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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

CUPRINS ½ TABLE OF CONTENTS ¾

Z001 1. Y. NYS, F. GUILLOU, J.B. COULON AND P. CHEMINEAU - Research

Activities in Animal Physiology and Livestock Systems at INRA (French
National Institute for Agronomic Research) ½ Activităţile de cercetare ale
INRA (Institutul Naţional Francez de Cercetări Agronomice) în domeniul
fiziologiei şi sistemelor de creştere a animalelor .....................................................5

Z002 2. J. AUMANN - Breeding programs and progeny testing in the times of genomic
selection ½ Programe de ameliorare şi testarea după descendenţă în epoca
selecţiei genomice...................................................................................................10

Z003 3. B. GEORGESCU, CARMEN GEORGESCU, S. DĂRĂBAN - Pesticides

with endocrine disrupting function – Biomarkers of exposure ½ Biomarkeri
de evaluare a expunerii cu pesticide cu funcţie de disruptori endocrini ................13

Z004 4. Roxana LAZĂR, P.C. BOIŞTEANU, Ancuţa ELENA COŞULEANU, Alina

Narcisa POSTOLACHE - Determination of the main haematological
indicators in the hare compared to the rabbit ½ Determinări ale
principalilor indicatori hematologici la iepurele de câmp comparativ cu
iepurele de casă......................................................................................................19

Z005 5. Alexandra MATEI, G. CHIOVEANU, M. ANDRONE, D. DEZMIREAN,

M. DOLIS, I. PASCA, M. BENTEA - The presentation of silkmoth
Bombyx mori L. sp. genetic resources in Romania as source of initial
material in amelioration works ½ Prezentarea resurselor genetice ale
fluturelui de mătase sp. Bombyx mori L. în Romania ca sursă de material
iniţial în lucrările de ameliorare ............................................................................23

Z006 6. V. TODERICI, Valentina CEBOTARI - Study on the behavior of artificially

inseminated queens of Apis m. Carpatica race during passive period ½
Studiu asupra comportamentului reginelor însămânţate artificial de rasa
Apis m. Carpatica în perioada pasivă ....................................................................28

Z0077. V. MICLEA, M. ZĂHAN, Ileana MICLEA - Characterization of the

reproductive activity of sows belonging to a Mangalita swine population ½
Caracterizarea activităţii de reproducţie a scroafelor aparţinând unei
populaţii de suine din rasa Mangaliţa....................................................................31

Z008 8. Ileana MICLEA, M. ZĂHAN, A. RUSU, F. GHIURU, V. MICLEA - The

effect of several ascorbic acid concentrations on swine oocyte maturation
and embryo culture ½ Efectul unor concentraţii de acid ascorbic asupra
maturării ovocitare şi culturii embrionilor suini....................................................35

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Z0099. GH. NACU, C. PASCAL, Cecilia POP - Hormone-therapy – management

solution for the reproduction enhancement at sow ½ Hormonoterapia –
soluţie de management pentru intensivizarea reproducţiei la scroafă ...................41

Z01010. B. PĂSĂRIN, G. HOHA, Elena COSTĂCHESCU, I. BĂNĂŢEAN

DUNEA - Researches concerning breeding perfomances recorded to PIC
1050 and Camborough sows exploited in SC SUINPROD SA ROMAN ½
Cercetări privind performanţele reproductive înregistrate la scroafele PIC
1050 şi Camborough exploatate în cadrul S.C. SUINPROD S.A. ROMAN ...........44

Z011
11. I. BUZU, Silvia EVTODIENCO, O. MAŞNER, P. LIUŢKANOV -
Intrarasial type of big Moldavian Karakul Sheep ½ Tip Intrarasial de ovine
Karakul Moldovenesc corpolent.............................................................................49

Z012
12. I. BUZU, O. MAŞNER, P. LIUŢKANOV - Elite type of Sheep Moldavian
Tsigaie of Alexanderfeld ½ Tip de elită de ovine Ţigaie Moldovenească de
Alexanderfeld .........................................................................................................57

Z01313. Tatiana LUPOLOV, Valentina PETCU - Study of the genetic structure of

the populations of sheep and poultry on the basis of immunogenetic markers
½ Studiu privind structura genetică ale unor populaţii de ovine şi păsări pe
baza markerilor imunogenetici...............................................................................62

Z014
14. Gh. HRINCĂ - Description of the haemolytic system for testing the blood
groups in small ruminants ½ Descrierea sistemului hemolitic în testul de
grupă sanguină la rumegătoarele mici ..................................................................66

Z01515. S. CHILIMAR, V. FOCŞA - New type bovine of Black and White breed ½
Tipul nou de bovine al rasei Bălţată cu Negru.......................................................74

Z01616. V. UJICĂ, V. MACIUC, Rodica DĂNĂILĂ, ŞT. CREANGĂ, I. NISTOR -

Quantitative genetics researches on the B.N.R. population reared in the
private farms from the North-Eastern area of Romania ½ Cercetări de
genetică cantitativă la populaţia de rasă B.N.R. exploatată în fermele
private din zona de N-E a României.......................................................................77

Z017
17. Elena MARANDICI, G. DARIE, P. CHINTEA - Researches concerning the
influence of the bioactive substances on the boar sperm preservation ½
Cercetări privind influenţa substanţelor bioactive asupra conservării
materialului seminal de vier...................................................................................82

Z018
18. Stela ZAMFIRESCU, Irina TOPOLEANU, Dorina NADOLU -
Observations concerning haematological profile in goat ½ Unele observaţii
privind profilul hematologic la caprine..................................................................86

Z01919. Stela ZAMFIRESCU, Dorina NADOLU - Results concerning the freezing

pretability of buck semen and fecundity after artificial insemination of goat
½ Rezultate privind pretabilitatea la congelare a spermei de ţap si rata
conceptiei dupa inseminarea artificiala a caprelor locale.....................................92

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Z02020. Roxana PARASCHIV, G. MURSA - The competitiveness of the Romanian

economy in the context of European Union Accession. Special
considerations regarding agriculture and rural development ½
Competitivitatea economiei româneşti în contextul aderării la Uniunea
Europeană. Consideraţii privind agricultura şi dezvoltarea rurală.......................97

Z02121. Roxana PARASCHIV, G. MURSA - Challenges of the common agricultural

policy in the enlarged Europe ½ Probleme ale politicii agricole comune în
Europa extinsă..................................................................................................... 103

Z02222. V.-L. ICHIM - Is the European Union an optimum currency area? ½ Este
Uniunea Europeană o zonă monetară optimă?................................................... 108

Z02323. Cecilia POP, Roxana CALISTRU - Choices in interest rate risk management
process ½ Opţiuni în procesul de management al riscului de rată a dobânzii.... 113

Z02424. Roxana CALISTRU, Cecilia POP - Estimation of interest rate risk attending
the bonds loan ½ Estimarea riscului de rată a dobânzii care însoţeşte
împrumutul obligator .......................................................................................... 120

Z02525. C. BULGARIU - Reflections about the role of civil society in the rural
development ½ Reflecţii asupra rolului societăţii civile în dezvoltarea
durabilă ............................................................................................................... 127

Z02626. C. BULGARIU - The procedures to balance a local budget in Romania ½

Proceduri de echilibrare a bugetelor locale în România .................................... 130

Z02727. G. MURSA, Roxana PARASCHIV - State and agriculture. Some

recommendations on agricultural policy ½ Statul şi agricultura. Câteva
recomandări privind politica agricolă ................................................................ 135

Z02828. G. MURSA, Roxana PARASCHIV - Rural development in Romania.

Opportunities and difficulties ½ Dezvoltarea rurală în România.
Oportunităţi şi dificultăţi..................................................................................... 141

Z02929. Benedicta DROBOTĂ, Elena GÎNDU, A. CHIRAN, A.-F. JITĂREANU

Informatics model regarding the analysis of some technical and economic
indicators in animal husbandry ½ Model informatic privind analiza unor
indicatori tehnico-economici în creşterea animalelor......................................... 146

Z03030. Anca DUDAŞ, Alina MOŞOIU - Some aspects regarding the development of
touristic and agrotouristic services in Arieşeni Area from Apuseni
mountains ½ Unele aspecte privind evoluţia serviciilor turistice şi
agroturistice în zona Arieşeni din munţii Apuseni .............................................. 153

Z03131. Liliana BIŢIC, A. CHIRAN, Elena GÎNDU - Study of natural conditions and
social resources from Ţibăneşti Microzone, Iaşi County ½ Studiul
condiţiilor naturale şi a resurselor sociale din microzona Ţibăneşti, judeţul
Iaşi....................................................................................................................... 159

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Z03232. Marcela ŞTEFAN, Mariana BRAN - The analysis of crop structure

according to social-economical requirements in Vrancea District ½ Analiza
structurii culturilor în concordanţă cu cerinţele economico-sociale din
judeţul Vrancea ................................................................................................... 164
Z03333. D. M. ANDREI, Laurenţia DIACONU - Mathematics, the instrument we use
in teaching ecology ½ Matematica, instrument de lucru în predarea
disciplinei ecologie.............................................................................................. 169

Z03434. Lenuţa FOTEA, Elena COSTĂCHESCU, G. HOHA - The effect of

essential oil of rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) on to the broilers growing
performance ½ Efectul utilizării uleiului esenţial de rozmarin (Rosmarinus
officinalis) asupra performanţelor de creştere a puilor de carne ....................... 172

Z03535. Daniela ALEXANDRESCU, Monica MARIN, D. DRĂGOTOIU, Elena

POGURSCHI - The effect of energo – proteic level and energy –
aminoacids relations about evolution of body weight at Arbor Acres hybrid
½ Influenţa nivelului energo-proteic şi a rapoartelor energie – aminoacizi
asupra evoluţiei greutăţii corporale la hibridul Arbor Acres ............................. 175
Z03636. Nicoleta BORTĂ, Aida ALBU, Cecilia POP, I. M. POP - Researches
regarding highlight of some pollutants in feeds ½ Cercetări cu privire la
evidenţierea unor poluanţi în nutreţuri ............................................................... 180

Z03737. Al. USTUROI, I.M. POP - Researches concerning the usage of a feed additive
in chicken broilers feeding ½ Cercetări privind utilizarea unui aditiv
furajer în alimentaţia puilor broiler de găină ..................................................... 186
Z03838. B.A. VLAIC, L.AL. MĂRGHITAŞ, A. VLAIC, Alexandra MATEI -
Research concerning the influence of treatment, harvesting moment and
mulberry level from where the leaves were harvested in the IIIrd age
silkworm performances ½ Cercetări privind influenţa tratamentului,
momentului recoltării şi etajului din care provine frunza de dud asupra
greutăţii larvelor viermelui de mătase la vârsta a III-a ...................................... 191

Z03939. B.V. AVARVAREI, Elena-Liliana CHELARIU, R. ROŞCA - Fertilization

influence on nutritive and energetic value of the fodder obtained on an
Agrostis capillaris L. – Festuca rubra L. meadow ½ Influenţa fertlizării
asupra valorii nutritive şi energetice a furajului obţinut pe o pajişte de
Agrostis capillaris L. – Festuca rubra L. ............................................................ 196

Z04040. Roxana MIRON (ZAHARIA), I.M. POP, N. ZAHARIA, A.C. SAVA -

Researches regarding the action of some influential factors on the nutritive
composition of the corn silage ½ Cercetări privind acţiunea unor factori de
influenţă asupra conţinutului nutritiv al silozului de porumb ............................. 200
Z04141. Carmen Ana PIVODA, I. PĂDEANU, H.F.G. SARANDAN, Dana
JITARIU, Camelia ZOIA ZAMFIR, ANA ENCIU - The nutritional
effects of vegetal lecithin over the milk production, apparent digestibility
and sheep ruminant parameters ½ Efectele nutriţionale ale lecitinei vegetale
asupra producţiei de lapte, digestibilităţii aparente şi a parametrilor
ruminali la oaie ................................................................................................... 205

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Z04242. M. ALDA, D. DRINCEANU, C. JULEAN - The influence of prestarter

forage quality on performances and economical eficiency of growing piglets
½ Influenţa calităţii furajului prestarter asupra performanţelor şi eficienţei
economice în creşterea purceilor ........................................................................ 210

Z04343. Cristina Gabriela RADU-RUSU, I.M. POP - Improvement of laying hen

performances by dietary mannanoligosaccharides supplementation ½
Îmbunătăţirea performanţei găinilor ouătoare prin suplimentarea
alimentaţiei cu mananoligozaharide ................................................................... 215

Z04444. Aida ALBU, Cecilia POP, Felicia ŢÂRCĂ, I.M. POP - Evaluation of copper
concentration in some dairy cow feeding raw materials ½ Evaluarea
concentraţiei de cupru din unele materii prime folosite în alimentaţia
vacilor de lapte.................................................................................................... 220

Z04545. Constanţa NICODIM, C. MILICĂ - Studies on the influence of some

regulating growing substances upon the quantity and quality of Mentha
Piperita production ½ Studii privind influenţa unor substanţe regulatoare
de creştere asupra cantităţii şi calităţii producţiei de Mentha Piperita.............. 224

Z04646. Constanţa NICODIM - Researches on the influence of pedoclimatic

conditions from Tecuci area on the biometric and phenological parameters
of Cynara scolymus ½ Cercetări privind influena condiţiilor pedoclimatice
din zona Tecuci, asupra parametrilor biometrici şi fenologici la Cynara
Scolymus.............................................................................................................. 230

Z04747. C-tin. ARUŞTEI - Research on the world state of technique through patents
which refers to mouldboard that equip the ploughs with corps and my
contribution to the modernization of the mouldboards ½ Studii referitoare
la particularităţile cormanelor care echipează plugurile cu trupiţe şi
contribuţii proprii la imbunătăţirea acestora...................................................... 236

