13 POLITICAL REGIONALIZATION AND GLOBALIZATION [A Look VAG The Collapse of Empires The clipe of empies through the Sent century gave birth to many new sates The USSR fragmented int 8 New Unions of States [New organizations of sates ae fonming to achieve common fends, The European Union and the North American Free Trade Agreement ae pariculatysguificant, but aumerous Halts presidential palace gleams in the background, but the blue helmets on the wo Brazilian soldiers in the foreground. Identity thom as troops under tho com- mand of the United Nations Stabilization Mission. 2004, tha UntadNaone Scary Curler parade th cil stn a congas east a ara pace ant scary ths stalored inematonal oops asic 2004 The Us Naor roa wl ger, tras aon paes a kay ron ig wats arson ane mang errs. jr > Wes Rv ‘other intemational organizations coordinate polices among counties. Cooperation among sates can result sedistbutions of populations and actives within and among ther, Global Government san international peacekeeping organization, lis53:534 Chapter 13 Political Region: Iiicago, a global center for many commodities markets, is now home to a market in green= house gates, Is called the Chicago Climate Exchange (CCX), and was established in 2003 to serve as a marketplace for greenhouse gas emissions al tow allowances lowances. The idea of a matket for pol has heen atound for‘some time, and market for wlfur missions allowances have been very effective in rede: ing sulfur emissions in the United States, The Europea Union has a carbon emissions trading spate in place. ‘These markets operate the principle that a unit of pollution controlled in one place is as good as a unit controlled somewhere else and that the most effective ‘way to control polstion isto da xo where it ean be ae complished at the lowest cost, Emitters either are re ‘quired to buy permits or allowances, or they voluntarily agree to do s0. Sup te, for example, an allowance for 1£ 100 tons of carhom comte $4.00 (about the Tudiidual coun es remain the highest level af absolute territorial sovereignty, but frameworks do exist to regu late and coordinate activities among them, Chapter 12 introduced the World Isade Organization, the Inter national Organization of Securities Commissions, and the Intemational Standards Organization. Internation- al monitoring of control over weapons of tion (WMDs) may necenitate greater cooperation oF enforcement of agreements, The International Court of Jusice, a branch of the United Nations sit in The Hague, in the Netherlands, I hears cases according to international law and sues rulings, bat the Hiigant Mater must choose to come before it and the Court has bho power to enforce ita decisions ‘Another tople of Inerensing cone ternational clashes over water rights, becatte ensuring the continuing amilabilty of fresh water in a longerange problem in many regions, Many of the world’s major river sistem are shared by teo oF more counties, soe solving disputes over international waters may be anim portant function of intemational courts in the futice ‘Organizations that coordinate activites among ies are called interaational orpuniea: tions, whereas organizations that actually exercise power over couuties are called supranational organiza: tions. Countries choose to surrender some powers to supranational organizations, but each county ca escape that control—by making war, if necessary. There fore, the allocation of powers in either international bs potential in tation and Globalization current price on the COX). A company that ean control its emissions for $3,00 per 100 tons would be better off red 1 emissions, while one for which the cost of re ducing emissions x $5.00 per 100 tons would be better off simply buying additional allowances, Much of the impetus for reducing carbon emis: slons comes from the Ryote Protocol, an international treaty that went into force in 2005, The United States has not raified the Kyoto Protocol, and at the present time the U.S. government has allowed companies’ par the COX to remain voluntary But a similar Neipatio program has been set up in Europe, which has ratified the Kyoto Protocol, and in 2006 California pasted ol law that includes » carbom carbon emisions ‘emissions trading program. These schemes could wl mately result in polluters in on part of the world governments or other entities in distant lands P for permission to pollvte our global atmosphere, = cor supranational arganitations is actually exible and open to continual renegotiation sother kind of international organization that exercises limited powers over ite members, and a Bloc ie 3 group. of countries that presents a common policy when dealing with other countries. Most blocs are regional Thternational and supranational organizations are not new in history Independent governments have ak ways made alliances and coordinated polices, Today fone interuational organizations coordinate willtary defense, but tae most active organizations work for eco- omie or broader cultural goalk. They are trying (0 achieve acrost severa) countries many of the same Things that sovereign states y to achieve within their Individual borders. These goals include creating tink fied markets for materials, goods, and services; knitting ateawide transport networks; ensuting free travel hroughout the territory; and even guaranteeing cou mon standards of politeal or civil rights, These goals enlarge the teritorial scale of organization and thus distribute people and activities his chapter first reviews how the collapse of great empires through the ewentith century gave birth to many new states. More than half of today's countries containing about half of the Earth’s population and covering about half of Earth's surface are less than 50 years old (Figure 18-1). The political fragmentation of space triggered economic and even cultsral breaksp, redistributing and remapping activites ‘A. commonnealth t‘The Collapse of Empires 535 / | none Bi FIGURE 13-1 The world in 1900. tn 1900 there were far fewer independent actor in internatonal ffs than, ‘there ae today, Compare this map with today’s polieal map, gute 1, p10. Ben as the number of sates as increased, how fever, the sates’ genuine independence of action has been undermined by international economic aks and ther trantactions and travels, Therefore, the second [parcof this chapter exatines instances in which nations i. The Ev Topean Union and the North American Free Trade [Area (comprised of those countries participating in the [North American Free Trade Agreement) are parsicuarly tignficant becewse the particpant: have great eco: nomic and military power and beeause in each ease the embers have surrendered considerable sutonomy toa central body or atleast to a common policy. Numerous ther internatioual organizations coordinate policies among countries, although their goals may be limited. The third section ofthis chapter discusses the in struments and institations through whieh international Jaw may be evolving toward global government. At present no effective global government exists, but at Teas systems of global agreement ate needed to regu late conduct among nations, International agreements also regulate activities in the areas of Barth that all na tions hold in common, such a8 the seas, The fourth section of the chapter notes the ways in which hh mankind is beginning to agree on rules to protect the global envisonment THE COLLAPSE OF EMPIRES The twentieth century sw the fragmentation of em pites that Europeans had built up over hundreds of years. The few remnants of empires can be seen © Figure 132, Since the breakup of the U.SS.R., China is the greates remaining multinational sate British Empire to Commonwealth Atite peak in 1900, the British Empire covered over one- ‘quarter of Earth's land strface, This empire has gradu ally been transformed into a loose association of independent states called the Commonwealth of Na tions. Most of the United Kingdom's former colonies have chosen to join, and today the Commonviealth has 58 members, Queen Elizabeth remains head of state in 15 countries in addition to the United Kingdom, in- cluding Canada, New Zealand, and Jamaica, but most former colonies have hecome republics, The British legal system, language and education system, the Angi ‘ean Church, and other eultaral tradigons linger in each of the countries, The Commonwe th offers 3 frame: ‘work for consultation and cooperation for the achieve: iment of common ends, where they exitt; and its Achievements have enticed Mozambique, a former Portiguese colony, to joi. Britsin retains posession of the Falkland Islands (Malvinas in Spanish) against claims by Argentina, hich even Bermuda isa Grown Golony with its sentative government All thtee colonies have repeatedly voted to maintain their current status [Northern Ireland's status is open to question, The United Kingdom gave independence to 26 of Ireland’ 32 counties in 1921, but the six coun Ireland (Ulster) elected to remain within the United ox of Northern536 Chapter 13 Political Regionalization and Globalization FIGURE 13-2 Remnants of empires. A few empite linger whereas the breakup of other cated the creation of coopers se organizations. Zimbabwe, led by Robert Mugabe hasbeen suspended ftom the Commonwealth for ack of democrat FIGURE 13.3 Gibraltar, Bata’ BSaquareklometer @5- squaremile) colony of Gibraltar offert fin harbor srateg fallylneated atthe entrance tothe Mediterranean Sea. Spain ‘stn the eslony, nd the United States even ought in ‘lance with Spain to wrest tamay (1779-1788), but wel wo ureter ines 80,000 resident we to ‘Sharge it sats. Toph, The lage Woks) Kingdom, Great Britsin and Ireland agree that Ulster can remain a provinee of Britain for as long as most of 5s people want ito, but the province has been wracked by almost nonstop violence since the 1960s, The province's Roman Catholics complain of discrimina tion by the majority Protestants, and both Catholic an Protest terrorism, Several guvernment schemes have be nt and Fiji was suspended after a mutary coup deta s 2006 attempted, but none has yet been able to guarantee peace. In 2000 User was 87 percent Protestast, bait Dirthrates are so much higher among the Roman CCatholies that they might soon form the majority The French Empire France built up an empire in the seventeenth and cigh: tcenth centuries but lost most of ts colonies during an cightecnthcentury sivalry with Britain. During’ the nineteenth century France built 2 second empire, be ginning with the occupation of Algeria in 1830 and eut- rminating in 1919 with the assimption of rule im Syria, ‘Togoland, and Cameroon. The French believed that thele subject peoples would mature met to indepen dence but to full representation in the government in Paris, The four colonies of Martinique, Guadaloupe, Réunion, and Guiana were organized as Overseas De partments of France, and each was granted representa tion in the French National Ascembly in 1946. Algeria won independence in 1962 after slong and bloody war. France granted independence ta most of its other colonies inv the 1950s, but it continued France’s former Afviean colonies receive aid a even host French military forees The present French Republic encompasses, in addlivion to mainland France and the four Overseas Departments, two Territorial Collectiviies and four (Overseas Tenitarics. France also posseanet a number of ds, including St Pierre and Miquelon off the southcoast of Newfoundland, a remnant of Brance's once: vast North American holdings, New Caledonia in the touthwestern Pacifle has major nickel reserves, and in 1998 it people agreed to defer a vote on independence for at least 15 years, France's other terttories are ge cally poor and sparsely populated, The Successor States of the Ottoman Empire When the Ottoman Turkish Empire collapsed and a new Turkish nation was born in the 1920, most oft ‘Turkish Empire in the Middie East was divided between France aud Britain, New states were eventually granted Independence, but the map of today’s states results from the interest of the colonial powers rather than the sentiments of the local people. Several bordershave been disputed for 90 years. Issel was carved aut to provide homeland for the Jewish people, and bitter Confrontation over this land—histovle Palestine— continues. Furthermore, the region has remained a cauldron of competing loyalties, Many Atabs bestow ‘The Collapse of Empires 537 their loyalty on unite that are meh smaller than (tans, wibes, or families) or 0 Digger than states, These ideas include famArabiim, the notion that there exist some bond among all Arabic speaking peoples that is more legidinate than the mod- fea Arabic sates, and a universal bond of Islam. The Middle Basis plagued by border disputes; rulers whose power is based on foreign interets rather than poplar ‘Support; religious animosities and political and’ eco homie intervention by international oil companies and Vals, Several wars have troubled the region World War IL, frustrating many hopes for democracy and economic devetopment, ideas that are much The Russian Empire, Revolution, and Reorganization tthe same time that the Western European countries vere bull re, Rusa was building an, ‘empive across Asia (Fiquee 15-4). During Wosld War I, the etpive suffered interual rebellion at well as exter nal attack, The Communists, led by Viadimir Lenin FIGURE 13-4 Tho historic expansion of Russia. Rusians’ expansion from theirhomeland around Moscow began inthe Imisntcenth century, and by 1617, Rust catalrymen ha eached the Pacie-Dusing the seventeenth and ightcenth see {uries, Russians pushed south tothe Black Sea Ruman explorers cose over the Bering Salt corporate Alsi which Rosia wold to the United States in 1867) and wo locate settlements a fat soutls as Canin In the nineteenth and cay tent ‘th ceututes, cats power advanced al further inte Eastern Europe ad Cental Asa538 (1870-1924), seized conttol in 1917 and offered a new propagandistc ideal ofa federal union among the for ret nabject nations. This union, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republies (USSR. of Soviet Union), came nto being in 1922, he configuration and internal organization of the USS.R. changed through the years, butin 1990 the Soviet Union covered 17 percent of Earth’ land area (excluding Antarctica), and its population of abowt 290 million made it Earths third most populous cosntry, fier China andl India ‘The Soviet Union was subdivided into 15 unton re ‘of which was theoretealy the homeland of pulse ® national group and therefore was nated for that troup (Figure 185). Several republics contained within them the homelands of less sumerous ethnic groups, and these groups enjoyed lester territorial autonomy, Rossa was the largest republi, occupying fly 76 per cent of the total tersitory of the USSR. teas the capital of both the Rusian Repubiie and alo of the USSR. Within Russi el, 88 constituent unit, 20 of which were ethnically based republics, enjoyed varying degrees of autonomy (Figure 135). Rusia i, therefore, sell technically referred to as the Russian Federation. nd Moseam Chapter 13 Political Regionalization and Globalization The individval Soviet republics ostensibly enjoyed considerable autonomy, but in fact all power was cen- tealized in Moscone. Ressian Communists dominated the Union government and even in the non-Russian te: publics, Russians attempted to acculturate the other peoples. The Russian language, for example, was pre ferred for central government affairs, and itwas one of two official languages in all non-Russian republics ‘Migration of Russians into the other homelands was yet nother form of Russian imperialism. ‘The Soviet Union contained 55 million Mustimse in 1990—concentrated in Kazakhstan, Tasks Usbelistan, Tajikstan, and Kyrgyztan in Cs plus Azerbaijan in the Caucasus. Birthrates were Among these peoples, and many of them wete po ‘issatiied. Their disatisfaction threatened the Union's politica stability. The economic geography of the USSR. The two principal ct ities of SoWdet economic development were economic selGeulficieney for the Union at a whole and centralized state control, Natural sesources Were the property ofthe sate, and uo one was allowed to own “means of production” in sich away a8 0 FIGURE 13-6 The pollical and population geography of the U.S.S2. In 1990. Mos ofthe state ofthe former Soviet Union are dominated by nationalities for which the republic wat named, here shown aa stular” nationalities. The map Alustrate that Kazakh were 2 minority in “their own” rep, and in several replies msmigrant peoples often Ruan forsaed substantial minorities‘The Collapse of Empires 539 os * ) a 2 z ° ancric ocean ‘ v- & we ” V oe é onmorse 1180" co baat) \ Ce =) FIGURE 12-6 Russia's autonomous republics ‘arying depres of autonomy from the government in Moscow. profit from the bor of others, Only litle private prop: erty and afew private-sector services were allowed, Rossi's treasury and supplies of raw materials subsidized ineficent industries in other republics. Agriculture was brut ctvized. New lands were ‘opened to agriculture, notably the steppes of northern Kazakhstan, but conditions across much of the USSR. territory—particularly northern Russia and the desert regions of central Asia—remain tnfavorable for agt culture, Agriculture ao suffered from mimanage ment, ick of worker iientive, lack of investment, poor transport, and. government policies that kept’ farm prices low. Heavy industry, guided by planning bureaw fracies, made immense strides, but the Soviet Union Jagged behind the Westin light industry, in the produc tion of consumer goods, and in high-technology prod: tuets Both production and internal trading were highly centralized, and extremely inflexible. ‘These three factors—centraliation, eigidiy, and. geographic co ‘of production—bound the republic, protection was sacrificed for in ustalization. In 1990 Alexei Yablokov, director of the Institute of Biology at the Academy of Sciences, estimated that 20 percent of Soviet citizens lived “ccalogical disaster zones” and 85 to 40 percent more In “ecologically unfavorable conditions” ‘Then 20 ethnically based “autonomous republic within Russia enjoy The breakup of the USSR. Mikhail Gorbachev assumed power ax Union president in 1985, and he tried to boost the Union's economy by launching two liberalizing initiatives: glamost, a loorening of re straints against freedom of speech and the press, and prrntveika, a vestructuring of the economy and of pol tics. Gorbachev gambled that hia policies could unleash inndividual initiative and productivity while retaining the centralized control of the Communist Paty and of the central Union government. Gorbachey lost. The tensions unleashed brought down the old governmen- tal stem before Gorbachew could bring ® new one into place, Dating 1991 much was done to reform of over throw the government of te USSR, but by the end of the year the individual republics had declaved their ine dependence. On December 26, 1991, the Soviet Parl iment formally voted the USSR, out of existence. Representatives of the thive Slavie republics (Belars, Russia, and Ukraine) created a new Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), which was eventally joined by nine more former republic, Extonia, Latvia, and Lithuania (called the Baltic Republics) were independent democracies after World War I, but the Soviet Union forcibly reincorporated them in 1989. They achieved relative prosperity wuder the Union government, but since the collapse of the540 Chapter 13 Political Regions Soviet Union they have tured their hopes toward the European Union, dissed tater in this chapter Developments in Russia After the fall of co hist and the distolution of the Soviet Union, Rusti suffered a virtual implosion of calamitous proportions from wich it seems ta be emerging only now, early in the tenty-fist century. Every measure of ineome, Death, o welfare ail reveals a society facing enormou challenges. The economy has shrunk, the blrthrate and the total fertliy rate have dropped, and the death, rate has risen. Life expectancy has shortened, and Russia's population, which was 147 milion in 1999, f to 148 million iy 2006 and ix projected to fall to 121 mil lion in 2050, Neither attempts to achieve democracy nor to achieve capitalism seem to have seceeded ‘Vladimir Putin was elected president in 2000 in would considered open and fair in any Western tate, State-owned media, for exain- ple, relentlessly attacked Putin's opposition, Most of the basic governmental framework of the Russian Federation has been maintained, but one ethnic unit Chechnya (formally, Checheno-lugushetia at seen in Figure 136) launched a long snd bloody struggle to achieve full independenice. The 20 million Muslins in Russa constitute the majority in 7 of the autonomous republics, and fertility rates among them ate high, soin lect wot have bee 2008 Russia joined the Organization of the Islamic Conference, Russs’s Muslims, said President Put “have