl~'llLC or leadership style. ~Iak heads 01' pnv.ne schools were people-oriented and democratic <IS compared to their female counterparts. female head of public and private schools had 110 difference of leadership stvle. OV ERALL TASK-ORIENTED AND A UTHORITATI VE LL\O[RSHIP STYU·: or PUI3LIC ,\ND PRIVATE SCHOOL IIEt\DS !tt\D . SIGNIFIC:\NT [FITCl ()!': SCHOOL I:FFI~CTIVLNESS. Private male lind female school had better cltccuvcncss ;IS compared 10 public schools while public schools iJ:ld more mean area and more mean number of teachers <IS compared to private schoo!s School effectiveness was measure 011 the basis of school internal cnviroumcnt. interactions.and three years matriculation reSLIIL.

CHAPTER I IN'I'I~ODUCTI()N
Education a nation. is an importunt determinant of eCOll0I111C and social development of

Quality of education l.xpcnditurc

ill a Ulllntr;; imliGlICs 011 cdUl<lIi\l1l

the qUidity of its human resource as ,111 i!l\'cstl11elll ill human

development. resource

i:-, CIl!lsidcICd

enrichment.
/\\1 the
11111iOllS

CSPCCiidly the developing to its tllilsses. ()e'·el(lpin~

'\Cf{1SS

ones spend :1 countrtcs

101

of money

for the

provision
[rce or
ill

pi" education minimal

provide

public education

cost to their cili/el1s ..

till'
7()

Third World public schools enroll fll:1ccn: oi" ;tll sl:ulIldary schoo'" is increasll1g. students. (Jimcnc« &

approximately

')0 percent

or

,iii pnl11iH) :lIld

t(1

Due to liscal constraint , a trend

Lockheed. 1()95) sector
;t1()IH:

rei) 011 pri'·alc

Public of quality

c:-,pl:u,i1ly in til:,

CIO[llllg

counu re-, cannot

meet the needs

CdUC<ltJOIl for rapidly

gro"·lllg population.

l'rivntc sectors

sector

has to share this in providing

burden. education

Therefore,
10

both the public

and private

arc engaged

the masses. svstem ,

III

Education

P;)kisliHl is
'holh

<I 1e!2'IC\ , ~

of I1riti:-,h rule in sub-continent.

illstiluli()ns

;\(

the lime .(11' independence

education .u pr!mar~
dllll

publi,

,Illd puv.uc

were

providing.

~eullldar:

Ie, eh into tlu cc categories.

institutions I.

at the time of" independence Public bodies, schools

alld colleges

run b) provincial

govcnuncnts

or local

3.

Schools Punjab.

and colleges

in private

sector affiliated

with University

of the

All the types of educational Pakistan. through .At that time, private schools. Private education schools

institution's

continued functioning

after creation education

of

sector had an important

role in providing motivated through

were run either hy societies making their

by the cause educational

of promoting institutions.

or by individuals

living

Prior to 1972, privately portion school voluntary attached of the total educational and college levels.

managed system. Such

educational \Iost

institutions

constituted operated

a sizable at the by fees/

of these institutions were administered

institutions

and managed through

organizations,
propertyand

and, apart donations,

from generating

their own funds

the institutions

-also received

grant-in-aid

from the for the In 1972. cd uca: iona I These

government. academic the

Some
standards

pri vate educational. they maintained to ta KC

j nstuuiions

earned

a high reputation

<till! tor

the quality

o l their instruction.

governmcn

t dcci ded As a result,

ovc r ,II! the

pri \d tcly-manngcd

institutions. included

19.432 educational 346 rnadrassas,

institutions 155 colleges

were nationalized. and 5 technical

18,926 schools, 1998).

institutions

(Govt. of Pakistan,

The need for the involvement educational reviewed result facilities

\\::IS

of private sector to meet the expanding realized. The Natiunul and came Educational

needs of 1979

again

Policy

the consequences

of nnuonalizruion of private educational

to the conclusion

that as a of of

of nationnliz.uion educational alone.

institutions.

the responsibility

providing government

facilities

lor all the children

shi fled on tile shoulders

(1979)

In (he National

Education

Policy

the need

for the

involvement was realized.

of private

sector to meet the expanding

needs of educational

facilities were

It was learnt that participation

rates at various required

levels of education educational

poor and government levels. It was,

alone was unable to provide therefore, considered necessary

facilities at all once again the

to encourage

participation

of the community were proposed: enterprises

in educational

development

To do so, the following

policy measures
i)

"Private particularly

will

be encouraged

to open

educational

institutions,

in rural areas. to setup educational institutions will be granted by the Ministry of

ii)

Permission Education

or the respective legislation

Provincial

Educational

Departments. managed educational

iii)

The existing

on nationalization

of" privately

institut ions will be su itab I! a mended institutions government

supervision

to allow ope ni I1g of pri vatc cducat ional set up with the permission future. undertaken Regular by of

and to ensure that such Institutions will of not these be nationalized

vvi in

instruct ional the education

institutions

11 be

departments iv) Income

and relevant statutory

bodies.
[0

tax relief will be allowed

to

the individuals

and the organizations

for

their donations

these schools."
(Govt

of Pakistan,

1979)

In pursuance (Promotion ordinances provided

01' this

policy, Ordinance

the Punjah No.11

Private

Lducaiional

Institutions Similar

and Regulation), were adopted

or

1984 was passed

in 1984,

by the governments of all private

of NWFP and Sindh. institutions

These ordinances Authority:

for the registration of a managing

with a Registration

the constitution

body for each institution,

and spell out the conditions

for registration. mandatory Pakistan.

Under

these conditions.

the government

approval

was considered (Govt. of

for the adoption 1998).

of a tee structure

by each private

institution

As a consequence second estimated wave

of the rrorl1ulgalion rarlicip<ltion

of these ordinances in education

in the provinces.

oC community

I1m.l been energized. institutions

It is

that more or less ]0.000 ) million arc' English sludcntx medium

private educational are functioning schools

at all levels with Most of these to

approximately institutions secondary

in the country.

and impart education City School.

from play-group Aizcr Kindergarten

011

level. for example. schools.

Bcacoll house System. schools

and secondary

SOI11C

have been established The concentration

community

basis, is in

while the others arc owned urban areas.

hy individua!x.

of these schools of Pakistan. 1998).

l leavy fees arc charged participation and universities five universities rate

11:-' these schools (Govt.

Increasing list of institutes rresent thirty

or rri\

ate sector ill education

hy

is evidenced Commission.

by the At

recognized

the l lighcr Education awarding

and fi ftcen degree

institutions institutions

in private recognized (Higher

sector and forty seven universities by the Higher Education Education

,111<1 eight degree awarding arc functioning

Commission 2004),

in public

sector

Commission.

Many research

studies have been conducted over

1he

to compare .I imencz and

the various aspects of

publ ic and pri vatc sc hool sail summarized conclusion many studies

world. public

and Lock heed (I 995) have schools performance and reported

comparing

private

that private schools

0f

ill US,\ improved

students'

as measured that

hy standard i zed tcst

average student

verbal

and mathcmat ical sk ill s

It was also reported is widespread.

performance

\\as better in pnvaic than public schools

Abid,

Ishfaque

and Gonda] of public

(1993) compared secondary fully

the usage of modern schools. about teachers teaching the

teaching

aids by the teachers teachers of both

and private arc

It was found that advantages and aids. models

types

of schools aids.

aware

effectiveness l Iowcvcr,

or teaching the teachers

Both types of school schools lise more

lise teaching [lids and

or

private

comparatively. Farida and Madecha schools with respect better (2000 I ill their comparative study or private and public

to administrators

role. found that heads of government schools planning for the whole year and academic about co-curricular of

performed activities activities. provincial Government facilities. Tl1erefore,

in their administrative

while the heads of private schools show more concerns Provision governments of education in Pakistan. upto secondarv

level is the responsibilities

Private sector is also contributing

iil this respect. of education rapidly.

is also encouraging Consequently private

private sector to take part in expansion schools

arc

growing

and

flourishing

there was a need to compare

the effectiveness

of both the types of the

schools as well as factors influencing Present schools regarding study was conducted their functioning

the effectiveness. to compare the public and private secondary

and effectiveness.

Statement
Present style, physical Punjab. study was designed facilities

of the Problem
In compare
organizational

structure.

leadership schools effectiveness in

and effectiveness

of public and private secondary styles

all

It was also aimed to find out the impact 'of' leadership

ofboth types of schoo!s.

Signiflcancc
Effectiveness its output/serv provide services Quality can only ices. of any organization

of the Study
is determined by the quality colleges and quantity of

Educat i onal organ i zat i OIlS i.e. schools.

i\

and uni versities

to educate masses of education

socictv/nntion of all the nations. organizations working Quality education and

is the major concern from educational

be expected

efficiently

effectively. physical

It is an established facilities available

fact th(1t organizational for the functioning

structure.

leadership

style and

of an organization

arc three critical

factors for its success. As such quality structure. education only

Ihosc educational

institutions \\hich physical

can provide have appropriate

tile society

with

ill required

qllnllli'~'

organizational

cffccti ve leadership Significance

and sufficient

facilities. knowledge of

of the present

study lies in the fact that accurate leads towards is necessary improvement.

various

aspects

of a prevailing. of an educational

system

Study of these

crucial aspects and imperfections.

institution

to locate deficiencies.

flaws

Rationale

for importance for the effective

of organizational functioning

structure.

leadership

style

and

physical research a)

facilities

of an organization

and the need for as below: health. as it

study to explore Sound

the appropriateness
structure

of these aspects is described is a pre-requisite

organizational

to organizational organizational the influence structure structure

Choudhury is designed
variations

(2001) emphasizes

the importance

or

'to on

minimize the

or lit least regulate Organizational

of individual ensures Structure that is the

orgauivation. to the requirements

individuals

confirm

of the organization.

setting activities

In

which

power

is exercised.

decisions structure

are made and organizational is an important determinant of

arc carried out. Appropriate functioning style plays a

(199))
IS

organization's
11)

cffccrive ly.
\"Cr~'

Leadership Mchmood organization productivity.

crucial

role for the uplift of all organization. behaviour of individuals determinant of leadership leading an of human style for

"sscrts universally To

that leadership

I-.;no\\"11as an important the importance

emphasize

organ izational and Campbell any organization leadership Educational

e ffcct ivencss Mchm ood ( 19(5) has cited Anderson ct al (19()2) who purport is related

et al. ( 1972) of

that the quality of accomplishment of its leadership

to the nature

and consider

as the solution research

to all problems, and administration has recently

in school organization

been dominated

bv the concept

or principa]

as leader (Blank. 200 I).

(1983).

Blank (2001) has also cited studies like Hoyer (19H3). Lightfoot
(1982). Colcman.Tloffcr

Grant

& Kilgore (\9R2)

and Sizer (\984)

which found that that

the role or the principal

as a leader is critical in creating performance. Conditions

school conditions

lead to higher student academic standards/goals. towardinnovation. communicating e) School planning frequent students'

such as setting high an orientation parents through

and coordinating monitoring

with staff having

of staff and involving

performance. of modern fo rill <I I education. and refinement process. physica] It plays
C1

is the pioneer

institution

very

distinctive personality

role for the harmonious through cfficicut

development

or students' use

tcaching-lcaruing and adequate

The appropriate

of instructional

materials

facilities

is one of the

determinant

factors of the quality education. b:,; different

Teaching teaching

can be more effective materials. Principal has

if il is aided arid supplemented

to keep ill mind that the school facilities to which facilities they are maintained have a corresponding in suitable

arc educationally conditions

useful to the extent The physical of habits to pay

for use.

and direct effect on the development So the principal of physical facilities needs

and attitudes attention

that [Ire felt to he desirable. and maintenance

for provision

to maximize

school efficiency Significi.lllce pioneer studies

and effectiveness. study also lies in thc fact Research that it is one of the the truth about

of the present

of its nature in Pakistan. sucl:

LIS

studies exploring

the various educational

cruc ia I aspects organizations structure is of

st rue tlire. lcadersh iP style and c ffccti vcness of Naheed (1983) studied only

are rare in nur own context. of the Punjab l lnivcrsitv the opinion
1

the organizational Researcher

that

educational

organizations

imparting

ed neat ion tIp to secondary Secondary education education. leadership education determines Therefore.

icvc

occ upy a pi vot al pos: 1 ion i J1 cd ucat ion system. stage in the life of of human considered (\1' secondarv
<I

is a terminal the qualitv researcher

student.

Quality of secondary of higher structure.

resources the study schools

and the quality of organizational a valuable

style and effectiveness

one with a hope at secondary

that findings leve 1.

of this study will help to improve

our education

system

As stated car lie r secondary categories i.e. public and private.

schools

ill Pak istall can he c Iassi fied i nto two main over the years that private

It has been observed

schools/

institutions

are increasing

in number and nourishing of private sector in education

rapidly.

Government

is

also encouraging

the participation

enterprise. from public of students in

II is also an observed schools to private schools

phenomenon

that

students

arc shifting the number

which resulted

in decreasing

public schools. private various schools. aspects

This situation

created a competition circumstances types of

environment inspired

between

public and to compare researcher leadership schools in

These changing of
competing

the researcher Therefore,

structure,

orgaruzauons.

conducted/carried style, physical Punjab.

out a study facilities

to compare

and effectiveness

the organizational . of public and private

secondary

Objectives of the Study

The objectives I. compare schools compare schools.
3. -I. compare the physical facilities of both types of schools.

of the study were to: the organizational structures

ol public

and private secondary

the leadership

styles

of heads

of both types

or

secondary

compare

the effectiveness

of both types of schools, di' public and private sector

5.

suggest suitable

changes for development aspects:

structure

in [he following
i)

Organizationa]

ii) iii)

Leadership

styles

Physical facilities

Hypotheses
This research hypotheses of heads' ..leadership .. to HoI6). was conducted by testing 22 null hypotheses. The statements of

are given in Chapter leadership

III. First six hypotheses and private

were about the confirmation schools. The effect of (11u7

style of public

secondary

styles on school effectiveness School effectiveness

was. studied by testing

tell hypotheses

of public and private schools

was compared

by testing

six null hypotheses

(Ho 17 - H(22).