Z04848. C-tin. ARUŞTEI - Research on improving the plowing quality and reducing
the fuel consumption in the work of plowing and subsequent agricultural
work by editing the shape by moldboard ½ Cercetări privind creşterea
calităţii arăturii şi reducerea consumului de combustibil la lucrările de arat
şi cele ulterioare prin modificarea formei cormanei........................................... 243

Z04949. Y. NYS - Factors contributing to improvement in egg quality ½ Factori care

contribuie la îmbunătăţirea calităţii oului .......................................................... 247

50. Elena POPESCU-MICLOŞANU, L. IONIŢĂ - Study of the productive

Z050
characteristics of youth and laying quails in the “Baloteşti” eggs-meat
population ½ Studiu privind caracteristicile productive ale tineretului şi
prepeliţelor ouătoare din populaţia mixtă de ouă-carne “De Baloteşti” ........... 254

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Z05151. M.G. USTUROI, I. VACARU-OPRIŞ, I. CIOCAN, R.M. RADU-RUSU,

A. USTUROI - Improvement of the morpho-productive indexes at the
Ross-308 broiler breeders, through increased photostimulation ½
Îmbunătăţirea indicilor morfo-productivi la părinţii hibridului de găină
Ross-308 prin fotostimulare alertă...................................................................... 260

Z05252. R.M. RADU-RUSU, V. TEUŞAN, I. VACARU-OPRIŞ - Aspects concerning

the histological structure of the Biceps brachialis muscles in chicken
broilers ½ Aspecte privind structura histologică a muşchilor Biceps
brachialis la puii broiler de găină....................................................................... 266

Z05353. C. LEONTE, Doina LEONTE - Influence of elements for closing of the halls
poultry performance productive ½ Influenţa elementelor de închidere ale
unor hale avicole asupra performanţelor productive.......................................... 271

Z05454. D. SIMEANU, M.G. USTUROI, Angela GAVRILAŞ, M. DOLIŞ -

Researches regarding the breeding of broiler poultry in different
technological conditions ½ Cercetări privind creşterea puilor broiler de
găină în diferite condiţii tehnologice................................................................... 278

Z05555. Valentina CEBOTARI - Active behavior assessment at Apis mellifera

Carpatica bee ½ Aprecierea comportamentului activ la albina Apis
mellifera Carpatica ............................................................................................. 285

Z05656. Tatiana DABIJA, Angela MACARI - The study reflecting the body weight of
different breeds of rabbits ½ Studiul privind dinamica masei corporale la
iepuri de diferite rase .......................................................................................... 290

Z05757. Camelia ZOIA ZAMFIR, Daniela JITARIU, Ana ENCIU, N. CUTOVA,

Carmen Ana PIVODA - Optimizing the technology of reconditioning the
reformed sheep ½ Optimizarea tehnologiei de recondiţionare a ovinelor
reformate ............................................................................................................. 294

Z05858. C. PASCAL, N. ZAHARIA, Mihaela IVANCIA, I. PĂDEANU - Research

regarding productive potential specific to goats bred in N-E part of Romania
½ Cercetări privind potenţialul productiv specific caprinelor crescute în N-
E României .......................................................................................................... 299

Z05959. V. CIGHI, T. OROIAN, S. DĂRĂBAN, D. DRONCA, V.A. BÂLTEANU,

Teodora Crina CARŞAI - Conformation phenotypic values in Tzigaie
breed from S.C.D.P. Jucu ½ Valori fenotipice de conformaţie la rasa Ţigaie
de la S.C.D.P. Jucu.............................................................................................. 308

Z06060. Cristina LAZĂR, Rodica PELMUŞ, Elena GHIŢĂ - Research on body

development dynamic of Carabash lambs in suckling period ½ Cercetări
privind dinamica dezvoltării corporale la mieii Carabaşă în perioada de
alăptare ............................................................................................................... 311

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Z06161. I. LADOŞI, M.G. BEREŞ, Ileana BEREŞ, Daniela LADOŞI, Paula

MUNTEAN, C. LĂPUŞTE, M. BOC - Comparative production
performances of certain PIC genotypes in swine commercial farming ½
Performanţe de producţie comparative ale unor genotipuri PIC în condiţii
de exploatare intensiv industrială a suinelor ...................................................... 317

Z062
62. Marcela SÂRBU, Ioana TĂNĂSESCU, R. OLAR - The reduction of the
thermical energy in the swines shelters ½ Reducerea consumului de energie
în adăposturile pentru suine................................................................................ 322

Z06363. Şt. CREANGĂ, E.C. POPESCU, V. MACIUC - The studys of Grey Steppe
breed until now ½ Contribuţii privind studiul rasei Sură de Stepă până în
prezent ................................................................................................................. 326

Z06464. V. UJICĂ, Rodica DĂNĂILĂ, V. MACIUC, I. NISTOR, Şt. CREANGĂ -

Intrapopulational structure of the B.N.R. cattle reared in the private farms
from the North-Eastern area of Romania ½ Structura intrapopulaţională la
taurinele de rasă B.N.R. exploatate în fermele private din zona de N-E a
României.............................................................................................................. 332

Z06565. I. GÎLCĂ, Valerica MACOVEI, M. DOLIŞ, Luminiţa DOLIŞ, D. ROBU -

Researches concerning the comparison of milk yield between cattle of
Schwyz breed imported from Switzerland and Bruna of Maramures breed ½
Cercetări comparative privitoare la producţia de lapte realizată de vacile
din rasa Schwyz importate din Elveţia şi vacile din rasa Brună de
Maramureş .......................................................................................................... 337

Z06666. V. MACIUC - Influence of the calving season on the milk yield given by a
Friesian population, imported from the Netherlands ½ Influenţa sezonului
de fătare asupra producţiei de lapte la o populaţie de tip Friză importată
din Olanda........................................................................................................... 340

Z06767. V. MACIUC, Şt. CREANGĂ, V. UJICĂ - Contributions on the study of the

cattle husbandry within the conditions provided by the mountainous area in
Northern Romania ½ Contribuţii la studiul creşterii taurinelor în condiţiile
zonei montane din nordul României.................................................................... 345

Z06868. Ioana TĂNĂSESCU, Marcela SÎRBU - Researches regarding the

thermographic evaluation in cattle breeding farms by integration of
environment factors ½ Cercetări de evaluare termografică în ferme de
creştere a taurinelor prin integrarea factorilor de mediu................................... 351

Z06969. G. HOHA, B. PĂSĂRIN, Lenuţa FOTEA, Elena COSTĂCHESCU -

Researches concerning the growing and feed conversion parameters at those
PIC hybrids exclusively designed for slaughtering ½ Cercetări privind
parametrii de creştere şi de valorificare a hranei la hibrizii PIC destinaţi
exclusiv abatorizării ............................................................................................ 355

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Z07070. E. POPESCU, Mariana SOFRONIE, L. DASCĂLU, Elena RUGINOSU,

Anca PLĂVĂNESCU, Şt. CREANGĂ, M. PÎNTEA - Study regarding
morphological and productive features in high milk production Black and
White Romanian cows from S.C.D.C.B. Dancu, Iasi ½ Studiu privind
caracterele morfoproductive la vacile cu producţii ridicate, de rasă Bălţată
cu Negru Românească din S.C.D.C.B. Dancu, Iaşi............................................. 359

Z07171. E.C. JURCO, G. ONACIU - Comparative researches concerning the milk

production traits on Black and White cattle herd of first calving, breeded in
private farms from Transylvania ½ Cercetări comparative privind indicii
producţiei de lapte la taurinele de rasă Bălţată cu Negru aflate la prima
fătare crescute în câteva ferme private din Transilvania .................................... 365

Z07272. G. ONACIU, E.C. JURCO - Contributions to the knowledge of the main

productive indices in primiparous Roumanian Spotted breed ½ Contribuţii
la cunoaşterea unor indici productivi la vacile primipare din rasa Bălţată
Românească ........................................................................................................ 369

Z07373. Augusta LUJERDEAN, Andrea BUNEA, Vioara MIREŞAN - Seasonal

related changes in the major nutrients of bovine milk (total protein, lactose,
casein, total fat and dry matter) ½ Modificările sezoniere ale nutrienţilor
majori din laptele de vacă (proteina totală, lactoza, cazeina, grăsimea şi
substanţa uscată)................................................................................................. 372

Z07474. M. DOLIŞ - Contributions to the study of growth and development of youth

equine breed male Shagya in the conditions offered by Rădăuţi troop ½
Contribuţii la studiul creşterii şi dezvoltării tineretului cabalin mascul din
rasa Shagya în condiţiile hergheliei Rădăuţi ...................................................... 375

Z07575. M. DOLIŞ, Luminiţa DOLIŞ, D. SIMEANU, M. BURLICĂ - Contributions

to the study of growth and development of youth equine breed female
Shagya in the conditions offered by Rădăuţi troop ½ Contribuţii la studiul
creşterii şi dezvoltării tineretului cabalin femel din rasa Shagya în
condiţiile hergheliei Rădăuţi ............................................................................... 380

Z07676. M. ROMAN - The production of calves for fattening an alternative for milk
quota! ½ Producerea de viţei destinaţi îngrăşării o alternativă la cota de
lapte! ................................................................................................................... 385

Z07777. P.C. BOIŞTEANU, Roxana LAZĂR, Ancuţa Elena COŞULEANU,

ALINA Narcisa POSTOLACHE – Research on the chemical composition
of the deer meat preserved by freezing ½ Cercetări privind determinarea
compoziţiei chimice a cărnii de cervide conservate prin congelare.................... 389

Z07878. G. MOVILEANU – Procedure for assessment of the lean meat percentage as a

consequence of the new EU reference dissection method in pig carcass
classification ½ Metode şi aparate moderne de evaluare a procentului de
ţesut muscular la carcasele de porcine conform normelor U.E. ......................... 394

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Z07979. Aurelia PECE, Vioara MIREŞAN, Camelia RĂDUCU, C. COROIAN,

D. COCAN, R. CONSTANTINESCU - Highlight of buffalo milk cholesterol
through thin-layer chromatography ½ Evidenţierea colesterolului din
laptele de bivoliţă prin cromatografie în strat subţire ........................................ 400

Z08080. S. DĂRĂBAN, C. COROIAN, A. POP, Vioara MIREŞAN, V. MICLEA,

V. CIGHI, S. VOIA, I. PĂDEANU - Study concerning the chemical
composition of meat in young Tsigai sheep, rusty variety ½ Studiu privind
compoziţia chimică a cărnii la tineretul ovin de rasă Ţigaie, varietatea
ruginie ................................................................................................................. 404

Z08181. Lenuţa FOTEA, Doina LEONTE, Iuliana ŢUGUI - The effect of essential
oil of thyme (Thimus vulgaris) on to the quality of meat and carcases of
meat chicken broilers ½ Efectul utilizării uleiului esenţial de cimbru
(Thimus vulgaris) asupra calităţii cărnii şi carcaselor puilor broiler ................ 408

Z08282. R.M. RADU-RUSU, I. VACARU-OPRIŞ, M.G. USTUROI - Researches

concerning the slaughtering efficiency and the cut parts proportion in the
carcasses of the chicken broilers reared within intensive system ½ Cercetări
privind randamentul la sacrificare şi proporţia porţiunilor tranşate în
carcasele puilor broiler de găină crescuţi în sistem intensiv .............................. 411

Z08383. A.A. PRELIPCEAN, Anca TEUŞAN - Melisopalinological aspects regarding

the commercial Robinia pseudoacacia natural honey ½ Aspecte
melisopalinologice asupra mierii de salcâm comercializate............................... 416

Z08484. Micsuna RUSU - Global food trends – functional foods ½ Tendinţe în

alimentaţia globală – alimente funcţionale ......................................................... 421

Z08585. LALA I.P. RAY, P.K. PANIGRAHI, B. C. MAL - Temporal variation of

water quality parameters in intensively IMC cultured lined pond ½ Variaţia
temporală a calităţii apei la crapul indian crescut în cultura intensivă, în
bazine artificiale.................................................................................................. 429

Z08686. Valerica MACOVEI, I. GÎLCĂ, D. ROBU - Estimation of the quality of the

waste water evacuated from Iasi at the level of Dancu purifying station ½
Aprecierea calităţii apelor uzate evacuate la nivelul municipiului Iaşi de la
staţia de epurare Dancu-Iaşi............................................................................... 438

Z08787. Doina LEONTE, C. LEONTE - Study about suppementary feeding of carp

with granulated mixed feeds ½ Studiu cu privire la hrănirea suplimentară a
crapului cu nutreţuri combinate .......................................................................... 442

Z08888. R.G. OROIAN, T.E. OROIAN, Crina Teodora CARSAI, Viorica

COSIER, L. SASCA - RAPD technique used in analyzing the genetic
structure of Cyprinus carpio species – Galitian and Lausitz varieties ½
Tehnica RAPD utilizată în evidenţierea structurii genetice la specia
Cyprinus carpio -varietăţile Galiţiană şi Lausitz ................................................ 444

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Z089
89. Anca TEUŞAN, V. TEUŞAN, A.A. PRELIPCEAN - Research on the
fluctuating asymmetry of some morphological characters of the fins of
Perca fluviatilis sp. ½ Cercetări privind asimetria fluctuantă a unor
caractere morfologice, la nivelul înotătoarelor, la specia Perca fluviatilis........ 450

Z09090. T.E. OROIAN, R.G. OROIAN, Cristina HEGEDUS, V. CIGHI, D.