every right to feel part ofthe Muslim world Meanwhile, the privatization of the slateowned seizure of many asets by the members ment bureaucracies, By nganized crime, or by afew ruthlen ollgarcha, Private ‘asa (privatization) tumed into. prbhvatiatia (Co rab), Hundreds of billions of dollars were siphoned tof Russa ad deposited in foreign banks during “cruptlous privatizations of state-owned companies be tween 1900 and 2000. Only history will decide how many leaders ar prot nate, competent, corrupt, or all three, Risa ail has immense natural resources, a large sd and educated population, and scientific inst tutes second to none. Soaring energy prices cary in the beentyftel century relumed enormous profite {0 Rusia, bats may he many years before it flly reassures a place asa great power cers in Russia in the 1990s were The other formerly Soviet republics Experience in most of the other formerly Soviet republics (aside rom the Baltics) has echoed the Russian example Politically, they have renegotiated their relationships with the former autonomous regions within them, although several newly independent republics, including Moldavs, Tajkistan, and Georgia have experienced cll wars. Fileen years alter winning independence, most fruaranteed few freedoms and continued to be riled by futocrats or oligarchs, The highly centralized command tation and Globalization economy of the US.S.R left legacy ensring that none of the suecesor sates has a balanced economy. Most are Sependent on other former republies for exental sup les and rely on enterprises im other former republics a8 {heir sole markets, Rusia continnes to supply most of them with natural resources at prices Below those on world markets, fis proving very dificult to unravel this economic interdependence, andthe proces of unravel {ng has imposed considerable hardship. Moat ofthe new countries are privatizing thelr economes, but not all fre privatizing at the sume eate. As in Russia itelf, che process in several has been tinted by corruption, Several fof the sates have skidded toward worsening poverty, instability, and international isolation. Rusia still maine tains military bass in several of them. Ukraine wae the second mort powerful of the Union republics, but since the breakup, Its Industrial sight has proved largely illusory. Many factories were obsolete and represented more of a liabily thai an asset o a new economy. The government has been slow to reform the economy and reluctant to privatize, sone efficient stateonned industries still pile up losses, Income in Ukraine fell approximately 50 percent be- ‘veer 1990 and 2000 and it remains dependent upon Rosia for fuel and raw materials. Ukraine, koown a the *breadbasket” of the former Union and potentially fone of the richest agricul even had to import food, Many former republics want to diversify away from, economic dependence on Russia by giving priority toade and investment with other partners in the West Asia, and the Middle East. The newly independent Gen tral Asian Islamic counties retain economie inka to Rissa, but religion and other enftural tls pull th sway, These countries are landlocked, and the cou surrounding them compete for influence. Turkey offers democratic and secular model, and it ie strengthening its Tinks with ite co-Turks acrose the region, but the Iranians, who are related to the Tajik in language and culture: se Shite Islam withthe Arerbaiju have subeldized new moaquet and schools in Azerbaijan vd are initlating joint economnie venues (Figure 187) ‘To the east, China has cultivated economic and political contacts, ad even Japan and South Korea have invested in Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan. Some of the Central Asi Razakhstan—may of who will take the lesd in developing that resource 1d by what routes the ol will peach World markets have launched diplomatic initiatives among many concerned counties, Each possible route carries politcal and ‘conomic complications, In 2005, the China National Petroleum Corporation bought Kazakhstan's largest oil company and built pipeline to the Chinese border. Even the United States central Asa. The United States has occupied military bates in Tajikistan and in Uzbekistan in exchange for longterm commiunent to friendship and asistance. a8 astuimed a roleFLOURE 13-7 Central Asian transport routes. The Iranian goverument completed aril nk from Matha to “eden in 1996, 0 today Iran's pot of Bandar Abbas x Sentral A's principal oes ta Ue ea: Completion of Falload thom Masha to Balgwil shorten tha oute by 500 kilometers (560 miles, When the linet completed fom ‘Bafq to Zahedan, goods from central Asia wl be able toby pass wantor Afghanistan to reach Pakistan and Inn A Pipeline also under construction fom oiich Turk [nent around the southern shore of the Caspian Sea. Hong Kan to Turkey. ‘This was partly to protect these governments from theit ‘own Islan fundamentalist organizations, These agree ments triggered concern among many regional govert« ments that the United States intends to establish a permanent military presence in central Asia—perhaps te obtain the ol One ofthe most volaile kaues among the new cen ‘tal Asan republics i thels competitive demande forthe limited regional water supplies, Problems associated with the unequal water resources of mountainous Tajikstan and Kyrgyestan and their lowlying neighbors Uzbek Jstan, Karakhstan, and Turkmenistan broke up a U.N, sponsored conference on regional environmental isses 412003 and have even raised fears of armed contiet. The dissolution of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics created new units on the world pollteal map and released powerful new politcal, religious, culteal, tnd economic forces, These forces contin to eaise flobal redistributions of cultural, political, and eco: The Empire of the United States “The United States organized most of its tervitories and admitted them to the Union fairly quickly. With the ranting of statehood to Alaska and Hawaii in 1959, the United States even incorporated overseas terstories, 4 France had. ‘The Collapse of Empires 541 ‘The United States took Cuba from Spain in 1898 ‘but granted it independence in 1984 and today retains conly # naval hase in the island's Gantinam Bay. In 2002, President Bush authorized the holding of non: US. citizens in indefinite detention and the shipment prisoners having recourse to either U.S. courts fr the protections of the Genera Convention, which prohibit “mutilation, crue! treatment and torture." Phe subsequent mistreatment of prisoners at Guantinamo Bay disturbed many Americane and friends In 2004, however, the U.S, Supreme Court ruled thatthe prin. cera were not beyond the reach of the U.S. court syaters (Rasul \: Bash), and in 2006 dhe Coust ruled that the military wibunals created to try suspect there violated Doth American military law and the Geneva Conver tion (Hamdan x. Rumsfeld). Congress must redefine the reach of US. law over Gusntaname. “The United States also took the Philippi Spain in 1898, but it then had to defeat a powerful ne tlonal independence movement there, The Philippines were granted independence in 1946. ‘The United States provoked Panama's uprising for independence from Colombia in 1905, and then by rearrangement leased the Canal Zone from the new country (Figure 188}, The United States invaded 2 fom FIGURE 12-8 Tho Panama Canal. The United States ‘ured the Panama Canal over to Panama in 199. The {Canalis too salto accommodate many of day's ship, ton 2006 the government announced x plan to double the Capacity of the canal by 2014542 Chapter 13 Political Region: Panama in 1989 to interdict drag traffic to the United States and aceupied Pa til dhe end of 1999, but USS, officals report that narcotics ty Panama has not been reduced, Pan 1 counties that accept the US. dolla a legal tender in an effort to stabilize their own currencies, Some 1M percent of the world's merchant ships are registered in Panama. This ie an aston such 2 small, poor country, bat porations reghter thelr shipa in Panama because of Itt low taxes and regulation. For thls reason the Pananan lan Mag is known as a flag of convenience Liberia was founded asa haven for freed US. saves and received independence in 1847, Inequities in wealth and political power fuel antagonism between the domi nant Americodiberians {about 5 percent of the total population of 21 million) and the indigenous Africana ‘The indigenous population is ituelf split among eth groups. Chil war broke out in dhe 1980s, and even inter vention by forces from a consortium of West African ates has been wnable to stop the bloodshed, The Liber= ian flag i another fag of convenience. Liberia registers about 6 percent of the world’s merchant marine fleet, Fepresenting 1 percent of tol world gross tonnage: ‘The threat of teroriam has stimulated efforts by the Londonbased International Maritime Organization to latfy rue ownership of ships yng flags of convenience. "The United States stil retains a modest empire of islands. Their total population is about 5 millon, most fof whom are citizens of the United States. American, Samoa, Baker Island, Guam, Midway Islands, the US. Ving Islands, Wake Island, and a few other spots are dependent areas The Northern Mariana Isl commonwealth in political union with the United Stites, while Palau, the Republic of the Marshall I lands, snd the Federated States of Micronesia are inde pendent states with Compacts of Free Association with the United States. ic through, a i one of the Puorto Rico The United States granted Puerto Rico 1917 a 1952 to the status of a fee commonwealth. Puesto Rico enjoys i ternal autonomy, but Pucito Ricans are US. cidzens also tnder the jurisdiction of the federal government. ‘They do not vote in presidential elections, and the resident commissioner in Congress ean vole only cammitice meetings. The United States and Puerto Rice. ary system, but Puerto Ricans pay no federal taxes, and some federal ‘ud exelte duties are paid back into the ie land's teasucy. Puerto Ricans are divided over their politieal status. Ina nonbinding 1998 plebiscite, 48 per cent of yotets opted to continue the commonwealth status, 46 percent preferred statehood, and 4 percent voted for independence. ‘Most arguments in the political debate are eco- je. The densely populated, resource-poor island enjoyea standard of living higher than that of any ther clevated i tation and Globalization Caribbean oF Latin American nation, 20 it may be considered to be either a rich Caribbean country or conversely, a pour part of the United States, Puerto Rico's 4 million people would rank ctwentyit among, the wates in population, but its per capita income i Tess ‘han Ralf that of Misssipps, whch ranks last among the states. Both the federal government's role and that of {the loal government is large: Federal transfer payments (ie, welfare) make up more than 20 percent of the Inland’s personal income, and about $0 pereent of the land's jobs ate in the public sector. The United States granted lx benefits to US. corporations that located in Puerto Rico, so today manufacturing accounts for 45 percent of Puerto Rica's economie output and for 20 percent ofemployment Agriculture accounts for only 1 percent of output and 8 percent of employment, Puerto Rleans are Spanish speaking, and many wish to retain their linguistic and cultural traditions This might make it difficult for Puerto Rico to asim. late filly into U.S, life, If Puerto Rico were a state, it would send 2 Senators to Congress, plus 6 of 7 Repre- sentatives, costing 6 oF 7 states one Congressman ea If, on the other hand, Puerto Ricans ever choose inde- pendence, terms af continsing financial asstance plas leases on US. military bases (8 full 18 pereent of the teritory) sill have to be renegotiated NEW UNIONS OF STATES “The breakup of empires has fraguoe the scale of politic organization of territary an often, the cultural fe organization as well New ‘organizations of states, however, are binding activities across tegions. The European Union is the international organization with the most ambitious oale—nothing les than eventual political wnificati ‘The North American Free Trade Agreement has more limited goal ted and reduced id econ The European Union: Nations Knitting a Region Together World War I ended in Europe in 1945 with the srr der of the Axis posters: Germany, Italy, Romnia, Bul saris, and Hungry. Japan had been an Axis Asin aly ‘The principal victorious Allied powers were the United States, Canatla, Great Britain, France, the USSR. and CChina. In Eurape the Allies had aqueczed the Axi pow rs from Wert and East and thet victorious a inthe middle of the continent, ‘The Alles themeclves, however, were already divided by mistrust, and Europe soon spit into two com- petitive blocs. British Prime Minister Winston Chirehill hid, "From Stettin in the Baltic to Thiete inthe Adriatic ron Curtain has descended across the continent” To the east, Sovlet armies installed satellite regimes i Poland, Hungary, Romania, Czechoslovakia, andBulgaria, Local Communist leaders seized power in Yogorlsvia and Albania without Russian help. The con: stations ofall these countries were amended to guar ntee Communist Party dominance i national polities, and th cy ealectvized, Germany Itself was spt int four cones of ellitary fccupation. Alteady by 1949, however, the United States, French, and British zones were united function ally, and a new Federal Republic of Germany (West Ger many), with Born ae ite espital, gained sovereignty 1955. The Soviet Union reacted by granting ils occupa tion zone independence atthe German Democratic Re- public (East Germany). Germany’ capital ety of Been had aso been jointly occupied, a0 it too was split be tween West and East Germany, even though it lay about 201 kilometers (125 miles) inside East Germany. Ts wweslem sector was recognized as a part of West Ger ‘many, and East Berlin became the capital of East Ger: ‘any. West Berlin showeased Western prosperity the middle of East Germany. As a result, 20 many East Berliners led isto West Belin that in August 1961, East Germany builea wall across the city to seal in its itizens Astra, which had been annexed by Germany, als had ‘been split ino four occupation zones, but they were re ‘united in a newly independent state in 1985 The Tron Curtain across Europe followed fxisty closely the far older cultural division that Chapter 7 de ‘mareated in orthography and teligion: The West was de fined by Roman Catholic or Protestantinn and the use ofthe Roman script, and the East by Oxthodox Chris tianity and the Cyrillic script. The lon Curtain deviated from this line, however, in that Estonia, Lai, Lithva nin, Poland, Eastern Germany, Czechoslovakis, hing Croatia, and Slovenia, whieh had never been "Easte European" eultraly, were east ofthe Iron Curtain "The division of Europe into two competing blocs was furthered by Soviet seizure of tentory dusing an after World War I (look back at Figure 11/5). In 197 85 countres—mostly European, but including the United States and other World War I participants— agreed to accept European borders as inviolable, but they did not rule out revision by peaceful agreemen Some European barders have been redraw since then. For example, in 1990 the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratie Republic peacefully united tnd recognized Berlin as the capital of the wnited country (Figure 15:9). Eastern Germany sill lage be- hind the Western part, but standards of living are rising. Unification har been judged a politiel success overall, despite continuing dificultics in absorbing the Ens. 1901 Yugostaia split apart into warting new states, an Moustenegro separated from Serbia in 2006, In 1993 Czechoslovakia peacefully split i Military pacts The postwar politcal division of Burope war accompanied by te division into two military alliances. In the West the North Atlantic Treaty Orga ation (NATO), established in 1949, united Belgiuen, Now Unions of States 543 FiGuRE 13-9 Germans colobrato tho opening of the Berlin Wall. At7oelock on the evening of November 9, 1989, an ast German official mistaken handed a tle sivon speaker a drait of new regulation suggesting that East Germans could got the Wes without ava at once. By o'clock, hundreds of thousands stood a the wall shout 1, “Open the Gate” Confused guards di, and East ‘German surged through, to be met by West Germans and doused wth beer and champagne. The Resin Wall had len, ane East Germany war con rept avy by history. (Anthony Sena Gety lage ie Lnon) Denmark, France, Grest Britain, Iceland, Tal, Luxe bourg, the Netherlands, Norway, and Portugal with Canada and the United States. Greece, Turkey, West Germany, and Spain joined later In 1955 the Warsaw Pact inked the USSR. and its stelites The USSR. sued this treaty to justly the continued occupation of Eastern European countries by Soviet troops, which suppressed occasional anticommunist uprisings. The Western and Eastern blocs faced one another in a pro tracted cold war: Although the two blocs never engaged dicectlyin combat, they competed for economic growth and for influence among the new countries that gained their independence after World War Tl ‘The pattern of alliances in Europe dissolved in 1989, The USSR. directed its atention to its own in ternal problems and released its grip on the countries ‘of Eastern Europe, These counties in turn, repudiated the privileged role of the Commsanist Party their own countries and within afew months scheduled free elee tions. The Warsaw ilisolved in 1991 NATO eventually expanded to include moat of its for ret putative adversaries: Poland, the Grech Republic, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Exton, Bulgaria, Slovak Slovenia, and Romania. In 2002 NATO signed au agree- ‘ment with Rusia on terroriem, arms contrl, snd inter. a fore national crisis management, 0 today even Resi joins NATO conferences, Croatia, Macedonia, Alba Georgia have expressed thelr wl to join544 Chapter 13 Political Regions NATO as be come increasingly active fis Ts 1999 NATO for the fst ime in its history attacked a sovereiga, ation Ieengaged in Vogoalavia to end fighting there September 2001, NATO invoked, for the fst the, 4 clause that binds the members to recognize an attack tirected from abroad on any member a an attack om all embers. This clause wa designed to protect Europeans from the USSR; few observers wold have ever tur pected that it frst would be invoked to protect the United Stites from tervorists, NATO forces helped defeat the ‘Taliban in Afghanistan and have remained there. The of sganization’s expausion aud its redirection ofeffortso far field have caused many observers to wonder whether NATO must redefine is Focus and purpose, Despite the ened of the cold war Economic blocs In 1947 US. Seaetary of State George C. Marshall (Figure 13-10) announced a plan of nancial aid to warshattered Europe, Aid was offered to the Soviet Union and to the countries of Eastern Ese rope, but Soviet dictator Joseph Stalin (1879-1963) 1e- jected it, The Marshall Pian became a program for the ‘economic rehabilitation of Western Europe. FIGURE 13-10 Gorge C. Marshall. George G Marshall (1880-1959) isshown here (at eight) with Mes Marshall ad Ing the tenth anniversary ofthe Marsal Plan. During World War i, Marshall erved a army chief of sa and zone to Svestas ra ay Hlsuated in the panting behind hi. AS secretary of sate (1947-1940), he devsed the Marshal Plan for the recovery of Europe, for which he won the Nobel Dwight D. Etenhower 160) mas supreme commander ofthe Alle Expeditionary Force in Europe, and then Eisenhower served US, president (1953-1961) (Googe C Marshal Fowsation, eagin,VA, CCM Phoogrph Callen #507) tation and Globalization ‘The Soviet Union and its Eastern European satel Iies formed a competing economic pact, the Council for Mutual Economic Awistance (COMECON), that achieved a partial integration of their economies Some of the East European economies grew under their communist regimes, enough to surpass the Soviet Union ittelt im per eapita mearures, but they did not keep up with Western Europe. COMECON formally dishanded in 1991, and the Bast Europe began to privatize their economies and to negotiate 2 with the more prosperous cout Europe jes of Wester The European Union today The Marshall Plan encouraged economic cooperation among the Euro- ‘pean conntses, and in 152 sx ofthe Western European hations united their industrial economies to forma the European Coal and Steel Community: Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, West Germany, France, and Italy. The sicces ofthis ion encouraged further coop- tation, and the European Economic Community (EEC) and European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom) ‘ame into exintence in 1987, All thtee merged. European Comm the United Kingdom, Greece, Spain, and Port joined, too, and in 1998 these 12 counties changed the ‘name of their organization o the European Uaion (EU). Sweden, Finland, and