Delimitations
Following
I.

of the Study

were the dclirnitauons of the study: to public and private secondary schools located at

The study was delimited district headquarters

of the Punjab province.

2.

Only the private ~ secondary

schools

affiliated

with respective in the study.

boards

or intermediate

and

education

were included

Definitions
Following
Leadership

of Terms

terms have been used in the study: . The is behavior

11

Style:

that a leader style. the

exhibits The leader

Juring term

SLlpef\'ISIOI1 of style is roughly subordinates

subordinates equivalent (Lunenburg

Task Oriented

KIlO\\

as leadership
In

to the

manner

which

influences

& Ornstein,

1(96).

Style:

Leaders

differ in their concern with a strong

_'

Cor groups,

goals and means to to be task

achieve

the goals.
(

Those
=t . ,,:0

concern

arc considered

Mouton.

1964)

achievement

oriented

(Wofford.

1970.

lndivile.

1986)

production-oriented facilitative assumptions

completing

gO<l! achieving

(Cartwright
mO\\US

& Zender.

! 960) and work

and g0<11 emphasizing

& Seashore.

1966).

The leaders' in

about their roles purposes and behaviour assigumcnis

Oriented

reflect their interest

.1Ill! gcttillg their work dune.

Style:

People/Relation

Leaders approach

also di ffcr in the extent and try to maintain concern

to which

they

pursue

a human

relations

friendly

supportive

rclat ions wi t h their CoI!ewers relation-oriented maintenance people (Bowers concerned(Cartwrigh: &

those \\'i th a strong I'm maintenance

me ident i fled as 1985) or group for

(Misumi, 1970).

& /_cnder. 19(4).

I %0. Wofford.

Concerned

(B lake

Mouton.

interact ion

faci I irat ivc and (Bass. 1967).

supporti vc Such leaders

& Seashore.

! 9(j()) i ntcrac t ion oriented to establish social

arc expressive

and lend

and emotional and d i scourage

ties.
to

Usually contro I the

assoc i atcd with a re lat i on-uri c ntation trustworthy employees. Au thorita tivc/ Au thoritarian that involve organizing
Lcadcrxhi
io gCI

p Style:

A uthoritati vc/autnori tarian

ways

things to get things done. or authoritarian, concerned

That is. the same directive "Theory X"

lenders who arc described (McGregor.

& Mouton.

us autocratic

1060) cOCrCi\T and persuasive 19M). lone decision (Bowers

with production

(Blace

makers (Vroom

& Yetton.

1974) ernphasizer (Fiedler. 1967)

and work facilitators and concerned Democratic Leadership about

& Seashore.

1966) task-oriented ! (85)leadership wavs.

about performance Style: followers

(\'Iisllmi,

The democratic in di ffcrcnt

style involves Democratic

the lender's leaders are

concern

considerate.

consultive centered

and participative and concerned

(Bass.

1976).

Consensual

(Zaleznik, 1964) and and

1974) employee

with people (Blake & Mouton. relations (Misurni. 1966) 1985) supportive relations-oriented

and the maintenance facilitating oriented

Organizational

of good working (Bowers

III

interaction

& Seashore.

towards joi nt dcci sion Structure:

ak ing. structure. we mean the tasks people

By organizational

are assigned.

who they report

to. who they work with and who they must done (Robbins. means c.g. all material building. 1997). and human classroom. resources playground.

interact with. in order to get theirjob Physical Facilities: which arc Physical provided laboratories, School: facilities

in a school

A. V.Aids.

teachers and supporting Private sector schools

<1<;

staff etc. by or 1994).

Private

Secondary

are those which are not managed

(Husen,

within the Government Public School: provincial School The secondary government

cited h~ I fNFSCO and OE(O and financed 1994).

school \\ hich is managed for general public (Husen.

hy district or

Effectiveness: that student

"An effective achievement

school is one in which the conditions

evidence

arc such

data show that all students'

are acceptable to

upto minimum

mastery 01' those essential

basic skills that are pre-requisite

& Herman.
J

success at the next level of school i ng" (Herman Controlling schools Officers: The controlling
officers

994). secondary
rn istress.

or

public

and private headmaster/head

included

princi pa [.'\' icc-pri

nc i pa I.

Dy. Hcndrnaster/headmistrcss. headmastcr/hcadm headmistress. i stress

controller
SI,l

of examination

(i I' any).

second

or scn i or

1'1' mcrn her work i ng as headmaster!

CHAPTER REVIEW OF RELATED

The review education
development

II LlTERA TURE
will:

of related in Pakistan
reference

literature

hegins

a brief historical rule along

overview

of

system
with

as a lcgacv
In

of British policy

with the historical

Literature

important

landmarks.

related

to

organizational The
review

structure, continues rc I atcd

leadership with

styles and physical related

[acititics

have been reviewed, and the

literature

to "schooi

effectiveness"

researches physical

to the vari a hies

i.c. organ izat ioua I structure.

lcadcrshi p style.

facilities

and school effectiveness the review concludes, research studies highlighling

(Ill

Finally. of the important

major themes. structure.

findings

and results styles.

organizational

leadership

physical facilities

and school effectiveness.

Historical

Background
system

of Education
is constructed
(Oulakh,

System of Pakistan
on the ideological.
1998),

Every education and social foundations

political.

economic should have

of the country

Our own system and social

been consistent unfortunately

with our ideological. this is the outcome period there volunteer basis

temporal.

economic.

believes, but Rule in India, working was After

all

of what
\\",15

was legated

from British

During the Mughals on self-help or

an informal

system of Dceni Madaris. control.

without

gt)\'cl'nll1ental of instruction

Persian

court/official

language

and it Was also medium Hritish

!,!P\

in sub-continent. system level

the fall of Mughal«. patterns of British

ern

1111.,' ~l'l III

til' a lonual prepare the

r'~llglish school

the

education

svstcm

10

lower/middle

trained

manpower, language, literate language seriously

The British ruler set up formal schools

It changed

and English

became

as an official The 100% of English

the whole illiterate

education

scene in the sub-continent. and alien character chunk which

population

became

due to ignorance \\as the major

and the Muslin: affected

population

was much more

than any nt her national

SC~I1lC

nt o r popul at ion. These svstcrn.

\\ilS

inst itut ions did not during the post war hardly be

lead to any integrated period a comprehensive because

education
rLlI1

However.

educational of the departure

drawn

up which

could

implemented of Pakistan.

of the British in 1947. At the time of inception included therein was worst. Literacy

the educational 10%, Pakistan

level of territories inherited

rate was only schools schools

only 2 out of 21 universities, schools in West

2900 primary

In East Wing and 5500 primm:' In the sub-continent. along with some colleges, schools) There

Wing out of 39000 total schools in NWrP colleges, teachers 'and There training

were onlv 200 pnrnary schools colleges,

Baloc'11istan

secondarv

and intermediate 108 elementary

were 83 general schools (Oulakh, (normal 1998),

:1 engineering and
71

technical/commercial

agriculture

institutions

Pak istan inhcri ted and Deeni-Madaris consisted remodeled education Ulooms of those from system, which schools

t \\0

types of educational
1992:

systems
I (95),

i.c. Engl ish formal schools The formal school system launched. managed and

(Aqccl,

Arshad. which

educational

institutions

were

time

to time In the !hitish Madaris system

Rule on the pattern or those Madrissas education

of the British and Oar-ul(Aqeel, 1992:

Decni

consisted
(1:-

were setup

for imparting

only religious

Arshad, 19(5),

Pakistan Pakistan education necessary

came into existence

on the basis of two nation theory - that is why By virtue of that reality, Pakistan After creation needed an it was Rule,

is called an ideological system consistent

state.

with its ideology.

of Pakistan,

to restructure

~he education of Pakistan to chalk-out

system which was the legacy of British on 14(h August plans

Since the day of creation the part of the public education

1947 there has been a demand on of knowledge and

for discrimination ideology

in order to achieve the real goal of national

and at the same time to progress

train the y~)U!h in the fields of science and technology (Dani, 1986), After Independence Governments
,

for the socio-economic

in order to streamline have taken several form which

the education

system.

successive

in Pakistan system

measures. wns aimed

All such steps have placed to produce of public an integrated schools and

education national English due

[0

in rudirnentarj system. schools

education medium

Unfortunately,

the dual system

could not be harmonized sections

01"

into an integrated I lowevcr educational

school system the process of policies and

vested interests

of privileged

population. of several

evolution commissions

can be seen in the recommendations (Shahid & Parvecn,

J 985).

Significant Pakistan

Policies in the History of Educational

policies (1947); Education Commission ill the history of educational Six Year Education

Development
development

in

The significan: Educational Commission Conference on National

arc: First

Development on Students

Plan (1952); Problems and

(1959); Commission

Welfare (1966); National

on Manpower

and Education

(1969) Education

Policy

(1972-80); New Education Education

Policy

(1979); National

Education

Policy

(1992-

2000); and National

Policy (1998·20 10). have emphasized: (b) expansion of education (a) orientation education towards Islamic

By and large all documents ideology and character of illiteracy; science Pakistan (c) quality building;

of primary

and eradication towards citizens of

improvement
(1.:)

at all levels; (d) orientation opportunities to

al]

and technology; (Farooq, 19(4). All the political

provision

or educational

governments

and

Martial

Law

regimes

set

their

own /\ yuh 1(59) which

educational Khan's suggested included

;.

priori tics whic h were reflected Law regime, drastic

in thci r pol ic ies or plans. on National system of education

During Education(

Martial some

report of the Commission in the education provision

changes

of the country, planning

the 3 years degree administration, of Polytechnic in furtherance

programme, emphasis Institutes.

department of was

for educational establishment established

on technical L;l1ivcrsity

education

and decision (UGC)

Grants

Commission

of the suggestio]]

or I Iamood-ur-Rchman
the Education

Commission.

Soon after the separation into power in the Western Wing.

or Fast Pakistan

in 1971. Zulfiqar Ali Bhu\!o came Policy (1972-80) in the Government institutions at all

He introduced
As

1972 based on the ideology decided

to nationalize

of socialism. properties l.ahorc. were

a sequel of this policy, educational was decided

all private College.

and private lrcc education special

levels except Atchison up to loth class Student Unions

to be imparted

and students were ,dlowt:u

given

concessions

(or transportation.
10

to be established. (Farooq.

UeiC was established

coordinate

[he functions

ofall of the Universities

19(4).

General

Zi a-ul- Haq

Regi me made Education of education

some

c ff 0 rts to redirect

the education

system and introduced of this policy.

National

Policv ill 1979 ... Apart from other aspects was emphasized. Maktab schools Private sector was

lslarnization

encouraged _ the premises

(1978·83).

to establish

institutions

of education.

were revived within Firth Five Year Plan

of mosques

and these numbered

R.200 during

(Farooq. 1994).

After the lifting succeeded. education decided Islamabad

of Martial

Law in the year

II)UJ. the political accorded 1{S. 27.490

set up was top priority to million were and

The Prime Minister specially to he spent districts.

in his livc Points Programme Ior this purpose \\as

for rural population.

hy 19<)0.

Iqra Pilot Project

launched

in Rawalpindi

Nai Roshni Schools were opened under the administrative Commission. National Education

control

of the Literacy announced education

and Mass Education I C)C)2. \ 'ndcr

Policy was' secondary upto 49.87%

in December was emphasized

this policy a free and comprehensive to increase enrolment

and it \\a~ envisaged

and 17% in vocational million

inst itutions

h; the year 2002.

III education

sector Rs. 39.000

were fixed with the break up of Rs. 2('.000 million from private sector. of private

from public sector and

Rs. 13.000 million increase involvement

The most salient feature of this policy was to of reforms regarding Good

sector <111(1ntroduction i

Governance.

sel f finance scheme and restoration Education

of merit in all fields of education. on February 21, and half of it was

National
1998. According

Policy "lqra" ( I C)9R-20 10) was announced

to this policy h% of GNP was fixed for education.

for elementary

education.

Education System of Pakistan

Education Constitution fundamental - between is on the concurrent Provision legislative of education The subject list of subjects has been under termed the 1973 to be the

of Pakistan.

right of the people of Pakistan. Government the authority

of education governments.

has been shared The Federal to allocate in

the Federal reserves

and the Provincial to establish

major

Government development examination

policy guidelines. revision

budget/funds system. Actual

and to determine implementation

curricula of policies
& Brennan,

and the changes

and imparting 1995). four tiers:

of education

has been made a provincial Education secondary (VI-X): system

subject (Khawajn of Pakistan

comprises

the

pflJl1ary

(I-V);

college education stages.

(Xl-XIV):

and higher education

(post-graduate). teacher

Apart from these regular

;.

there arc specialised and law. Education

fields like medicine:

education:

agriculture: :vas

business/commerce a proposal

There education

in National

Policv

1979 (IX-XII):

to make

the

three tier system

as. elementary

(l-Vl ll ): secondary effectively with

and higher as a result the

(XllI- above). of this exercise upgradation

This system could not he implemented we had Higher Secondary Schools

however.

XI and XII upon 1994).

of secondary

schools having large enrolment

(Farooq.

Primary/Elementary Education However children

Education under thc control of local government govcmment

after one unit.

remained

from 1947 to 1955. At the primary stage this cycle the

it was shifted to provincial

me admitted Practical!v

to priniar , schools at the age of 5 plus. they complete curriculum for thi" type or schools

in 5 years.

is the same throughout

country. concerned.

Instruction Overall

is imparted participation

in national rate
\\'as

or regional
lit

languages

of the area classes and

estimated

77% for primary Survey. 1998-99).