DRONCA - The monitoring of phytoplankton evolution by biological year
within Arinis-Maramures fishery complex ½ Monitorizarea evoluţiei
fitoplanctonului pe an biologic în complexul piscicol Ariniş- Maramureş.......... 456

Z09191. D. COCAN, Vioara MIREŞAN, R. CONSTANTINESCU, I. BUD, Viorica

COŞIER, Camelia RĂDUCU, Aurelia PECE - Research concerning
some factors influencing the growth physiology in a rainbow trout
population (Oncorhynchus mykiss), reared within controlled environment ½
Cercetări asupra unor factori care influenţează fiziologia creşterii la o
populaţie de păstrăv curcubeu (Oncorhynchus mykiss), exploatată în
condiţii de mediu controlate................................................................................ 462

Z092
92. C. PASCAL, Mihaela IVANCIA, I. GÎLCĂ, G. NACU, L. STANCESCU,
Gh. HRINCĂ, N. IFTIMIE – Study about some factors which have
influence about reproduction function in sheep ½ Studiul unor factori care
pot influenţa funcţia de reproducţie la ovine ...................................................... 467

Z093
93. V. UJICĂ, I. DULUGEAC, Mita ENACHE, M. DOLIŞ, Rodica
DĂNĂILĂ, M. BURLICĂ - Studies of quantitative genetics at the
populations of horses used in the equestrian sports from Romania ½ Studii
de genetică cantitativă la populaţiile de cabaline folosite în sporturile
hipice din România.............................................................................................. 475

94. N. PĂCALĂ, I. BENCSIK, D. DRONCA, Ada CEAN, V. CARABĂ,

Z094
Alexandra BOLEMAN - Possibilities to induce twin calving in cows by
embryo-transfer ½ Posibilităţi de inducere a gemelarităţii la vaci prin
embriotransfer ..................................................................................................... 479

Z09595. I. BENCSIK, N. PACALĂ, D. DRONCA, Rodica CAPRITA, Lavinia

STEF - Establishing the embryo viability from fertilized eggs and
determination of genetic sex to Danio Rerio juvenile ½ Aprecierea
viabilităţii embrionilor din icre fecundate şi determinarea sexului genetic la
pui de Danio Rerio .............................................................................................. 482

Z096
96. D. DRONCA, N. PĂCALĂ, I. BENCSIK, T. OROIAN, Mihaela
IVANCIA, Gabi DUMITRESCU, S. VOIA, Liliana BOCA – Researches
on early embryogenesis from Transylvanian naked neck and Plymouth
Rock hen breeds ½ Cercetări privind embriogeneza timpurie la rasele de
găini Gât Golaş de Transilvania şi Plymouth Rock ............................................ 486

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Z09797. D. DRONCA, N. PĂCALĂ, I. BENCSIK, T. OROIAN, V. CIGHI, Mihaela

IVANCIA, Gabi DUMITRESCU, Liliana BOCA – Study on the heterozis
effect in early embryogenesis of the commercial chicken broiler hybrids ½
Studiul efectului heterozis în embriogeneza timpurie a hibrizilor comerciali
de găină pentru producţia de carne .................................................................... 489

Z09898. Gabi DUMITRESCU, Lavinia STEF, D. DRINCEANU, Liliana

PETCULESCU CIOCHINA, D. STEF, D. DRONCA, Rodica CRISTE,
Liliana BOCA, C. JULEAN – Changes induced by some nutritional
factors on femur histological structure in pig ½ Modificări induse de unii
factori nutriţionali asupra structurii histologice a femurului la porc ................. 492

Z09999. Doina LEONTE, C. LEONTE - The appreciation of water hygienic qualities

in a farm of chiken broilers growing ½ Aprecierea însuşirilor igienice ale
apei într-o unitate de creştere a broilerilor de găină.......................................... 498

Z100
100. Alexandra MATEI, M. ANDRONE, A. POPESCU, D. DEZMIREAN, B.
VLAIC – Research concerning the establishment of the best size of races
populations from the gene stock sp. Bombyx mori L. ½ Cercetări privind
stabilirea mărimii optime a populaţiilor la rasele din rezerva de gene sp.
Bombyx mori L. .................................................................................................. 500

101. M. CONDREA – Observations regarding some environment factors on

Z101
hemoleucograma in lactation ovines ½ Observaţii privind influenţa unor
factori de mediu asupra hemoleucogramei la ovine în lactaţie........................... 503

Z102
102. R. BLAJ, Mirela STANCIU – The management of the hunting ground nr. 40
Agnita, Sibiu county ½ Managementul fondului de vânătoare nr. 40 Agnita,
judeţul Sibiu......................................................................................................... 506

Z103
103. R. BLAJ, Mirela STANCIU – Concerns on the contribution of the
ecotourism to a sustainable rural development ½ Consideraţii privind
contribuţia ecoturismului la dezvoltarea rurală durabilă................................... 511

Z104
104. Ramona-Vasilica BACTER, D. COITA, Alina MOŞOIU – Laws
concerning food industry ½ Legislaţia în domeniul alimentelor......................... 516

Z105
105. Agatha POPESCU – Analysis of the economic efficiency in fodder
producing ½ Analiza eficienţei economice în producerea furajelor .................. 520

Z106
106. Agatha POPESCU – A comparative study concerning economic efficiency
for various levels of milk yield ½ Studiu comparativ privind eficienţa
economică pentru diferite niveluri ale producţiei medii de lapte...................... 525

Z107
107. E. VAMANU, A. VAMANU, Diana PELINESCU, O. POPA, Sultana
NIŢĂ, Despina A. IONESCU, Narcisa BĂBEANU – Studies concerning
the obtaining of biomass from Lactobacillus paracasei ssp. paracasei using
corn extract as nitrogen source ½ Studii privind obţinerea biomasei din
Lactobacillus paracasei ssp. paracasei utilizând extractul de porumb ca
sursă de azot........................................................................................................ 531

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108. Corina Elena GHEORGHE, Daniela RADU, Mioara COSTACHE,

Z108
Cecilia BUCUR – Testing some protein fodder used for the intensive carp
raising (Cyprinus carpio, L.1758), during summer II ½ Testarea unor
furaje proteice utilizate în creşterea intensivă a crapului (Cyprinus carpio,
L.1758) , în vara a II-a ........................................................................................ 537

Z109
109. Denisa RACHIERU, R. DUCA, Margareta OLTEANU – Validation of a
method to determine vitamin E (alpha tocopherol) from feed ingredients by
HPLC using reversed phase chromatography ½ Validarea unei metode
pentru determinare a vitaminei E (alfa tocoferol) din materii prime furajere
prin HPLC utilizând cromatografia cu faza inversă ........................................... 543

Z110
110. Marinela ENCULESCU – Research regarding green mass consumability of
natural grass lands and productive effect in fattening young cattle ½
Cercetări privind consumabilitatea masei verzi de pe pajiştile naturale şi
efectul productiv al acesteia la tineretul taurin la îngrăşat ................................ 548

Z111
111. Andreea VASILACHI, C. DRAGOMIR, Aurelia SOARE – The effect of a
microbial product on production performances of fattening steers:
preliminary results ½ Efectul unui produs microbian asupra performanţelor
productive ale tineretului taurin la îngrăşat: date preliminare........................... 553

Z112
112. M. CONDREA – Some aspects regarding phosphocalcic dismetabolia at the
dog ½ Unele aspecte privind dismetaboliile fosfocalcice la câine ...................... 559

Z113
113. Rodica CĂPRIŢĂ, A. CĂPRIŢĂ – Research on some chemical analysis
methods for evaluating the soybean meal quality ½ Cercetări asupra unor
metode de analize chimice pentru evaluarea calităţii făinii de soia ................... 562

Z114
114. Lucica NISTOR, Camelia HODOŞAN, Andra SULER, Daniela
IANIŢCHI, Victoria Gratziela BAHACIU – Research regarding the
influence of lead in fodder plants ½ Cercetări privind influenţa acumulării
plumbului în plantele furajere ............................................................................. 566

Z115
115. Fl. CĂLIN - The improvement of the degraded grasslands through radical
recovery ½ Ameliorarea pajiştilor degradate prin refacere radicală................. 569

Z116
116. Elena COSTĂCHESCU, G. HOHA, Angela GAVRILAŞ – Researches
regarding the age influence on Chinchila female rabbits breeding
performances ½ Cercetări privind influenţa vârstei asupra performanţelor
de reproducţie a iepuroaicelor din rasa Chinchila ............................................. 573

Z117
117. I. DULUGEAC - The study of the evolution regarding the Romanian Sports
Horse and the management of equine sports from Romania in the European
area ½ Studiul evoluţiei la Calul de Sport Românesc şi managementul
sporturilor hipice din România în arealul european........................................... 576

Z118
118. I. DULUGEAC, V. UJICĂ, M. DOLIŞ, Rodica DĂNĂILĂ, M. BURLICĂ
– The phenotypic parameters at the population of Sports Horses from
Romania ½ Parametrii fenotipici la populaţia Calului de Sport din
România .............................................................................................................. 582

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Z119
119. Camelia HODOŞAN, Lucica NISTOR, Andra SULER, Daniela
IANIŢCHI, S. BARBUICA – Research concerning the possibility of
spectrophotometric methods for determining the uric acid levels in bird
fecal discharge ½ Cercetări privind posibilitatea utilizării metodei
spectrofotometrice în determinarea acidului uric din dejecţiile de pasăre ......... 586

Z120
120. L.C. STAFIE – Alternatives to broiler chickens breeding in peasant
households ½ Soluţii alternative pentru creşterea puilor de carne în
gospodăriile ţărăneşti.......................................................................................... 588

Z121
121. L.C. STAFIE – Alternatives to laying hens breeding in peasant households ½
Soluţii alternative pentru creşterea găinilor ouătoare în gospodăriile
ţărăneşti............................................................................................................... 596

Z122
122. Eva CSUTAK - Influence of raw milk quality on Lactobacillus acidophilus
multiplication and probiotic yoghurt production ½ Influenţa calităţii
laptelui materie primă asupra înmulţirii bacteriei Lactobacillus acidophilus
şi a producţiei de iaurt probiotic......................................................................... 604

Z123
123. Daniela IANIŢCHI, Cristiana DIACONESCU, Lucica NISTOR, Camelia
HODOŞAN, L. URDEŞ – Influence of starch adding on the meat
compositions viscosity ½ Influenţa adăugării amidonului asupra
vâscozităţii compoziţiilor de carne...................................................................... 610

Z124
124. Vioara MIREŞAN, Camelia RĂDUCU, Aurelia PECE, C. COROIAN –
Determination of vitamin A in cow milk through HPLC ½ Determinarea
vitaminei A din laptele de vacă prin HPLC......................................................... 615

Z125
125. P. SAVESCU, A. DUNOIU, L. GIURGIULESCU – Researches regarding
the decrease of the oxidative level of cow milk after the action of different
antioxidant agents ½ Cercetări cu privire la reducerea nivelului oxidativ al
laptelui de vacă după intrarea în acţiune a unor agenţi antioxidanţi ................ 616

Z126
126. P. SAVESCU, A. DUNOIU, I. STAN – Study regarding the changes of cow
milk redox potential and pH follow the addition of specific microrganisms
½ Studiu cu privire la variaţia potenţialului redox şi a pH-ului laptelui de
vacă în urma însămânţării cu unele microorganisme specifice .......................... 621

Z127
127. Şt. LAZĂR, O.C. VORNICU – Biological honey and its attainment
principles ½ Mierea biologică şi principiile care stau la baza obţinerii
acesteia................................................................................................................ 628

Z128
128. Lucica NISTOR, Camelia HODOŞAN, Andra SULER, Daniela
IANIŢCHI, Victoria Gratziela BAHACIU – Research concerning the
effects of oxidizing agents used in the miller's and baking industry ½
Cercetări privind efectele agenţilor oxidanţi utilizaţi în industria de
morărit şi panificaţie ........................................................................................... 632

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Z129
129. Rodica CĂPRIŢĂ, A. CĂPRIŢĂ – Monitoring the milk acidification by the
conductometric method ½ Monitorizarea acidifierii laptelui prin metoda
conductometrică .................................................................................................. 635
Z130
130. Valerica MACOVEI, I. GÎLCĂ – The hydro and biological characteristic of
water from an ornamental lake ½ Caracteristicile hidrobiologice ale apei
dintr-un bazin piscicol......................................................................................... 639

131. Nicoleta DOBROTA, Mioara COSTACHE, Soare STANCIOIU, Gh.

Z131
DOBROTA – Technologic performances of carp breeding (Cyprinus
carpio) in ground basins of small dimensions ½ Performanţe tehnologice
ale creşterii crapului (Cyprinus carpio) în bazine de pământ de mici
dimensiuni ........................................................................................................... 643

Z132
132. Luiza FLOREA – The comparative analysis of fish resources in the Danube
near Brăila, within the periods 1972-1986 and 2006-2008 ½ Analiza
comparativă a resursei de peşte din Dunăre, zona Brăila, în perioadele
1972-1986 şi 2006-2008...................................................................................... 649

Z133
133. D. OPREA, L. OPREA – The effect of density on bester (H. huso × A.
ruthenus) larvae reared in a superintensive system ½ Influenţa densităţii
asupra larvelor de bester (H. huso × A. ruthenus) crescute în sistem
superintensiv........................................................................................................ 655

Z134
134. Adina POPESCU (SÎRBU), Maria FETECĂU, Isabelle METAXA,
Angelica DOCAN – Preliminary aspects concerning structure zooplankton
in the Balta Mare – Carja 1 fish farm ½ Aspecte preliminare privind
structura zooplanctonului in Balta Mare – Ferma piscicola Carja 1 ................. 661

Z135
135. I. VASILEAN, V. CRISTEA, Lorena SFETCU - Influence of stocking
density and water parameters on growth of juvenile Beluga sturgeon (Huso
huso, Linnaeus, 1758) ½ Influenta densitatii si a parametrilor apei asupra
cresterii puietului de morun (Huso huso, Linnaeus, 1758) ................................. 666

Z136
136. Elena COSTĂHESCU, G. HOHA, Lenuţa FOTEA – Researches regarding
the carp breeding in policulture with Polyodon spathula ½ Cercetări
privind creşterea crapului în policultură cu Polyodon spathula......................... 672

Z137
137. Marioara NICULA, P. NEGREA, I. GERGEN, M. HĂRMĂNESCU, I.
GOGOAŞĂ, M. LUNCA – Mercury bioaccumulation in tissues of fresh
water fish Carassius auratus gibelio (Silver crucian carp) after chronic
mercury intoxication ½ Bioacumularea tisulară a mercurului la specia de
apă dulce Carassius auratus gibelio (carasul argintiu) în intoxicaţia
cronică cu mercur ............................................................................................... 676