Austria joined in 1995; the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia, Malta, and Cyprus in 2004; and Bu! gris and Romania on Jsmsiary 1, 2007 (Figure 13:11) [Norway has voted not to jon, freetrade area has 0 internal trill, bu ts ate free to set thelr own tariff on trade with the rest of the world, A customs wnion enforces a common exter nal fail, A common market ie sill closer asociat fof sates; i ina customs union, bu in addition, common Jaws create similar conditions af production within all members. The BU is forming a full commen market, and Ht even declare political merger a be an eventual foal. Khas been noted that the United States devel ‘oped a poltical community before merging as an eco nomic union, whereas the European sates ate trying to reverse that process ‘The members of the European Union share many broad cultural paticrns, which provide a basi for their uccetsful cooperation. Commen traditions Include emocratie ideals and parliamentary instutions, civil rights and legal codes, Judeo-Chuistan ethics, respect for scientific inguixy artistic waditions, and humanism. and individualism, Fe may be difficult to extend Union membership to some states, such as Turkey, that are pressing for entry but do not share these European traditions ‘The European Union has seversl goals. One is to fend the wats that have plagued the coutinent. Another is economie growth, and a third reason for Europeanib ATLANTIC FHOURE 12411 The European Union, Emmi eng heh sft aaa World age. United Europe, however, can au a European Union government Tie Unions ge sed by fous ltatone the Euopean Commit, pean Cour of Janice The Common, tit one reponse fr ‘ata, which hs peta de ace expt of the Union, Comatiioners Ercnet permite totakeintrucion vm the goer ‘ent of the country that apolnted thea, but ae New Unions of States 545 a supposed to repent the interest of the ize ofthe EO a Te lg Col rough according tothe popelatons ofthe EU meme Tmucr by majo ote, ds al cote vores eat as in Stsbourg, bye cusns a the member cote, and the me begs ho represent alate poet paren om diteron her saerbatonal ing Hocn Therefore, the Parlament and ta 2 depee ‘he commision are genaiely supranational The546 Chapter 13 European Parliament #¢ not equivalent to = national legilature. It ean scrutinize proposed Union laws, offer amendments, vote against directive, veto the actions of branch of the Union, o¥ dismiss the European Cons tnission, but it cannot initiate legislation, select the ex cutive, or ley taxes. Nevertheless, Parliament is the tmost democratic of Union inatitations, and i has been, sesining power. European Inte i adjudicated by the Europe Count of Justice and national laws, the supremacy of Union law is being steadily affirmed. Union instiutions have become soi portant to the member states that about 60 percent of ach member's domestic legislation is drafted in Brus: sels and simply translated into national aw. Final adop- tion of the Enropean Convention on Heman Rights in 2000 profoundly changed government in. seven European states that, uilike the United States, had Gonstitution or independent judiciary to enforce gua antes against official abuse, After 2000, for the fist time, national judges were bound to measure acts of lei national legislatures against the EU Convention, This is tray supranational law ses of conflet between Un European Union integration The EU largely achieved the creation of one ecouomie community by the end of 1992 The fallowing six criteria, however, demonstrate that the Union is much mote than 3 Political Regionalization and Globalization its members and binding thelr territories in any ways The Creation of One Market for Goods, The Union sstablished a common agricultural policy and. Union bureaucracies have standardized bus ss regulations. European manufacturere ‘would like ta achieve the economies of scale in fone European market that U.S, manufacturers have long enjoyed in the buge U.S, domestic market The Craton of One Mart for Capital, Thirteers EU members y, the euro Portugal, Fialaid, and Slovenia). Coordination among the counties that use the euro has been. rained because rules requite individual countries that ute the euro to keep down national budget deficits, This rule may force cuts in social welfare Programs and other governmental spending, Nevertheless, the euro hae won increasing favor as 2 ional currency Transport Spon. The members of the European Union ate tedesighing and rebuilding Europe's transport system to change it from national webs into a single coordinated web (Figure 18-12). All nilroads, for example, must use the same gauge O. ynieneanaee FIGURE 13-12 Europe's inlograted rail nolWork. An integrated network of high speed te ns has been superimposed on the existing national networks Itrequze Ling ‘hosands of kilometers of nem rack and improsing mich ofthe rest Ina aea ae com act and densely populated as rope, cyto ein travel iva sensible alternative to it {Enel alii or no additonal time eve (Data tunand electricity systems, and all highway, bridges, and tunnels must have the ame constriction apecifcations, One alstraffic control system hat volved and was extended in 2006 to ten Eur pean countries outside the EU. Regal Palisy. The Single Europe Act commits she countries “to stengghen economie and cultural cohesion.” Living standards and quality of lite fought to be equalized throughout the Union throughout their territories (Fighte 1913). The Union tailors policies for poor agrieultural re lous and declining urban regions and furnishes finds for needed infrastructe, stich as transport and telephone service Social Policy, The Union members have ttied to strengthen cultural Ges, International committees are rewriting school history books, for example, to sntagonisms, EU qualize worker health and aafey wandards, the Soften nationalistic policies international ansfer of pension rights, the guar antee of rights to migrant workers, and mutual technical qualifications. The Work cre Chatter regulates the workweek, overtime pay, holidays, and other terms of employment. The Es ropean Court of Justice has enforced standard iil rights and antidiscrimination legislation zens may travel, settle in the Union, whereas nonUnion citizens face om immigration and via requirements, EU sitizens can vote in any EU country in which they reside, and noncitizens can even hold offices throughout the member counties. The concept ‘of “European citizenship” is being made real nd work anger with FIGURE 13-13 Income gaps. Thischart GNI per capita exist cron the EU, but the Un standard forall Now Unions of States 547 6. Environmental Policy, The EU has become a leader efforts to protect the glatal env “The EU has established policies of pro tecting the quality ofthe environment, protecting Ihuman health, ensuring prudent use of natural resources, and promoting international measures to deal with regional or global envitonmental problems. These polices Sands for sir and water quality, resttietions on pollutant dickarges, and procedures for environ ‘mental impact ateasment ave led to: new stan ‘The Communist governments in most of the EU's new Eastern European members had compelled man gets to mect industrial production tangets regardless fof the cort or hazards to people's health or to Tonment, Unbridled industtial spewing and spilling canied diastrous environmental consrquences that Ihave not all been stopped, and the degradation will have to be remedied. Through the years, stastcal descriptions of life in the EU member counties have converged. Thete include statics as diverse as median educational ae tainment of the population, degree of urbanization percentage of females in the ‘ates, and total fertly rates. Thi eoovergence demon trates that life in the member countries bs growing tessurably more alike labor force, erude birth ‘At the same time, the various European national cultures ate growing less distinct, than they were just decades ago. Siles of dress, eulsine, architecture, and other artifacts are merging, Almost two-thirds of the Union's citizens report speaking at Teant one Etropean language in addition to their m hopes to achive high ving548 Chapter 13 Political Regions The challenges of expansion and interna- fional relations Extensions of the Union have pre- sented enormous challenges. Since 2004, the Unio hae strggled to “digest” many new members, several of Which have large populations that are economically far behind the eailier members. The Czech Republic, the Balti states, and Hungary seem to have evolved suc cessfully into capitalist democracies, with Slovenia not fa behind, but other countries have had only limited success in. privatizing, and several have seen. their ‘economies crumble. Today the boundary between West nd East Europe traces an economic divide almost as Seep a8 that between the United States and Mexico. Eastern European countries generally have lower per capita incomes, shorter life expectancies, higher per centages oftheir populations in agriculture, and lower measures of HDI, Eastern Europeans are migrating to the West, Migration from the new Eastern European, BU members to Ireland, for example, has heen so grext that Irelands popslation reached # modern high of 4.2 million in 2006. In that year 400,000 people i Ire land were foreign-born, double the figure fron ‘The EU has begun to asteteconon evelopment in the East The accession of new members has also presented politcal and even cultural challenges For example, in the government of the EU, power has slowly been shift To the democratic Europes h poorer Eastern Eusepean countres wleld substantial politcal power. This has caused frictions within the wider Union, Poland, for example, has balked at gran Tights to women and gay people and at protecting tural habitats and endangered species. These are alters to be watched caret. Croatia, Macedonia, and Turkey remain ean: dates for metbership, and Switzerland enjoys close i without membership. Parliament, in wh tation and Globalization ‘The European Union negotiates ade pacts with ‘uitsde counties and other blocs, but it lacks an overall foreign policy. This reveals how far the countees remain from tute union. Nevertheless, since 1997 the EU has had a secretary gencial, who represents the foreign policy decisions of the Council of Ministers on the international stage. The Union hae alaa formed a Defense Force, which took over some NATO peace-keeping responsibilities in Macedonia in 200%, The EU Defense Force was more Important for ts mabolism—220 solders serving under the Union flag—than for it miliary might. Many U.S. corporations do business in Europe or ‘export to Europe, so European regulations increasingly affect US. economic affairs, and European govert= rents are much less laiseeefuire than isthe US. gov crnment, The European Commission has intervened in everything from U.S. antitrust policy to food safety. For ‘example, Europeans regulate what Ineenet comps may do with personal information collected from cot sumers far more strict than the U.S. goverament does European governmental review of corporate mergers is also much stricter than in the United States, so it was Bsaropeans who in 2001 blocked the proposed merger fof the American giant corporations General Electtic nd Honeywell. American corporations’ acceptance of European regulations may make it harder for these cor potations to fight the introduction of similar regulation back in America, The existence of the euro currency aso threatens US. economic welfare. Many nations have long had sich confidence in the United States that they have kept their own national reserves in US. dollats— Inunaeds of illins of ther Thi States literally to print money to pay i debis and to sum high current accounts defies. If many countries tin sufficient confidence in the euro that they shift ven a fraction of theit national reserves into euros, ha allowed the United Critical THINKING Geographical Indicators In negotiations among its own members and with thor countries, the European Union has become con- cerned withthe integrity of labeling prods that take thoir names from the regions whore those products iginateg. For example, the flowing place names ean ow be used only for wines actualy produced in these regions: Bordeaux, Chiand, Claret, Madeira, Malaga, Marsala, Medoe, Moselle, Burgundy, Rhine, Sauternes, ‘Chablis, Champagne, Port, and Sherry. Other geo~ ‘graphical Inalestors include Parma ham and Stiton, Parmesan, Asiago, Roquefor, and Gorgonzola ‘cheeses. Many of Europe's tading partners, including Canada, have agreed to stop using these European place names to label their domestic imitations. In 2006 the Urited States agreed to limit ts winemakers lise of European place names such ae Port, Sherry, and Chiant, but only when the US. wines. are exports. Questions 1. How many of the places named in the products ‘above can you find on a map of Europe? 2, How many U.S. products can you find in your local ‘grocery store or wine shop that use the European geographical indicators?The Formation of a North American Trade Bloc (om Jantary 1,198, the Nort American Fre Te Speen NAFTA enc nag i Ui NAFTA cncens oly eae and este Rte be {Goin gure emer ‘alpen 64 mio li The Canaca-U$. tree trade agreement ‘ery 199, The wea she emo rede the the wot to lang ting tne 1518 ions wee ene song sper vor pact The enn ie a et etn eee aaconptinn nasa oe Seecteaeteateentemae” New Unions of inten 649 ary 24 eter (80 me ofthe US, onde a hey Soe tt age id using pov foe we aby soma tp ‘por aitegones gore 1815) 42008 ae ond leave cued a tightening of this border, For 189 yeas, Togs undefended tore bt 200 te Une Ssinmuned armament on Coa Guat ship te ‘oso torer coming The Unted Sine ha so ese vctng in ceca aah550 Chapter 13 Political Regionalization and Globalization What Is Canadian Music? ‘A Canaslan law insists that 35 percent of the daytime playlist on Canaaian radio be Canaan music? The nationalty of the singe, of the composer, and of the lyricist must abe taken into anal,” But what is Some resuts of the government directive may soem bizare. For example, Lenny Kraviz's 1999 ‘mao of the 1970s song “American Woman” qualifies a5 Canaan. Kravitz fat Canadian, and the song ‘n't nada, butthe tong was writen by Guess Who, Canadian band, Coline Dion, a Canadian singing “My Heart Wil Ge On," a song by 8 U.S, composer and ie fist, doesnot count as Canadian, Red Stewarts “Rhythm of My Hear,” however, i Canadian because both the ‘muse and lyres are by the Canadian Mark Jordan, Similar problems of definiion plague other ecultral products. Top Cop, a USS. television program fied in Canada, is Canadian, but the Disney Corpora: tion's movie Never Cry Wolf, @ 1983 film vetsion of @ Canadian classic book by (Canadian) Farley Mowat. is not Canadlan because it was produced in the United States. Questions 1. Should Canads foal that its necessary to protectite culture from the United States? 2, How can the determination be mags as to Wh really Canadian? 43, Should the United States somehow identity ang label which pop stars and fim stars are Canadian? The tade pact provides protection for Canadian broadeating publishing, and related cultural indus ot it may be dificult even today to distinguish Canadian cultural products from those of the United States, The majority of Canadians do not wat mit, or go ta Canadian moves and playa. Moreover, any U.S. citizens are probably unaware of the Canadian nationality of authors Robertion Davies and Margaret Abwood, reporter Motley Safer, and entertainers Nelly Furtado, Rich Lite, kd. lang, Jason Priestley, Michael FIGURE 12-15 The blackout of August 14, 2003, The two other images, one collected before the Blackout, he J. Fox, Celine Dion, Shania Twain, Alanis Morissette Sarah McLachlan, the Tragically Hip, Avril Lavigne Carolyn Dawn Johuson, Remy Shand, Chad Krocgen, Diana Krall, Cathy Fink, Marcy Marxer, Jone Burnet Walter Ostanck, the Barenaked Ladies, Mike Myers, David Cronenberg, Atom Egoyan, James Cameron, Nor man Jevison, and Jim Carey. Abo Alias/Wavefront, which developed the animation soft ‘wate prominent in virtually every specialtfectsbased fea tute film in recent years (Spiderman, Je Age, Hollow Man, The Matin, The Pac Storm, avd the Lon of the Rings nd Star Wars series of fils) The d cration between the United States and Canada may be represented syrabolially by sree of co States has allowed to build an embassy on Pennaylvania Avene in Washington, D.C., Ameriev's grand ceremo- nial boulevard; and in October 1999 President Clinton traveled to open a new U.S, embassy im Otaws, This was the fits time that a US. president has ever traveled abroad for this purpos Mexico Canada, and Mexica went into effect on January 1, 1994 to bring down tariffs and other barriers to trade in four, Byyear Reps, The integration of Mexica into a North American trade pact might be more difficult than the integration of the US. and Canadian economies. The United States A trade agreement among the United States, 1d Canada are both rich, poatinduatial socieGes with populations Uhat are growing slowly. Mexico is lest Geteloped nation with a population stl growing apidly— from 25 milion in 1950 to 107 malion by 2006, To provide work for this rapidly growing labor force, Mexico needs economic growth, which might reduce the pushNow Unions of States 551 Food Safety and Intemational Food Trade CChepter & noted the opportunites thatthe continuing scientific revolution in agriculture pus international vade In food otter. It also noted, however, that biotechnology may cary serous risks. These risks are muttipiod by increasing international trade in foods. The explosion in word fade, travel, and tourism is enabling diseases to ‘move around the World, and many of these dlseases threaten both humans and other animals. Alien animal and plant pests represent such a broad set of dangers that the U.S. National Inteigonce Council has tormed foreign animal diseases a treat to national security Many of these diseases are transmittabl to hu- mans. One of the mast wonisome is Mad Cow disease (technical BSE, bovine spongiform encephalopathy) In ‘the 19808 and 1990s BSE spread through Great Briain fang later much of Wester Europe via protein feed that contained infected animal parts, requiring the slaughter of almost four milion cattle, Britain imposed a domestic ban on the tainted feed in 1988, but the feed continued tobe sald al over tho world. The spread of BSE severely damaged the beetindusty in some European countries, land it seems to appear in humans as the related new variant Croutefldt-Jakob Disease (vCJD). By 2009 lover 100 people had dled of nvOJO. and about 50 new cases wore reported in each ofthe folowing years. In 2000 three flocks of sheep in Vermont that had been im Ported from Bolglum wore kiled for foar of BSE. It was lator determined that they did not have BSE but did have scrape, a rlated disease. BCE coms havo occa sionally been found in Canada early In the twenty-trat century, triggering embargoos against Canadian beet, eatle, and animal foed, but each animal was found to have been born before Canada implemented restie- tions on potentially dangerous fee in 1997 BSE Is caused by a type of malformed protein called = prion, which is also believed to cause a contagious, invariably fatal ds ‘wasting disease (CWD}. Ths disease occurs in wid and captive deer and alk in the western Unites States. CWD has not bean observed in wild animals in Canada, but It has boon diagnosed in Saskatchowan gam fk that wore imported from tho United States. This prompted the Canadan Food Inspection Agency to Slaughter thousands of ol on Saskatchewan ranches. Foot and mouth sisease (FMD) i another disease that, whllo rare In humans, Is very dangorous among some moat animals. Japan and Korea have had to slaughter hundreds of thousands of cattle that suored FM, whlen may have came from China. In 1997 Tal- wan slaughtered 3.8 milion pigs with FMD, and in 2001 fan outbreak of FMD in Britain devastated the meat in- dusty. Mitions of catte, hogs, and sheep had to be slaughtered. FMD algo appeared in several other Euro- pean countries. Chapter § noted the ealy twenty-first century threat to poultry and humans ‘vom the HSN1 virus sate caled chronic ‘These events have raised major concerns world Wide about the safety of our food supplies. Such con- cerns ean often rise out of proportion tothe actual sks involved, just as many peopl ‘oar fling on airplanes but aro very wiling to ride in an automobile, even though ears are much more dangerous than planes. In- tense pudle concern about food safety can load gov fornments to place restrietions on international trad in food, Cuitural and poltieal dferences between coun- ‘ros mean that perceptions of food hazards may be very diferent tfom one country te another. Ita tow counties that import signfieant amounts a food place restrictions on the way such food Is produced, then ‘there Is pressure on malar producers eround the world to modify thar producton