51 % at middle level during the ~"C(1r199R-99 (Economic

Secondary

Education SInge is Cllll1pil:lct\ in ~ years and 10 plus is required transitionally education policies as higher middle school (comprising it is considered age for

The secondarv admission. Though

grades VI to VIII) is a to consist of grades IX

part of secondary and X. Education presently education. known

hut in principal introduced sccondarv

from lime 10 lime urged thai grades XI and XII cducat ion shoul d he the part is the national
<IS 0f

secondary of

The medium

of instruction

language

with the exception

public schools where English has been opted

medium of instruction.

'Private

Sector
in 1947. the private sector had a major

At the time of the creation or Pakistan share in provi d i Ilg cducati

0]1 I hrllugil

xc hoo

Is at vari ous Ieve Is. These pri vatc schools education and by

were run by both. societies individuals

motivated

by the cause of promoting and teaching. pan of the country's

making their living through education in \ 972. major

Be fore national ization higher level of education areas.

W<lS

secondary

and

in the hands or the private sector. at least in the urban in higher education were enrolled in

In 1968. more than half of all students The percentage declined

private sector. reveals.

ny

level of education

as the following

table

Table

1:

Enrolment

hy

level

of

education

III

private

sector

before

nationalization, Level of Education

1968

---~----"'---------------Private Sector Enrolment

N umber (000)

As % of Total Enrolment

Primary InTI Secondary Intermediate Universities level level

1.744
1.071l

22
42

12R

55 5I Source: World Bank. 1977 nationalized picture all private and

~----..~~-.-.- ---~---~"--1972. the Govcrumcnt order changed

77

On first September schools. drastically.

or

Pakistan

This nationalizarion

the overall

immediately

A World Bank Study revealed that the Government institutions. These included Schools.

nationalized

a total of

3.334 educational schools: Institutions. 346 out

1.82S regular primary and secondary 155 Colleges: and 5 Technical Some private

of R91 Mndrasah teachers

from

25.000

were inducted Nall()llali/J.llllll

into government

service.

schools were exempted institutions. There

These included religious and some elite at the lower level than

appears

to have been more exemptions

higher level of education.

ORGANIZA TION
Man is a social animal and can not live in isolation. his survival. work together So all humanity to attain is coordinativc Interaction is essential for

in this regard. When two or more people purpose/goal. an organization came into

some. common

existence. An organization skills, material resources.

IS

a structured \\'orking

group

or interacting

people

equipped

with

together

with the objectives

to fulfill certain need

of the society or to provide any service to the society. According that are goal boundary. Organizations organizations have arc designed different aims. according to the objectives. systems. BUSiness and social Hoy and Miskle in the physical and to 8eder<!n
(lilt!

/alllllutl1 structured

(I qq I) organizations activity systems

arc social entities with a permeable

directed

dclihcrarcly

j!otlls allli working concept

0("

(1991) were of the. opinion

that systems

has a rich history organized for social

social sciences. in an environment system planned. organized relationships.

They observed

that the idea

whole, or system

occurring

is fundamental to social stated

and essential organizations that the school

sciences.

The notion of and deliberately interaction: in an organic defined of social analysis of the formal

can be applied They further

that are carefully is a system bounded

of social together

whole comprised As a social

interacting system from

personalities

it has iruerdcpendem

parts.

a clearly network

population/differentiation relationships the school and informal as

it:- environment.

a complex

and its own unique culture.

,1

As with all formal organizations. to both planned. unplanned.

social

system

calls attention life.

aspects

of organizational

Organizational
Every activities organization. lt is a method delegation are

Structure
has simple in particular or complex \\ays. structure. Employees framework and their of an

organization grouped

Structure

is the

of determining.

individual

responsibilities

and task processes

of

and the distribution

or authority.
to achieve pi ails. as the plan chauge the he responsive
will

It is a tool organizational structure

of management should

and even when objectives work for an other,

(199[)

are similar

what works for one orgnnization According the intended

not necessarily I Iunt &

to Schermerhorn.

Oshorn

formal

structure

shows among

configuration

01' positions .. iobs. duties

and line of authority

di fferent parts of the enterprise. It outlines perform specific the joh to be clone. the pcrsont s) activities and the
\\(I\'S ill \\

III

term of positions

who will

hich the total tasks of the organization of the organization. as the set of elements that can

will be accornpl ishcd. in other words. it is the skeleton Griffen

(1997)

defines

organil(ltionai

structure

be used to configure Organization organization. line of authority

an organization. charts rife diagrams that depict the formal structure of

A typical chart sI10\\s the various positions. that link them to one another.
is

the position

holders and the

Daft (1995) organization activities chart.

of the opinion

that organizational

structure

is

reflected

in

the

lt is the visible

representation

for a whole

set of underlying

and processes

ill an organivation.

23

According organizational policies

to Gray and Strake (1997) issues. authoritv decision

organizational

structure

includes

such

design.

and responsibility

relationships.

organizational

and procedures.

making systems.

individual

job design and formal

control systems. Structure centralization. organization. the number organization formalization. authority
IS

composed

(1r'

three components.

complexity.

formalization there is within

and the and the is

Complexity This includes of levels

involves

11<1\\ much differentiation

the degree of division

of labour. departmentalization The degree to which of employees decision (Robbins.

in the organization's

hierarchy.

relies on rules and procedures Centralization considers

to direct the behaviour

where the locus of control.

making
1997).

lies. These three variables

then make tip the term structure

'Key Components
Robi ns (1996) clearly as follows:
1. 2.

of Structure
descri bed the clements/key components of structure more

Work specialization Departmental ization

3.
<to

Chain of command Span of control Centralization Formalization

5, 6.

1.

\York

Specialization

Work specialization

is ,1IS() called division

of labour.

The degree

to which

specialization

is that individuals

specialize

III

doing. part of an activity

rather than

doing entire job by one individual. Early in this century worker jobs was assigned in industrialized
Hcncrv

I:ord sti1r1ed work specialization task hy the late heing done with
J

when

every Ford

a spcci fic repetitive countries

were

940s.

Most manufacture work specialization. skills. can be work

high

Management
In most

Si1W this as a mean to make the most efficient some untrained. tasks require Uficicllcies high developed

usc of employees skills: others through

organizations by
the

performed specialization.

could

he achieved

For the first h;'M 01' this century

production

managers

viewed it as an unending

source of increased increasing caused evidence human

due to its limited

usage. but by the I 960s. there was

100

that ;\ good thing can he carried in some iohs

far. l Iowcvcr, fatigue.

specialization stress, low

diseconomies

i.c. boredom.

productivity

and roor quality etc. etc.

2.

Departmentalization
The basis hy which jobs arc grouped together is called departmentalization. i.e. by functions on the basis
I 993).

There

are rnanv

ways

to group services

the activities provided

of organization

performed. geographical These accounting,

by products.
rcgi ons

by the organization.

of

and on the custornc r basis (\\' c ihric h & Koontz, activities are emerged personnel efficiencies into departments

group

such as engineering, to this ServiceLarge

manufacturing. is obtaining

and purchasing. from putting

[0

The major advantage specialists together.

type of grouping oriented

departments

<Ire grouped

;lcc0rding

the services

they provide.

organizations

may lise "II forms (11' dcpanmcntalization.

3.

Chain

of Command the chain of cOITII1lClndconcept (Robbins. 1996). was basic cornerstone in the design line of and

In 1970's of organization authority clarifies

The chain of command

is an unbroken

that extends who reports

II

from the top or the organization to whom It answers qucstions

to the lowest

echelon

lor employees to')"

such as "who do I the unity of and unity

go to if I have command

problem?"

"\\:"110 lim [ responsible the complimentary

To express authority

it is necessary It is referred

ro explain

concepts,

of command. and expectation hierarchically follow their

to the rights inherent llricflv

in managerial managers

position

to give orders are to

compliance. connected supervisors through

executives.

and supervisors are expected outlined

the chain or command. in the area

Individuals

decision

of responsibility

in the

organizational

chart (Schermerhorn.

l lunt & Osborn, 1(91). helps to preserve the concept of unbroken

The unitv of command line of authority.

principle

4.

Span of Control How many subordinates can a manager efficiently and effectively direct? [t

determines individuals control

the number reporting to

of levels and managers

II

of an organization

has. The number of Narrower spans of

superior

is called the span or control. In thc 1990's

are expected

when tasks arc complex.

firms have begun to and expanding the

experiment.

They are cutting the number of levels of management In manv cases organizations (Schurncrhorn. whether are modifying 19(1).

span of control. "unity

the traditional However.

notion of it is
J

of command" question

Hunt & Osborn.

very

important

the nr~'1I1iz(1tlnl1 be more effective

if span of control is

-relatively interpersonal control

wide

or narrow?

The question

IS

basically

determining is able to handle, assigned 1974),

the volume

of

activities

that the dcpartmcnts to include

manager

The span of but also

must be defined

not onlv formallv

subordinates

those who have access to the manager (Ouchi & Dowling. Gibson, calculate Ivanccvich
& Donnelly

(1976) have given the following

formula to

the potential

relationships

between a manager and subordinates:

Where subordinates

R designates assigned

the number

of relationship
group.

and N

IS

the number

of

to the manager's

command

5.

Centralization
The term

and Decentralization
refers to the jlegree
111

centralization

to which

decision includes

making

is

concentrated authority: management

at a single point

the organization.
III

The concept
Typically,

only formal

that is thc rights Inherent makes the organizauons thc organization

one position. ~ey decisions is centralized

it is said that if top from

with little or no inputs

lower level personnel. by the lower-level Decentralized even these organizations

and when more input is provided

personnel

to make decisions.

it is more decentralized, to the problems

organizations

are more flexible and responsive

easi I~' compete the markets.

6.

Formalization Formalization refers to the degree tonnalizcd.

IS.

to

which jobs within

the organization has

11

are

standardized. amount

, r a job is highly
0\"Cf

then the job incumbent

minimum

of discretion

what

to he done. \\ hell it is to be done. and how he/she

should do it. Employees the same way, resulting descriptions, work process

can be expected
ill a consistent

always to handle the same input in exactly and uniform output. defined There are explicit job procedures converting Where

lot of organizational in orgauizations

rules and clearly

that have ,1 high degree

or formalization.

lormal ization

is low . .i oh behaviour to exercise

arc rclat ivc Iy nun programmed discretion in their work.

a nd crnp loyees

have a great deal or freedom

Delegation
Delegation a condition is a particular meaning of the term 'decentralization' decisions and describes

when the authority

to make specific

is passed down to units and

people at lower levels in the organization's

hierarchy.

Types of Structu rc
The management i) ii) iii)
iv)
SI.:

icnt ists have stu ted the following

types of structures:

Tall and tlat structure Line structure

organizaiinn

Sta rf st rue turc organ izat inn Line and staff structure Functional Divisional structure structure

v)
vi)

vii) viii)
IX)

Matrix structure Committee Bureaucratic structure structure

l.

Tall anti FI;1t Structure

Regardless of whether an organization has a functional or a divisional will; this has few

structure involves

a decision deciding

must he made as to what the share of the organization whether it should he flat or tall. reporting
1\ flat organization

hierarchical

levels and many cmpluyccx has many hierarchical

to each boss (wide span of control). reporting to each

A tall organization boss (narrow

levels and few employees

span of control). eliffcrently

T wo orgauizat ions wi th equal numbers shared structures. Ilolding the number

of employees of employees while

may have quite constant. decreasing

an increase

in the number

of levels decreases

the span of control.

the number oflevels

increases the spa» of control

Effects on Behaviour
Grays lind Starke (19R'-l) (Ire of the view tn(lt the shape of an organization

has

an impact

on both employee

satisfaction

and performance.

Theorizing

about this

issue began in the I nos. management performance. personalized

and until the late 1940s it was assumed

that narrow spans of satisfaction and

were better than wide spans in terms of both employee The argument

was that ira boss had only a few people to supervise, could be given to each one. employees This attention would

time and attention

result in better performance

because

would understand

the job better; it

would also cause higher satisfaction about them.

because employees

would feel that the boss cared

Research Evidence
i)

Employees tall structure.

were found more satisfied

and productive

in nat structure

than in

ii)

Researchers high

concluded

that subordinates

responded

to their managers autonomy

with and

performance

in nat structures

because

of delegation.

author ity which thcy were given (Carpenter. iii) Two other studies. that employees
1975).

1971).

one using teachers satisfaction

\\<1S

and one using sales people also found in flat structure (lvancevich
&

higher

Donnelly. i v)

It is unive rsally cone Iudcd that nat st ructures

were al ways more c [fecti ve than suggested only under the certain contingency conditions. that tall

tall

ones.

However that

additional
were

researches
hcttcr

conclusion According structures flat

nat structures

to the findings

of a study about the superiority cmployecs for

of structure

were better for fulfilling were more

safety and security needs while fulfilling self-actualization and

structure

appropriate

autonomy
v)

needs'

(Porter 8:. l.a« lcr. Il)G~). that ern P loycc perf ormance became (Jones. flatter. hut onlv did indeed to a point: improve beyond as the that

A not her stud y found organization performance structure declined

1l)(19).

2. i)

Line Structure
Line organization the positions

Organization is the oldest and simplest form of internal organization.

All

in organization
19(7).

arc in the direct I ine of authority

from the top to

bottom (Grav & Starke. Ii) It is the basic framework organizational subordinate hicrarchv. relationshin)

for the \\ hole organization. It roiJlt<;. out direct connecting vertical

and the backbone relaticnshipsIsupcrior level

of the

the positions

at each

with those

above and below. of authority iii) Line position

a)

The relationships

form a chain in command

or a hierarchy

in an organization. can he defined in t\\O ways: When there i.e.

1I

It is described

as a elwin of command.

is a recognized simple authority

chain of command. relationship organization compliance b) between

we have a line relationship thc superior

and the subordinate. to another

In a formal and expect their

no one can !!i\'e direct orders unless he is a direct line superior. or position controls

A line function organization distribution

the principal directly

work

now of an and

in a direct line,

It contributes

to the creation

of goods or services

of an organization.