Z138
138. Gabi DUMITRESCU, S. VOIA, Liliana PETCULESCU CIOCHINĂ, A.
GROZEA, D. DRONCA, T. POLEN, Liliana BOCA, Iuliana
CREŢESCU, I. BĂNĂŢEAN-DUNEA – Aspects regarding the
assessment of octylphenol effect on growth and development in common
carp (Cyprinus carpio) ½ Aspecte privind evaluarea efectului octilfenolului
asupra creşterii şi dezvoltării la crapul comun (Cyprinus carpio) .................... 680

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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

RESEARCH ACTIVITIES IN ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY AND

LIVESTOCK SYSTEMS AT INRA (FRENCH NATIONAL
INSTITUTE FOR AGRONOMIC RESEARCH)

Y. Nys, F. Guillou, J.B. Coulon and P. Chemineau

INRA, Tours 37380, France

e-mail: nys@tours.inra.fr

Abstract
INRA Animal Physiology and Livestock Systems Division (PHASE) forms a large scientific
community (>500 scientists, >1200 workers) concerned by biology, physiology and animal sciences
having animal production and food qualities as endpoints. PHASE should propose ecologically
intensive systems of animal production maintaining farmer income. In 2007, French animal
productions represented 17% of the total European (UE25) animal production, being leader for
bovine and poultry. During the last 30 years, there was specialization, concentration and
intensification of the animal production system. In parallel, consumers gave more importance to
safety, quality, and specificity of products, to ethical and environmental considerations resulting in
new European regulations. Sequencing of genomes, wide transcriptomic, proteomic and
metabolomic approaches has opened the way to integrative biology. The PHASE priorities are
therefore functional genomics, sustainable development of agriculture, knowledge and acceptability
of biotechnologies, animal welfare, meat, milk and egg qualities for human feed. The objectives are
to maintain France and Europe among the leaders of animal productions and to increase our
scientific knowledge on the biology and breeding of fish, birds and mammals within their farming
systems. PHASE aims to develop techniques for sustainable livestock systems and to understand the
fundamental mechanisms of physiological functions which shape the phenotype and qualities of
animal products. For information see http://www.international.inra.fr/ and
http://www.inra.fr/compact/nav/externe/en/departements/ecrans/17.
Keywords: animal physiology, product, sustainability, food

INTRODUCTION AND SOCIO production systems, in order to maintain

ECONOMICAL CONTEXT
INRA Animal Physiology and Livestock
Systems Division (PHASE) division forms a
large scientific community which includes
biology, physiology and animal sciences and
has animal production and food qualities as
endpoints.
The first element of context is the
expected explosion of human population (9
billions) which will need to be fed and the
recognition that we are using a limited
natural system. Animal products should come
from environmentally friendly systems
preserving the environment. We should
propose ecologically intensive systems and
take into account the consequences of global
change on livestock systems. The second
element is the competitively of animal
farms and farmers with a sufficient degree of
income and autonomy. In 2007, French
animal productions represented 17% of the
total European (UE25) animal production. In
particular, France is the leader for bovine and
poultry meat and eggs. During the last 30
years, there was specialization, concentration
and intensification of the animal production
system. In parallel, consumer demand
changed greatly, giving importance to quality,
ethical and environmental considerations
stressed in Europe through new regulations.
The third element is the need to ensure that
animal products are safe and appropriate for
human nutrition and demand. In addition,
French consumers considers the linkage of
product qualities to the « terroir » (combined
notions of a geographical location, its

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
agricultural potential and cultural elements)
and consequent knowledge of the conditions
of production and their influence on the
product, are new, major events to be taken
into account in our research programs. The
fourth element is the world-wide scientific
competition within animal biology and,
animal production. Sequencing of genomes,
wide transcriptomic, proteomic and
metabolomic approaches have been able to
provide a high flow of information. They
require an extremely high analytic power for
their outputs which allow us to explore the
links and networks between genes and
phenotype(s). The interest in resolving the
complexity of biology has led to an increased
alliance between mathematicians and
biologists, using modelling as the meeting
point, and has opened the way to integrative
approaches (integrative biology)
PRIORITIES AND OBJECTIVES OF
THE PHASE DIVISION
They belong to four domains:
- Integrative biology: functional genomics
and bioinformatics, cell differentiation
and modelisation
- Sustainable development of agriculture
and global change
- Knowledge and acceptability of
biotechnologies, animal welfare
- Meat, milk and egg qualities for human feed
The first objective is to propose to French
and European political and socio-economic
stakeholders, tools to maintain France and
Europe among the leaders of animal
productions, in terms of quantitative and
qualitative animal production, but also in
terms of genetic improvement of most animal
species and interaction with the livestock
systems. The second objective is to increase
our scientific knowledge of farm animal
physiology by producing original knowledge
with a more integrated vision of animal
biology with constitution of scientific
« poles » which might associate scientific and
industrial partners who share our scientific
aims and models. PHASE aims (1) to
increasing knowledge, from genes to their
functions, on the biology and breeding of fish,
birds and mammals within their farming
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systems, in order to better understand the
fundamental mechanisms of physiological
functions which shape the phenotype and
qualities of animal products, (2) to developing
techniques for sustainable livestock systems to
increase competitiveness of farms and
producer organizations, and control quality of
the products while respecting animal welfare
and the environment.
To reach the objectives, the activity of
PHASE staff (1250 workers including 510
scientists, 16 research units, 16 experimental
units) is spread over five operational
« Thematic fields »:
(1) Neurobiology, behaviour and adaptation:
olfaction, cognitive process, relational behaviour,
feeding behaviour and feed intake,
environmental adaptation mechanisms
(2) Reproduction, embryonic and larval
development, biotechnology of reproduction:
male and female gametes, central and
peripheral control of sexual activity, biology
of embryonic development, biotechnology of
reproduction, transgenesis (fish, mammals,
chicken, goat, rabbit)
(3) Digestion, feeding and nutritional
value of feed: regulation of ingestion and
digestion, interaction between nutrition and
animal health, new nutritional values of feeds,
feed evaluation
(4) Dynamics of elaboration of animal
tissues and related products: multiplication and
differentiation of animal cells, mechanism of
tissue development, metabolism, relation
between protein structure and function, study
of lactation, ovogenesis.
(5) Conception of biotechnical livestock
systems and evaluation of their sustainability:
design, evaluation and modeling of livestock
systems, technical, economical and social
acceptability of innovations.
Studies (about 700/year) are carried out
on domestic animals (beef, pig, poultry, fish)
and animal models (mice, zebra fish…) and
issued in numerous publication
(1000/year,45% being journal articles).
More information is available on the
INRA website:
http://www.international.inra.fr/
and for detail information of activities in
animal production :

http://www.inra.fr/compact/nav/externe/e
n/departements/ecrans/17.
MAJOR INNOVATIONS RECENTLY
TRANSFERRED TO FARMS AND TO
THE INDUSTRY
To illustrate the activities of the PHASE
division, we proposed to present major
innovations in the recent years of interest for
users in the 5 areas of animal production division.
Animal behaviour and Welfare
- Producing and using welfare criteria
related to animal in cattle and horses: in
bovine Limousine breeds, genetic selection
on docility is practised; in horses, behaviour
marks have been given to some stallions for
the first time in France in 2007, and mares
will receive behaviour marks for future
selection in one breed. Welfare criteria are
used for calves, poultry and pigs (criteria
used for development of European policy).
- Elaborating a multifactorial approach of
welfare in farms in pigs, bovine and poultry
(Welfare quality European program) in order
to define a special grid to be applied in
European farms.
- Development of management tools or
facilities able to increase welfare in farms:
housing in dairy cattle (carpets) and poultry
(laying hen coops); fitness in pigs (tooth
cutting, castration), which were used during
the development of legislative rules.
Techniques for controlled breeding and
biotechnologies
- Use of semen (liquid and/or deep-frozen
semen) and embryo preservation techniques
in fish, poultry and mammals: a large
majority of processes used in artificial
insemination and embryo transfer centres,
and/or in farms come from developments in
INRA units. A patent for semen preservation
in horses is used by IMV (world leader of
artificial insemination technologies ).
- Use of in vitro biotechnologies (in vitro
maturation of oocytes and in vitro fertilization)
for genetic improvement in dairy and beef
cattle: most of the technologies used were
developed by INRA units.
- Development of a specific machine
(« PulseIons ») for piloting Calcium waves
around the time of fertilization in individual
oocytes and embryos: patents and licensing
to a start-up company (Bracer Biotech).
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
- Patents to use chicken embryonic stem
cells for germ line transmission of transgenes.
- Use of in vitro biotechnologies for
endangered species: birth of a fawn of an
endangered species of deer (Japanese Sikka)
from a common bred mother (Elaph deer)
(collaboration with MNHN, National
museum for nature).
- The Atlas: ‘Ultrasonography and
reproduction in swine’ (in French, English,
Spanish and Italian) sold almost 2 500 copies.
- Use, in farms, of a combination of
lighting treatments and the male-effect to
induce out-of-season breeding in small
ruminant females, horses and poultry: half of
the French goat farms use them. Use of
lighting treatments in AI centres in small
ruminant males: all AI centres used lighting
treatments developed in PHASE labs.
- Tool for electronic detection of oestrus
in ruminants: patent deposited, licensing in
discussion with industrial partners.
- Use of melatonin to control out-of-
season breeding in sheep: more than 300 000
implants are sold yearly all over the world.
- Use of cloning for rare and endangered
individuals or breeds: one exceptional AI bull
was cloned and a breed was « saved » from
extinction (Aurore the last survivor of Bleu
du Bazougeais bovine breed).
Engineering of animal feeding
- Development of tables of composition
and nutritive value of raw materials for major
farm animals (200 concentrates and by-
products, 50 to 100 criteria per feed). These
tables were translated in English, Spanish
and Chinese and 12 000 copies were sold.
- Publication of a book on Ruminant
Feeding (including 1250 forages) sold at
9 000 copies in 2007 (translation to Spanish
and English in preparation).
- Recommendations on restricted feeding
in ruminants, pigs, poultry, rabbits, horse and
fishes, based on studies on ingestion,
digestion and nutrient utilization was used to
develop softwares such as: INRAtion for
ruminants, translated into English, Spanish
and Romanian (3 500 licences sold); Patur’in,
Herb’evol and Herb’avenir for help on
pasture management (several hundred users
in France and Europe); INRAPorc for
rationing in pigs (300 licences sold in 16
countries, 451 teaching licences); INAVI and
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
AviSim in poultry (more than 100 licences
sold to industrial partners). In fishes
optimization of feed formula to reduce
incorporation of fish products in fish feeding
and dumping estimates are used by feed
companies. In rabbits, recommendations of
fibre content and level of feeding for young
rabbit health are used by rabbit producers.
- Specific husbandry schemes (use of
specific AA) and additives (probiotics) to
replace antibiotics in ruminants, monogastric
animals and fishes were developed with
private companies and used by them.
- Use of vegetable sources of nutrients
(proteins and oil) for fish production was
increased from 15-20% to more than 50% in
the last five years.
Development of animal products designed for
human feeding
- Modulation of fatty acid contents of
milk and meat by specific feeds: our research
has determined feeding strategies (use of
Lineseed) to modulate the methane emission
and FA content in ruminant and pork meat
and milk. These results are used by specific
producers in particular to enrich animal
products in omega 3 FA (Bleu Blanc Coeur,
Danone, ...). A part of these programs were
funded by these companies.
- Production of « Pilot animal products »
with innovative compositions for studies in
human nutrition (performed by AlimH
division) and/or in food process (performed
by CEPIA division, feed technology).
- Use of natural antioxidants in ruminant
nutrition to prevent oxidation of beneficial
fatty acids in meat: work with a start-up
(Phytosynthèse) in the field, which uses the
results of our laboratories and who grant a
licence for use of the patent.
- Specific engineering of fish feeding to
achieve adequate fatty acid contents of flesh.
- Participation in the drafting of
recommendations for inclusion in the
specifications of meat produced under quality
schemes: work and expertise of PHASE
scientists allow us to define typical animal
products, and are used by industry to develop
the specifications (i.e. the accepted rules for
production) of their products under quality
schemes (PDO, Protected Designation of
Origin, Labels, Organic farming, etc).
-8-
- Involvement since 2006 of 10 division
scientists to the AFSSA, French food safety
authority group working on « Impacts of
husbandry and breeding techniques on fatty
acid composition of animal products and
human feeding ».
- Tools for traceability of animal
products: 2 patents were registered.
- Tools for predicting meat tenderness: 1
patent with breeder organization was
registered, licensing under discussion.
New livestock systems
- Development of innovative livestock
systems that respect the environment: (a)
‘Green Piggery’ to reduce environmental
effects (wastes, odours), (b) feeding systems
to reduce mineral wastes, (c) management
systems to retain soluble contaminants in the
litter. These elements were used in
developing new regulatory policies.
- Study of the consequences of innovative
practices (once-a-day milking in ruminants,
sequential feeding in poultry, etc), or changes
in regulations (poultry cages, dates of weaning).
- Development of integrated systems of
ovine production under organic farming: a
research-development platform allows us to
compare different management systems of
animals under organic farming conditions
and to test husbandry practices (antiparasitic
treatments, use of concentrate feeding,
management of reproduction), compatible
with the specifications of organic farming.
- Evaluation of wastes from different fish
rearing systems: data used by CIPA (Inter-
industrial committee for aquaculture and
fisheries) and ITAVI (Inter-industrial institute
in charge of poultry, rabbit and fish production)
for the negotiation with the Ministry of
Agriculture and Sustainable Development on
the French water framework directive.
CONCLUSION AND PROSPECTS
To conclude, we would like to emphasize
the main evolutions of the division since
recent years. Scientifically, a large number of
scientists have continued to move towards a
better investment in integrative biology by
using transcriptomic and proteomic
approaches on the agronomic species, in spite
of difficulties in the development of specific
tools at the beginning of the period. These
approaches, combined with classical methods