techniquas, Pressures such fas these can lead to disputes between trading nations, and are likely to place major stains on Intemational {00d trade in the coming years, for Mexicans to migrate to the United States Mexico's Hispanic culture and language contrast withthe British teaditions and English language held i common in the two counties tothe north (except in Quebee), but that cultura contrast may not be as uoublesomte i building a face trade pact asi would be ifthe three countries were building a fll common market Signing the rade pact was part of an evolution of Mexican policies toward exportled economic develop- ment Mexico's ecomomy had been state directed and centralized through most of the twentieth century, but in 1986 Mexico began privatizing its state sector, selling off factories, shopping centers, mines, and pusbie wil ties, Only PEMEX, the state oil monopoly ereated when Mexico's oil indusuy was nationalized in 1988, was viewed as politically uatouchable. PEMEX supplies 4 percent of Mexico's GDP and more than onedhird of| government revenie, it economists view its nefficint, with too many employees and too litle reinvestment of camings in exploration or adding value Although Mexico552 Chapter 13 Political Regions tation and Globalization Critical THINKING Intellectual Property and Global- ization in the Drug Industry As the U.S. population ages, the cost of prescription drugs has become a poll ave, Dugs ar exDen- sive even for Americans, but in poor countries such as Inala, where the por eapta GNI ust $620, such args are simpy out of roach of all bu to rehest eltzon. India dows, however, possess the abi to manutactre these drugs, and some brand-name products sold By European and U.S. companies ae actly wholly of party manufactured in India under contract, Generic equivalents of brand-name arugs are also made In Ines, and one indian company, Cipla Lis, makes ap proximately 400 important druge aol eleewnere under patents owned by Western pharmaceutizal compan ‘ese ae sold in naa, ner diferent names, at rac- tion of the aries charged by the patent holders. Cipla claims to make an equivalent of every product of [America’s giant Pzer pharmaceutical corporation ‘nthe otherhand, tho lrge pharmaceutical com panies, based primary in wealthy counties, insist on the need to protect their investments in researen and ‘dovelopment to produce new drugs. Reosts many mi- lons of dolar and years of res8arch to produce now dig, and unless those comparios can charge high piles for ther proats, theres no way to recover that Invostment, Without patents that protectth nares of ‘dug developers, there would be Ite incentive to do- ‘velop new drugs. The pharmaceuteal companies are concerned about what they see aa “pating” of ther property by ipa and einiar companies, Tht property is indeed valuable; pharmaceutical companies as & ‘0up are one of he most poftabe sectors ofthe US. economy, India has long pursued an import-substttion de- velopment strategy attr gaining independence. The =tinning whoo tthe centr of te Inca fg yb izes Indians’ determination to manufacture at home products that thor former colonial rer forbade them to make; during colonialism, for instance, the Bish had aque inlans to putehase Britsn-producod tox: os, Stil today, Inca patent and trade las dosigned to Inhbt indian companies trom purchasing patented technology tem abroad; I oneotrages lea! produc- tin, therefore druge produced locally ean be tld st prices damatially tower than imported drugs, tf Indians paid U.S. prices for these drugs, they would pay perhaps 20 times the price of the Indian squiva- lonts, This reduction in cost brings the atugs within reach of many people who would otherwise suttor with- ‘ut them, Ita also be argued tha foreign drug com panies would not sell many drugs in india atthe high US. prices, so the companies” losses may not be as large as they might elaim. Improved health caro in India hes contributed to an increase i fe expectancy trom only age 98 in 1956 to 64 today. Cipla nas offered to supply AIDSighting rugs to African counties. at prices well blow those charged in the United States. When Americans faced the threat ot biological warfare with the spread of anthrax spores at the end of 2001 (see Chapter 5), they stampeded to buy Cipro, 2 patented medicine that provides the best protection. Not enough Cipro was being made to mect the now do- ‘mand, s0 the U.S. government found ite questioning the protection of the patent, and it even considered turing tothe Indian producer of a generic version for ow supplies. Americans wore outraged to learn that while Cipro cost $350 por month in the United States, the generie costs enly $10 a manth in Ina, The summit eanteronce of the World Trade Orga ization held in Dohs, Gatar, in 2001, agreed that, in eases of national emergency, governments could over- fide the patente on lMe-seving drugs and produce the druge themselves oF purchase generics on intr= national markets. Wthin waeks, 10 Affican counties signed agreements with international pharmaceuteal ‘companies that slashed the cost of AIDS drugs in those counties by up to 85 percent. Negotiations continuo on providing drugs to poor countries at prices they can af- ford while stil preserving drug companies’ rights and lncouraging esearch on now drugs. Questions 1, Should pharmaceutical companies and other technology-developing industries In rich counties allow poor countries to use thelr intellectual property ‘hee of charge, so that those who would otherwise have no access to these goods may enjoy atleast some modest improvements in the quality of Ife? 2, Should we insist that patonts and other intellectual property be rigorously protected. so that corpora- tions have an incentive to create new technology?is the fithlargest producer of el in the world, t imports 20 percent af its refined petroleum product. Mexico's teconMargett source of foreign exchange, after all, workers” remitances fom the United States, which total bout §16-18 billion per yea. Many US. companies were active in Mexico even before the trade pact was signed. They had moved Iaborintensive operations to Mexican factories called maaquiladeras concentrated along the US-Mexi border. Mexico imported components duty free: these were anembled and the products reexpoited to the United States, The United States charged tariffs only on the value added, which was low because Mexican wages are low. The existence ofthese factories by 1994 had a. ready significantly redistibuted Mexican population and urbanization toward the border, but magtiladoras Iultiplied after the signing of the pact (Figure 15-16) New FDI in Mexico, about §2 billion per year in the 1980, rose to $12 billion per yeat inthe 1990s, Exports ‘of manufactured goods rose from 43 percent of Mex co's merchandise exports in 1990 to 80 percent by £2004, In 2000 about 800,000 maguiledarajobs existed in the border region Already early in the twentyfist century, however, Mexico's mapuiladoras began from China, whete wages were lower. In the 1990s Mea fico had risen tothe rank of number two among nations exporting to the United States (after Canstla), tit China seized that postion by 2008, The num maquladiras begsn to fall, a¢ 4 cost of bundreds of thousands of jabs, and Menico realized that contimsing economic growth depended on lowering the cost of ‘energy and improving the tansportaton infrastructure and edueation. The government encouraged the #udy ff engineering, and the number of students rove to 451,000 by 2006 (compared to 870,000 in the United States), Meltinational corporations responded by moving FIGURE 12-16 A now Mexican inclustry. These work Now Unions of States 553 higher valueadded activites to Mexico. For example, General Electric established facilities to design and teat jet engines and turbines In the city of Querétare, where engineers earn about one-third of US. slates. Similaly, Tjuana is the world capital of television manufacture, aud many companies that started manvr facturing televsion sets are now assembling computers dnd other highersalue electronics ‘Many Americans feared that the pact with Mexico ‘would trigger a migration of US. manufacturing jobs ta Mexico, where wages, working conditions, and environ mental protection laws are all below U.S. standards, A principal reason that Mexican wages ate lower than U.S. wages, however, remains that Mexican productivity is lower than US, productivity: that is, each Mexican workers omtpat i mitch lower than the ontpit of each US. worker A warker’s productivity ls usually deter mined by the amoust of eapital investment that has been made per worker, and that investment is much higher in the United States than in Mexico. ‘Some of the new FDI in Mexico comes from Euro ‘pean and Asian corporations that re-export goods from Mexico into the United States, This occasionally eases trade dispntes. Negotiators of trade pacts must agree suhat peteentage of the total value of a good entering ‘ie country must have been added in dhe second coun ‘uy for that product to qualily as a product of the second county. Thisis called local content requirement. Argi ments over local content requirements typically aise whenever two countries negotiate free-trade pacts that fre not customs union agreements. Disagreements have risen between the United States and Mexice about thether goods anrembled in Mexico out sf components tnade In other countries should enjoy free aceea to the US. market. Such disputes have also atten with Canada, The maguladiras are not the only border phe- omens that geographers have noticed, Wherever two ‘itiey_—one Mexican, one US-—face each other across the border, these socalled “twin cities” are being com pelled to integrate end often internationslize their infrastructures: In 1998, for example, Mexican and US. ‘lfcial opened the International Wastewater Treat rent Plant, which eats Tijuana’s excess sewage on the San Diego side of the border, the fst international facilgy of its Kind in the world. A wnified airquality dlistrit cavers El Paso, Texas, nel Ciudad Juaten Mexican politics From 1929 until 1997, Mexico was ruled by one poliieal party, the Institutional Revolution ary Party (PRD), whose political apparatus made litle dis tinction between the party and the state, Accusations of corruption and repression abounded, Some Americans hesitated to join in a pact with Mexico because they doubted Mexico's democracy, but others hoped that ‘loser ties to the United States would strengthen it. In 1097, dhe PRI Tost its majority i the lower house of Mex: ico's Congtes, and by 2006, the PRI had lipped in status tw the third langest party in Congress. In 2000 the PRE554 Chapter 13 Political Region: lost the presidency to Vicente Fox, of the National ‘Action Party (PAN). Many observers atsbute this polit sal change to the economle changes thathave come with NAFTA. President Fox hinnself later regretted that he hhad not been able to achieve all of dhe “histori transfor ‘mations our Umes demand,” but he insisted that democ- racy and the rile of Ine had made progress under his presidency: Felipe Caldersn, of PAN, won the presidency | 2008, 10 succeed Present Fox Alter the attache on the United States in Septem= ‘ber 2001, President Fox offered all posible assistance Mexico lias traditionally remained neutral in interna tional afsrs or even expressed distrust of U.S. motives, butt has recently been stepping forward on the inter= national stage: In 2001, Mexico won a tworyear seat on the UN. Security Conncil(ditewsted below), but Mex co's refusal to mpport the U.S. second war against Iraq, ered some Americans President Fox suggerted that che United States and Mexico seal the two cointres’ borders agsinst 04 Siders but open the borders to freer movements be- tween the two countries; approximately ten percent of Mexico's population already lives in the United States Whether these people will eventually retire in the United States or return to Mexico is one of the most important ‘questions in both counties future ‘Agriculture remains a sore point among NAFTA nations especially between the United States ad Mexico US. subsidized products can overwhelm the farm economies of either neighbor, bankrupting Canadian farmers and impoverishing milions of Mexican peas. ants. Agriculture produces only about 5 percent of Mexico's GDP, but roughly 20 pereent ofthe labor force is directly involved in i. Mexico has been flooded wit imported cors. In 2006 one-third of the corm used in Mexico was imported from the United States, and the price of earn in Mexico hs fallen over 70 percent since 904, thas redscing the incames ofthe 15 million Mex cans who depend on producing com for thei elhood. ida, meanwhile, imposed a tariff an subaidioed corm ‘the United States. Mexico's exports of fruits and vegetables tothe United States, however, had so much at to double Mexican agricultural exports tothe United States overall from 1994-2004. Therefore, in 2007 U.S. fruit snd vegetable growers Innched a lobby ing eampaign in Congress to add their products to the Ist of agricultural products alrready subsidized in the United Sates. Tariffs were removed om all agricultural products taded between the United States and Mexico fon January 1, 2008, except beans and white cor, eh Mexico aust stop protecting as of Jansary 1, 2008 Just a the U.S.-Mexican pact took effect, a native American guersilla organization calling itself the Zap- atista National Liberation Army, in honor of Emiliano Zapata (discussed in Chapter 11), tose up im Mexico's southern state of Chiapas, The rebela were motivated in part by fears Gatimports of US. corn and other market pressures would wipe out their adiional agriculeural \reased, tation and Globalization ‘economy “The free trade agreement,” sid the leader Of the group, is a death certificate forthe Indian peo- ples of Mexico.” Chiapas is one of the purest states in Mexico, and largely Indian in population, The insurtection has received support fiom loeal Roman. hole priest, who are followers of iberation theology discussed in Chapter 7. The Mexican goverment -gotiated land tensre and other issies with the rebel, atthe uprising serves a reminder of how bas to goto achleve the goal of economle welfare and politcal equity forall of it peoples. Some Mexicans have demanded the renegotiation of agricultural uade rles, but in 2008 US, undersecretary of agriculeare J.B. Penn insisted, “We have no interest n renegotiating 1 parts ofthe agreement” The geography both of manufactering and of agriculture in Mexico highlight a growing allt between ‘he county's Novth and South. New manufacturing plants have concentrated in Northern Mexico, most of {he new productive commercial agriculture isin the North, and the North has rapidly urbanized, resulting in a regional economic growth rate over 4.5 percent. The South, by contrast, retaine the taditional ido agriculture system (see Chapter 8) and has enjoyed lit Ue industrialzation. Growth there has occurred at less than 1 percent per year PAN generally repretents the capitalist, globalized economic interests of the Noxth where iewon its fist governorship inthe late 1980s, and Whence it has grown to national power, President Calderén, for example holds a master's degree in Dublie administration from Harvard Universi Results of the NAFTA pact Since the formation of NAFTA, the individual economies ofthe three signatories hhave experienced many changes, so its dificult to holate the impact of NAFTA. Trade and investment among the three partners have risen substantially. Imports into the United States from both Mexieo and Canada have snged even more atrongly than US. exports, xo that net vale of tvade between the United States and the two partners has sung from a net surplus toa net deft U.S. labor unions argue that the United States has lost jobs, that wages and lving standards are down, and that worker rights and bargaining power weakened. all three signatory countries. Both US. and Canadian Tabor unions have launched strong recruitment and or ganicatcnal taining drives im Mesieo. Some factories are undoubtedly being closed and n Februaty 1997, for example, the RCA Corporat nounced ity intention to close the world’ largest TV assembly site, a plant in Bloomington, Indiana, and to tmove 1,100 jobs to Mexico, The company cited wage costs asthe principal reason for the move, RCA is not Us. corporation, but ie oxmned by Thomean, a French, ‘ultinatlonal eo oved to Mexico, In srmational manufacturing and marketing have beguss to reorganize in seale from national to Nowth American scale planning. The Ford Motor Company,F Casino “e ‘canadian Pai Faiway Newer S| cansaannatona — Canaan Pace ‘ Feiwey Herons Kansas cy FIGURE 13.17 Woslom North American porks. Adan-North American tad tang x0 ft that went oar ports in bth Meico and Canada ate expanding ad integrating math the US. tanspot net. 2008, the ns Angeles Long Beach pot til handled 80 percent of US. imports om Aa, but Meso, Lazaro Cand ‘hich serve by the Kansas iy Sothern Raload being upgraded and expanded. Developer want ld age new por facityin Panta Colonel a bay onthe Baj Penal 230 Slometers (58 mie) south of the US. border Canadian Natal away expanding port fer a Fence Rupert on Cans’ west a, Lomer port ices aud fea of terorit tues on US, sll increas thee por atactvenew to US. nsporters for example, began to make Escorts and Tracers for the eastern US. market In Michigan and for the weste USS. market in Hertnosille, Sonera, Mexico. ‘The pact’s effects on Canada are diffcul to ascer- tain. Total US. exports to Ganada have risen, and some Canadian industries seem unable to compete, but over all Canada’s tade surplus with the United States has doubled, creating many new jobs in Canada, ‘The transport infrastructures ofthe three counties ave beng knit Figure 13-17) In 1998 the Canadian New ‘ional ralroad, with a main line stretching across Canada fom Halifax, Nova Scotia, to British Columbia, bought the Mlinois Central Railroad, giving the Canadian line a route south tothe Gulf of Mexico ports of New Orleans, Louisiana, and Mobile, Alabama. Canada's deepwater port at Halifax was already winning ade fiom New York, Boston, and other US. East Coast ports. The Canadian, National cooperates with America’s Kansas City Southern Railroad, whose line to Mexico City cartes 40 percent of Mexico's rail traffic, The United States has promised to allow Mexican trucks to haul goods throughout the United States, but the question of harmonizing. tuck inspections and driver qualifications has slowed imple rientation of this agreement 555556 Chapter 13 Trade between Canada and Mexico rose at an av. rage annual rate of 12 percent from 1998 to 2006, but ‘is atl small fraction of either country’s trade with the United State. Many environmentalists remain critical of NAFTA. NAFTA's Commision on Em Cooperation sues an annual report called Taking Stok in which it 12s criticized the worst polluters in North America, but the Commission has no powers to enforce cleanps Expanding Western Hemispheric Free Trade The United States continues te tign free-tiade pacts ‘with individual countries. Between 2001 and 2006, the United States signe fre rade agreements wih 15 coum ries with 3 total population of 290 milion and combined GDP of $22 tslion, he United States has suggested the creation of a Free Trade Area of the Amevieas, excluding only Cuba, and negotiations have continued on that initiative. A ‘number of trade blocs formed in the Western Heme sphere in the early 1990s, Venezuela, Colombia, Pert, Bolivia, and Ecnndor formed the Andean Pact, The Englishepeaking countries ofthe Caribbean unitedin non Market (CARICOM), 1h, 2006, Venezuela joined Argentina, Beal, Paraguay, and Uruguay in a customs union called MERCOSUR, Chile and Bolivia are associate members and may joi Gitizens of member countries may live and work im any country and be granted the same rights as citizens of those nations. Pethaps a genuine United States of South Amerie iin the works, ‘The uniieation of transport infrastructures again reveals the expanding teritory. being organized (Figure 13.18). A new railroad tunnel and new gas and Pipelines have pierced the Andes Mountains be- tween Chile and Argentina and now link Bolivia an Brazil, New roads join Brazil and Veneavela, aud a new powerline brings electricity from Venerstela' Gu dams to Brazil's Amazon cities Argentina wes Chilean ports for its exports to Asia. Brasil and Argentina have recom tiled the gauges of ‘and neve high ways link several counties. Anew inland waterway allows barges to travel 8,424 kilometers (2,140 miles) ‘down the Paraguay and Parana Rivers from eastern Bo- livia to the sea ‘Trade within MERCOSUR has soared, but only 28 percent of total MERCOSUR tther MERCOSUR co compared with the level of trade typical betwe ndustialzed neighbors, and iteuggest that the various Latin American states did not produce items they cou exchange to mutual profit. The new trade agreements, however, encourage specialization