3.

Staff Structure

Orgnnization is advisorv or service oriented in nature, Staff functions have

Staff authority

not direct responsi hi Iity for accornpl ishi ng the object ives of an enterprise. help the line to work enterprise. advice The functions most 'cffcctivclv
ill achieving

They only of an and give

the primary

objectives research.

of a pure staff authority to whom they report.

is to investigate.

to line managers

A pure staff authority

has no right to

command,

It is the prerogative

of a line ~uthority,

There are two types of staff activitv:

i) Staff Assignments:

;\ stalf assistant

may perform

work subject

to the e.g, not in

approval assistant the chain

of his superior.

and may act in the name of his superior. l-as

110

to .' a stall assistant

formal authority

and heis

(1r command

ii)

Staff

Specialists:

A staff specialist

gt\'es expert

advice.

service

and

guidance research.

to his superior. advertising

Law, accounting.

public relations.

operations

are examples

of staff activities.

4.

Line

and Staff Structure

the advantages

Organizution
of both the line
\\'£IS

To utilize organization. portion whereas problems.

organization

and

functional the line

the line and staff organization serves brings

developed.

In essence stability

of a line and staff organization the staff or functional portion

to maintain

and discipline, on specific

to bear expert knowledge

Difference

between

Line

<I

lid Staff
\0

There is no end to catch phrases di ffer: i) ii) iii)

IV)

describe

how line and staff departments

Staffs think. lines do. Staffs advise. lines do. Lines say do. staffs say. if and when you do it. do it this way. Staffs have the authoritv to command.
01'

ideas. knowledge:

lines have the authority

v) vi) vii)

Staffs think. analyze and recommend. The lines do something Staffs should he
011

lines perform. staffs do not. of the staffs is to

to or with the product

tap and not on top. The function witbout teeth.

advise and recommend viii)

Staffs tell the line what to do. lines tel! staffs where to go.

Line staff theory generally and control. research accounting. The main function

recognizes of advisory'

three types of staff: personal. staff (e.g personnel in their areas,

advisory

and marketing staff (e.g. some

specialists) quality

is to advise control)

line managers

Control

arc those with the responsibility

of controlling

aspects of organizational

performance,

5.

Functional

Structure

Organization structure is chicflv of historical importance. was a

This form or organization originated specialist

by F, W, Taylor. to bring about specialization in a given area to enforce his directive lt decreases the problems

of management.

It permits

within the limited and clearly defined of line management because it permits problems

scope of authority, order to now directly

to 100\l:r levels \\ ithout attention

to routine technical .is the transitional

tackled hy line position,

,

The functional
~

organization

form between

the line and the line and the .';taIT tvpes Advantages i) of Functional the principle Structure of division of labour and of using specialists who can

It employs

do a more efficient job. ii) It is very flexible and eliminates some of the dangers that me present when

one man is responsible iii) It provides atmosphere 6.

for many things,' which. if it

I~

for cooperation

harmonious.

creates

a friendly

of \\'orkin!,! together, Struetu r e problems with the functional

\\'hell

The Divisional There arc enough

structure

that many companies is

have adopted

the divisional

structure.

this structure

is used. the organization

broken divisions basis

down

into divisions:
011

each division

operates

(IS

a semi-autonomous or geography. business, because are

unit. The Whatever Divisional each division often called

may be formed each

the basis of- product. operates almost

customer.

is used.

division

as a separate

performance behaves

call be assessed as a s~parate

each year hv the parent company Iirms with this

company

structure

conglomerates,

7.

Matrix
1\ matrix

Structure

Organization

(Grid or Project)

struct urc is a hvbrid organ izat ional form con tai n ing charac tcristics of structure occurs
(Hodgcue.

both project and functional Matrix organization

1982), in construction.
1n III

frequently

aerospace.

III

marketi ng or in management together on a pr~ject (Stewart. Matrix product Koontz. patterns 1993), The Matrix which structure flows This a series organization

consul tat i011 IIrills 1968) normally

IS

wh: ch professional

ex perts work

the combining

of functional structure

and project (Weihrich

or
&

of dcpartrnents-Jn

the same

organizational

organivarinns

ma~' hc thought

of as an organization imposed

overlay

in

of horizontal

relationships organization,

are slipper

upon the hierarchical department authority

of the traditional vertically. while

Within_ the functional departmental the matrix,

authority of- authority

that crosses creates

lines flows horizontally, Hence. it is called matrix

two \vay flow

organization. Matrix organization emanates dircctlv from is the realization thc

two

of a two dimensional of authoritv.

organization Two

which

dimensions

complementary

organizations merged

- the pure

project

organization

and

functional

organization

- are

to create thc matrix organization. as the same because the 1'1 oicct lnstcad.

Sometimes

matrix and project organizations relationships. in

are considered matrix

of the same nature of authority manager is usually not

organization.

assigned

complete i zaiion. it is

responsi hi Ii ty for resources. When the organization to lise

<I

he shares tile III wi th the rest or the of projects. ranging

0 rgan

has a varict.

from large to small.

often desirable

matrix organization. (11' the rnatrix organization. the unity of command - his administrative principle

in the functioning is violated.

Each functional

staff has twn bosses

head and his

project manager.
Research Evidence

Many encountered in general retardation

rcccn [ <;tud i c s in Matrix structures produced

have
"OIlC

c onccnt rated

on

Ihe

behav ioral

problems

study noted that project about as

;1

forms of organizations and fears of

in scqucnty
(KOTIl1<lll.

possible

unemployment.

of career

19M))

result. employers

can expect

less loyalty

from employees. In seven of forty-six such influence relationships processes became study companies. it was found that managers personality and respect relied heavily on

as negotiation.

for ability.

Informal

more important

than formal positions. of authority relationship in the project

Another structure authority

found some ambiguity surveyed

as one fi fth ()f Ihe manager of project manager

did not agree on the dec ision-m ak ing

(Blake &: \ lor iron. r %~ 1.

8.

Committee It is a popular

Structure

Organization control and coordination of internal and adhoc particularly There in a are

method of' rnanagcrial

big enterprise. executive (permanent)

It is a supplemcntarv advisory

device

organization. (temporary)

comrniuees. committee.

committees

Or standing

It is a lorm of group management.

A committee meet repeatedly plan becomes

is a formally

organized

or chartered or problem area.

group of individuals Committee

who

to consider usually

some problem

organization anti they Me

an integrated

part of line and staff organization. hierarchy in large organizntion. powers,

found at all levels of' management Executive usually operate committees

have decision-making to executives

But most committees in the i.e. they voluntary It

in an ndvisory capacity and communication. of the varrous execution

with major responsibilities are horizontal. It promotes through

area of coordination mc representative acceptance produces

Most committees

functional

departments,

and interested

of plans and policies and deliberation. should assigned

participation.

new ideas through group discussion Of course. the work

of the commiucc The subject

justify

costs,

It should

be

organized suitable

to operate

effectively.

to a committee

must be

for joint discussion

anti ioint decision.

9.

Bureaucratic

Structure

Organization for a viewpoint tangible and that emphasized influential the creation of the

Max Weber was the spokesman

of bureaucracy organizing in offices

as the most

product

process.

The definition
J

of jobs. through

ils eli vision of work and responsibility. distinction between

creates work

hierarchv . of offices.

The term office carries a sianifican: ~

011

responsibility, on the other, latter

and authority,

the one hand. and the people who perform the term office 'lssi~1l111Cnl. The person is better than position. The office

that work, since the

For the same reason. the personal

also emphasizes clement

is. in and of its. an

important

in the organization. and carries

who holds the job. has a defined privileges and rights and

spot in the total structure rcsponsihi Iities. Formal assignments

with il distinctive

of status 10 an office may not correspond

with informal for a

status gran ted to an i ndi vidua I, Just as indi v idua Is grant author] ty to others variety obvious of reasons. their perceptions of status have several bases. Perhaps

the most perceptions may

of these is what the individual docs, can do stat

LIS

Bur status may also reflect

of what individuals' have higher individual informal

Thus. a medical

doctor

in a military Status

organization

than is indicated influenced

hy his rank,

based on what the which Informal may grant status may factors

can do may he dircctlv

by tile organization. to do,

him authority be related

that limits or extends what he is permitted of service. age. and seniority,

to length

although

these particular

may not influence Bureaucratic individuals appropriate may achieve opera! ions,

the formal status of the job. organization may have all inability to adapt to the needs of

and changes

in the environment.

They are generally are stable. hut probably

thought

to be more

when forces outside success

III

the organization agcncv.

Thus. bureaucratization 110t in high technology

government

The bureaucratic the individual decisions employee

structure

was designed

to minimize

the personal

influence of

in decision

Illaking and to coordinate goals Webers characteristics

the large number. of of a bureaucracy

with the orgauizations approach

illustrate his legalistic

i)

to organization

design: to positions are on the basis of ability,

Specializationof not loyalty,

labour - Appointment

ii)

Well defined

hierarchy order.

of authority

- Officials

of the bureaucracy

arc arranged

in a hierarchical
[c vel.

with each level being controlled

by the next higher

iii)

Clearly defined

responsibilities

and authority

- The duties of each official are arc clear, of decision making,

clearly spelled out. and lines of authority and accountability , iv) System officials v) of rules and procedures - To assure consistency

arc guided hy explici: rules and procedures, of relations - Attained through Emphasis specialization of function and

Impersonality the creation

of rules and procedures, considerations,

is placed upon logical rather

than emotional vi) Promotion

based on technical

qualifications

- Assures

that offices (jobs) arc

always filled with qualified vii) Centralization coordination coordination viii) Written of authorit\,are increased, problems

people. With specialization of labour. problems of

f3y centralizing

authority

in the upper

levels,

are minimized, To preserve and maintain uniformitx decisions. of action,

records maintain

bureaucracies

adequate

files of previous

This assures

equal

treatment

of clients. decisions.

since officials

can refer to precedent

cases

and

made consistent

The pure bu rcaucrat ic model behaviour

i)

has both pos i t ive (lncl ncgati vc impl icat ions for

tend to emerge. of behaviour and . Because of the need lor control impersonal within rules. large the

Rigidity

organizations behaviour ii)

the consequent

use of general.

of bureaucratic
of

officials may become quite rigid.

Since bureaucratic

lmpersonality

trcauncnt

rules

designed

to be a

i III personal positive

to p ro \ ide eq Uti I treatment. This same impersonality.

this hchav iour must be considered however, can cause clients

result.

to feel

they arc not being treated as individuals. and this em cause them to resent the organization. iii) Identification functional - with sub-goals -- Because the organization policies
\0
IS

divided

into within

units and adherence

to organizational mav begin

is emphasized

sub units. members

of the organization

identify

with the goals of

sub units at the expense ofthe goals of the larger organization.

M<lX

Weber

studied

organization

structure

and he considered

that structures

could be divided =Trnditional =Rational

into thrce types: based upon the head. or chiefs - legal based upon power, which authority people recognized and

accepted ill a gi\'cn situation. --Charismat ic based upon the exceptional

SIlW.

abilitv

or personality

of

someone who has c hari

Bureaucracy

may he defined

as a type of organization

designed

to accomplish

large scale administrative in a systematic manner.

tasks bv conrdinating

the work of a large number of persons

Bennis (1989) Industrial Revolution

regards to_orgallilc

bureaucracv

as a social invention

perfected firm.

during the

alld direct the activities

of a business

Formal Structures
Schools bureaucratic

in Schools
organizations Abbou with many 01' the same characteristics using the characteristics as

arc formal
orgnnizationx.

(I (5)

of Weberian be

Model has concluded described as highly

"the schoo I organization developed bur caucracy."

as we know it today call accurately As such it exhibits many industrial

of the and

characteristics government The because Miles. Borman.

and employs agencies

many 01- the strategies

of the military.

with \\ hi<.:h iLlllighl he cornpared. model

IS

bureaucratic

the one iha: most Il1c- behaviour 19R I: Abbot

school

administrators settings (Abbott.

adopt 1965;
&

it is very useful to
1965:
1988),

analyze

ill school

Firestone

& Herriott.

8:: Carachco,

1988: Corwin

The basic assumption his/her more

of bureaucracy situation

that subordi nate has less expertise as school than professional/subordinates administrators like
In

than have other

boss is not lit for school competence and technical

expertise

professional bureaucratic.

organizations.

So there is a need or rethinking or mechanistic

(1]"

of school

as being,

or nonbureaucraric the degree

or organic. «ith differentiates

f\ more useful approach

is to examine components

burcaucrarization which

respect

to the

important

or

the Wcberian

Model.

types of organizational

structures Mintzberg variations

and provide (1989) are

basis for empirical among the

testing.

Hall (1962. 1987). Pugh (1976) and who have developed and tested.

researchers results.

of this approach

with interesting

Hall's Approach
Hall (1902) characteristics
i)

developed

:1I1

organizational

inventory

to measure

SIX

central

of bureaucratic Hierarchy

structure:

of authority.

ii) iii) iv) v) Mackay Inventory school.

Spccializauon

Rules lor incumbents Procedure lmpersonality (196~)11

(i.c. an orguuizationa]

role)

specifications and rcchnical also adapted competence. <lnd modi ficd to measure the School Organizational patterns in

(SOl).

likcrt t:pe questionnaire

the bureaucratic

using the same aforcmcruioncd The interrelationships empirically 1988). organization of (Kolesar. Studies rather of these 1967'

dimensions

of structure. of schools & Waynek.

(1150

characteristics Isherwood

have Abbott

been
&

explored Carachco. rational Hierarchy

1973: distinct bureaucratic

indicated than rules

that there arc two relatively one completely for incumbents. integrated procedural patterns

patterns

of

pattern. and

authority. formed

specifications

impersonality

bureaucratic

organizational

while technical

competence

and specialization The again calls

form professional organization. between both bureaucratic ,lnd professional conflicts between characteristics authority based onee on

distinction attention

to the potential

technical

competence

and expertise

that based on holding

(1Jl

office in a hierarchy

and

to the potential

incompatibility together difference

between professionalization these patterns

and bureaucratization. seems to into

By joining make important

in a single model of bureaucracy The both patterns

among schools.

further subdivided

followi ng d ichotornous

gr~urs.
IS

Type I (Wchcr ian) school organization and bureaucratization ideal type described Type characteristics concentrated applied. arc cornplcmcntnrv:

one

III

which

profcssionalization

both arc high.