for the characterization of phenotypes, have
allowed PHASE to keep his place in the
worldwide competition for physiological
explanations of the variability of adult traits.
The implication in functional genomics
was also improved, but this was more an
increase in the use of model animals (mice
and fish) than the development of new and
specific genetically-modified agricultural
models. For the latter, we still need to
develop efficient tools for easy genetic
engineering, a domain in which we are active
and in which our teams are competent, but
where the scientific challenges to be
overcome are numerous and difficult. The
production of these tools for our domestic
species will open the door to easily
obtainable genetically modified animals.
A continuous investment was also made in
modelling approaches, from gene networks to
livestock systems, passing from cells to tissues,
organs and animals. This allowed the
development of fruitful cooperation with
scientists of a completely different culture
(mathematicians) than that existing in PHASE
division. The scientific development towards
the exploration of sustainable systems of
production was more difficult because it
needed a more profound change in mentalities
and, for a part of the PHASE scientists, a
move far from their immediate scientific fields.
Scientific investments were made with
the idea that PHASE should propose
innovations, know-how and explanations
linked to livestock productions, not only to
farmers but now to all of society. PHASE
division should continue to support the
‘reversible continuum’ between basic science
which provides original and competitive
results and explanations, and applied science
which provides innovations and know-how.
Regarding experimental facilities and
units,. The objectives were to modernize
them ready for a future European
accreditation. Units were merged in various
sites in order to rationalize and increase the
efficiency of the systems and to constitute
new units under a renewed management.
The budgetary management of the
division was oriented in three main directions
in order to stabilize the units but stimulate
some area of research:
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
- Maintain a minimum direct and
non-scientifically orientated budget for units
to allow them to develop their own policy
- Reserve an increasing part of the
budget for incitation funds dedicated to the
objectives proposed in the strategic agenda,
and allowing recently-recruited scientists
(especially young ones) to develop new and
innovative programs
- Specific activities open to outside
partners to build the initial elements of new
programs to be submitted later to ANR
(national research agency which is founding
research programmes).
In the next strategic agenda, PHASE
division priorities will firstly to continue the
investment in integrative biology and to
develop, in close association with GA division
(Animal Genetics), a large program of high-
output phenotyping. This would be done under
GA responsibility for phenotype
characterization of agricultural animals, with a
strong implication of the PHASE division for
definition of traits and use of experimental units.
The second priority is the proposition of a
very large program regarding the ecological-
nutritional imprinting of animal products, and
its consequences on innovative and sustainable
systems of production. Everyone now
recognizes that we should adapt our
production livestock systems to better
integration in their natural environment, thus
developing ecologically intensive farming
systems, but only a few scientists have reached
the objective of proposing systems which can
produce under such constraints. One way to
change the systems is to provide consumers
with an exact and exhaustive indication of the
origin, conditions of production and qualities
of the products they are consuming.
Finally, PHASE division will also
continue to support essential programs such as
modelling approaches. PHASE will also re-
organize research and experimental units and
raise facilities to a high standard which will
enable them to be used by European partners.
REFERENCES
*** http://www.international.inra.fr/
***
http://www.inra.fr/compact/nav/externe/en/departe
ments/ecrans/17
 BACK
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

BREEDING PROGRAMS AND PROGENY TESTING

IN THE TIMES OF GENOMIC SELECTION

J. Aumann

Besamungsverein Neustadt a. d. Aisch e. V.

Web: www.bvn-online.de, e-mail: aumann@bvn-online.de

Genomic selection will be the next big milestone for the development of breeding programs for
dairy and dual purpose cattle. The theoretical work was done during the last 8 years since
MEUWISSEN (2001) made the first proposal to use genomic information in Genetic Gain
cattle breeding programs. During the last years the technology for genotyping Genomic Selection
our animals were developed rapidly. Now it is possible to get the genome-
0,467 σA
wide information of our breeding animals for 40000 to 60000 Single
nucleotide proteins (SNP) for a price of about 250,00 EURO. Therefore it is important for a
breeding association or an A.I. Company to plan how this information can be sampled in an optimal
way for a utilization in our breeding programs to increase the genetic standard of our breeds.
Key words: genomic, genetic markers, progeny, selection

1. Advantages of genomic selection The advantages of genomic selection are

Genomic selection means, that breeding
values of animals are derived by the
information of 20000 to 60000 loci, which
were evaluated by new techniques of
detection of genetic markers. Many scientific
projects are in progress to estimate breeding
values out of this information. In USA, New
Zealand and Netherlands systems of genomic
selection are in practice since several months.
France has announced to start in April 2009
and in Germany July 2009 should be the start
of this new technique. All these countries are
in strong competition with their Holsteins
and therefore the pressure is very high to
introduce such a system.
that at the age of 12 months a breeding value
derived by genomic selection has a reliability
of 0,55 to 0,75 for dairy traits. Without
genomic selection only a pedigree breeding
value with a reliability of about 40% can be
derived out of the animal model. If the
reliability out of the genomic selection is
high enough to use these sires as proofed
sires in artificial insemination the generation
interval in cattle breeding programs can be
reduced drastically. This results then in a
much higher genetic progress. L. Shaffer
(200 ) pointed out that the genetic progress
will be more than twice in comparative to a
progeny testing system, if the reliability of
the genomic breeding values is 0,75.

Table 1
Four pathways of selection, progeny testing

Accuracy Generation
Pathway Selection %
i fn Interval, L i x fn
Sire of bulls 5 2.06 0.99 6.5 2.04
Sire of cows 20 1.40 0.75 6 1.05
Dams of bulls 2 2.42 0.60 5 1.45
Dams of cows 85 0.27 0.50 4.25 0.14
Total 21.75 4.68

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Table 2
Four pathways of selection, genome-wide strategy
Accuracy
Pathway Selection %
i fn
Sire of bulls 5 2.06 0.75
Sire of cows 20 1.40 0.75
Dams of bulls 2 2.42 0.60
Dams of 85 0.27 0.50
cows
Total
2. Demands for breeding programs
National breeding programs have to take
into account the international competition.
For traits, which are evaluated and used
international by organizations like
INTERBULL, this breeding programs have
to take into account that the genetic progress
in those traits should be on the same level as
in the other countries. For national breeding
programs dairy traits like milk yield and e.g.
somatic cell score are much more important
than functional traits like longevity, fertility
and calving ease.
In contrast for breeders these functional
traits seem to be more important, since the
profit of a breeding herd results mostly from
the value of the sold products like milk and
breeding animals. Breeding animals can only
be sold from the farm if more animals are
produced than the farmer needs to replace his
herd. Therefore longevity and fertility have a
very high importance for single breeders.
Since national breeding programs are in
international competition and are carried out
by breeders which own between 20 and 500
Herd book cows, both parts have to be
included in an optimal strategy. From the
theoretical approach of quantitative selection
a reliability of 60 to 65 % may be enough to
select A.I.-bulls and use them to produce
20000 or 30000 progenies in the population.
For breeders, especially those with smaller
herds below 100 cows, the value of the single
animal is to high to believe in a higher
increase of the genetic value only on average.
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
Generation
Interval, L i x fn
6.5 2.04
6 1.05
5 1.45
4.25 0.14
21.75 4.68
These farmers try to make sure that the sires,
which are used in their herd will lead to high
quality progenies. The best known strategy
for this is a progeny testing program with at
least 100 daughters. This may result in lower
selection differentials as if only genomic
breeding values are used.
3. Impacts on breeding programs
Nearly all specialists in breeding programs
want to use genomic information in their
breeding programs. Breeds with a high
competition between breeding programs in
different countries have a much higher
pressure to utilize this information. But at this
time we do not know about the realized
reliability of genomic information and we
don’t know about the intervals in which the
formula for calculating the breeding values out
the genomic information should be adapted.
In the dual purpose breed Fleckvieh
(Baltata Romaneasca) have not such a high
pressure from international competition.
Therefore we are thinking on a more
evolutionary way to introduce genomic
selection in our breeding program.
− Preselection of young test bulls by
genomic selection
− More intensive progeny testing of those
sires with 500 instead of 100 daughters
− Sampling the information on production
traits and functional traits out of this test
bulls
− Deriving economic weights under the
new situation to optimize the breeding
goal
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
Working with this steps has the big
advantage, that the breeders may follow the
elements of the new breeding program. If
they learn to work with this genomic
information they are much more active in
using such techniques in their herds. Since
our breeding programs are based on an active
work of the farmers, this seems to very
important to get a suitable solution for the
whole population. This can also be proofed
by the inseminations done in our A.I. Station
in Germany. About 15 to 20% of our cows
are inseminated with sires, which have
already many daughters from the second crop
and therefore a reliability of 99%. This shows
that some milk producers do not trust in our
bulls with a reliability of about 80%. It seems
to be not reasonable to convince these
farmers to use genomic selected bulls.
Perhaps it is possible to convince them to use
bulls, which were tested with a group of 500
female (dairy) and 500 male (beef)
progenies. After introduction of genomic
selection some specialized breeding farms
may accept genomic breeding values to
produce the next generation of test bulls. If
both pathways are possible there is a real
reduction of the generation interval for our
dual purpose breed. This slow strategy gives
us the chance to make more evaluations on
the development of functional traits with
genomic selection. This seems to be very
important, because the decision for good and
less good breeds will be done in future more
on functional traits than on production traits.
The discussion about crossbreeding in the
Holstein population coming from the USA is
mainly based on the fact, that American milk
- 12 -
producers are not satisfied with the longevity,
fertility, calving ease and somatic cell count
of their cows.
4. Consequences for cattle breeding in
Romania
For cattle breeding in Romania the
introduction of genomic selection may be a
good chance to take part in a cooperation of
national breeding programs. In Baltata
Romaneasca as well as in Holstein you are
working strongly together with the
populations in Germany, France and Austria.
Since this is done for a longer period the
Romanian population has many links to
western European populations. Therefore the
genomic breeding values for Germany and
France can also derived for Romanian
animals. This gives Romanian breeders the
chance to take part in the German testing
program and sell animals as test bulls in these
populations. For the foreign populations the
population from which the test bulls are
selected increases and may then be
responsible for a higher genetic gain in
Romania and Germany or France
respectively. This formulated goal may be a
little bit optimistic, but long cooperations
between Romanian and German partners in
the last 10 years - as we carried out in Targu
Mures - give me the motivation to continue
this in the future.
In this context, genomic selection is not
only a good chance to improve animal
breeding but also the cooperations between
the German and the Romanian breeding
associations and their breeding programs.
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

PESTICIDES WITH ENDOCRINE DISRUPTING FUNCTION

– BIOMARKERS OF EXPOSURE

B. Georgescu1, Carmen Georgescu2, S. Dărăban1

1
Faculty of Animal Husbandry and Biotechnologies, University of Agricultural Sciences and
Veterinary Medicine Cluj-Napoca
2
Faculty of Medicine, University of Medicine and Pharmacy Cluj-Napoca

Abstract
The enyzme complex P-450 cytocrom is responsible of pollutant biotransformation and
neutralization in animal organism. Practically, these enzymes are present in most tissues, being
peculiarly good represented in liver. They play a major role in the metabolic pathways of Ist phase
reactions. P-450-dependent cytochrom enzymes catalyze oxidation, reduction and hydrolysis
reactions, supposing introduction of some reactive groups with high polarity into the pollutant
molecule: -OH; -SH; -COOH and –NH2. Pollutant biotransformation processes are differently
carried on, function of the hidrosoluble or liposoluble nature of the xenobiotic. Liposoluble
pollutants are metabolized in the endoplasmatic reticle, while hidrosoluble pollutants are
metabolized in other cell organelles. Identification and quantification of enzymes specific activity
from this overfamily indicates organism exposure to contaminants, being widely used as biomarkers
of environment quality and agro-feeding products.
Key words: pollutant, animal bioacumulation, detoxification, cytocrom CYP 1A1

Action assessment of pollutants in cytochrom enzymes (CYP) practically are

environment on animal organisms but also
on humans, can be realized as early as
initial phase by biomarkers. Pollutant
action on animal organism determines
modifications in cell and molecules level,
including genetic material modifications
(DNA), but also the presence of some
responsive enzymes (proteins) to pollutant
action. Such a family of enzymes is
represented by P450 cytochrom (CYP). To
the level of February month, 2008, the
cytochrom P450 (CYP) enzyme super-
family was constituted of above 7000
representatives with known nucleotides
sequence, identified in animals, plants,
bacteria and fungus (Pelkonen , et al.,
2008). Human genome has as components
57 genes of CYP type. CYP fifteen
enzymes from 1, 2 and 3 families
metabolize xenobiotics. Other CYP-s
present a more “narrow” specificity for the
substratum and principally metabolize
endogen substances, as: sterols, fat acids,
eicosanoides and vitamins. P450
found in all tissues, the best being
represented in liver. CYP different
representatives can be identified in
intestine, lung, kidney, brain, gonads, hart,
suprarenal glands, nasal and tracheal
mucosa and in skin (Pelkonen, et al.,
2008).
Xenobiotic conversion into metabolites
supposes some enzymatic reactions,
classified by Williams (1959) into I-st
phase reactions and II-nd phase reactions.
From the category of I-st phase reactions ,
oxidation, reduction and hydrolysis are
belonging to, while in the category of II-nd
phase reactions , conjugation and synthesis
reactions are appointed. Logically, one or
more reactions of I-st phase precede
reactions of II-nd phase.
Metabolic path ways of I-st phase
reactions, catalyzed by enzymes of
oxidase, reductase and hydrolase category,
supposes introduction into pollutant
molecule of some reactive groups with
high polarity: -OH, -SH, -COOH and –