of production, ‘roductvin, and intrarogional trade an growth, The United Slates is the principal supplier of saribbean Union and Co cir rallread sete 2008 rode waa with es. This is amall amount Political Regionalization and Globalization ‘roe beer nase pepo naire Geet cena FIGURE 13-18 New Transport Routes Kniting South Americ. These road, railroad, pipelines, and electrical tdsae pulling together the population of South Americ, Which the map om the reat endpaper shows to be, for the ‘most pat scattered around the fenges ofthe vst content Imported goods to most Latin American counties, so growth in Latin America hoosts the US. economy Other Regional International Groups ‘The Enropean Union and the Western Hemisphere trade areas are the most important regional inter national organizations today, but many others exist (Figure 15:19). Some of these ste primarily military defensive. Since the end ofthe Cola Wat, however, they into general economic and eultaral smocatlons. For example, the Astocation of Southemst Asian Nations (ASEAN) began as a mulitary alliance, but it became @ trading organization and hopes to achieve fice trade among its ten members by 2015: China may jain, Other organizations, such a¢ the Southern Afican Development Coordination Confer ence (SADCC), are economic. The purpore of each International crgankzation ly simply to provde a have been traiGlobal Government 557 Tren FIGURE 13-19 Informational organizations, These atejut afew of the many international organizations that rovide frameworks for cooperation, framework for consultation x0 as to reach agreement whenever possible in ateas of mutual concern. In some ‘cases, however, the members ofthese organizations ean grec on very litle and have even gone to war with on nother. The Afican Union, for example (called the ‘Organization of Asican Unity before 2002), and the Arab League serve few functions, although both are negotiat ing trade agreements GLOBAL GOVERNMENT “The Dominican priest Francisco de Vitoia (1486-1546) cared recognition “The Father of luternational Law” by arguing that each people has the right co its own rer. ‘Therefore, de Vitoria argued, relations among nations would have to recognize mutal rights, Subsequent cen: tures, however, ate shown only token respect for this principle Discussions of world order are generally based on principles of state sovereignty and selfdetermination, Dutas the numberof tates has multiplied, the number ‘of actual and possible conflicts among states has grown ‘Causes include aggressive ambitions, a with Iraq in the carly 1990s; border disputes or rival claims on territory, at between Ethiopia and Eritrea; and domestic crises or policies that have effects abroad, causing other states to Ahueaten to intervene, as with the former Yugoslavia. ‘The necessity for common action in areas of common. concern, such as the oceans or the global environment, Js another pressure for global government. Inter national society as a whole, however, has neither the centralized government, judicial system, or police that characterize a state andl consensus on what consttates an international crime ix only slowly evaling ‘The fit las was the League of Nations, The league was fa the Allies after World Wat I but several nations, inelud ing the United States, refed to join, The Leagie pro vided a forum for discission of world problems, and it carvied out many humanitarian project. I exercised lite real power, however, and was unable to resolve the disputes that eventually Ted to World War I The United Nations 1 1942, 26 states that were allied against the Axis pow- fers joined in a Declaration by the United Nations, pledging to continue their united war effort. A meet {ng of Allies in San Francisea in 1945 drew up «charter for a United Nations organization to cont fe end of 1M the new 1d 51 members, As more colonies te tence after the war, and by organ ceived independence and joined the United Nations, membership rose to 192 by 2006—virtwally all Earth's sovereign states, The U.N. General Assembly serves as a rudimen: tary legislature of a world government, but it has no power of enforcement (Figure 18:20), The power that the United Nations does exercise is vested in the member Security Council. Five members of the council (the United States, China, France, the United Kingdom, and Russia—originally the USS.R.) hold their seats permanently, and the remaining 10 mem: bers are elected by the General Assembly for two-year terms. Tht location of eats refleets the allocation of558 Chapter 13 Political Region: FIGURE 13-20 United Nations headquarters in New York City, The United Nations found a permanent dhe Seertariat dominates the group, wih the domed (General Aste tothe north The lad legally noe par world power in 1945, but recent discussions have sugyested that granting additional seats to, perl Germany, Japan, India, and Brazil might better reflect. the pretent world balance of population and power The U.N. Secretaria, with the Secretary General at it head, handles alladuinistrative functions. On Jaa 1 2007, Kofi Annan ended two year terms as Secretary General and was replaced by the South Korean diple- sat Ban KiMoon, TThe Security Council hae occasionally voted for the United Nations to field armies, United Nations forces fought in Korea from 1950 to 1958. In 1990, a Secusity Council resolution gave the United States and allies sanction to force Iraq to retreat ftom Kuwait zation and Globalization and on September 28, 2001, the United States obtained 2 Security Council resolution obliging U.N. members to ‘cooperate in combating terrorism, In a greater number fof eases, the United Nations ha tent observer troop to patrel world trouble spots, and these incidents have been increasing, Examples include Kashralr; the Golan Heights; Lebanon, Cambodia; Yugoslavia; Use Medi terranean island of Cyprus (Figure 1321), spit by fed: ing Greeks and Turks and Haiti sil today U.N, oops have attempted both peacterping and peacomabing ifort, Peacekeeping involves patrolling a situation in ‘hich combatants have agrecd toa peace, Peacemaking, combatants, and United Nations forces have had less smcceds in thete effort, Tn many cases the United Nations has assumed responnibity for monitoring the freedom of national clections. This idea that national governments can be Tegitimized by international standards repretents a re vertal of tnternaticnal law, which presumes the prirlly ‘of national governments, The International Court of Justice in The Hague fs another branch of the United Nations that ou the surface works lke a branch of government. The litigant Hates, however, must choose to conte before it, and the ‘court has no power to enforee its decisions. Perhaps the greatest accomplishment of the United Nations is when nothing happens When counties ate at peace. States thatare at least talk ing to exch other ate seldom making war on each other In September 2000 the United Nations hosted the greatest mecting of heads of state ever—niore thaw 150 fame together U.S. Secretary of State Madeleine AL- bright pointedly atended 2 speech by Iranian President Mohammad Khatami, and he attended hers. Two days later US. President Clinton found himself standing next to Cuban President Fidel Gastro, They shook ‘other words, - | i erea tases FIOURE 13-21 Cyprus. since Alvided lato Greek and Taskih portions, wit ide mingling Between the two groups. The Tutkish sector has declared Greek portion joined the EU in 2008, Continuing antago 4 Cgpshas beenhands and spoke a few words, This was the fist time since Castro came to power in 1959 that a sitting US. president recognized him as a leader, Such stall civil ties mark steps toward reconciliation between countries offically “not talking to each other” UN. special agencies The United Nations has more than 40 specialized agencies, Some fac mumicationsamtong member states: the Universal Postal Union, the International Givil Aviation Organization, the World Meteorological Organization, and the Inter: igpternmental Maritime Consultaive Organization, The UN. Tnternational Telecommunieatlons Union, for e ample, has allocated frequencies on the radio spec ‘yum, thus allowing international expansion of mobile telephones, satelite computer wansmissons, and dig tal radio broadeasting, Other U.N. agencies encourage international cooperation toward speeific humanitarian goals the Food and Agriculture Organieation; the ‘World Tourit Organization; the United Nations Educa tious, Seentifi, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO. Figute 1922); the International Atomic Energy Agency the Intemational Bank for Recoustruction and Development, and the International Monetary Fund. The UN. Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) works to assist the economie development and trade of the poor countries. UNCTAD hae, for ex ample, developed @ standasdized computer customs collection systern that is in use in over 5O counties. In 2000 the United Nations sponsored the Millennium World Peace Summit of Religious and Spiritual Leaders; bout 800 attended from around the world The United Nations is ako helping define princ ples for multinational business policies, Under UN. joined labor astociations and nongovernmental organ ations in a pact that commits all to support human, rights, eliminate child labor, allow freetrade unions, and refrain from polluting. This was » declaration of principles, not s legal code, but it sets guidelines for International standards in an area of growing interna Nongovernmental Organizations and Terrorist Organizations Today sates ase no longer the only players on the International stage. Initiatives are ineveasingly taken by nongovernatental organtzations (NGOs). These ate ‘organized international interest groups that cross state boundaries and carry out direct actions to further their goals as well as put pressure on the existing govert: rents of sates, They inclade meltinstional corpors tions (p- 822), religious and charitable organizations, their money almost instantly from one county to fauother and this destabilize tational economies Global Government 559 FioURE 12-22 Yollowstone National Park World Caltual and Natural Heritage, Sigustorie tothe mvention—rtaly all ofthe world's counties today— Ive agreed dat certain reat have suc wuique worldwide ‘alu that they shouldbe teated ae part ofthe hertage af Canterbury Cathedral in the United Kingdom: Dinosaur capital the global convertion, (Ray Main / Corbin Sick Make (526), but also drug cartels, Mafia, an ‘The backlashes against biotechnology (p- $86) and slobulization (p. 528) are led by NGOs, (tis ironie that the worldwide suuggle against globalization is one of the world’s most globalized activities.) Few activities ve main either purely international or purely domestic saymore ‘The global cs society is unmanageable to study. A world stage with millions of private emparw ered actors means.a world of unlimited wilnerability. [es hard paradoxical that this is especially Lightening for che United States, Because the United States har done so mich to destroy borders and walls, to thape » world market, and to promote freedom of communications information, and movement. This modem reality demonstrates agsin what nineteenth-eentiry rites560 Chapter 13 Political Region: of communications—starting especially with the telegraph—already argued: Accelerated and increased communication among peoples wot auficlent to guar antee good will or even an understandin Few governments interfere with the work of the charitable NGOs, such as, for example, Doctors without Borders, which provides emergency medical help i all sitwations around the globe. Other NGOs, however, have more militant or aggresive pu emonstated the wilingness—and the abiliy—to use violence in the pursuit of thelr ends. The Earth Libera tion Front, for example, founded in England in 1998, has engaged in acts of violence against people or active ties it deems are harming the environment. Groups against GM foods have destroyed laboratories and crops in fields, and animabrighs groups have destroyed Inbo- ‘tories that ute animals in selentific research, of ae ancther. poses, Some hate “Today even the ability to make war is no longer confined to state governments, Many world tervorist groups, such as AL Qaeda, are not recognized govern ments, nor do they represent the governments of rec- ognized states, In much of Aftica and parts of central Asia, centralized state power has effectively collapsed, and wars are forght by irregular armies commanded by political snd religious organizations, often clan-based. and prone to savage internecine conflicts, Rich soc ‘ties cannot be insulated from the repercussions of cok lapsing states and the new forms of war. The attacks on the United States on 9/11 proved that the ragged, i regular armies of the world's most collapsed state— Afghanistan-—can reach to the heart of is richest and most powerful sate ent” difficulties in fighting NGOs were ithustrated by the United States’ Gist efforts to ssike back at Al Queda. On Friday, September 14, 2001, the USS, Congrese gave President Bush the right to “tea necessary and appropriate force against those uations, lnganizations, or persons he determines planned, at thorized, committed, or aided the terrorist atacks” ‘The United States has fought several military engage @ War Hin Korea, Viet Nicaragua, Panama, and still other couatries—but Congress has passed no declarations of war since enter ing World War Il, The 2001 Congressional Resolution reminded many observers of the 1964 Gulf of Tonkin Resolution that had authorized U.S. attacks on Viet nam. U.S. and international law, a declaration of would define new sets of elreumatances regar dential prevogatives, federal spending, cil rg case, however it is unclear against What gover organization the U.S. could legally declare war, Resolt- tions sich as the Tonkin Gulf Resolution and this new resolution create confusing legal situations in, for ex ample, the teatioent of terrortt captured abroad or sven at home, [Not all states in which tervorists operate are the willing accomplices. Some states are too weak to exert tation and Globalization control (eg, Lebanon), and others are insufficiently Sigilant (even the United States itel. A USS determined project to rid the world of all rogues and terrorists would be interpreted around the world a imperial Some observers fear that authoritarian rulers in rome countries may use the generally approved war gins! terrorism ar an exeuee to repress any disidents in their own countries. The United States often defends iy even when many peoples resent fo struggle against present circumstances or political structuring. The map of states from Morocco to Ch for example, was not drawn by the indigenous peoples, bt by European imperialist powers, and the govert~ micuts of each of these states, when each first gsi ine Aependence, were installed by imperialists. In some sates, che original governments or even forms of go ernment were overthrown by the populations. The United States, as leader of the Western alliance, has not always welcomed what may have been genine democ- ratic revolutions. The original revolutions may have been democratic even ifthe replacement rulers tamed st ta be autocratic themtelves, sein Libya, Iran, Iraq, Egypt, and Syria. In other countries, autocratic kings, mits, and sheiks are sill supported by the United States, Ametica cooperates with these regimes aud even, defends them conteary to America's own values, so the local peoples see American forces not as symbols of freedom butas the support ofa corrupt order they seek toreplace "America mu, however, respond to the groups who have declared war om America. Some of these ate Feligious fanatics who think the Un the West is a machine fore fed States or all of ral subversion, politial domination, and economic subjugation. This kind of conviction feeds on experiences of despait and lnumili ation, which are issies that can be wnderstood and addressed Is National Sovereignty inviolable? National sovereignty means that international borders are inviolable, No matter how monstrous any regime may be, no matter how much it persecutes it ov people of appreses minorities, no oultide sate or in ternational agency has the right to tuue even when Internal persecution triggers inter national flows of refugees. The U.N. Chatter insists *Nothing contained inthis present Charter shall autho- rize the United Nations to intervene in mattets which are estentially within the domestic jurisdiction of any state" Thieis the legacy ofthe Treaty of Westphalia (see Chapter 11), Disareay in several states, however, and the fos tion of powerful NGOs may have signaled the begin- ings of change in international law. The fist war terfere. This isagtinst Iraq in 1991 did not overthrow Iraq's govern- ‘but the United Nations did subsequently protect thelr owm government (see the discur sion of Iraq on page 563). In 1092 the Security Council voted to send a UScled force to Somalia, ‘wracked by civil war, to guarantee the distibution of food relief supplies. The purpose of that mission was defined as “humanitarian,” but the mission expanded to restoring central cl yovernmes ‘Sever sates contributed troops (wotably Canada and Pakistan), bbut Somalia sill has wot achieved peace. 1m 1999 then-U/N. Secretary Genezal Koll Annas reviewing cases of civ war and slaughter ia Aftica, a ued, “Nothing in the Gharter precludes a recognition that there are rights beyond borders," and referred toa ‘developing international norm in favor of interven- tion to protect civilians from wholesale slaughter." “The sectetary general pressed the United Nations for mally to establish the principle that massive and system atic violations of human rights must be stopped by international intervention. Many world leaders, howev cenagree with President Abdelazie Bouteflika of Algeria, ‘who hss argued that “interference can only occur with the content of the sate concerned.” Many countries fear that U.N. intervention would serve as cloak for Wetter Russia's Foreign Minister Igor IWanov has sai bluntly, “Human rights are no reason to interfere in the internal affairs ofa state." China's Presi ddentJiang Zemin has emphasized, “Dialogue and coop- eration in the field of human rights must be conducted fon the basis of respect for state sovereignty... So long as there are boundaries between states, and people live Their respective counties, to maintsin nalional lependence and safeguard scvereignty will be the supreme interests of each government and people” Global debate over the “absoluteness” of sate sovereignty will probably intensity hich was to Somali interference The globalization of justice Aster World War Il, the victorious Allies tried the leading German and Japanese officials for “crimes against humanity" and for genocide.” Since then, international law has affirmed that these crimes are subject to universal jurisdiction ‘They tauscend the province of the state where the crimes occurred, and any sale may prosecute, Few tates, however, have been willing to do x0. Therefor 1998 the Un ‘Tubunal to uy Serbian leaders for “crimes against sanity” that had occured during the fighting that ac companied the breakup of Yugoslavia. During the rule of Slobodan Milosevic (1987-2000), Sevbia fought and lost five wars, bringing upon itself terrible destruction, charges of international crimes, and international dis race. Milosevic was eventually overthrown by nation wide rloting and brought to tral for crimes agalnit humanity, but he died of heart ailments before the en of his tial. Other U.N. wibunals have investigated African wars, and another is wying the leaders of the fed Nations created @ War Ch Global Government 561 Khmer Rosge that killed millio ite rule 1973-79, 1998 che United Nations voted to create a pe nd Genocide Tribunal, and two years later delegates from over 100 nations agreed on a catalog of acts that constitute inter national crimes. The required 60 signatory nations rat fied the treaty hy 2002, 40 21 justices were sworn in, and the Gourt began operating in The Hague, the Nether lands. The Court must defer to national courts is prox ceutors can lame indictments only when national courts fre unwilling or unable to deal with atrocities auch as war crimes, crimes against humanity, and genocide. ‘The Court has investigated atrocities in Africa and is sued indictments against chose responsible. The United States originally signed the treaty to establish the Court, but if never ratified the treaty, and in 2002 the US. government repudiated even having sigued the ueaty. American officials remetnber that in 1967 an International War Crimes Tribunal sitting in Stockholi found the United States guilty of terrorism and genocide in Vietnam, The United States Inns more troops engaged in more actions in more countries all around the world than any other country, and the U'S. government feats that grotndless charges ‘would frequently be brought against