This pattern is similar to the structure." on the bureaucratic Power are impersonally promotions to is

hy Weber: hence. \\ c call it a "Wchcrian ian) the organization professional rates ones

II (Authuritar and low on

high

"authoritarian".

and flows from tor to bottom The superior positions al\\ays has

Rules and procedures furthermore.

the last say.

administrative

t'~'rically go

t(l

those who haw been loyal to the organization

and to their superiors. Type between viewed III (Professional) organizations emphasize staff shared Members decision-making of the staff are to make important rather than as strict in the organizational as "professional", and

the administrators as professionals decisions.

and the professional who hav c the expertise Rules and procedures

and competence serve as guides

organizational formats

to be applied

uniformly.

Teachers

have much rower

decision-making

process.

We refer to this t~ pc of school structure

Type IV (Chaotic) professionalization: Inconsistency, structure. therefore.

organization confusion

has a

10\\'

degree

of bureaucratization

and conflict

occur in day-to-day

operations. the chaotic

cont radict ion. Zlild incffect iveness

nrc like I: to pervade

This typology and probably (1967).

presents

four potential consequences

school structures for teachers

that arc quite different alike. Kolesar

have elitferent

and students

for example.

found that a sense of student than in professional

powerlessness

was significantly and Waynek Overall, than in in highly systems

higher in autboritarian (1973) uncovered

school structures.

Isherwood

the same lindilll! 1(1r teachers among Moeller teachers

in the two types of schools. in authoritarian that teachers

the sense of powerlessness professional bureaucratic lc nus support structures. systems

was much greater (1966) finding

and Charters'

had more sense of power than those in less bureaucratic

to h is specula tion. organizational Anderson

(1971)

It is also true that thc type of school student indicated on student (professional negatively. achievement. the possibility achievement. pattern) Research h:· both

structure and

may influence Muck.ay

(1964)

that highly bureaucratic f.inally. thc e\·idence and centralization

structures continues

may have negative

effects

to mount that specialization pattern) are mildly. but

(bureaucratic 1C)RR)

related (l lagc. lno:

Corwin &: Kothryn.

The classi fication useful: Chaotic in fact. the typology structures

of schoo] structures can serve

<IS

into these
(l

four structural

types seems

a basis for

theory of school development. will move towards

are ineffective

hCln8 rigid.

So this structure

authoritarian

ones which is mechanistic. rest almost exclusively engage ill unilateral in a tightly coupled decision-making and organizational teachers are

Power and authority structure: expected administrators to comply

with their directives

:<:lCP

without question. development of school structure is

The next logical toward a Webrian

ill an cvolutionarv

coufigurntion.

l lcrc the forces o!' centralization

and specialization

are balanced, impersonality Administrators common between

The

bureaucratic

attributes

of hierarchy.

rules.

procedures,

and

complement and teachers

the technical

competence

and specialization with both groups

of teachers. focused on Conflict between of

share in decision-making

interests teachers

[Inc! \\'ilh both committed and administrators is tight.

to a single set of shared goals. limited. In brief. yet the c(luplings

organizational mechanistic

parts

arc moderately properties.

there

is an integration

and organic

School effectiveness

is predicted

to be high. and

such a structure

should funct ion most effect i \C hill a sim ric and stable cnvironme nl. and research of Isherwood and Waynck (1973) Firestone and

The experience Herriott basically Nonetheless, professional empowerment (1981 L Ahbott authoritarian:

and Carcchco thcv do not

(19SS) suggest readily evolve

that many schools into Webcrian towards

remained structures. and

we expect structures (Casner.

(IS

to sec pressures

for movement

Weberian

'the reform ~movement

in education (Sirotnck

pressed

for teacher

19S1h school-based

management

and Clark, 1988),

and a general restructuring The structure enhancement

1)1' sc\H1ols (David:

Purkey. & Wllite. 1989), to professional is

nil

of few schools rnav evolve from Weberian profession The professional control structure

due to with

in teaching

organic

loose administrative source of power

couplings.

Teacher

decision-making

being dominant process, are

and administrators integrate having

facilitate

them

for teaching-learning Professional multiple

Teachers/professionals complex teacher depends organizations autonomy upon

the activities

of schools,
staff

structures

high professional relations conunumcnt

~l mode

sets of goals, high of' such organization stable and complex

horizontal

S0 tile effectiveness, of teachers-having

the expertise.

cnv ironment.

They a 150 proposed

lor schoo I de vc lopmcnt

ill wh ich sc hools

move

progressively

from chaotic

to authoritarian.

from

Weberian

to professional

structures.

The Aston Team Approach

About
bureaucratic

the same time llall developed structure, England.

Pugh

his questionnaire
(I
l)76)

inventory University

to measure or Aston in of five

& I lick son

at the

Birmingham. work

constructed
In

an interview
objective

inventory

to assess the structure following

organizations ics:

more

fashion

recogrnzmg

charactcrist

I.

Spccializariun

or activities
or procedures of documents authoritv, of role structure studies work (Pugh & Hickson. orgalli7<1liol1s It remained invcruorv
1976) were concerned

2. 3.
4,

Standardization Formalization Centralization.of Configuration Aston diverse

5.

The original large number of

with a firms, of

including

manufacturing

department Alberta applicable demonstrate

10

stores. to modify in
till:

and shoe companies. the Aston interview

to a group at the University in order

Newberry
10

make

it directly was first to

study of educational

org.mizarions.

(1971)

that. with some modification. postsecondary .111011. may David varv colleges. & Peter
111

the Aston approach on the work provided

could be used fruitfully of Newberry that can

(1971).

study

Expanding
(1975)

Holdaway, organizations

evidence they

educational be highly

widelv

bureaucratic

structure:

bureaucratic,

strongly

professional.

both. or neither.

This finding is consistent

with

thc typology developed

bv using the l lal] approach. of educational organizations at Alberta

While the early study or the structure centered adapted Canada. Sackncy
(1976)

on postsecondary the Aston

schools.

later work by Kelsey (1973) and Sackney (1976) secondary schools in England and

invcruorv

lor usc in public

found tha: high morale among secondary a low degree of centralization in organizational negatively decision

teachers was related Moreover, degree of The

to high specialization. limited participation

and standardization. making (a high

centralization)

was related

to an open organizational

atmosphere.

finding was later replicated that centralization

in a study in Ncw Jersey where Haymond related to hath openness ~\\as positively in school

(1982) found

was negatively

climate

and and

loyalty to the principal. loyalty. Guidcttc and and structure compatible dimension

hut specialization

related to both openness relationship one

(1982) teacher

simil<lrly demonstrated sense of powerlessness Consistent the professional loyalty.

a positive

between between on

centralization specialization bureaucratic was highly bureaucratic

but a negative
witl:

powerlessness. in schools.

most

of

the

research

element and sense

of teacher

specialization while the low

with openness.

of control.

or

high centralization

was associated

with closedness,

loyalty. and a sense or powerlessness. Although apparent but conceptual the similarities lie in between tile the Hail and Aston approaches strategy Sousa (interview arc

differences

research

versus

questionnaire) concluded

and focus (superiors

\ ersus subordinates).

and Hoy (198 I) views of public

that the approaches

vicldct] similar

and complementary

secondary
t \VO

schools.

Their study or public secondary produced

,1

schools
0

in New Jersey using the Io llowi ng bureaucratic

approaches

si mpl i fled

group

f the

characteristics:
I. 2. Organizationn' control (Aston and Hall) Rational

srecialillllioTl

(Aston and 11(111)

3. 4.

System centralization Formalization

(;\ston)

01" routine (/\sl(1I1) structure in schools can profit from using both

The study interviews

of bureaucratic

and questionnaires

ir1\'oh"ing the superiors

and subordinates.

Mintzbcrg's
Mintzhcrg examining which among

Structural
(1979.

Framework
)98J,
1(89)

19RO, 19XI.

provided structure

another simply

framework

for

orgnnizational

structure. divides hasic

II~ described

as the way in coordination means

an organization them Five

its labor into tasks and thcn achieves mechanisms

coordinating

arc the fundamental

organizations I, Mutual

lise to monitor Adjustment

and control work which arc as following: is coordination through the simple process of informal

cornmun i ca t i 011. 2. Direct Supervision

i.<;

coordination {"ormonitoring.

through

personal

command,

One individual

has the responsibility J, Staudardizatinn programming workbench step-by-step of

and controlling is

the work of others. by specifying to assemble carefully or a in

Work

Processes

achieved

the contents lire lin example. directions.

or the work. The process

Written

directions

of the work is described

4.

Standardization the fundamental

of Outputs dimensions

is attained of the

hy spcci fying the results of the work; product or of the performance are

enumerated. 5. Stantlardizatiun control of work. of Skills is a coordination Here sk~lb and knowledge required
to do the work

mechanism

that provides

indirect the

are standardized

by specifying

kind or training

Mintzberg's

Perspective

Applied to Schools
thot Mintzbcrg described are abstract ideals. y~t these of schools. the pull to and the

The configurations simplifications Schools centralize

of more complex 'structures

do come to life in the analysis these configurations: hy the technostructure,

do experience

the basic forces that underlay the pull to formalize

Where
OIlC

by tor' management.

pull to professional likely be organized always dominate.

izc hy teachers.

pull dom mates. then the school wi II One pull. however. in balance. by does not Highly

close to one of" these configurations. and the basic processes rnav have their

mJY 'have to coexist efforts bureaucracy. tightly

professional administrator

teachers

directed

a dynamic

as in a simple professional

Although between

such an arrangement the administration and

may work well over the short run. it leads to conflict teachers. Simple Structure: that have Organizations
II

that arc coordinated apex with virtually In such staff.

by a high degree no middle

of direct

supervision. highly

small qratcgic simple

line, and that are there is little

centralized lillie

are

structure.

organizations lillie division

elaboration.

technostructure.

Iittlc support

of labor and

spec i<11 ion, and a small ad III i11 i Sl rat ivc hierarchy. izat

The

Autocratic

Organization

IS

a simple

structure

where

the top administrator

hoards power and rules Charismatic because

oy

order. is a variant because where the leader has thc same power, lavish it upon the leader.
Oil

Organization
out

not

it is hoarded

the followers

The major

strength of the SI mplc struct lire is i!s flo i hi lily: The simple elementary autocratic Although charismatic restrictive Machine integrated. processes structure is of interest

Iy one person m list act.

because

many schools.

particularly

smal! by

school districts and some sometimes teachers

in lIS;\. h,1H' such a structure. charismatic enjoy working principals who

They arc administered rule intimate with

all iron hand. where its as highly

in a small.

school, structure

principal

leads the way. others perceive

the simple

and autoc rat ic. Bureaucracy. regulated Organizauons machines 'arc thal arc fine-tuned called ~machine and standardized bureaucracies. to run as The work of

in this kind of structure

arc routine and standard.

In fact standardization

work is the main coordinating. the structure organizations. formalization: because a high

mechanism

and the technostructure

i" the key part of ln these considerable

it contains degree

the analysts of

who do the standardizing.

IS

centralization

supported

bv

rules and regulations, many schools have the trappings. most arc not machine

Although bureaucracies structure. of many bureaucracy.

in the pure sense because

t~'pic(lily they lack an elaborate technostructure. the simple

administrative

a large middle public schools

line. and an elaborate is a cross between

In fact. the structure structure and machine

what Miutzberg

calls a simple bureaucracy.

Professional

Bureaucracy.

Professional

bureaucracies at the same time.

arc structures

that permit use core is

both decentralization standardization

and standardization

These organizations the operating

of skills as the prime coordinating part: and profcssioualization

(l

mechanism:

the key organizational structures effectively

is the crucial process.

All of such

rei y on the sk i lis and knowledge (Mintzbcrg. 1979).

bureaucracy

1'1 he ir opcrat ing pro fcssional s to functi on

The professional the standardization this structural However.

receives

its coordination have acquired a professional

indirectly

by relying on hence.

of skills that professionals of the school supports

in their training;

looseness

basis of organizations. of students

the demand

for un: [ormitv in product.

the need for movement process.

from grade to grade and school to school in an orderly over which students bureaucratic are schooled require a siandnrdizauon (Mintzberg.

and the long period and hence. a

of activities

basis of school organization

1979). bureaucracies are built on

Authority the authority

of the position or of rice. and professional and expertise. Professional

of knowledge

burcaucracv

is decentralized: Some schools operating core,

a great deal of power rests with the professionals have the characteristics standardized structural of the professional

in the operating

core.

bureaucracy

~ a skilled professional Such schools

work skills. professional looseness.

norms and autonomy.

structure,

associations, are staffed by

and a Ilat administrative

highly competent collective

and well-trained

teachers who control their own work and who seek that affect them. or both a simple structure bureaucratic, and a

control over decisions

Simple Bureaucracy. machine bureaucracy.

It has the basic characteristics It is highly centralized

and highly

hut it has a

relatively obsession.

flat

administrative

structure.

Nonetheless.

control

remains

a major

Although bureaucracies.

there

IS

high

centralization

and

formalization and Herriott

In (1982) suggests

simple referred that a

there is limited

specialization.

Firestone

to such school structures large number of elementary

as "rutional schools.

bureaucracies. perhaps

and their research

most. are simple bureaucracies behavior.

in which

a single set of agreed-upon of the principal are supervised controlled standard is dominant. directly

goals guides internal Instruction

The power and authority and teachers

and curriculum Teachers

are standardized activities

hy the principal. and coordinated

arc for the most part system of fixed rules,

by the principal procedures.

h: an elaborate

,H1d administrative Bureaucracy.

schedules.
Another hvhrid
,;.