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
NH2. Displaying headquarters of
biodegradation processes are different
function of hydrosoluble or lyposoluble
nature of pollutant. Lyposoluble pollutants
are metabolized in endoplasmatic reticle,
and those hydrosoluble in other cell
organelle.
Oxidation is catalysed by oxidases
which transform a series of exogenous
substances such as nitrites, sulphides and
sulphites in nitrates and sulphides less
nocives.
Reduction contents couple reactions of
nitro- and amino-derivates reduction with
methemoglobinisant products forming and
those of pentavalent arsenic reduction into
a trivalent compound.
Hydrolise supposes desesterification,
desamination and hydrolytic scission
reactions of some amides and glycosides.
Cytochrom P-450 – dependant
oxidation reactions, represent the first step
in most xenobiotic and a lot of endogenous
compounds metabolization, including fat
acids, prostaglandins, steroids and
vitamins. The system P-450 (cytochrom P-
450 or CYP or CYP-450) represents the
generic term for a large number of
oxidative enzymes implicated into
bacterial, vegetal and animal physiology.
The P-450 system is connected to the cell
membrane level and it is characterized by
two major components:
- cytochrome c P-450, an hemoprotein,
and
- P-450 cytochrome reductase, a
flavoprotein which contains FMN and
FAD prosthetic groups. This enzyme
reduces the cytochrome c and it is known
as NADPH-cytochrome c reductase.
Another protein cofactor implicated in
electron transfer, nearly P-450 cytochrome
reductase, is b5 cytochrome. P-450 system
uses molecular oxygen in view of
oxidation reactions.
There are a lot of P-450 izo enzymes,
that explain the capacity of this system to
oxidize numerous substratum. P-450 izo-
enzymes present substratum specificity and
- 14 -
specific answer to enzymatic inductors
such as Phenobarbital or 3-metylcolantren.
In animals there are described two kind
of P-450 cytochrome-dependant mono-
oxigenasic systems. The most important,
major implicated in xenobiotic
biotransformation is expressed in
microsomal fraction of endoplasmatic
reticle from hepatocytes and extra-hepatic
cells (lung, kidney, placenta, tegument
intestines, suprarenal, testicular, ocular,
pancreatic, mammary, aorta wall, brain,
nasal epithelium, colon, salivary glands,
prostate, cardiac, lympha ganglions,
splenic, thymus and tiroida).
The second mono-oxigenasic system is
recovered to the mitochondria level, in
steroidic cells (suprarenal, ovarian, testicular)
and contains a flavoprotein-FAD and a
sulphide-iron-protein which make easier the
electron transfer from NADP to P-450. The
mitochondrial P-450 system is implicated in
steroid structure endogenous compounds
metabolization, such as cholesterol
colecalciferol (D3 25-hydrovitamin),
deoxycorticosteron (suprarenal hormone with
mineralocorticoide activity) and it is
characterized by significant high specificity
comparatively to microsome mono-oxygenatic
system (Estabrook, 1984).
In low concentrations, P-450
cytochrome system also is expressed to
nuclear membrane, Golgi apparatus and
plasma membrane level .
Also, there is a P-450 independent
mono-oxygenatic system, placed to the
endoplasmatic reticle level from liver and
extrahepatic tissues virtually present in all
nucleate cells. Flavin-dependent mono-
oxygenase initially was isolated from pig
liver (Ziegler and Mitchell, 1972), later on
also in other species being identified (rat,
mouse, rabbit). The system contains
dinucleotid-adenin-flavine co-enzyme
(FAD), needs NADPH as co-factor and as
physiologic substratum cysteamine which
is oxydated to cystamine.
Many organic chemical substances are
oxidated during arahydonic acid H-

prostaglandine-syntase conversion into
prostaglandine. Xenobiotic oxidation is
catalysed by hydroperoxidase of H-
prostaglandin-syntase, reaction being
defined as co-oxidation. G2 prostaglandine
reduction by H-prostaglandine-syntase
needs electron donation, usually derived
from co-oxidated substratum. Co-oxidation
is implicated in biotransformation of some
xenobiotics such as benzopyren,
diethylstilbestrol or acethaminofen. Some
of them, such as benzopyren are converted
in strong mutagens as a result of this
reaction (Krauss and Eling, 1984).
H-prostaglandine syntase activity is
strong expressed in extrahepatic tissues
with reduced P-450 mono-oxigenasic
activity. These tissues include tegument,
renal medullary, lung and endothelium
cells from vascular walls.
Xenobiotic metabolization by
peroxidation leads to metabolic compounds
which can mediate toxic effects.
One of main metabolic pathway for
alcohols and aldehydes biotransformation
is oxidation by aldehydes and ketones,
respectively to carboxylic acids. Aldehyde
dehydrogenase is wide distributed in
mammal tissues, but being most
represented to hepatic level. Aldehyde-
dehydrogenase uses NAD(P)+ as co-factor,
and aliphatic and aromatic aldehydes are
quickly oxidated to carboxylic acids.
Mono-oxidases are disposed at the
mitochondria external membrane level,
being wide distributed in mammal tissues,
excepting erythrocytes and plasma. This
enzymatic system catalyses oxidative
deamination of many exogen or endogen
origin monoamines (ex, amines resulted
following intestinal microflora action,
amines with neuro-transmission role, etc).
P-450 cytochrome dependent reduction
reactions take place in aerobic or anaerobic
conditions, having as co-factor NADH or
NADPH. They intervene in polyhalogenate
alcans catalysation. By P-450 cytochrome
dependent reduction reactions, are
converted pollutants such as DDT,
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
halothantrichlorinefluormethan,
hexachlorinethan and pentachlorinethan.
Other classes of xenobiotics metabolized
by the same pathway are insaturated
hydrocarbons (epoxides), primary amines
(hydroxylamines, hydrazo-derivated) and
tertiary amines .
Hydrolyse reactions are mostly
implicated in esther and amide
metabolization, but also of compounds
converted in epoxides by P-450 system.
Hydrolise reactions are integrated in I-st
phase reactions because they generate
RCOOH, RNH2 and ROH groups,
representing sites to whom level
conjugation reactions take place (II-nd
phase reactions). These catalyse epoxydes
hydratation to dihydrodiols and represent
important enzymes in toxifying-
detoxifying processes. Aliphatic and
aromatic insatured hydrocarbons are
converted into epoxydes by P-450 mono-
oxygenases . To their turn, some epoxydes
are tied covalent to proteins and DNA,
inducing nocives effects such as cell
necrosis, acute and chronic toxicity,
mutagenesis, carcinogenesis and
teratogenesis. Diols resulted following
epoxyde hydrolase action are less toxic
than substratum, although in the case of
some aromatic polycycling hydrocarbons,
diols are forerunners of some carcinogenic
and mutagenic compounds. There are
described two distinct epoxyde hydrolase
with their place at the level of
endoplasmatic reticle, respectively in
cytosol with substratum specificity.
As a result of different enzyme groups
and intimate mechanisms of P-450
complex enzymes action identification, it
appears the possibility of extension studies
on a lot of species. Last years researches
put in evidence significant data on
different organism reactivity from varied
terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, as a
result of exposure to pollutants, from the
perspective of CYP stress responsive
enzymes, which are validated as significant
biomarkers for environment quality
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
assessment. So ,series of researches done
on different fish species (Jonsson et al,
2008; Jaksic et al, 2008; Marhon et al,
2008; Ahmad et al, 2004; Corsi et al, 2003;
Marrottini et al, 2003) put in evidence the
presence and an increasing activity of P-
450 cytochrome to the level of different
organs (liver, kidney, hart, gills, brain, eye
etc) as a result of exposure to different
pollutants (organochlorineted) and make
conclusions that these enzymes can be
used as biomarkers of aquatic environment
pollution. So, Jonsson et al., (2007)
identify in zebra fish (Danio rerio) CYP
1A1; CYP 1B1 and CYP 1C1 enzyme
induction, to the level of many organs
(gills, hart, kidney, brain, eyes, intestines,
gonads) as a result of exposure to PCB-126
(polychorine biphenyl 126). In an other
fish species, respectively in anguilla
(Anghilla anghilla), Marhon et al (2008)
identify CYP 1A1 expression (by RT-PCR
method) in gills, as a result of exposure to
PCB-77. Also in anghilla, Mariottini et al,
(2003) propose use of EROD activity (in
muscles) as exposure biomarker to
different PCB combinations (polychlorine
biphenils). In trout, EROD activity (in
gills) can be used as biomarker of water
pollution with PCB – 126.
Corsi et al (2003) use 2 fish species ,
Zosterisessor ophicephalus and Mugil
cephalus to determine PCB and PAH
action to liver level by following somatic
index of liver (SLI); EROD activity and
acetyl-colin-esterase (AChE) activity,
these one could be also used as biomarkers
of water pollution.
Organochlorined pollutants (lyndan)
can be monitored by biologic indicator
species Gambusia affinis through EROD
activity quantification to liver level (Jaksic
et al., 2008). The presence of atrazin can
induce P-450 1A1 cytochrome activation
to liver and carp blood level (Cyprinus
carpio), (Chang et al., 2005).
Jonsson et al (2003) use many fish
species (Salmo salar, Salvelinus alpinus,
Gadus mohua, Pollachius vireus and
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Anarhichas minor) and following EROD
activity to gills level as a result of dioxin
action exposure, make conclusions that this
biomarker can be used as useful instrument
in water pollution monitoring processes.
Studies and researches were also
realized on bird species to determine the
presence of P-450 cytochrome in different
organs level as a consequence of pollutant
action. Dubois et al., (1996) use quail
(Conturnix conturnix) in studies that have
in view exposure assessment in different
pollutants and identify the presence of
CYP 2B increase activity as a result of
exposure to lyndan and
pentachlorinephenol.
Head et al.(2007), as a consequence of
embryohepatocyte culture exposure
obtained from hen (Gallus gallus) and
silver sea-gull (Larus argentatus) to TCDD
(dioxin) observe CYP 1A5 induction
which can be used as biomarker of
exposure to dioxin.
Also it were used aquatic mammals
(otter and seal) to determine P-450
cytochrome to the cell level of different
types. Thus, Hook et al. (2008) use sea
otter (Enhydra lutris) and identify CYP
1A1 and CYP 1B1 as a result of exposure
to PCB and PAH.
Tilley et al (2002) determine in two
seal species (Phoca groenlandica and
Halichoerus grypus) CYP 1A induction as
biomarker of exposure to different
contaminants in environment.
Induction of CYP 1A increased activity
(in epidermal tissue) as a result of PCB,
dioxin and furans exposure in seal species
(Phoca vitulina) has permitted validation
of this one as exposure biomarker to these
pollutants.
Dubois et al. (1996) identify CYP 1A1
in rat, in the hepatocytes culture as a
consequence to lyndan and
pentachlorinephenol exposure. Also in rat,
Nims et al. (1998) and Ngui et al. (1999)
identify induction of a high CYP 2B
activity to the hepatic cell level as a result

of DDT, DDE and DDD exposure,
respectively to PCB and Arochlorine.
Nearly effected studies on wild animal
species, also were realized studies
concerning P-450 cytochrome induction, as
a result of exposure to different pollutants
in environment, to human species.
Researches principally were realized on
hepatic cells (Hep G2 line) and somatic
cells (epithelial) obtained from maternal
milk. So, Dehn et al. (2005) expose human
hepatic cells (Hep G2) to different
organochlorined pollutants (o, p’-DDT,
dieldrin, endosulphan, kepone,
metoxychlorine and toxaphen), obtaining
induction of CYP 1A and CYP 1B
activation.
It was obtained CYP 1A1 expression
by human hepatic cells exposure (HepG2)
to PCB-77.
Some organophosphorous pollutant
action (azynphos-metylchlorinepyriphos,
diazynon, parathion) on hepatic cells
determine induction of CYP 1A2 and CYP
2B6, and these can be used as biomarkers
of exposure .
In human, it was succeed to determine
P-450 cytochrome expression (CYP 1A1)
from hepatic cells (epithelial)isolated from
maternal milk and establishment of a
positive correlation between CYP 1A1
high activity and exposure to dioxin
(Diehl-Jones et al., 2000; Yonemoto et al.,
2004). Yonemoto et al., (2004) collect
human milk (1 week after birth) and
establish positive correlations between
presence of dioxin in maternal organism
and the quantity of CYP 1A1 from somatic
cell level in maternal milk (epithelial),
doing conclusion that CYP 1A1 expression
in somatic cell level from milk can be used
as biomarker of maternal organism
exposure to dioxin.
Identification and quantification of P-
450 cytochrome (CYP) enzymatic complex
activity as stress-responsive reaction of
organisms exposure to different
environmental pollutants make
circumscription of an important series of
Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
methods for the active monitoring process
of environment quality and of agro-
alimentary products by these biomarkers.
Species which express most pregnant the
exposure to a specific pollutant are
considered biologic indicator species, early
signaling the presence of pollutant in
environment or in agro-system. These
techniques can be extended also in general
assessment process of animal origin
alimentary products quality, establishing
possible exposure and consequently the
presence of pollutant in specific
bioaccumulation medium of these products.
REFERENCES
Journal articles
[1] Ahmad et al., 2004, Available from : Journal of
Investigative Dermatology, Cytochrome P-450,
may 2004.
[2] Assuncao, M.G.L., et al., 2007, Cytocrome
P450 1 A exposion and organochlorine
contaminants in harbour seals (Phoca vitulina):
evaluating a biopsy approach. Comparative
Biochemistry and Physiology, Port C 145 (2007)
46 – 264.
[3] Celander, Forlin, 1995, Studies of the
inducibility of P450 1 A in perch from PCB-
contaminated lake Jamsjon in Sweden,
Mar.Environ.Res.39 (1995), pp.85 - 88.
[4] Chang, L.W, et al., 2005, Responses of
molecuar indicators of expossure in mesocosms:
common carp (Cyprinus carpio) exposed to the
herbicides alachlor and atrazine., Environ.
Toxicol. Chem. 24, 190 – 197.
[5] Corsi et al., 2001, PCB levels in european eel
(Anghuilla anguilla) from two costal lagoon of the
Mediteranean, Chemosphere 39, pp. 2507 – 2518.
[6] Dehn et al., 2005, Altered gene expression in
human hepatoma HepG2 cells exposed to low level
2,4 dichlorophenoxy acetic acid and potasium
nitrate, Toxicology in vitro, vol. 19, 5, aug.2005.,
pp. 603 – 619.
[7] Dubois, M., et al., 1996, Hierarchical Cluster
analysis of environmental pollutants through P-
450 induction in cultured hepatic cells, Copyright
1996, Academic Press Inc, Ecotoxicology and
Environmental Safety vol.34, 3 pp. 205 – 215.
[8] Estabrook, R, 1984, Cytochrome P-450 system
primary and secondary metabolism, Biochemistry
vol.24 : 6591 – 6597.
[9] Head, J.A. et al., 2008, Dioxin activation of
CYP 1A5 promoter/enhancer regions from two
a avian species common cormorant (Phalacrocorax
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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
carbo) and chichen (Gallus gallus): association
with aryl hydrocarbon receptor 1 and 2 isoforms,
Available from: Elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/.
[10] Jacsic,Z.,2008, Western mosquitofish as a
bioindicator of exposure to organochlorine
compounds., Copyright 2007, Elsevier Inc.
[11] Jonsson et al., 2007, Marine pollution
bulletin, vol.57, 6-12, pp. 433 – 440.
[12] Krauss, Elling et al., 1984, Arachidonic acid-
dependent co oxidation, a potential pathway for
the activation of chemical carcinogens in vivo, RS
Krauss, Biochemical Pharmacology, 33, 2121,
3319-3324, Elsevier Science, 1984.
[13] Marohn I., et al., 2008, The suitability of
cytochrome P 450 1A1 as a biomarker for PCB
contamination in European eel (Anguilla anguilla),
Elsevier B.V.
[14] Mariottini et al., 2005, Environmental
Monitoring and Assessment, Springer Netherlands,
vol.117, pp. 519 – 528.
[15] Pelkonen, O. et al., 2008, Inhibition and
induction of human cytochrome P-450 enzymes:
- 18 -
current status, Archives of Toxicology, Springer
Berlin, vol.82,10, pp. 667 – 715.
[16] Nims et al., 1999, Xenobiotica, vol.29, no.4,
pp.361 – 393.
[17] Nishimura N., Yonemoto, et al., 2004,
Chemosphere, 54, pp. 1459 – 1473.
[18] Tilley et al., 2002, Isolation of two
cytochrome P-450 CYP 1A1 and CYP 1A2 ,
Comp.Biochem Physiol.C. Toxicol. Pharmacol,
132(2): 181 – 91.
[19] Yonemoto, 2000, The effects of dioxin on
reproduction and development, Ind. Health, 38, pp.
259 – 268.
[20] Williams, R.T., 1959, The effects
polychlorinated biphenyls plasma steroid levels
and hepatic microsomal enzymes in fish, Journ.of
Fish Biology vol.13., pp. 401 - 409, Detoxication
Mechanism, pp. 717 – 740.
[21] Ziegler, Mitchell, 1972, Toxicology and
Applied Pharmacology, Available from:
Elsevier.com./retrieve/pii.
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