U.S. officers and offical win Cambodia dring wanent Intemational War Crimes The “Axis of Evil” January 2002 U.S. President George W, Bush labeled Ian, Irag, and North Korea as an “Axis of evil, arming to threaten the peace of the world.” The term axis wat coined by Italian dictator Benito Mussolini to describe the World War IL alliance of taly, Germany, Romania, Bulgaria, and Japan. The three countries named 2002, however, were not allied. Iran and Iraq were al the de bitter enemies, tan tran’s70 million people make itone of the Mid- dle East's scat populous countries, and its vat reserves fof oll and namral gas make it one of the richest. Ils strategically located, bordering several powerlu ‘olatile states, Asa Shiite uation, it was a natural eneay ‘of the Taliban Wahabists in Afghanistan, so it absorbed millions of refugees during the years of fighting Afghanistan. Ax noted in Chapter 7, Iran is today a ye United Staten encourages angrily remember that the US. Central telligence Agency engineered the removal ofa demo- atic government there in 1958 and replaced it with the tyrannical Shab, who was himself toppled by the re owt revolution in 1979, During that revolution, Ira sn groups took 52 Americans hostage and hept thes for 44 days, The confiteated former US. embassy Teluan has been converted into an antrAmerican mu seu, Iran's leaders refer to the United States ae “TheAfghanistan, the Taliban, and Al Qaeda [Afghanistan is an undeveloped, landlocked statin the middle of Asia that came inte existence in the nine- teenth century as a butter between the imperial power ‘of Britain in Inca tothe south, and thet af the Russian Empire spreading its power from the north, The popula- tion includes many ethnie groups, clans, and trbes that aro qulte independent of one another. Few observers ‘would argue that ther is an “Afghan nation." In 1979 the Soviet Union invaded Atghenistan because Soviet fulors feared that Afghans were encouraging peitical Unrest inthe nearby Isic Soviet republics. ‘Osama bin Laden, a native of Saud Arabia, joined thousands of other Arabs who went to Afghanistan to help the Afghans in ther jad, or holy war, against So- Viet occupation. Most of those Arabs were followers of \Wahabism, the fundamentalist Islamic sect that is the official raligion of Saudi Arabia (s00 Chap Laden founded a group, Al Qaeda (the found: ‘Arabic, whieh allied wth an indigenous Wahabist [Afghan group called the Taliban (meaning "student”), the mombers of which wore largely Pathan. These united fighters called themselves mujahedeen, or “holy war "irs." Arabs remained the backbone of Al Gaede ‘Tho United States assisted the Taliban and Al ‘Qaeda inthe war against the Soviet Union, although the ‘exact degtee of collaboration is a U.S, government 2e- rat. n 2008, however, Russian President Viedimir Putin noted, “When the Soviet Union was present [in [Aighanistan, the whole Western community was creat ing bin Ladens there in large numbers, and spared no money and ears for tha." ‘The Soviet Union fated to subdue Afghanistan ‘completey, but t did install a Communist government botore it withdrew in 1989. When this Commutist gov- ‘ernment fly 1992, the United Statos withdrew ts sup port for Afghans miltary, politcal, food, and other aid ‘The county fll into a many-sided civil wa. The Talban, together with ts Al Oaeda ali, eventually gained con- trol of about 90 percent of Aighaniatan. They imposed Upon the people the most severe restctions of fe and rights by folowing oxtome fundamentalist teachings. ‘Tho Taliban repudiated religious toleration spectacularly in 2001, when it destroyed colossal statues of Budcha that had been carved into rock etfs in Bamyan provinces 2,000 years ago. These secred Buddhist statues counted ‘among the greatest of humankina's monuments ‘The Taliban failed to win international diplomatic recognition, Saud) Arabia recognized the Talnan (government, and Pakistan provided it with considerable assistance, but most other countrios and organizations, Including the United States and the United Nations, recognized ancther government, called the Northern Allance. Ths group, dominated by minenty Uzbeks and Tajks, hold onto only about 10 percent of Aighanistan, in the northeast. Tho Taban and Al Qaeda, emboldened by thelr triumph ever the Soviet Union, then began a struggle against the United States ang other counttes that they believed were preventing the creation of tue Islamic government throughout the Middle East. Bin Laden was ‘aman of enormous wealth, nd he used his wealth f= hance several terorist attacks. Through the 1990s, Al Gaeda was “credited” with bombings in Saudi Arabia, Kenya, and Tanzania, and withthe ramming ofthe naval estroyer U.S.S. Colo by suicide bombers in the harbor of Yemen in 2000, Naw York's World Trad Center Tow- ors wore bombed in 1983 by a group of terorists that may have been afflated with bin Laden. Fiteon of the 18 mon idontfod as carrying out the attacks on the United States on 9/11 wore Saul Arabs, Many Isiamie governments in other counts had supported the Talban, but hese governments eventually learned that they had boon “playing with tro" when the Talban and Al Gaeda extremists lator turned against these governments as insufficiently religious, Pakistan supported extremists, partyin order to reat guerilas who would be commited to fight Indian rule in Kash (see Chapter 7). Afghanistan became an impovershed nursery for zealots and an exporter of governmental in- stabilty 1o many counties. Al Qaeda formed allances with ether international terorst groups long identifed as dangerous sources of terrorist activly. Islamic funda- mentalist volunteers have appeared in the Chinese province of Xinjiang, for example, tying to detach it as an independent Islamic republic, a8 wel as inthe Russ- lan proviness of Chechnya and Daghestan, secking to carve out independent Islamic states thor, From October until December 2001, a US-led coalition invaded Afghanistan and overthrew the Tal- ban regime, although Osama bin Laden Was not eap- tured, Alied forces established @ new government, which, under the continuing protection of US, and a led foroes, attempts to bullé a nation. At the and of 2008, nowover, regional warlords sil ruled without in- ‘erfrence from the capital ty, Kabul the Taliban had feformed and showed new attength; and exports ot ‘plum had rebounded to record levels. The Taliban van claimed to have created a new independant Ie- lamic stato in isolated parts of Afghanistan 562Great Satan" (see Chapter 6). The United States insists that Iran supports Herbollah and other” regional terrorist groups, Iran isin fact a multicultural conntry; aif of it population ix nowPersian, Azerbaljanis ac count for onethied of the national population, but sige nificant Arab, Baluch, and Kurdish populations also exist and relations among the groups ate not always friendly. These antagonivme constitute centripetal forces beeatse exch of these groups laps over Iran's ine ternational borders and, if unhappy, looks ta it men bers over the borden fr support. Tran has made several friendly gestures toward the United States: After the attacks on the United States in 2001, Iran observed moments of silence for the Amtet= can victims, and when U.S. attacks on Afghanistan bbegan, Iran said that it would rescue any American mil itary personnel in distress ints territory. ‘Other incidents in US-Iranian relations stil ankle lan, however In September, 2001, Iran's leader Ayatollah Khameue criticized U.S. support of Israel, and then he commented, *[Americans} divide terror ism into good and bad. In the skies of the Persian Gulf they down an Tranian airliner with hundreds of pasen- gers on board, but then they give the commander of the watship an award.” In 1986 the USS. Vincennes did shoot down att unarmed passenger line. The US. government claimed itwas an accident and awarded the ship's commander a medal for “exceptional conduct” The Ayatollah continued, “Evidence shows that the American government intends to repeat in Central Asia ‘what it di in the Persian Gulf They intend to come snd establish themselves under the pretext of a lack ff security here." Since 2003, U.S. troops it Iraq and Afghanistan have surrounded Tran, are distested at the continuing US. prese region, Iran is developing nuclear installations, ‘The government insists that these are only to generate clectricity—they were commenced under the Shah— bbat the United States insists that Tran is developing uelear weapons. U.N. Inqpectors regularly vst Irani lear sites, but the International Atomic Energy Asso- dation has voted to declare Iran in violation of the Nuclear Non Proliferation Treaty to whicls ean is a sige ratory. The U.N, Security Council may apply sanctions against Iran, even a war. (On May 8, 2006, Iranian President Mahim [Ahmadi-Nejad sent US, President Bush an I&page oper letter on Iran's positions on international affairs. A reat deal ofthe leer was arogant bombastic shetorie, but many observers nevertheless regretted that Prest lent Bush did not respond in any way. Former U.S, Sec- retary of State Henry Kissinger pointed out that the letter was “the first direct approach by an franian leader toa US. president in more than twentpfive years” and 1 response to the letter would have pretented an ‘opportunity for a clea statement to the world of US. intentions, President AbmadiNejad sent another open rd Traniane ein the Global Government 563 lewer to the American people on November 28, 2006, athe has received ne response to tha, either tag. Saddam Hussein was an offices in the Tragi army who became Iraq's president and viral dictator in 1979. The next year he launched a war against neigh boring fran, which wae then a US. antagonist. In 1985 USS. President Ronald Reagan sent Donald Rumsfeld (later U.S. Secretary af Defense in the George W. Bush administration) personally © affirm US. support for Saddam Hussein. The amount and type of witty sup port the U.S. gave Iraq remains a secret. Iraq and Iran fought sutil both were exhausted i 1988, 1 1990 frag invaded Kuwait, claiming (with cone siderable justification) thatthe terttory of Kuwait was Jn fact historically Iraqi, and that existence of the Ruvait state was an legitimate reli of calonial rule. In 1991 the United States and several allies, fighting under UN. auapices, forced Iraq to retreat from Kuwait, but they neither conquered Iraq nor brought down Hue sein’s government, The United Nations did, however, establish “secure zones” within whieh the lragh overt rent was prevented from attacking its own citizene who hhad cooperated with the U.N. allies (Figure 18:28) Shiites were protected south of the 88rd parallel, and the Kurds enjoyed a sanctuary north of the 86th para Jel; there, through the following years, the Kurds cxeated A virtual Kurdish fee state, This was much to the Snoyance ofthe Turks, who feared Kurdish separatism, in Tkey’s southeast (see Chapter 11) ‘The 1991 war devastated. Iraq's economy and infrasrscture, and the United Nations subsequentiy FIGURE 13-25 Roligious/ethnic groups in Iraq Terrible stife accompanies consinning US, efforts to forge an rag nan,564 Chapter 13 Political Region tation and Globalization Is the United States the World's Policeman? Recent US, aiplomatic ntitves have stimulated con- ‘sideration of America's evolving view of ts own role in world peacekeeping ary in U.S. history, statesmen maintained an Isolationist ciplomatc positon, that is, one that turns inward and is concerned only wit its own domestic at {sire President George Washington’ farewell message (1797) emphasized, “tis our true policy o ster clear of permanent alfances with any portion of the fersign World,” but America could have “temporaty allances. {or extraordinary emergencies." President Thomas Jef- forson's inaugural addross (1801) similarly promised no entanging alianees." On July 4, 1821, then Secretary of State John Quincy Adams spoke against ‘sending the US, Navy to interfere in the affairs of ‘Spain's former colonies Colombia end Chie: “America {does not go abroad in search of monsters to destroy ‘She is the wellwishor to the freedom and indepen ‘dence of all She is the champion only af her own.” ‘The Unted States ook a more active rle in 1822 with the proclamation of the Monroe Doctrine. t stated that wherees the United States would not intartere with ‘existing European colonies in the Western Hemisphere, it would alow no naw colonial claims. Thus, the United States dofined i * of the Western Homispnore Whon President Wiliam MeKiniey asked Con- ‘gress to declare war on Spain in 1898, he injoctod a ew consideration into US, foreign poley: a concern Tor human rights elsewhere, Retering to alleged Span: Ish mistveatment of Cubans, Mekiney ea“ no an ‘swore 9ay ths alli another country, and therotore none of our business, Its especialy our duty, for its ight at our doo” The Spanish-American War involved tighting not only in the Caribbean, but on the other side ‘of the world inthe Spanish colony ofthe Philippines. It was ths war that provoked satiieal writer Ambrose Bierce’ wry observation, "Waris God's way of teaching ‘Amaricans geography.” After defeating Spain, the United States took four mars years to conquer the Philippines In order to hold It as ts own colony (unt 1846), The Philippines provides a humbing perspective on nation buiiing, because atthough U.S. oops finaly Ie the Phiippines in 1980, they returned in 2002 to help hunt quoriis tied to Al Qaeda, and democracy romaine chronically msseure in the Philippines Mekinley’s suecessor President Theodore Roose- vott proclaimed the 1904 "Roosevett Corllay” tothe Monro Dectine, according to which “chronic wrong- Going ..may)...requir intervention by some civilzed nation, ang in the Westen Hemisphere the adnerence of the Unted States to the Monroe Doctrine may force the United States, however reluctantly, in flagrant ceases of wrongdoing of impotence an international police power” This isa clear proactive stance, Aor World War |, Prosident Woodrow Wilson (who served 1913-1921) repudiated lsolationism ans announced US. readiness to join in a permanent asso- ciation of nations working for peace. His Inabilty to compromise with Congress, however, led to the falure ofthe United States to join the League of Nations. Arter World War the United States helped found the United Nations, and the 1947 Truman Dectine (President Hany Truman served 1945-1953) pledged U.S. assis- tance to any country anywhere fighting a takeover by Communists. It was to be presumed that communism emanated exclusively from the USS... and was, therefore, aforsign attack upen an independent nation. “This patcy came to be called one of “containing” Com= ‘munis curing the Cold War. The degree te which nai vidual Communist movements around the world were in fact initiatives of the U.S... oF else were homegrown rationalist movements wil long be debated. President Jimmy Carter (who served 1977-1981) accepted the necessity of accapting as our alles in the allowed Iraq to export oil only ander international supervision and only i ite for food and medi- fine. Saddam Hussein awarded those supplies to his loyal soldiers rather than to lraqi childven, and the deaths of thousands of iraqi children brought raq cor siderable world sympathy. Much wrath was directed at the U.N, sanctions rather than, pethaps more propery, at Saddam Hussein, exch ‘The United Nations alt insisted that Iraq allow UN. monitors to guarantee that Iraq was not produc Ing nucleas, chemical, or biological weapons of mass Aestruction’ (WMDs). After Tiaq drove out those inspectors in 1998 and repeatedly frustrated efforts to ccusure that t had no WMDs, the United States invaded Iraq again in 2003, This time acting without U.N. sane tion, the United States was joined by a few allesGlobal Government 565 CCold Wer some countries that were by no maans truly “tree.” Part of his legacy, however, was renewed con- cain withthe protection and encouragement of human Fights in other countries, ‘The 9/11 attacks on the United States changed many Americans’ isolationist worldview and ended ‘American willingness to respect the soversignty of states that harbor tororists. On Soptomiver 20, 2001, Prosident Goorge W. Bush fold Congross, "We wil sive [lonorists) trom place to place, unt there is no rofuge or no rast. And we will pursue nations that pro Vide aid or safe haven to tenors, Every nation, in every reglon, now has a decision to make, Elthor you aro with us, or You are withthe toroists, From this day fonwara, any nation that continues to harbor ar support terrorism il be regarded sy the United States as 2 hostile regime" Shorty thereafter, the president emphs "Every nation has a choice to make. In this confit, ‘thete is no neutal ground. i any government sponsors ‘the outlaws and kilers of innocents, they have become: cutlaws and murders themesWas. And they will take ‘that lonely path at their own peri.” Many observers feel that win these words, President Bush repudiated ‘oven the 1648 Treaty of Westphalia (see Chapter 17). ‘The World has shrunk, and the United States no longor stands rolatvoly safe and isolated bohind ocean bartors as in Goorge Washington's day. President Bush argued that i othor countries cannot contol torerists who operate ftom within their borders, then the United States does not have to recognize the ertoria sover~ ignty of those counties, Because it has the right pro emptvely to destroy enemies of America, If we accept ‘that preemptive strikes against enemies may ever be necessary, then we might have te accept that secrecy may be needed: How can such an issue be debated in 1 democtacy? Whe should make the decision to atack first, and to whom shoulé the action be explained or justifaa? Could ft even be necessary for the govern= ment to withhold information or sources in order to protect the sources? Queations such as these prompted ‘the young Congressman Abraham Lincoln to write In 1848, when he was protesting the U.S. war against Mexico, “Alow the President to invade a neighboring nation whenever he shall daem it necessary t9 repel an ‘and you alow hin to make war at pleasure It today he should choose to say he thinks it necessary te invade Canada to provent the British trom invading Us, how could you stop him? You may say to him," so he probabiliy of the British invading us,” but he woul say, ‘Bo silent: | s06 it you dont Lincol's own lato experience as president, however, convinced him of the hecessiy for presidental secrots, Questions such as ‘those have always plagued diplomats and peltical ‘theoreticians. ‘The debate continues within the United States, In 2002, Patrik Buchanan, senior advisor to three Repub- lean prasidente and the Reform Pary's presidential candidate in 2000, wrote, “What happened on Septem- ber 11, 2001, was a direct consequence of an interven- tiorist U.S. palcy in an Islamic world where no threat to our vital interests justiFies our massive involvement. We are a republic. net an empire. And until we restore the forsign policy urged upon us by our Founding Fathors ~ of staying out of other nations’ quarrels wo shall know no end of war and no security or peace in our own homeland." Today, howover, in contradiction to th iso- Iationist tration in American foreign poly, perhaps ‘the United States must “go abroad in seareh of mon- sors to destroy" In its own defense, ‘Another offeial US, government document, “The National Secunty Strategy of the United States of “America,” released in October 2002, emphasizes that Our forces wil be strong enough te dissuade potential fadversates ‘fom pursuing miltary buldup in hopes of surpassing, or equaling, the power of the Unites States.” This document suggests to many readers that the United States has defined for self role a preem- inent global policeman, (notably the United Kingdom). Three justifications Weve given for the war (1) that lag had WMDs (2) that Iraq assisted international terrorist organiza tons; and (3) that Saddam Hussein was persecuting any of his own people, The wotld learned later that fouly the third of these assertions was true, and many observers wondered whether it wae stffcient catie t0 have invaded. the Husein rican efforts. to ‘The Second War browght dow government within weeks, But At fitablish anew gover aq tet considerable ‘lificlty, Few nations were willing to help rebuilding and nation-building efforts without U.N. sanetion. By the end of 2006, Iraq had created a “national unity” government dominated by the majority Shiites, who hnad been suppressed by Sunnie under Hussein; but that566 Chapter 13 Political Region: government's real power was limited. The war had be fume a terrible chil war in which U.S. forces had suffered almost $000 fatalities and thousands of casual ties, and tens of thousands of Iraqis had died, Condi tons of the fighting and of the US. occupation had eroded the perception of U.S. power and moral author ity in the world. Already in April 2006, the official consensus of Amevia's intelligence