Simple-professional

variant.

the simple schools

professional

bureaucracy. combination

is more common of the simple

. in sccondarv

than elementary

This variant is a Centralization practicing The formal authority

<IS

structure

and the professional

I lcrc highly trained

bureaucracy.
tcachcr-profcsxionals

is high, hut [ovv is spccializatio». standard authority teachers: teachers served.

Serniprnfcssional Bureaucracy.

teaching

skilb

often

take the lead from a strong is complemented their effective

principal.

of the principal. in fact. principals perceive

however. maintain

by the professional
use of power only of' their students

of

long as the being

thcir interests

and the interests

effectively

/\ not her

vari at ion

0f

organ izati anal

structure The

sometimes struc ture machine

found ill schools

0f

is a blend of machine

<:Inelprofessional

bureaucracy,

a scm ipro [cssiona I burcaucracv

is not as central ized or formal ized as the bureaucracy. Although

bureaucracy

nor is it as loose as the professional

some aspects of the curriculum

and instruction

are standardized,

teacher professionals fashion, not

go about the business of teaching in a reasonably autonomous Political structure, it becomes Organization, The political organization

has to do with power, organizations,

Politics is usually overlaid on all conventional so powerful

but, at times,

thai it creates its own configuration.

There is no primary no clear form of marshalled to

method of coordination, decentralization; win individual

no single dominant part of the organization, depends on informal \989). that it dominates, acts

everything

power and politics,

issues (Mintzberg,

When power becomes formal structure become

so pervasive

coordination

as well as of

irrelevant; disorder.

ill fact, politics Negotiation.

to the detriment formation,

coordination

by producing

coalition

and political

games are the keys to understanding is a substitute configurations. In political negotiation dysfunctional organization for the legitimate

life in such structures. systems of influence

Indeed. political activity found in conventional

the conflicts

arc high than there is a pressure

for

and alliance configuration

formation

that is why it is not fit for school

having a

because it hinders the learning and teaching,

Configurations

of School Structure

CENTRALIznON C =:: Centralization F = Formalization S = Specialization

External

Control

Professional

izat ion

+C

+r

-s

Simple bureaucracy

Simple profcssion«!
bureaucracy

+C

-F

+s

POLITICAL ORGt\NIZi\ TJON

Machine
bureaucracy
+C
+

Sernirnofcssional bureaucracy

Professional bureaucracy

+S

oC of

-C
-F +S

~S

FORMALIZATION Source: Hoy &Miskel (1989

PROFES10NALIZA nON

Mintzberg types of

(1979) is of opinion that properties provided another theoretical

and configuration perspective change. for

of these six examining long term

structures structure

organizational prediction Richard

of schools

and planning

He made

of professional
&

model for schools. suggested that

Firestone most

& Robber!

(1981) and Hoy, not professional to the

Vayne

(1983)

schools

arc

organizations.

Moreover

it is lllllikely that schools

will move dramatically

configuration towards possible

that Mintzberg

calls a professional and semiprofessional if schools

bureaucracy; organization

however

movement seems

simple-professional but highly desirable,

not only

especially

and teaching

come more fully

professionalized.

A Theory of Loosely Coupled School Structure

After the notions of school as a "bureaucratic developed rationalistic organizational as "organized in organization linkages. Deal and Celotti (1980) argue that formal organization school did not significantly affect methods of classroom and administration instruction, of by management scientists about the recently. relationship structure" a new theory has been are and questioning process organizations to

Investigators of structure

assumptions goals.

March and Olsen (1976) referred to educational

anarchies."

Weick (1976) and Aldrich (! 979) proposed that subsystems

are often tied together loosely rather than through tight bureaucratic

Meyer and

Rowan (1978) asserted that bureaucratic Briefly technologies, schools

structure and instruction

were disconnected, goals unclear

are seen as organizations loosely connected Analyses

with ambiguous structural

fluid participation,

elements and a structure as loose-

that has little effect

on outcomes.

such as these are known theory (Weick,

coupling theories and are useful additions to bureaucratic and Rown, 1978; Meyer and Scott, 1983). Bidwell (1965) analyzed structural looseness

1976; Meyer

in school organization judgements.

and noted

that teachers need to have freedom to make professional

The school autonomy discretionary methods. organization.

In

structure work

is loose in the system. alone and unobserved with respect

Teacher

enjoy

professional having broad

schools, authority

in classroom, to curriculum

over their students looseness

and teaching basis of

This structural However,

of the school

supports

a professional

the need for movement

of students

from grade to grade and of students, require a Bidwell

school to school in an orderly process, long period of schooling rotunization of activities and hence bureaucratic

basis of school organization.

(1965) presented looseness.

sc hoo I as a distinct! ve corn bi nation of bureaucracy

and structural

Loose-coupling focused

theorists (Weick,

1976; Meyer,

1978; Onon & Weick, 1990) in organizations.

on the "disconnectedness probably

of behaviour

and outcomes"

Weick (1976) developed coupling

the most thorough analysis of the concept of loose

which means to convey the image that coupled

events are responsive,

but

that each event also preserves logical separateness The Weick's claimed (Weick,

its own identity and some evidence 1976).

of its physical or

theme was expanded typically

by Meyer and Brain (1977, their organizational

1978). structure

They from

that educators activities

"decouple"

instructional

and outcomes and resort to a logic of confidence. to support the existence, extent, and patterns of loose the

Empirical couplings

evidence

in schools

is mixed.

On the one hand, a number and formalized organization;

of studies depicted

school as a highly centralized salient features of secondary of authority maintained (Hoy,

in fact, one of the most rigid hierarchy teachers

schools in New Jersey was the apparent

& Newland,

Blazovsky

1980,

1983).

High-school

that they must ask permission

and get approval

before they do "almost

anything";

even small matters and Blazovsky,

have to be referred 1977).

to a superior for a final answer

(Hoy, Newland,

On the other hand, the picture of the schools presented (1978), Celotti, and others (Abramowitz and Tenenbaum, These

by Meyer and Brain 1978; Deal and as loosely

1978; Meyer, painted removed claimed

1980) is quite different.

investigators

schools

coupled systems where instructional the organizational permission instructional distinction, great structure.

work was basically when teachers

from the control of that they must ask the

Perhaps

and get approval activity. professional

before they do almost anything

they are excluding

Although discretion

it seems hard to believe that teachers

make such a so

of teachers may be so broad and the autonomy that questions of routine of supervision school and

concerning by

classroom teachers with

instruction

are only classroom

considered management

a framework

practices. recent studies on the images

(Firestone

Several Firestone Wilson, suggested

of school

organizations 1981,

by William and work and

and his colleagues 1985) specifically that schools

and llerriolt. contrasting

1982, Firestone Their bureaucracy

examined

school

structures. - rational

can be grouped

into two clusters

anarchy or loosely coupled system. rational bureaucracies characterized

Elementary by goal

schools were much more likely to be consensus. hierarchy Secondary of authority, schools, in

centralization, contrast,

formalization.

and limited teacher autonomy. systems

were more loosely coupled

with more teacher autonomy

but with

little goal consensus

and much less centralization, between bureaucracy

(988).

The crude distinction be misleading (Corwin

and loosely coupled

systems can

and norman.

Most elementary

schools arc more tightly

structured functions

than secondary are bureaucratically

schools,

but it is a matter of degree. in secondary schools.

Routine

tasks and

organized

In fact, a comparative

analysis of public secondary Wayne (1983) . revealed

schools and social welfare agencies by Hoy, Richard and to be dramatically more formalized and . centralized control

schools

than the welfare agencies. or rule enforcement Are public organizational conclusion bureaucratic between

Not one welfare agency had as much hierarchical or least formalized high school.

as the least centralized schools,

then, rigid bureaucracies that need to be tightened?

that need to be loosened This analysis

or

anarchies

leads to the domains -a

that there are probably one consisting

at least two basic organizational and managerial

of the institutional

functions of mediating internal

the school

and community,

implementing resources,

the law, administering and mediating

affairs, procuring and teachers; teaching cohesive

and allocating

necessary

between students processes of

and a professional

one involved

with the actual technical is typically

and learning. structure,

The bureaucratic

domain

a tightly linked and alienation teachers learning and

at times too rigid, preventing The professional

adaptation

and producing

among teachers.

sphere is much more loosely structured; judgments produces about the teaching conflict,

have broad discretion process; at times, problems

to make professional too much independence

confusion,

coordination

reducing productivity

and hindering efficiency.

LEADERSHIP
Leadership "leadership", interchangeably. leadership interpersonal has has been defined and differently by various has authors. often

In the past,
been used of of

"administration"

"management" sciences have

As the behavioral been increasingly

developed,

the' concept aspect

limited

to designate

a particular scientists;

relationships.

According

to some management
agent".

"leadership

means the performance (1974) defined these concepts behavioral educational of leadership Leadership noncoercive organized leadership perceived 1997).

of the role of change

Morphet,

Johns and Reller Briefly

it as "the influence are only means

which one person exerts on the others". of process. Whatever the concept

may be, the However, The concept in another. is the use of of an

scientists

typically differentiate

leadership

from administration. for the effectiveness.

administration

must include leadership

has been restricted

in one -sense while.it has been broadened The process of leadership the activities

is both a process and a property. influence to direct and coordinate the accomplishment

of the members

group towards

of group objectives. attributed

As a property, to those who are

is the set of qualities to successfully

or characteristics

employ such influence (Jago, 1982 cited in Gray and Starke,

Administration
Administration it as a phenomenon together has been defined differently that attaches by different authors. Some regard

itself to the organizations objectives,

in which people work

for the attainment

of organized

others call il as carrying out of

According management foundations, and

to World management

Book

Encyclopedia directing

(1968), business,

"Administration government.

means agencies, is to

means

other organizations

and activities.

The central idea of management

make every action or decision which helps to achieve carefully chosen goals."

Administration
Administration concerning

in Education
is concerned with many branches of human endeavour and that

with organization

of education is termed as educational administration

administration. may be defined as material It

In the words of Harris (1960) "educational the process of integrating

the efforts of personal and of utilizing appropriate effectively the development of children of human

in such a way as to promote concerns

qualities.

not only with the development of adults, and particularly to American

and youth but also with the

development

growth of school personnel." of School Administration which means

011

According "school paramount students

Association

(AASA) (1963) to achieve the

administration

is the process

marsltalling

purposes of school. to acquire knowledge,

It must be focused skills, attitudes, in a society."

such activities

which enable the which

moral values and behaviour

will help them to be successful Campbell an executive

(1962) slates "schools

have some administrative

arrangements

with and the

officer at the head. The duties and functions of an administrator by the organization to be served.

staff which assists him must be determined task which lies before the prospective serve the functions intended."

A major how to

administrators

is that of determining

for which the group is organized

in the way in which the group

Leaders manage and managers is necessary the functions to differentiate of management

lead, but the two activities and "leader", directing

are not the same. A manager performs

It

the term "manager" (planning, organizing,

and controlling)

and has of work They

a formal position secondary relations; school.

in an organization Leaders facilitate

i.e. sales manager interpersonal

or a headmaster/principal interaction and positive

they promote structuring

of the task and the work to be accomplished.

plan, organize,

and evaluate the work that is done (Mann, 1965). plan, investigate, coordinate, evaluate, supervise, staff, negotiate functions

Managers and represent can provide Nevertheless, (Zabeznik,

(Mahoney, leadership; some 1977).

Jerdce and Carroll, all the leadership do not

1965). activities and

All these management can contribute some leaders

to managing. do not manage

managers

lead.

Bennis (1989) century,

recently

noted that difference:

"to survive

In

the twenty-first

we are going to need a new generation is an important surroundings one. Leaders

of leaders - leaders not managers. conquer thc context .- the volatile, against us and

The distinction turbulent,

ambiguous

that sometimes

seem to conspire

will surely suffocate Wertrich

us if we let them - while manager surrenders

to it." that is the art

and Koontz (1993) defined "leadership"

as influence,

or process of influencing toward the achievement Cartwright leadership

people so that they will strive willingly of group goals.

and enthusiastically

and Zender (1968) summarized

much of the current

thinking

on

as follows: is viewed as the performance outcomes. of those acts which help the group More

"Leadership to achieve

its preferred

Such acts may be termed group functions.

specifically,

leadership

consists of such act ions by group mem bers as those which aid the quality of the

in selling group goals, moving the group toward its goals, improving interactions among the members, to the group. building the cohesiveness In principle, leadership

of the group, and making may be performed by one or

resources available

many members of the group," The common denominator among these theorists includes the following

points: groups differ from one another in a variety of ways, and the action for the achievement another. different of valued The nature states of one group may be quite different of leadership and the traits of leaders from those of be

will accordingly

from group to group.

Situational

aspects such as the nature of group, goals, and the expectations which group will perform

the structure

of the group, attitudes

or needs of the members

placed upon the group by its external environment

help to determine

functions will be needed at any given time and who among the members them, Kotter (1990) briefly and comprehensively cone Iudcd leadership controls that

'management them by effective

controls people by pushing them in the right direction; satisfying leadership It doesn't basic human needs, good management

motivates

complexity,

produces replace it.

useful change, that is why leadership

compliments

management.

Evolution of Leadership
Stogdill leadership Management (1974) noted are that there arc almost who have as many conceptions about

as there

persons

attempted

to define

the concept. that vary

theorist, therefore. contributed

several studies about leadership

in their respective

forms.

Yuki (\989)

has reported that nearly ten thousand articles Lunenburg and Onstein (1996) tell us leadership.

and books have been published that more than 3000 empirical

on this subject. investigations

have examined

The Iowa Leadership

Studies
leadership studies conducted in

Luthcns (1995) noted that series of pioneering

the late 1930 by Lippitt and White under the direction of Kurt Lewin at the University of Iowa who was recognized cognitive formed. authoritarian, leadership designed theorist. Each as the father of group dynamics and as an important boys were

In the initial studies. club was submitted

hobby clubs for ten-years-old different styles

to all three

of leadership; that styles of were

democratic

and laissez Iaire.