DETERMINATION OF THE MAIN HAEMATOLOGICAL

INDICATORS IN THE HARE COMPARED TO THE RABBIT

Roxana Lazăr, P.C. Boişteanu, Ancuţa Elena Coşuleanu,

Alina Narcisa Postolache

Faculty of Animal Sciences, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine

„Ion Ionescu de la Brad” Iasi, Romania,
e-mail: lazarrxn@yahoo.com

Abstract
Estimation of haematological parameters represents arguments regarding the establishment of
physiological status and the health state of the two studied species, taking in consideration the
interpretations of the benefits represented by growing conditions.
There have been realized comparisons between the values obtained at hare and rabbit to
facilitate faultless result interpretation.
Blood gathered from hare and rabbit was analyzed and determinations were made with Abx
Micros vet ABC haematological analyzer.
The interpretation of the obtained results shows a difference between the two species regarding
the studied haematological values.
In conclusion the studied individuals don’t show modifications which could reflect damages of
health state.
Key words: haematological profile, hare, rabbit

INTRODUCTION reactions from certain organs, both in

Intrinsic blood link with the internal
organs causes answers and starts specific
physiological mechanisms, sensitive to the
changes of the internal and external stimuli.
The organism homeostasis expression can
be interpreted and the hematologic status of
the animals examined, fact that led this study.
The measurement values of
haematological parameters are a part of a
broader research program that dignifies the
correlations between physiological indices
and growth and behavior performance of the
hare and rabbit [1].
The interpretations parallelism between
the two species derives from the increased
interest of the consumer market for an aliment
with a nutritive food value and considered a
delicacy in culinary preparing [3].
The figurative items of blood fulfill an
important role in maintaining the functional
unit of the animal organism. In the
interrelationships with the external
environment, the changes in the state of
balance of the composition of internal
environment, necessary to maintain life, tends
to be quickly corrected by appropriate
physiological and pathological conditions [2].
Because of its varied functions and the direct
link that it has with all the organs, the blood
reacts sensitively to the changes produced in
the body by the internal and external factors.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
The biological material used was a 100
live hare extracted from the hunting fund to
supply for export. Harvesting was done at 24
hours after catching and lots formation,
which excludes the existence of stress.
Values recorded were compared with the
haematological data obtained from rabbits
reared at the Biobase USAMV Iaşi.
The exam of cellular blood components
has been conducted on biological material
collected in vacuum test tubes on substrate of
anticoagulant (EDTA). The blood harvesting
from the both populations of rabbits was
made from the auricular vein and the
saphenous vein.
Determinations were made with the
hematologic analyzer - ABX Micros VET ABC
and the biochemical analyzer - Accent 200.

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

Hematologic Analyzer ABX Micros VET ABC Biochemical Analyzer - Accent 200

The studies regarding blood cells morph
structure were made through May-Grunwald
Giemsa smear processing and colorations.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The erythrocytes have particular importance
in physiology; their representation is about 5%
of body weight. The examinations of blood
smear highlights anisocytosis, polychromatic
cells, schizocytes, stomatocytes, nucleus red
cells (1 or 2 reported 100 white cells) and
Howel – Jolly corpuscle.
The morphology of white blood cells may
serve to establish a differential diagnosis and
the physiological status of the individual.

Rabbit neutrophils

In rabbit the neutrophils are rounded cells
with a diameter of 10-15µm, at which the
nucleus is normally different segmented and
colored in dark blue, the segments being
linked together by fine filaments of
chromatin. The cytoplasm appears clear,
having two types of granulations: small
granulations, fines that are colored in pink
and large granulations colored in dark red.
The analyzed smears from the two types of
rabbits, revealed two distinct populations of
lymphocytes: small (7-10 µm) and large (10-
15 µm). Lymphocytes cells are round or
slightly oval, with oval nuclei, deep violet, the
cytoplasm is little or absent in the small
lymphocytes and abundant and basophiles in
the large ones. A part of the large lymphocytes
may present a clear halo around the nucleus
and even have a few granules azurophyles.

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

Rabbit lymphocytes

The studied eozinophyles from rabbit had
a diameter of 10-16 µm, red nucleus, bilobate
or horseshoe shaped. The cytoplasm presents
numerous granules, which causes the pink
color and the appearance of a foamy cell. The
importance of eozinophyles expression is the
histamine removal, which suggests that they
play an important role in controlling allergic
reactions.

Rabbit eozinophyles

The suppression of various biological of antibodies and lymphocytes specific

agents intervention, determines the activation
of a complex and efficient defense system
composed of leucocytes, macrophages and
lymphoid tissue. The cells of this system
prevent and intervene in the combat, through
a concomitant and successive phagocyte
action of the invade and development agents
sensitized.
The leukocytes, the mobile and
circulating elements of this complex system
of defense have the ability to discover the
invade agents and destroy them through
specific mechanisms to each leukocyte type.

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

Table 1
The haematogical values determined at the studied populations
Specification Rabbit Hare
3 3
WBC (10 /mm ) 4,5 5,7
6 3
RBC (10 /mm ) 5,20 8,60
HGB (g/dl) 10,4 17,9
HCT (%) 38,6 52,0
3 3
PLT (10 /mm ) 460 800
3
MCV (µm ) 74 61
MCH (pg) 19,9 20,6
MVHC (g/dl) 27,0 33,7

800
700 WBC (103/mm3)
600 RBC (106/mm3)
500 HGB (g/dl)
400 HCT (%)
300 PLT (103/mm3)
200 MCV (µm3)
MCH (pg)
100
MVHC (g/dl)
0
Rabbit Hare

By continuous adaptation of the morphology of the figurative items pursued,

erythropoiesis and erythrolysis the
physiological variations in the number of
erythrocytes are minimal.
The concentration of hemoglobin, as an
indicator of pigmentation respiratory, reflects
increased value for those identified at the
hare as a result of sustained muscle work.
between the two species.
3. The Values located at the upper limits
of the total number of erythrocytes, quantity
of hemoglobin, haematocryt and hemoglobin
concentration reflects changes in the sense of
enhancing the anabolic metabolism in
response to food ingestion and recovery.

CONCLUSIONS
1. From the comparison of the
haematological values between the analyzed
species shows no major differences regarding
the quantitative variations of the main studied
indicators haematological.
2. From the morphological point of view
there are no variations on the structure and
REFERENCES
Books
[1] Kathleen P. Freeman, Veterinary cytology,
Manson Publishing, 2007
[2] Scholem, O.W., Jain, N.C., Carroll, E.J.,
Veterinary Hematology – Lea and Febiger,
Philadelphia, 1975.
[3] Whithers Philip, C., Comparative animal
physiology, Thamson Learning, USA, 1992.

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 BACK

Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

THE PRESENTATION OF SILKMOTH BOMBYX MORI L.

SP. GENETIC RESOURCES IN ROMANIA AS SOURCE OF
INITIAL MATERIAL IN AMELIORATION WORKS

Alexandra Matei1, G. Chioveanu2 , M. Androne1,

D. Dezmirean3, M. Dolis4, I. Pasca3 , M. Bentea3
1
CS SERICAROM SA-Research Department, Bucharest,
e-mail: monicamatei47@yahoo.com
2
Institute for Diagnosis and Animal Health, Bucharest
3
University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Cluj-Napoca
4
“Ion Ionescu de la Brad” University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Iasi, Romania

Abstract
The importance of gene bank existence as an essential condition for amelioration programs
elaboration is unanimously known for every plant and animal species, from which the permanent
preoccupation for its diversification and maintaining by appropriate proceedings of preservation
“in situ” or “ex situ”. This way, there is being avoided the loss of biological material, especially of
the local races resistant to diseases and adapted to environmental conditions. This study aims the
analysis of phenotypic characters variability within the genetic stock of Bombyx mori sp., according
to its biological development stages (egg, larva and pupa). Native genetic stock of silkmoth Bombyx
mori L. sp. resulted by: identification of local populations gene sources, bilateral exchange of
biological material with similar foreign institutes, creation of new genotypes using specific breeding
methods. Within its structure, the genetical stock of silkmoth include 72 races. The silkworm specific
experimental technique has been applied, differentiated by technological and biological
development stages. The sample size that were the base for phenotypic parameters determination as
well as the working methods correspond to sericulture technical standards. The main phenotypical
and quantitative parameters of the races that represent the gene stock of Bombyx mori sp., have the
following values: prolificacy (230-710 eggs/laying), hatchability (80.6-100%), larval stage duration
(26-32 days), larvae weight (4.2-5.7 g), larvae pupation rate (80.8-96.6%), raw cocoon weight
(1.445-2.361 g), cocoon shell weight (0.240-0.520 g), fiber length (746-1356 m), filament size
(2917-3764 m/g). Depending on the quantitative parameters value, the silkworm races are being
used differently, entire genetic stock being destined for various technological levels, as follows: 4
active races (parents of hybrids), 3 candidate races for parents of hybrids, 65 races in preservation.
Key words: Bombyx mori, genetic stock, raw cocoon weight, cocoon shell weight, fiber length

INTRODUCTION consideration by many authors [3], [1], [8], [9],

The heredity, variability and selection
represents the main factors of the animal and
vegetable organisms evolution. If heredity
provides the resemblance of the individuals
from successive generations, the variability
represent the inconsistent side of heredity,
determining the differences between individuals
that exists more or less to all the living beings
groups. The presence of variability makes the
application of selection possible, action that
leads to improving animal populations.
The necessity of studying the conservation
of genetic stock, has been taken into
[6], [4], [5], existing two reasons for which the
animal populations need to be preserved:
a) the statute of being in menace of
disappearance;
b) their genetic value.
Taking into consideration the structure and
functions of the organisms to whom the
variability operates to, there are being
dinstinguished: morphological variations
including shape and size changes of the body
regions or organs; physiological variations
which refers to physiological processes,
especially to the ones with implications upon

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

some economical characters like production,
food conversion, fecundity; structural variations
regarding the structure of organs and tissues.
The variability of individuals which form a
population, it refers both on quantitative and
qualitative features, on this aspect being
distinguished: quantitative variations that can be
measured, which refers to differences between
metric characters and mostly with economical
implications; qualitative variations that can’t be
measured, they only can be described.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The biological material has been
represented by 72 races consisting of the
gene stock of Bombyx mori sp., grouped by
their origin.
The silkworm specific experimental
technique has been applied, differentiated by
technological and biological development
stages [2]. The sample size that were the base
for phenotypic parameters determination as
well as the working methods correspond to
sericulture technical standards.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
1. The variability of egg phenotypic
characters
Table 1
Egg biological parameters
Prolificacy
Race groups (number of eggs/laying)
Min
Native races 490±10
Japanese races 276±11
Chinese races 276±2
Tropical races 230±16
Races average 318±9
1.1. The variability of egg morphological
characters
Egg size. The egg size at Bombyx mori
L. sp. races is presented as follows: length
1.4 mm (native races), 1.3 mm (chinese
races), 1.5 mm (japanese races) and 1.1 mm
(tropical races), and the egg width varies
between 0.89 and 1.02 mm.
The egg weight is 0.50 mg (native races),
0.49 mg (chinese races), 0.54 mg (japanese
races) and 0.39 mg (tropical races).
Prolificacy (number of eggs/laying)
(Table 1). Concerning Bombyx mori sp., the
number of eggs/laying ratio varies between
200 and 800.
This character is being influenced by
race, food quality provided to larvae,
temperature and humidity conditions during
laying depose.
In case of the races existing within the
genetic sericultural stock, the prolificacy by
race group registered values between 490 and
710 eggs/laying (native races), 276-562
eggs/laying (japanese races), 276-616
eggs/laying (chinese races) and 230-450
eggs/laying (tropical races).
Hatching (%)
Max Min Max
710±12 90.0±0.47 99.0±0.47
562±6 81.3±1.70 99.6±0.47
616±15 80.6±1.89 100.0±0.21
450±29 83.6±2.49 97.6±1.25
584±15 83.9±1.64 99.1±0.60

Egg colour. During laying depose the
egg colour is gradually yellow and in the next
3-4 days its colour becomes violet-pink and
in the end the final colour is grey with
different shades: dark grey, light grey,
greenish grey but also orange, pink etc. All of
these refers to embryonated egg colour.
The chorion colour, visible after larvae
hatching, presents a serie of mutants: white,
light yellow or dark yellow, green, grey.
Being a race character, both the embryonated
egg colour and chorion colour represent a
silkworm selection character.
The races existing in sericultural native
genetic stock present the egg colour in
different shades: dark grey (japanese races),
greenish-grey (chinese races), meanwhile the
chorion is white at the first races group and
yellow at the second one.
1.2. The variability of egg physiological
characters
The voltinism (generations/year)
represent a physiological character
determined by environmental and genetical
factors. Between environmental factors, the
temperature and light plays an essential part.