agencies, a stated by the Director of National Intelligence, was that “The Iraq conflict has become the ‘cause celebre? for jt hadiss, bveeding deep resentment of US. involve tment in the Muslim world and cultivating mpporters for the global jihadist movement.” Thus America’s ea lier conjectural feats about fraq’s posible collaboration ‘wih terrorist groups had attained a terible reality. The United States striggled to midwife an Iraqi nation, but perhaps Iraq will Inevitably sp rate Kurdish, Sunni Atab, and Shiite Arab states ‘Whether Hag Shites continue to dominate i a unified state, of whether Iraq breaks apa, lraqi Shiltes’ inks to neighboring Shiite Iran will continue to concern the United States, Evidence from early national elections the Shiite constitational program, and from Islamic rule already in place in the South of Iraq suggest that most Shites want an Islamic theocracy, with many features borrowed fiom neighboring Tran. Only tine will ell which culeural forces ace stronger amoug Tragi Shiites: the desire for democracy oF for theocracy atu au Iraqi secular patriotism or Silt solidarity with Ira, Territorial breakup would unleash a straggle ov Iraq’s oil wealth, which comprises the world's third greatest reserves after Saudi Arabia and Iran, Some 80 percent of the reserves are in southern Iraq, where Shiites, whe conatittue 60 percent ofthe total popula tion, predomainate. Another 15-18 percent of the oil is in northern Iraq, where the Kurds, who constitute 20 percent of the total population are concentrated less than 5 percent of the reserves are in ALAnbar, Nineveh, and Salahuddin provinces, where most of the population that i Sunni lives Korea After the 1950-1958 war in which United Nations forces defended South Korea against Notth Korea, South Korea prospered while North Korea stag nated as a Communist dictatorship wnder Kim Il Sung (orho ruled 1948-94) and then his son Kim Jong Ih North Korea has remained uniformly hostile ta the United States, perhaps party as away of binding it own people, and it has created the most paranoid, cotaitarian state in history while millions of its people have arved to death (Figure 15-24), As late ss 2006, the United. States maintained almost 40,000 troops in South Korea in ease of another North Korean invasion, Nevertheless, as Sowth Korea prospered, many Soxth Roreans began to resent the American presence and domination and to yearn for reconnection with the North (see Figure 11-10). South Korea has invested in North Korea and provided it with financial aid zation and Globalization FIGURE 13-24 “Ruthloss punishment fo US. Imperialism.” Posters sch at these ate fond everywhere fense" oftheir homeland, although the attack onthe US thousands of North Koreans now work in “special eco- nomic enclaves" in the North. Cho Yongnams, Director General of South Korea's Unification Ministry, sid in 2006 that South Korea invest in North Korea in order forthern living standards so that, in a uniied Korea, North Koreans would not constiite "s die placed, misfortunate minority group.” Ko Gyoung-bin, nother Ministy official, sid, “It's de facto unification 1s already tinder way" A railroad from South Koren across North Korea, currently being negotiated, would provide South Korea with a ak to China and even to European markets. Trying to tonite and asmonize South Korea's economy, culture, and polities with North Korea, teasurably more difficult even than it was for the two Germanies to merge North Korea, in contrast to both Iran and Iraq, does have biological weaponry, nuclear bombs, and the capability to deliver there weapons by misile to it neighbors and possibly even to the United States. thas provided weaponry to many global terrorist organiza ous and hostile tates, The United States and Noth Korea agreed in 1994 that, in exchange for regular zation af diplomatic relations, trade, and aid, North Korea would end its nuclear programs. Neither side, jowever, fulfilled the terms of that agreement, and ne gotiations have continued Atfull. China. has long Hefended and aided North Korea (providing up to 180 percent ofits food and oll at concessionary prices), and it does not want the United States to atack, but it also feats continuing mass migration into China of dee perately poor North Koreans, Japan fears North Korean, nelear sims. Many sates fear that Japan may he pro- voled to develop Its own nuclear eapability Japan was disarmed after World War Il, and, despite Japan's con tuibution of peacekeeping forces in Iq, Japan has litle smlitary eapabilicy muchsdesired direct land womever, would be inHuman Rights Global government presumes global acceptance of fn: damentals of a politcal culture, which rest in turn 0 findamentals of us dred years fidently write that culture, Two h age Thomas Jefferson could co certain truths ‘regan rights were “rele fvident” despite the fact that he hinself owned slaves. The UN, General Assembly adopted a Universal Declaration of Human Rights very early, in 1948, AL that time, however, most U-N. members were Western countries, and they were stil holding most African an Asian societies an colonies. As these rocletir fchieved political independence, they have begun to challenge Western ideas of human rights, They det that any human rights are in fact universal and “sell evident.” Human rights, they insist, may vary fom culture to culture ‘Two questions have arse temational organi zations, First, what isthe balance between the rights of Individuals and those of the whole society? Even West cm counties disagree on this ine. Canada, for exan- ple, is more authoritarian than the United States Canada’s equivalent tothe United States Bill f Rights Js the Charter of Rights and Freedoms, passed only 1982. 1 eflecte x commitment to gender equality an social equality far beyond that of U.S. doctments, bs its commitment to civil Uberties is arguably les. Te guar antees "Geedom of thought, belief, opinion, and ex pesson,” but these are subject "to such reasonable Timits prescribed by law as can be demonstrably justified ina free and democratic society” The second question isthe Balance between polit feal rights and what some people call “economic rights” In 1997 China's President Jiang Zemin insisted, “Ava developing country of 1.2 bho people, China's very really determines that the right of subsistence an evelopment isthe most fundamental and most impor ‘ant human right in China, Before adequate food an clothing ie insured for the people, the enjoyment of other rights would be owt of the question.” Ata 1998 U.N. Conference on Hema many countrica were concerned that West ‘would use their definitions of human rights as excises for withholding ald or other econotaie benefits from developing nations that may not accept the same def nitions. Singapore's Foreign Secretary Kishore Mab- Ibubans insisted, “Too much stres on individual rights lover the rights ofthe eommisnity wil retard progress In the future, these agreements will assert the rights of toclety over the rights of ‘ign tunister stated Matly that “Human rights exist as a Funetion of history, culture, value systems, geogtaphy, and phases of development." Several Asian countries jointly offered a statement that fairness and justice should be measured against “regional particularities fand various historical, cultural, and religious backe n African statement demanded that Rights, vidual” Indonesia's for groans Global Government 567 of “the historical and ion.” Not all cultures ree- observers must take accoun cultural realities of each 1 ‘ognize the equality of women with m1 astembled nations could not even agree on a conden nation of torture. They insisted, howeves, that “the tight to development isinslienable." The United States hesitates to accept statement that development ie a “right” because that could lead to demands that the rich coun " red fe their ‘wealth amon poor counter. After many days of debate a final document was adopted, stating dhat while differences of cultural and religious background must be Borne in mind, itis the duty of states, regardless of their political ‘economic and cultural systems, to promote and protect all human rights and fundamental freedoms." In ather ‘words, the states agreed to dingree. ‘The United Nations long had a Commission on Human Rights the chairmanship of which was awarded. ‘not by merit, but by rotation among members. Thus the chairmanship periodically fll to UN. members whose ‘own records on human rights were not good. There fore, in 2006, the U.N, replaced the Commission with & new Human Rights Council with restrictions on men bership. When the new Council first met, however, Iran, China, Cubs, Pakistan, Russia, and Saudi Arabia were counted among its members, thus continuing to ilu wate the difficulty of reaching international agreement ‘on definitions of “human rights” and who enjoys them. Jurisdiction over Earth’s ‘Open Spaces One of the most important sues requiring international agreementisthe adjudication ofthe rights that individual Hates have in Earth's open apaces. Open spaces include the Atetic, Antarctica, and Ghe world's seas The Arctic and Antarctica Fight countries have territory worth of the Arctic Ciel: the United States, Canada, Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Sweden, ‘and Rusia, In 1996 these countries formed an Arctic ‘Council that pledged ta cooperate in monitoring Are tie poltion and in protecting the region's plant and animal life. Canada claims dominion over ited Arctic islands north of Canada all the way to North Pole, but the United States hat challenged (Canada’s claims, ‘Antarctica has uever had any permanent inhabi- tants, but seven states claim overlapping sovercigny. Australia, New Zealand, Chile, and Argentina, the ‘world’s most soxtherly states, claim sovereignty om the basis of proximity. The elaima of Britain, Nerway, and France are based on explorations (Figure 1825), Net ther the United States nor Rusia, which apport most of the scientific research there, make any territorial claims, nor do they recognize other nations’ claims. je uninhab>568 Chaptor12 Political Regionalization and Globalization \GURE 13-25 Claims to Antarctica, The United States doesnot recognize any ofthese overlapping claims to Antares Forty sates ae patties to « 1959 Antarctic Treaty chat resolver that “Antarctica shall continue forever to be used exclusively for peaceful purposes and shall not become the scene or abject of international discord.” The treaty prohibits military installations, but it opens the continent to all nationa for acieliie research and study. The treaty alo prohibits signatories from bi ing ye Antatetie environment. Despite the terms of this weaty, however, some counties, Jed by Malaysia, demand that exploration, should be undertaken for Antarctic resources and that any resources found showld be exploited for the ‘good of all nations. Other nations, led by France and ‘Astralis, isin that Antarctica should he set aside as 8 wilderness preserve Tertitorial waters The work's states have divided up all the land on Earth (except Antarctica), but Intemational agreement negotiates the question of how far out to sea the tersitorial claim of x eanntry can reach, "The Dutch jurist Hugo Grotius (1588-1643) frst argued that the world’s sean are open space, move librum, which no politcal unit ean claim, Each coastal state, however, has claimed coastal waters For defensive Purposes, A later Dutch jurist, Comelius van Byker shoek, accepted! this in his book De Domina Mans FIGURE 13-26 A disputed US.-Canadian border, “The United States avd Canada disp the seaward extension ofthis boodes herein the Arte sad the United States has ucuoned off the sights o explore fr ol isthe daputed tose the Brault Sea (1702). The limit of sovereignty was set at three mat sal mallet from shore, which was generally accepted for mote than 200 years. All distances at sea ate mex sted in international nautical miles of one minute of latitede-—1,852 meters (6,076 feet). Territorial sea is meauired from the lowtide mark, and any disputes between states arising from irregular coasthnes oF i us are resolved by individual negotiations. A 1958 In- ternational Conference on for ascertaining the seaward extension of land borders (igure 13-26), “The United States accepted a Sanile limit in 1793, bbutin 1945 President Truman broke that international covenant and claimed sole right to the riches of the con- ‘nent shelfup to 200 nautical miles out A continental shelf fs an aren of relatively shallow water tounds most continents before the continental slope drops mote sharply to the deep-sea foot, The 1958 Sea Law Conference agreed on a water depth of 200 meters (656 feet) a the definition of the outer edge of a conti. rental shelf (Figure 18-27) The Truman Proclamation claimed shelf mineral rights, but tid not claim control over fishing oF ship- ping in the seas over the shelf beyond the three-ile territorial limit, Te nevertheless tiggered extended claims to fishing rights by other nations. In 1976 the United States extended is owt claims to exclusive fsh- ing rights up to 200 nautical miles out from is shores ‘As noted in Chapter 8, about 90 percent of the world’s Imtine fish harvest is easght within 200 miles of the "The de tie of tncren Law of the Sea set rules ation of continental shelves in the Arc: ng dlapute, Canadian, Dantsh, and Riser ian scientists are mapping a topographic feature under the Arctic seas called the Lomonorov Ridge. At stake are the rights to unknown, but potentially rich, deposits fof minerals, ofl and gas, ae well at control over ArcticGlobal Government 569 FIOURE 12.27 Continental shelves, The various continental sheles extend out from ase ata few hundred yards to more dhan 600 miles, navigation. The ridge appears to run from the area around Ellesmere Island and Greenland all the way ‘under the polar ie eap for a couple of thousand tres to Russia, A Canadian and Danish team i tying to demonstrate that the Lomonosov Ridge isan extet son of the North American continent, whereas the Russians are trying to prove thatthe ridge is an exter sion of the Siberian continental shel, Canadian profer tor of international law Dr. Michael Byers has described ‘mapping Canada's claim as “Canada’s moon mission. Wsjust as tough. But we ean do this” A setlement may bbe many yeas away The 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea tn 1982 the United Nations pro: posed a new Law of the Sea Treaty. Sixty countries rat fied it by 1993, thus bringing it into force among the ralifying parties in 1994. The Law of the Sea Treaty authorizes each coastal sate to claim a 200-ile exele sive economic zone (EEZ), in which it controls both ‘mining and fishing rights. Therefore, possession ofeven, a small island in the ocean grants a zone of 826,000 square kilometers (126,000 square miles} of sea around that island. Ths might help explain why France retains ‘many small island colonies France clans fall 10-4 per cent of the world total EEZ, The U 8:4 percent, New Zealand 5.8 percent 4:7 percent, No other state claims more than 4 percent. ‘The potential for discoveries of olin the wotld’s seas has triggered an international scramble to claim even Ht States claims and Indonesia tiny uninhabited outcrops of rock. For example, China, Japan, and South Kores ly conflicting elms to areas ‘of the East China Sea, Vietnam, China, Taiwan, the Philippines, Thalland, and Malaysia extend overlappi ‘lam in the South China Sea, ‘Another clause of the 1082 treaty guarantees ships innocent passage through the waters of one state on the way to another. The extension of counties’ territorial waters, however, means that countries now claim many fof the world’s narrow: waterways, They remain open in limes of peace, but they ean be closed in time of wat (Figure 1528). “The United States at first refused to sign the Law ‘of the Sea Treaty in protest agsinst provisions calling for intemationabization of seabed mineral resources and the creation of an International Seabed Authority to control mining. The United States insisted on rights for free enterprise. Several of the trealy’s other provisions, however, did aerve US. interests, x0 US. President Reagan announced that the United States ‘would regard all but the seabed provisions as law, even though the country had not signed the treaty, For ex ample, one provision allows nations to declare a 12-mile lerttorial limit. Therefore, in accordance with the treaty, on December 28, 1988, the United States fextended ite territorial limit to 12 mile Gi Tength of the US. coastine, thi enlarged the territory of the United States by some 478,000 square Lilometers (185,000 square miles) Gompromises on dispsited provisions were eventually fen the seaward extenalon570 Chapter 13 Political Rogionalization and Globalization FIOURE 12-28 Landlocked slates and strategie sit world’s most important narzow sea lanes Aa alates have extended been claimed by the adacentstates A terodstact in one ofthese Malacca, for exanape is at certain points only 2.5 homers (13 reached, and the United States signed and ratified the treaty in 1996, “Another clause of the 1982 treaty allows countries to cls some powers in a“contiguons tone” of 12 miles further ont beyond the 12 miler of territorial waters, ‘Therelore, on September 2, 1999, the United States an nounced that it would start enforcing U.S. law and ‘wotild be boarding ships up to 24 nautical miles off the coast, The US, proclamation applies to the territorial waters around all US, possessions Landlocked states ‘The independence of Mon. Lenegro from Serbis i 2006 added Serbia to the list of the world’s now 48 landlocked statex without seacoast Several other states are not totally landlocked, but thei ‘own coasts are unsuitable for port development so they must rely on neighbors’ ports Landlocked states must secure the right to use the high seas, the right of inno- cent passage through the territorial waters of coastal Hates, port facilities along suitable coasts, and transit f Sites from the port to ther own tesitory. Landlocked or partially landlocked states may sain access to the sea in one of three ways. Fist, any hnavigable river that reaches the sea may be declared ‘pen to the navigation ofall states, Freedom of navigae ‘dom om rivers that flow through several countries wa Sst proclaimed by France in 1792. The French revala onary government proclaimed that the freedom of rivers wat a “natural lw” International eomesisions “This map shows the world’s andlocked tater and some ofthe their seaard lait, any of thee aaron waterways hate row srs could disrupt the world economy. The Sait of ales) wide, butt carses 40 percentof world ade segulate navigation on many international rivers, and often these same commissions guard against pollution, and regulate the drawing of irvigation waters from the river (Figure 18-29) Second, a landlocked state may obtain a corridor fofland reaching either to the sea ot to navigable river. Several counties have long, thin extensions of land out to seaports (Figure 1830). Some of these, such as the ‘Congo's cortidor to the Atlantic Ocean, are important transport routes, but others, sch as Namibia's Capri Strip to the international Zambesi Rive, serve no tig nt trafic function ‘The third way 3 an to the sea isto obtain fa locked slate can gain access tea at specific port plus {along a route to that port. Goastal states have signed international conventions promising tw asst the movement of goods across their teitories from landlocked states without levying discriminatory tolls, taxes, or freight charges. Chile, for example, helped build a railroad connecting La Pay, Bolivia's principal city to the Chilean port of Aries, and Chile {Suarantecs free translt. Argentina grants Bolivia a free Zone at the Argentine elty of Rosario on the Parand River, and Peru gives Bolivia a free-trade zone in the port of Ho, The 1998 treaty between Ecuador and Pent guaranteed Ecuador navigation rights in Peruvian ports fon the Amazon River In 1993 Ethiopia joined the ranks of the landlocked states when its coattal province of Eritrea gained independence. Eritrea proraioed to asst freedom of tanGlobal Government 571 How a Canal Lock Works: Is arsanrie 6 FIGURE 13-29 The Saint Lawrence Seaway. Completed jointly by the United States and Canada in 1959, the Suit Lawrence Seaway ican example of international cooperation onan international waterway. ealows ocean veaele o each rom Ethiopian import and export tade, but in fact most fof Ethiopia has long relied on transit via the port of Djibouti (look hack at Figure 1227). ‘Coastal sates can profit by granting transi rights, ‘The coastal state's rallroads have a captive customer, and their ports gain extra business and opportunity to ‘erve as break-of-bulk points for processing imported ot ‘exported raw materials (see Chapter 10). The fact chat landlocked state misses these opportunities can hi der its economic development. Landlocked states also lose out in the apportionment