Unfortunately,

the effects

had on productivity primarily to examine

were not directly examined. patterns of aggressive

The experiments

behaviour.

The researchers

found that the boys subjected either aggressively to the frustration the apathetic the room.

to the autocratic

leaders reacted

in one of two ways:

(0

or apathetically.

Both the behaviours leader.

were deemed

be reactions

caused by autocratic

The researchers

also pointed out that leader left

groups exhibited

outbursts of aggression

when the autocratic

The laissez faire leadership acts from the group.

climate actually produced

the greatest number

of aggressive extremely

Thc democratically

led group fell between the one leaders.

aggressive

group and the four apathetic groups under the autocratic

Sweeping dangerous behavioral because science

generalizations

on the basis of the Lippitt and Whitc studies were experimental subjects and lack of modem studies have

of preadolescent research

methodology.

No doubt. these leadership

important historical

significance

being pioneering

attempts to determine

the effects of

leadership styles on a group.

The Ohio State Leadership Studies

Luthens (1995) and Robbins (1997) noted that in 1945. the I3ureau of Business Research researchers leadership educational at Ohio State University initiated a series of studies on leadership. Questionnaire The

used the Leader Behaviour in numerous

Description

(LBDQ) to analyze army men and

types of groups etc. etc.

and situations

including

leaders, administrators

The most comprehensive

and replicated

of behavioral

theories resulted from These studies sought to with over a thousand that was called These two factors

research that began at Ohio State University identify independent dimensions, dimensions

in late 1940s.

of leader behaviour.

Beginning

they eventually

narrowed

the list into two categories

initiating structure

and consideration

of leader by the subordinates. encompassing

were found in a wide variety of studies positions orientation and contents. (initiating

many kinds of leadership

In simple terms, the Ohio State factors were task or goal structure) and recognition of individual needs and relationships

(consideration). These studies certainly have value for the study of leadership point out and emphasize leadership. strict the importance being the first to to assess

of both task and human dimensions approach lessened

No doubt, this two dimensional of scientific

the gap between the and human Schriesheirn relation and Kerr

task-orientation

management

movement However

emphasis

which had been popular upto that time.

(1977) concluded

after a review of the existing literature that "The Ohio State Scales

could not be considered in leadership behaviours

sufficiently

valid to warrant their continued

uncritical

usage

research being indirect questionnaire instead of simple measuring

methods which measure leadership respondents behaviours.

the questionnaire

The Early Michigan

Leadership Research Centre, studies

Leadership
undertaking

Studies
at the University of Michigan's Survey

at about the same time as those done at Ohio State had similar to locate behavioral of performance characteristics of leaders that appeared to be

research objectives: related to measures

effectiveness. group also come up with two employee-oriented and

Katz and Kahn (1978) stated that the Michigan dimensions of leadership behaviour which

they labelled

produc tion-oricn ted. Leaders interpersonal who were employee-oriented were described as emphasizing

relations,

they took a personal interest in the needs of their subordinates differences among members. the technical their groups'

and accepted individual The production

oriented leaders in contrast, tended to emphasize Their main concern was in accomplishing

or task aspects of the job.

tasks and the group members were a mean to that end. The conclusions arrived at by Michigan researcher strongly favoured the with leaders

leaders who were employee-oriented higher group productivity

in their behavior.

They were associated production-oriented

and higher job satisfaction.

tended to be associated

with low group productivity

and lower worker satisfaction.

Overview of Leadership Theories

The Iowa, Ohio State and Michigan leadership studies for the analysis Studies were historically behaviour. most important they

of organizational

Unfortunately,

are still heavily depended relatively research, through auspicious

upon, and leadership

research

has not advanced current status

from this

beginning.

Before analyzing-the

of leadership

it is important the years. These

to look at the theories theories

and models

that have developed

(1990) into six

have been grouped

by Stogdill

major types, briefly described

as follows.

Greatman

Theories
view of leadership was the

Carlyle (1970) stated that the earliest and simplest "Greatman approach". It assumed that men and women of prominence Christ.

of great vision, personality

and competence

rose to positions

and affected ihe course of history. Caesar, Joan of Arc, Winston

Such as Alexander, Churchill and so on.

the Great. jesus.

Julius

Newell because masses. of leaders naturally

(1978) noted

that these theories which differentiate

suggested

that leaders

exert power

they possess

qualities

them fr0111and which appeal to the a group

It was thought biologically, rose to position

that through survival of the fittest and intermarriage, superior to the followers developed,

and that these leaders included by Stogdill in to

of power.

Some of the contributors,

this group were F Galton, F.A Woods and A.E Wiggam. the trait theories of leadership are L L Bernard

Among the contributors the proponents

and briefly

of this

theory Claimed that leaders are born not made.

They me born with certain traits that

allow them to emerge alit or any situation or period of history to become leaders.

Trait Theories of Leadership

.
theories evolved as the trait concerned mainly with

Luthens (1995) was of the opinion that Greatman theory of leadership. the personality Trait approach traits of leader. themselves. or theories

were

identifying

The scientific analysis of leader started off The vital- question that this theoretical

by concentrating approach leader? eventually influence accepted attempted

on leaders to answer

was, what characteristics Romans

or traits make a person of "great person" under the

The old notion

of Greeks,

and proponents

gave way to a more of the behaviouristics

realistic school

trait approach of psychological

to leadership thoughts,

researchers

the fact that leadership

traits arc not completely

in born but can also be

acquired through learning and experience. traits possessed by leaders.

Attention turned to the search for universal research effort were

The results of this voluminous Only intelligence

generally very disappointing. consistency.

seemed to hold up with any degree of with those studies on physical

When these findings were combined seemed to be that leaders

Wl:"I'C

traits, the conclusions much.

bigger than followers but not too was that all It was between to

Blake and Moutton (1978) noted that one of the biggest problems think they know what the qualities and realized of a successful

managers recognized observed suggest

leaders are. relationship

that there was no cause-and-effect leadership, however,

traits and successful that empathy

there was some evidence

or interpersonal

sensibility

and self-confidence

were desirable

leadership

traits (Blake and Mouton, 1981). research findings do not agree which traits generally Similarly are found in

In general,

leaders or even on which ones are more than others.

to the trait theories of

personality,

the trait approach or predictive

to leadership value.

has provided

some descriptive

insight but

has little analytical Gibb (1969) tremendous inconsistent number results.

noted that research of dead-ends.

efforts at isolating

these traits resulted in a resulted

In

The summary

of above said studies

By the late recognize predictions

1940s and early

1950s many

researchers

were beginning

to

that traits had not provided of leadership could be made.

any substantive

base upon which accurate

Further efforts headed toward more deadthey ignored the needs of followers, they of various traits, they ignored

ends. Trait theories had inherent limitations: generally situational failed factors. to clarify the native

importance

The trait approach personality conceptual skills

is still alive, but now the emphasis

has shifted away from

~

traits towards job related skills.

Katz (1974) has identified management.

the technical

and human skills needed for effective organization,

Yukl (1989) included and tactfulness,

such as creativity,

persuasiveness.

diplomacy

knowledge important

of the tasks and the ability to speak well. in the application of organizational behaviour.

These skills have become very

Environmental

Theories
theorists believe that leadership is

Newell (1978) noted that the environmental a function of the situation and that leadership

is vested in a person by a group, not

because this person is inherently group functions.

a leader, but because he or she can perform needed instead it is the situation

A leader does not produce the situation;

which calls forth a leader.

Personal-Situational Newell Greatman between among (1978)

Theories noted that these theorists represented a synthesis of the effects

and environmental

theories and viewed leadership Leadership

as the interactive

the leader and the situation. persons

is characterized attributes.

by relationships The goals and

rather than by leader trails or situational are seen as interacting

needs of the individual

with those of the group.

Intera ction- Ex pecta tio n Th co ries Newell interaction individual influence structures members determined (1978) noted that these theories emphasized the importance of of

and the expectations group members,

which group members

have for the behaviour interactions and expectations

and the ways in which

each other.

Role structures

result from member expectations, they strengthen potential

and when the that group

are seen as serving group purposes. will conform to the roles.

expectations

The leadership

of any group member is rote structure.

by the extent to which the individual

initiates and maintains

Humanistic

Theories that organizations in the organization arc internally could best to develop an

Newell (1978) noted that these theorists believed achieve their goals when they enable the individuals potential. Because human beings

their own creative organization motivation. contribute

motivated,

need not create motivation The maximally function

but needs only to harness the already existing is

to

of leadership

free individuals

so that they may to accept

to organizational

goals through their natural tendency

responsibility.

Exchange

Theories (1978) noted that these theories a form of exchange were based on the assumption that

Newell social interaction contributions of tangible

[0

represents

in which each group member made

the group (It a personal cost and in turn receives rewards in the form or psychological satisfaction. Interaction continued because it

payment

was mutually rewarding prestige satisfactions

to the participants. in return for special

The leader was rewarded with esteem and contributions to goal delineation and

attainment. The group theories of leadership have their roots in social psychology. exchange theory, in particular, served as an important basis for this approach. than burdens/costs Classic This for

means simply that the leader provided followers.

more benefits/rewards

There must be a positive exchange

between the leaders and followers in

order for group goals to be accomplished. to managers and subordinates

Chester Barnard applied such an analysis setting more than a half-century has been summarized by

in an organizational

ago. More recently, this social exchange Bass (1990) as follows: "Exchange to themselves Interaction

view of leadership

theories propose that group members benefits

make contributions or other

at a cost members.

and receive

at a cost to the group

continues

because members find the social exchange mutually rewarding." quotation emphasizes that leadership is an exchange research process

The above between support follow-up the leader this notion

and followers. of exchange.

Social psychological In addition, the original the dimension

can be used to

Ohio State studies and of giving consideration

studies through the years, especially

to followers,

give support to the group perspective

of leadership.

An Overview of School Leadership

Bennis and Nanus (1985) clarified the role of leader by comparing of a manager, manager policy. "A manager it with that A the

docs the thing right; a leader does the right thing.

is concerned

with carrying out of a policy whereas a leader formulates

A manager thinks in terms of trees and a leader deals with the forest." Educational institutions are different from industrial or business knowledge, institutions. values, skills,

They are social in nature and their main aim is to inculcate in students and desired changes in their behaviour. role. transformational

So these types of institutions

demand special type of leadership Covey (1992) transformational preferred

leadership.

He said "the goal of in a literal sense clarify

leadership

is to transform

people and organizations

to change them ill mind and heart: enlarge vision, insight and understanding; purposes; make behaviour change that is permanent Burns (1978) congruent with beliefs. principles and momentum

or values and bring about building." as "such leadership

self perpetuating.

talked about

Iransfonuational

leadership

occurs when one or more persons engage in with others in such a way that leaders and followers raise one another to high level of motivation but related and morality. Their purposes leadership,

which might have started out as separate

as in transitional

become fused, power bases are linked not as counter weights but as mutual supports for common mobilizing, purpose. inspiring, Various names used for such leadership me evaluating,

uplifting, preaching. exhorting."

(1986) definition

Preedy (1993) quoted Greenfield's "Leadership order for others.

of leadership

as under: the social

is a willful act where One person attempts This is also transformational leadership."

to construct

Lambert

et al. (1995) after surveying

various definitions of leader/leadership

of 19605, 70s, 80s, were slimmed by a

90s, felt t1~al these conceptions/processes single verb: design,

foster, invite, pursue, influence, design learning processes,

Leaders lypically do things 10 or invite others to share authority,

for others - for instance

foster mutual respect etc. etc. The 'others'

arc most often referred to as 'followers', of definition generally refers to the

Lambert said that the third element of leadership product or outcome leadership which

of the influence or power relationship. involves the reciprocal processes

She said it constructivist a common

that lead towards

purpose of schooling, Memon (1999) talked about pedagogical school improvement leaders", including children's leadership that deals with the overall "The and

personal

and moral development. teachers

pedagogical community;

he said, "arc sensitive

to the needs of students,

They are strategic

people and concerned

with' both task a~d people and

creative a community Apart leadership leaderships. concerned leadership from

of leaders in school." transactional, transformational, constructivist and pedagogical

in schools there are transmissional/bureaucratic The first likes to maintain with shaping up of school

leader ships and cultural one is more said "cultural

status quo and the second culture. Southworth (1998)

shapes school culture, which is very subtle, and overt and covert." in ordinary schools Spiritual

It is direct and indirect, formal is yet another leaderships in inclusive schools. A

and informal

leadership

which is effective spiritual leader's

but more effective

actions reflect deeply held spiritual values and beliefs.

Lawlor and Sills (1999) conducted leadership by getting evidence

a research to understand

successful

school

from highly effective

head teachers.

The major

findings were following: • • • • • • • • • • • • • The ability to work simultaneously on a variety of issues and problems.

Having clear. shared values and vision. Be prepared to take risks. Be able to handle feeling lonely, inadequate High levels of knowledge, Appropriate understanding and threatened.

and confidence.

use of structures and systems.

Efficient use of timc. Political awareness and skills (micropolitics perspective at school level).

Having a whole-school Commitment

and approach.
development

to continuing

professional

The passion and commitment Effective communication High developed

to help pupils make progress. openness consulting and listening.

encompassing

personal qualities.

a sense of humor putting people at their ease strong holders. Looking closely at the characteristics that a school adrn inist ration. leadership should given above one tends to reach a conclusion management and presence that inspires continuing confidence among all stake

be a good blend of leadership,

Leadership Styles
In order to understand various leadership theories. leadership styles, it is important to have a close look at for what style the to

These theories have direct implications

leader uses in managing the manner 1996). Let

human resources.