of the resources of th continental thelves, exclusive economic zones, and fae ing opportunities, The high seas All nations agree that beyond teri torial waters are high seas, where all nations should ‘enjoy equal rights. Several problems, however, threaten ny area where righis are not specifically assigned. ‘These inchide depletion of resources (aich as aver fish ing) and pollution, International conventions regulate cach of these potential abuses of the high seas. The "The join project included the construction af hydroclecie power plant, 1972 London Dumping Convention, for example, signed by 7 counties, originally banned the dumping fof radioactive and other “highly dangerous” wastes at tea, but Iwas extended to ban dumping ofall forms of industrial wastes in 1995, The enforcement of interna tional agicements such as thete is uncertain, aud thels effect is limited, Airspace the question of how far up a nation’s sov cereignty extends isan complex as the question of how far out ta sea It extends, Ships enjoy innocent passage through territorial waters, but alplanes have never been granted innocent pastage to fly over counties. Aitlives must wegotiate that right, and states commonly prescribe narrow air corridors, the altitudes at which ircraf must fy and even the hours of the day the pas rages ate open, U.S, President Dwight Eisenhower Bist proposed an “Open Skies” treaty in 1955, but 2 treaty was not realized unt! 1992. The beaty establishes con tions or unarmed observation fights over the entire territory of participants. In accordance with the treaty, a572 Chapter13 Political Regionalization and Globalization bee 4 Bsota é pact coLowain ’ Bee TENS are [aa ' Sen aay en anaayne Sfrnvauny sr.anrie ee ane Bie nh ae Mwozameiaue | | Aodeun » lee ae al (8 saul anasia See ee OA et ere sce to ports asin ()- Sucre i the eons Russian Ait Force jet spent five days in August 1997 By- ing over the United States taking photographs of US. niltary intallations, Ths astonished anyone whe grew up during the Cold War Diplomats cannot agree on the altitude at which sational airspace ends, One ponible definition of na to the lowest altitue at {onal airspace would fimit ie which artificial unpowered satellites ea ‘orbit, at least once around Barth, That ranges between, 113 and 161 kilometers (70 and 100 ales). The UN. Office for Outer Space Affairs does ty to formulate ree mendations for designing and flying space vehicles to reduce the amount of debris they produce and their chances of colliding with one another be put inte Many observers dread the willtarization of space bout suggestions have been made that the eventual parceling-out of space is almost inevitable, asa measure ‘of national security In 1997 the United States succes fully targeted a laser beam on an orbiting satelite, and ‘National itspends more than a billion dollars ea weapons research, The U. Space Policy” published in August 2006, rejects any ftme control agreements that might hinder “Ireedom fof action is space.” Countries have 40 fat refrained from extending territorial claims to the Moon of pla cts, but several have insisted that they reserve the ight to do. (Figure 18:31). Our study of geography, there: trieted to Earth. fore, issoProtecting the Global Environment 573 Regulation of Whaling Whales are an excelent example ofa commenly owned natural resource that can only be managed by inter- national negotiation and agreement. Whale have been hunted for ousards of years, but he development of large-scale commercial whaling in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries reduced the populations of many Species to dangerously low vel, By the 19208 whalers began to realize that some species had been vertshed, ann 1946 te Intemational Whang Com- imgson (IC) was formed to rogulate the Indust. nits caiy yews the INC'S. conservation achievements wore modes t best, bu by tho 1880s widespread su~ port for whale conseration had developed in much of the world. n 186 the IWC declares workdnide mor forum on whaling except for purposes of siento ranearch, The mertarum also alowed continued whal- ing by indigenous Arctic peoples in northern Russa and [Aeka, Member nations retain ther sovereignty over thelr whaling fete, however, andthe IW cannot en- force te resticons. Norway and Japan continue to harvest whales, though in fewer numbers than they did before the IWC was formed. In late 1997 the WC agresa to ban whaling completely onthe high seas but to allow commercial whaling in coastal waters. An agreement of this type effectively mits whaling to those areas where national sovereignty can be exercised, If it holds, it wil allow mere effective management of whaling and reduce tho likelihood of overhunting. I 2006, however, eolane renounced the global moratorium on commercial whale hunting. Internationa regulation of whaling contrasts with the Iaek of contols over harvesting other marne species. As describad in Chapter 8, tore is no etfectve worldwide regulation of fshing, and only in afew eases (most notaby the European Union's Common Fisheries Polley have nations been able to agree on regulation ot fisheries, Even close triands Ike the United States and Canada have bitter disputes over shared fisher ‘the consequence has been worldwide devastation of fish populations similar to that experienced rior to regulation of whaling and FIGURE 13-31 Moon exploration. When US. ato ‘ute visited the Moon, they planted U.S. as. The United Statcedenis that the gesture was intended at clam (NASA Meadguates PROTECTING THE GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT Just as the world has become more integrated and interdependent in recent decade, so has it become ap- parent that we share common coneeras about environ ‘ental quality, While local environmental quality ists such as urban ar pollution remain important—and are troming. im importance in industraising, regione ilobal ensizonmiental ines have risen in importance International governmental and nongovernmental organizations are increasingly involved in fading ways to manage concerns about the envizonment ina changing world. ‘Changing patterns of economic activities at the slobal scale mean changing patterns of resource con Sumption and pollution outputs. Whereas most of the world’s industeal activity and most output of industrial pollutants are sll concentrated in the rich counties, a significant shift in pollution output to the pooter come tries is occurring (Figure 13:32) Two factors ate diving this shit, First, heavy mansfacturing, and the pollution that accompanies it, is shifting from rich countries to poor ones. Second, populations are growing faster ienerated pollution such as sewage, solid waste, and574 Chapter13 Political Regionalization and Globalization Figure 13.32 Changing locations of heavy industry, (a) An abandoned steel mil in Vokingen, Germany, and (6) astel mil in Benny Liaoning Province China. The lo Nori America, sd Japan, but today sous of ths nt caergy conmumplion and pollutant emtions [a] Hackeuberg/ Maver Corporation (b] Michael Wal/ Aurora & Quanta Prodeeinne toe) automobile emlislons are growing rapidly in poor counties. Unfortmately, the poor countiies are les able to afford pollution-contol systems, so cheir popu lations increasingly suffer the negative effects of living swith pollution (Figure 1333) Energy consumption In general, poor counties whereas the ise of natiral resources in the rieh coun tes is growing slowly. Rich couuties were provoked to decrease their natural resource use and to increase the cnetgy efficiency oftheir economies by the rise in energy prices in the 1970s, The most obvious example of this increase in energy efficiency is the change in ate mobile design between the easly 1970s and the 1990s Modern autos are mich more fuel efficient: A typical 1mid-1900s fve;passenger sedan uavels at least 50 per ent farther on a Iter of gasoline than comparable sized car built 20 years earlier. At the same time, since the 1980s Americans have been buying larger vehicles, especially minivans and sporty vehicles, which are Tess efficient than the sedans and station wagons that ‘were more common rater. This bas cataed « redo tion ii our overall vehicle fuel efficiency that persists, even though rising gasoline prices have slowed sales of inefficient vehicles, Airpollution-control regulations are another fac: tor in this increased efciency, Using the anto as an. example again, one of the easiest ways to reduce tmnstions isto improve the efficiency of fuel use, The placement of carburetors and mechanical ignition points with computercontrolled fuel injection and Electronic ignition both reduces polhation output and improves fuel efficiency Similar changes that have oc curred throughoutall industries have reduced both the mount of resources wed and the pollution generated, ‘AC the same time that the rich countries were i creasing their efficiency of fossil-fuel us, they were aso experiencing a rapid cconomie transition away from, ‘nergy and pollationitensive heavy industries toward lightindustry and service-based economies, Stel mat facturing and related heaypequipment industries were especially hard hit by the oll price increases ofthe 1970s, The steel ndusuy in the United States, Canada, and much of Europe was aging, and many mills used less efficient, older technologies. These mills also faced increased competition from other regions. Developing countries built their own steel industries, and global production capacity was greater than demand. The do- Imestic automobile industry in the United States and When fuel prices tose, consumers demanded smaller foreignamade cars, not the large gas guzzler that the North American plants were producing. Increases in nergy costs caused a general slowdown in manufactar ing. The combined effects ofthese factors contribwtedProtecting the Global Environment 575 FIGURE 13.33 Particulate matter concentrations in urban areas, Thismap shows concentrations of particulate matter in urban ates, Particulate mater ea major cause of health problems such as atta, chron brow {hii and acute respiratory problems (Sed fn The to the decline of heavy industry in the northeastern United States and adjacent Canadian cities, in northern Britsin, and to a lesser extent, in Germany Along with thin came a signifieant drop in foulffuel use helped to reduce pollution etmisions in these regions (Figure 1384) The decline ofthe traditional heavy industrial re sions of the developed world was accompanied by the growth of manufacturing in rapidly industvalizing regions of East Asis and Latin America, Mich of this manufacturing, however, i labor and capital than energy-intensive, 90 it has made only a minor com ‘uibution to increased energy consumption in these ve gions. The inerease in wealth that this manufacturing brings. especialy in urban regions, is much more siguie. icant. However, this added wealth rates demand for ccnergy-conmiming machines, especially atomobiles. ‘The number of autos in use in China, Malaysia, Brazil and other nations with rapid economic growth rates is Ting, so petroleum use and air pollution als rise. Energy officioncy trends Ir ukes energy to gene ate income, Some ways of generating income take m fnengy that Making steel uses Large Amounts of fuel per doar earned, whereas making tele ‘ions requires much Jem Typically, manvdecuring takes such mote energy than providing services. Als, some swaps of making a given product are more efllent th thers. Modern factories or office buildings usually se much less energy per unit of output or office space than fold ones. We can see changes in energy elfciency by FiGURE 19.4 Chloroftuotocarbon production. Production of clotoluorocarbous peaked in 1988 and de- fgieentent to phase ant these orone-destoying chemicals ining the relationship between how mich ecoman aethity changes in relation to changes In energy ure The link between economie and environmental approaches over the past eto decades can be seen ba ends of economic efficiency of energy use. The amount of energy used to produce a dollar of GDP (also Inawn as enngy sntensip) is shorn for a few representa tive countries forthe period 1980-2004 in Table 181. In this period, the PPPhased GDP of the United States ‘grew at an average rate of 5.0 percent per year (adjusted {or inflation), yet energy use gtew at only 1.0% per yea.ccourrey amo 2008 PP) To S2008 “eens 1802008 Chin 7 52 =a United Sates 5 10 os canada 46 M a7 France as 1 2117 Japan 49 1 Ase South Kore oo a8 a7 Teter 58 es na 1m 2004 2 unit of energy use produced about 62 percent tore income in the United States than it did in 1980, Most of the wealthy industrial powers experienced a slmilar pattern, Income grew faster than energy use. In contrast, in many poorer countries, energy use grew faster than income, Thailand, for example, experienced economic growth averaging 7.7 percent per year (in constant US. dollars), bu energy tse grev at an aver age of 8.3 percent per year. In some poor countries, notably China, economic grawth dramatically exereded frowtl in energy tse, Stl, the general trend over that time period is for faster growth of energy use in the poorer world than in the wealthy world [Energy ase is an imperfect measure of pollution, but it isa useful one. In general, the more foal fuels we use, the more pollution we produce. Certainly this i tric for carbon dioside emlations. For ether pollutants, the correspondence is not 40 close, beemse po depends a lot on how the energy is uted. Nevertheless, to the extent that energy use can be equated with poll tion output, both energy use and pollution are increas ing rapidly im the poor world, especially in. those countries with high eeonomie growth rates. Development, Pollution, and the Quality of Life Both monetary wealth and environmental conditions contribute o our quality of ile. They comtibute in dif with tay, weve, Monetary income prides the ably to purchase sufcent quaniies of found. quali oud and elecacorgassvesfor cook Toutine medical checkups, and safe water delivered to ont homes, It also makes available automobiles, telephones, computers, and large, warm houses and vacations at the shore. Good environmental quality fives us clean air to breathe, fish that ate free from, Aiseasecartying bacteria snd toxins, and soil that produces good crops without excessive Inputs offerte inet I also gives us diversity of wildlife to observe and enjoy. parks for relaxing, and the satisfaction of know- ing that furure generations will have atleastsome ofthe same opportunities to enjoy these things as we do, Economic activity and environmental quality both contribute to make life materially and observably beter i waye that virtually everyone agrees are important sapectally health-related factors such as vccarrence of disease, infant morality, or longevity. Wealth helps pre- vent disease by paying for educational expenses and salaries of medical personnel, as well asthe offices, lab- oratories, medicines, and supplies they need to do their jobs well.Aclean environment ato helpe to prevent dis ‘cate nich a8 chronic lung problems that occur in ateas pollution. Wealth helpy prevent infant tertaliy and improves longevity by making pou balanced dite that include sficient protein and freth vegetables regardless of season, A clean environment {hat yields drinking water that is free from chemical biological contaminants also helps reduce infant mortality and lengthen lifesp ‘While everyone needs good food supplies, the value of other things siderably fom one individual to another, of ane euk tute to another, Clean water in a lake may be especially important to someone who likes to swim in kes oF who sto eat fish, But for someone who spends every day 4 city and prefers movies and basketball games for Takes nny not be very important Wealth and environmental quality provide amenities ‘hat are valued differently by different cultures. Wealth brings us televisious, on which we can watch comedy or sports or the news, Such cutertainment isa central part ‘of some cultures today, but it would be hard to argue objectively that this makes us better people or that it makes our lives materially Better than alternative with bad tis health entertainment, leaProtecting the Global Environment 577 Water Privatization [As the population ines econamic growth stimulates new demands for water, availabilty problems ae increasing. Water supply prod lems are also worsened by pollution. which can make otherwise useful water unacceptable. Water supply probloms—whethor issues of quality or quantity or both-do have technologies! solutions. in most of the world water avalabilty is strongly seasonal: thro fsa ‘time of year when rivers have high flow and atime when flow i low. But human water uso f loss variabe, so we often need to store wate fom the wet season in order ‘to make It available In the dry season. We accomplish ‘this by bullaing reservoirs and the pipe or canal ays- ‘tems that deliver water from the reservais to where i aus Fortunately water, unlike ol or coal, doesn't lose its tundamental properties when itis used. The addition of pollutants that takes place when water goes through industial or other uses can be reversed. We can in- crease water supply by treating polluted water to re- ‘move unhoalthful substances so that it can be used again. In somo areas total walor use oxcoods total ro- newable water supply Figure 8-24). This is achioved by rousing water, and normally somo water treatment is cossary botors water can be roused Increasing water supplies by bullding reservairs or troatmont systems takes mony. Typically the construc tion of water supply o treatment systems is undertaken by government agencies because water Is something upon which everyene depends, and governments usu- aly have the necessary inancil resources. In agation, in most socteties water fe something that is cammeniy ‘owned, a8 opposed to minerals or manufactured goods ‘that are usualy the property of miners or manutacturers betore they are sold in @ market. Many of the world’s governments, however, do not have sufficient capital to build new water systems. [As @ result, they are turning to private corporations to 188 around the world, and as make the investments needed. Ths is especially true In oor counties, but governments in many wealthy re- ions are alsa fnding It desirable to “outsource” con- struction and operation of water systems to private companies. Those companies aro motivated by the prospect of profits earned by seling water or water related services (such as pipeline operation and main- tenance) to water users In other words, a resource that ‘many consider to be publicly ownod, tobe provided to all at minimal cost is boing privatized. Water privatization is going on all around the World. The Koy players are a handul of large mult- hational corporations, mainly owned In Europe or North ‘America. They bid for and win contracts with govern= ment agencies to construct water systems and operate ‘them, charging water users for the service, In many 809 the fees these companies colect are substantial, fan are greater than those that wate users paid betore privetzation, It fs inevitable thet weathier people wil find It easier to pay for water than poor people, and £0 privatization leads to a situation where rich people's Water needs are met whi those of he poor are not In Bolivia, water privatization has been especialy controversial, and the dispute over watsr contributed to ‘major poitcal upheaval. In 1999, under pressure trom the World Bank, Bolivia granted a 40-yoar contract to a subsidiary of London-based multinational international Wator Ltd. to operate water systoms serving a ha milion people in Cochabamba, Water prices quickly rose, and widespread protests ensued. At tst the protests wore relatively peaceful, but they becamo in- reasingly violent @8 the government espended with ‘troops and tear gas. Aftor two months of demonsira tions, during which hundreds were injured and six wore kiled, then olvian president Hugo Banzer Suarez ‘inal cancelled the contact. The Cochabambe fiasco fwakened many ctizens in BolWvia to the privatization controversy, which continues today about the fave of ‘the nationalization ofthe natural gas industry. activities auch at conversation, pattlelpant sports, or reading. A wilderness park can be an exhilarating place to hike, learn, or simply contemplate the beauty of satuze, but who i to say that this is a more meaningful experience than attending an opera? The value of many of the goods we produce through extracting r. sources and polluting the environment depends solely fn individual or eultaral atitudes. Balancing development and environmental Preservation if there were simple and effective ays to increase both wealth and environmental quality taneously, then the proces of develo bea straightforward one: Many of the patha to greater jouetary wealth, however, actually reduce envirot- ental quality, and improving eusironmental quality often has significant costs rt would