"The term style is roughly equivalent subordinates." (Lunenburg

in which the leader influences

liS

& Ornstein,

consider

the three more important

theories of leadership. of leadership style

Fielder's and leadership

Contingency behaviors.

theory (1967) clarified the concepts

To Fielder, leadership

style is an innate, relatively enduring and determines our general

attribute of our personality, orientation refers when exercising acts,

which provides our motivation leadership, which Leadership

behavior,

on the other hand, if we have the Fielder found that

to particular

we can perform

or not perform at the time,

knowledge

and skills, and if we judge them appropriate

task-motivated while

leaders tend to be best suited to situations leaders are more suitable

which are highly favorable for moderately favorable

relationship-motivated

si tuat ions. Hersey leadership followers. and Blanchard should (1969) proposed in their situational theory that or

behavior

be varied according

to the maturity

of subordinates

The situation

in this theory is thus refined maturity ~ professional With increasing 'participating' maturity

maturity

and psychological styles of 'telling, theory appears leader.

maturity. 'selling',

a leader should move through Hersey and Blanchard's of the school

and 'delegating'. addition

to have made a worthwhile

to the repertoire

Evans and House (1971) came up with Path-Coal attempted to explain the impact of leadership behavior

theory

of leadership

which

on subordinate

motivation,

satisfaction, subordinates participative

effort,

and performance

as moderated

by the situational

factors of the supportive on various

and work environment. and achievement-oriented

The theory highlighted styles of leadership

directive, depending

work situations. There are certain other approaches Tannenbaum thai directly deal with leadership styles. continuum.

and Schmidt (1973) talked about a leadership-style there is boss-centered The authors leadership identified

On one end of the continuum is subordinate-centered leadership and joining. behavior

and on the other end it five typical pattern of

leadership. from their model.

They are telling. selling.

testing, consulting to subordinate-

There is a gradual shift from boss-centered

leadership

centred leadership. Blake leadership and Mouton's (1981) Leadership Grid defines two dimensions of

and concern

for people.

The grid portrayed

fi.v~ key leadership and control), colleagues). country

styles.

They are authority-obedience management management (conforming (promoting (doing to status

(usc of power. authority good feelings among

club

impoverished man management approach with

minimum

to stay in the job). organization management

quo) and team

(goal-centered

broad involvement

of members). Three - Dimensional Leadership Styles. He has of a

Reddin (1970) developed attempted specific to integrate environment.

the concepts

of leadership effective

style with situational styles are developer

demands

In his opinion and minimum bureaucrat

(maximum

concern to relationships relationships autocrat and

concerns to tasks). executive (mainly interested

(equal concern to benevolent

tasks).

in rules),

(maximum

concern to task and minimum concern to relationship).

Blase and Anderson (1995) talked of open and closed leadership styles. Open style describes ~ leadership style characterized by willingness to share power. Open

leaders are also characterized

as honest, communicative

participatory

and collegial.

Closed style dcscri bcs a leadcrsh iP styl e characterized power. Closed leaders are also characterized

by an unwi IIingness to share less supportive, more

as less accessible,

defensive, more egocentric and more insecure than open leaders. Authoritarian formalized, Adversarial authoritarian Facilitative bureaucratic Leadership negotiation Leadership (closed transactional approach in which transaction
111

is minimal and achieved covertly). (closed transforrnative approach in which a leader though of openness).

looks to be more proactive with a greater appearance Leadership manipulation (open transactional

approach in which the leader engages in goals). approach in which the

towards pre-established Leadership

Democratic/Empowering leader takes democratic Herman perspective •

(open rransformative

decisions and teachers are empowered (1994) described the school

through collaboration). leadership styles in the

& Herman

of change and improvement Leadership

in the following manner: change but cannot cause long

Autocratic term change).

(good for short-term

Laisscz-Faire

leadership

(if change

comes

from other stakeholders,

this

leadership will not resist or obstruct). • Democratic Leadership (the leader involves others in decisions and is good

for long-term change). • Positional Leadership (it brings authority and accountability for the leader.

The change depends on attitude of the leader).

Referent

Leadership

(the leader gains leadership The change depends

because

of power persons

he/she can utilize. power). • Informational information. • Personal quality.

on clever and subtle use of referent

Leadership

(power

because

of

access

to

high

level

Helps in making intelligent Leadership (power gained

choices for change). by person's charisma or some great

Change is short lived as system is not strengthened).

Autocratic,

Laissez-fairc,

and Democratic

Leadership Lippitt, and White, considerable laissez-faire,

As an outgrowth attention

of the studies of Lewin,

has been given to three types of leadership

styles: autocratic,

and democratic. These styles of leadership leadership Nevertheless, purposes. Actual democratic Undoubtedly, leadership probably never exists
In

have largely been replaced

in. current

thinking

by

theory and research studies which are typically the earlier differentiation

less ideologically

oriented.

of styles of leadership

is still useful for some

a pure extent

form

as autocratic, them all.

or laissez-faire however,

leadership

but to some

combines

some types of leadership The different leadership

arc best characterized

by one term

and some by another. conceptualizing Autocratic

styles may be useful as a means of

leadership. leadership is often subdivided

to include

the "hardboiled leadership,

autocrat"

and the "benevolent-autocrat." function may be exercised

In the case of laisscz-faire in a haphazard

the leadership In a

fashion and tenth to be ineffectual.

democratic the group, elsewhere,

situation

the leadership

process demonstrates are shared.

respect for every person in As has been pointed out

and leadership the decision-making

responsibilities

function "resides in the leader in the autocratic group. and in the group

group,

in the individual situation (Lippitt.

in the laissez-faire 1961).

in the democratic

PHYSICAL FACILITIES
The third independent are.provided variable of the present study is physical facilities which to impart education. education.
It plays a

in the shape of human and physical resources is the pioneer institution of modern

School distinctive behavior,

formal

role for the refinement and harmonious process.

of personality

of individual

i.c. modification through

of his efficient

development This implies facilities

of the whole organization that the appropriate

teaching-learning materials education.

use of instructional factors of the quality

and adequate

is one of the determinant

No doubt teaching different teaching materials. Briefly grounds, growth.

can be more effective

if it is aided and supplemented

by

the term physical

facilities

includes

(I) school

building

and school

(2) instructional

equipments

and (3) physical arrangements

for professional

a)

The School Building The school has to perform certain duties and functions to provide education school to

students considered

and harmonious more

growth

of their body.

For this purpose aspects but

plant is

significant

not only

as physical

it is the space

interpretation

of the school curriculum of school plant.

finds its physical

expression

in construction of learning and timetable to enhance the

and arrangements

The size, proportions

and relations curriculum

spaces, lighting, ventilation, arc known as physical quality of instruction, (John, 1983).

school furniture and equipment,

aspects of school. promotion

These should be arranged

of students, physical health and learning of students

School head is responsible building and grounds. Operation,

for the operation

and maintenance

of the school

as the word implies. of operation

has to do with day to day

running of school. and grounds learning. safe,

The major objectives sanitary viable,

arc to keep the school building for teaching the importance and of

attractive,

and in readiness
(196 I) explained

Campbell,

Corbally

and Ramseyer

school building as such: "School plant exists to facilitate the instructional programme. If the programme calls for self-contained classrooms, these rooms must be large enough to permit variety of activities. If programme includes gardening and camping experience, clearly the plant must provide for these activities. If television is to be used extensively in instruction, the plant must be designed to permit closed circuit hookups or other necessary arrangements. If the school is also to serve as a centre for many community activities it must be so located and so constructed as to permit such use." (p. 109)

Criteria of a Good
National suggestions Site: surrollndin.gs."

School

Site Commission of school: plant should 1959) be accessible and harmonious with its (1959) and Siddique (1993) stated following

Education

of establishment "The school

(Govt: of Pakistan,

In addition,

the distance of the school site with the rail, road, bus high way and

crossing cannot be over-looked. Environment: A school should not be located in a business or industrial area influences on youth. The environment of

or at the area which might have undesirable school should be clear. and pure. Drainage:

The elevation of the school should be higher than the common land otherwise the school building should turn

and drainage system should be developed, into an island in thc rainy season. - Traffic accidents. places. Utilities: The school site should and Related

Safety; The school site should provide safety from traffic and dangerous

An ideal site is remote from noise. dust, health hazards

be within

the easy reach of the public

facilities, such as water, telephone. Community

fire protection

and so on. to the people of the locality. needs.

Use: A school has great importance

So it should be with in the existing community Size of the School: school. I. 2. 3. Following There is difference

centre to meet the community of opinion regarding

the sizes of the

are the recommendations

by different authorities.

Fifteen acres for 1500 students. Fifteen acres for 500 students and 20 acres for 1,000 students. Twenty-five acres for 5000 students (Govt. of Pakistan, 1959).

b)

Instructional
Present studies.

Equipment
and research have provided evidence that the activities

provided

through the school programme

have become significant

not merely because

the pupils

prefer

action

to inaction,

but also because

they learn through

activity.

Learning can be promoted activities and by providing

by meeting individual

differences

through new and varied assignments. to utilize his

pupils of varying abilities his full capacity

with challenging

If every pupil is to achieve whole ability. instructional

he should have materials

The school head requires to display great interest in units of work and equipments etc. of the school is increasingly careful thought extended beyond the covers of authorities for and

As the curriculum textbooks working optimum this requires

by the principal

or higher

out plans for the provision.

storage, distribution materials

and easy accessibility

lise of various kinds of instructional

and cquipments

c)

Physical

Arrangements

for Professional schools

Growth responsibility for

The heads/principals helping

of model

have been given

their faculty and non-teaching

staff to grow professionally;

they must play

their role well if educational

progress is to be made in thcir school. that emphasize (I) modern the need for society poses

Shuster and Wetzler (1971) give three arguments the professional complex and non-professional (2) scientific staff improvement research

problems,

in the field

of education

and child

development (3) stimulation

are contributing

to our understanding

of curriculum

and child needs;

of action research within the school is important. arrangements are required to help teachers to pace with the rapidly

Physical changing

social order and technology for providing

development.

The school heads/departments and tools to cope with the

are responsible

the staff modern equipments

research

findings

that physical facilities can help the teachers to prepare children for

ever changing world (Shuster and Wetzler 1971). The heads of modern responsibility secondary schools need to recognize their profound

for the physical facilities of their schools. useful

Principal has to keep in mind that the school facilities are educationally to the extent to which they are maintained facilities have a corresponding in suitable conditions

for use. The physical of habits and

and direct effect on the development For this reason principal guaranteeing maximum

attitudes that are felt to be desirable. for giving maintenance ways and means of

needs to pay attention effectiveness in the

and operation

of the school.

Facilities
An educational enhances occupants. building, facility may be perceived as a controlled environment well-being that of

the teaching-learning School should planning

process while it protects

the physical

starts with the pupil, ends with pupil and that the to satisfy pupils' physical and emotional needs. The

be designed

pattern of activities interest and customs

vary from school to school depending and climatic conditions require differences admitted

upon age of pupils, local of out door

as related to the possibility in the plant facilities.

play. These differences

It is unquestionably process.

that the physical

facilities refine the educational

They are helpful to promote and enhance children knowledge. In addition to classrooms. workshops and laboratories are also included for

instructional

work in the lists of requirements.

The classroom
(i)

and other common facilities

facilities can be categorized

as below:

Non classroom Administrative Custodial Facilities

(ii) (iii) (iv)

office and staff rooms

and service facilities for public usc facilities for pupils include showers, library, activities rooms, room, lounges, facilities,

Non classroom lunch clothing facilities: Administrative room,

gymnasium, facilities,

lockers,

dressing

out door

storage

rest rooms, health services

rooms and other recreational

spaces and facilities vary from school to school.

Classroom

Educational

Facilities the arrangement of classroom educational facilities as

Lalit (1989) described follows: Instructional facilitating learning. teacher spaces

should

be designated

for learning

rather teaching,

also

in providing

an environment

which encourages

the right kind of

Along with the environment influence the sate of grasping

of classrooms,

instructional

aids (A.V. aids) also

instructions. material. which can be used as A. V. aids come under the

The more common following I. headings.

Maps, globes, charts and graphs help to present information and appreciating.

for understanding

2.

The instructional

motion

pictures:

Sound track and projector

are used to

show pictures on screen. 3. Radio and recording: technique. Learning by listening has been a recognized as well as the

educational

It is however, a much more significant

newest teaching technique. 4. Mock up: A simplified diagrammatic scale model, designed to show the parts

or work pattern of an object. 5. 6. 7. g. Overhead Projectors Computers Multimedia Internet

Indoor

and Outdoor

Playing

Facilities for both instruction and fun. Children. youth and

The games are designed

adults, who play, they may develop skills. gymnasium available. Indoor games are carrum-board, billiards, luddo. or on the school grounds.

Most of the games can be played in the using cquipments and facilities normally

cards, table tennis, chess, badminton,

draught,

These games arc played in a big common

room and every game

requires different equiprnents. Outdoor basketball, games which are commonly played in Pakistan schools are, tennis,

football, hockey, cricket, volleyball and kabaddi.

Facilities

in the Building following facilities in a school building. in the school. We can divide Normally The number each section of

Zaki (1988) suggested of rooms depends the class should

on the facilities provided have a separate room

the school rooms into the

following categories. I. 2. Instruction Rooms. the classrooms rooms, and laboratories. office, clerks office, staff-

Non-instruction

as headmaster's

room, library room etc.

Ventilation Facilities:

Ventilation

facilities arc necessary

in the classrooms

to keep

the students healthy, and acti ve. Water

Supply Facilities:

The supply of pure water for drinking of health of the children.

Rooms

purposes

is very

important
Science

for the up-keeping

Laboratories

ami Special

Equipments:

In science

laboratory

the

demonstration be furnished

desk should be within the sight of each student. with water and gas-supply. Chemistry laboratories

Student desks should should have exhaust

pumps as well. Similarly geography rooms should have maps, stands, cupboards and drawing

room tables, model stand, sliding boards etc.

Toilets:

Toilets are the basic necessity of all. because children

spend most of the day

in the school. Playgrounds: Playgrounds are necessary facilities. for out-door activities. In Pakistan most of

public schools have playground