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

Incubating eggs from bivoltine races at the 99.6% (japanese races), 80.6-100.0% (chinese
temperature 15-18oC and short photoperiod races) and 83.6-97.6% (tropical races).
(less than 12 hours), silkmoth appear and
2. The variability of larva phenotypic
depose non-hibernated eggs, that is 2
characters
generations/year, in case of incubating eggs
2.1. The variability of larva morphological
at high temperature (25-26oC) for a longer
characters
photoperiod (more than 12-14 hours),
The larvae length is influenced by
silkmoth appear and depose hibernated eggs
external factors, such as the rearing
(one generation/year).
conditions, feeding but it also represents a
The genetical determinism of voltinism is
race character specific to breeding races. By
being attributed to a number of 3 multiple sex
race group, the larvae average length is
alleles (Hs, Hs2, hS) modified by a number of
presented in Table 2.
autosomal genes (H1, h1, H2, h2, H3, h3).
Larvae weight is influenced by the
The structure of sericultural native
factors that determined the previous character
genetic stock includes bivoltine races
and their variability by race group is
(tropical type).
presented in Table 2.
The hatching rate, by race group, varies
between 90.0 and 99.0% (native races), 81.3-

Table 2
The variability of adult larvae length and weight by races groups
Larvae length (cm) Larvae weight (g)
Race groups
X±Sx X±Sx
Native races 7.6±0.02 5.7±0.12
Japanese races 7.0±0.03 5.6±0.08
Chinese races 6.2±0.06 5.1±0.10
Tropical races 5.8±0.06 4.2±0.11
Races average 6.7±0.04 5.2±0.10

Larvae colour represents a complex and
variable character and refers to the tegument
cephalic capsule and eyes.
In the breeding works, tegument colour
and larval marks are selection criteria taken
into consideration, as being race characters.
Body colour is normally white with a
shade of light blue in chinese races and pink
in japanese races, visible to the union place
of the larva body segments.
2.2. The variability of larva physiological
characters
The moulting, respectively the moults
number, represent one of the most important
physiological character of the larva. The
primitive races are characterized by 3 moults,
while developed races have 4 moults.
The geneticists appreciate that the
presence of 3 moults represent the dominant
character and the responsibles for hereditary
transmition of the moults number are 3
multiple alleles: M3 and M5, the dominant
relationships being tri>tetra>penta [7].
At the same time, the moulting is
controlled by the combined action of the
juvenile hormone secreted by corpora allata
and the moulting hormone-ecdysone-secreted
by the prothoracic gland, both being under
the control of activator hormone secreted by
neuro-secrethoris cells of the cerebroid
ganglions.
The races existing within the sericultural
native genetic stock, are characterized by the
presence of 4 moults, excepting “Three
Molter” race with 3 moults.
The duration of larval stage
characterizes every race group, being shorter
in tropical races (26-28 days), followed by
native races (28-29 days) and longer in
japanese ones (30-32 days) (Table 3).

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 Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

Table 3
The variability of larval stage duration and pupation rate
Larval stage (days) Pupation rate (%)
Race groups
Min Max Average Min Max Average
Native races 28 29 28.5 90.2 96.6 92.50
Japanese races 30 32 30.0 85.6 96.4 92.30
Chinese races 28 30 28.6 80.8 93.8 89.14
Tropical races 26 28 27.0 90.0 92.6 91.3

Chrysalis transformation percentage - elongated with constriction that characterize

(pupation rate) - character which reflects the
viability state and their capacity of
metamorphosis, have been high at the native
race group (90.2-96.6%) and inferior at the
other groups, as follows: 85.6-96.4% at the
japanese races, 80.8-93.8% at the chinese
races and 90.0-92.6% at the tropical races.
3. The variability of cocoon phenotypic
characters
3.1. The variability of cocoon morphological
characters
The cocoon shape, depending on the race
group which belongs to, can be:
the japanese races;
- oval elongated with rounded extremities
specific to chinese races;
- spherical, elongated without constriction,
characterizing also some chinese races;
- spindle, elongated without constriction and
with sharp extremities is the specific cocoon
shape to the tropical races.
The cocoon size, expressed by the
longitudinal and transversal axle length,
presents a high variability within the
sericultural genetic stock.
By races group, the cocoon size varies
between the limits presented in Table 4.

Table 4
The variability of cocoon size
Longitudinal axle (cm) Transversal axle (cm) Cocoons/l
Races group
Max Min Max Min Max Min
Native races 4.20±0.131 3.20±0.171 2.26±0.105 1.95±0.031 69±3 65±1
Japanese races 4.25±0.152 3.77±0.125 2.49±0.135 1.83±0.104 59±5 67±3
Chinese races 3.60±0.134 3.50±0.135 2.50±0.116 2.08±0.078 42±2 48±2
Tropical races 3.30±0.141 2.98±0.111 1.90±0.113 1.66±0.107 100±7 85±6
Races average 3.84±0.140 3.36±0.136 2.29±0.117 1.88±0.080 67±4 66±3

3.2. The variability of cocoon technological Cocoon shell weight, corresponding to

characters
Cocoon weight (Table 5) present, by race
group, the following average values: the
minimum value is between 1.445 (chinese
races) and 1.632 g (japanese races),
maximum value being between 1.709
(tropical races) and 2.361 g (chinese races).
Table 5, has minimum values at tropical
races (0.240 g) and maximum value at
japanese races (0.520 g).
Silk content (Table 5) represent one of
the most important selection’s objective.
Generally, the japanese races have maximum
values (25.06%) on this parameter.

Table 5
The technological parameters of raw cocoon (g)
Raw cocoon weight (g) Cocoon shell weight (g) Silk content (%)
Races group
Min Max Min Max Min Max
Native races 1.604±0.045 2.273±0.066 0.315±0.011 0.504±0.008 18.05±0.71 22.37±0.58
Japanese races 1.632±0.042 2.233±0.092 0.328±0.013 0.520±0.005 19.04±0.52 25.06±0.30
Chinese races 1.445±0.019 2.361±0.092 0.340±0.003 0.482±0.011 16.53±0.60 24.15±0.64
Tropical races 1.469±0.060 1.709±0.050 0.240±0.007 0.369±0.013 16.79±0.62 22.76±0.55
Races average 1.538±0.042 2.144±0.075 0.306±0.009 0.469±0.009 17.60±0.61 23.59±0.52

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

The dry cocoon weight (Table 6) registers maximum values at japanese races (1.250 g)
and minimum values at tropical races (0.676 g). The fiber length (Table 6), same as dry
cocoon weight, has the maximum value at the japanese races (1356 m).

Table 6
The technological parameters of dry cocoon and silk fiber
Dry cocoon weight (g) Fiber length (m)
Races group X±Sx X±Sx
Min Max Min Max
Native races 0.843±0.028 1.163±0.033 1119±22 1324±38
Japanese races 0.870±0.036 1.250±0.035 1037±16 1356±33
Chinese races 0.724±0.028 1.184±0.031 908±15 1236±24
Tropical races 0.676±0.018 0.823±0.026 746±10 950±27
Races average 0.778±0.028 1.105±0.031 952±15 1216±30

Reeling silk registers also maximum
values at native races (44.8%) and minimum
values at tropical races (32.0%).
Filament size, expressed by metres/g,
has maximum values at native races (3241-
3764 m/g). Lower performances, but still
notables, have the japanese races (3041-3460
m/g).
Notable performances of filament size
have the chinese races (3016-3762 m/g). At
the tropical races, the filament size is
between 2917 and 3090 m/g, being lower to
the previous groups.
CONCLUSIONS
Depending on the quantitative parameters
value, the silkworm races are being used
differently, entire genetic stock being
destined for various technological levels, as
follows:
- 4 active races (parents of hybrids);
- 3 candidate races for parents of hybrids;
- 65 races in preservation.
REFERENCES
Journal articles
[1] Brasla A., Matei A.: Study on the variability of
the main quantitative traits in some silkworm
races, Archiva Zootechnica, 1989, vol. 1, p. 63-70.
[4] Matei A. and coll.: The diversification and
utilization of genetical stock as source of initial
material in breeding works of Bombyx mori L. –
Romanian Animal Science in the EU integration
perspective – Session of scientific
communications, Iasi, Romania, 2004, p. 218-222.
[5] Matei A.: The structure, origin and
performances of races sp. Bombyx mori L.
existing in sericultural genetic stock in Romania –
The XXIIIth National Symposium of history and
agrarian retrology, 23-24 august, Bacau, 2007.
[6] Petkov N., Matei A., Natcheva Y., Vasileva Y.,
Petkov Z., Ciulu M.: The phenotipical characters
of some Romanian silkworm Bombyx mori races
in relationship to the use of selection programmes-
AGRAL Scientifical Symposium “Research upon
chain from Romania in a European Context,
Romania, 2004, p. 280-286.
[8] Thangavelu K.: Role of germplasm bank in
sericulture – Indian Silk, 1997, 36/3, p.5-11.
[9] Tzenov P., Vasileva Y.: Silkworm genetic
resources in Bulgaria – XIXth Congress of
International Sericultural Commission
Proceedings, Bangkok, Thailand, 2002, p.243.
Books
[2] Grekov D., Kipriotis E., Tzenov P.: Sericulture
training manual, Komotini-Greece, 2005.
[3] Hebean V.: Study upon phenotipical and
genotipical characters in the imposted Phylosamia
ricii race and possibilities to create native
biological material – Ph.D. thesis, Romania, 1986.
[7] Tazima Y.: The genetics of the silkworm,
Logos Press, 1964.

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 BACK
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

STUDY ON THE BEHAVIOR OF ARTIFICIALLY

INSEMINATED QUEENS
OF APIS M. CARPATICA RACE DURING PASSIVE PERIOD

V. Toderici, Valentina Cebotari

Institute of Zoology of the Academy of Sciences of Moldova

Abstract
In beekeeping, at present time, mating can be controlled only by applying instrumental
insemination techniques of queens or providing special isolated areas (islands, mountain regions).
This study aimed to compare the behavior of instrumental inseminated queens to the naturally
mated, during passive period (september to april). The lot of queens, artificially inseminated in late
summer, were introduced in queen less colonies. Behavior aspects were compared to their sisters,
naturally mated queens, which were introduced under appropriate conditions. For each batch
where rated most important behavioral indices: acceptance of queens, laying start-up, wintering
cluster, early build-up, etc.
Acceptance of instrumental inseminated queens was 75% , wintering of colonies was 90%,
with a minimum consumption of food and was observed a intensive cleaning flight.
Keywords: artificial insemination, queens of A. m. Carpatica race, queens behavior, natural mating

INTRODUCTION collected from over 200 drones with the help

It is known that the queens are mating in
the air with many drones regardless of race or
origin(1). For selection purpose, control on
the origin of genetic material is vital.
Keeping control of queen mating can be done
using instrumental insemination techniques
or creation of special isolated areas (islands,
isolated areas). In Moldova creation of such
special areas of mating is difficult, and to
have control on queen mating will be used
instrumental insemination techniques.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
The research was conducted in the
attested breeding apiary in Hîrtopul Mic,
Republic of Moldova. The material used in
our research it belong to Apis mellifera
carpatica race, which comes from the same
apiary. Formed in specific conditions of
climate, relief and flora of our country.
Taking into account that the purpose of
experiments was aimed to compare the
instrumentally inseminated queens
behavior(2) to those mated naturally in
passive period, the insemination was done in
the first week of September. The semen were
of drone collectors. Semen was collected
using special syringe(3). For instrumental
insemination process were used 8 queens at
age of 10 days, obtained by artificial queen
rearing methods. Insemination was made by
classic methodology technique using the
Latshaw’s device(4). Queens were prepared
for instrumental insemination process, so that
they could make a cleaning flight and later
being anesthetized with CO2. Queens were
inseminated with 4µl of semen.
After insemination, queens were marked
and placed in individual queen cages, giving
them candy, without accompanying bees,
after were placed in queen bank. After 48
hours instrumentally inseminated queens
have been subjected to the second treatment
with CO2 and were again placed in the queen
bank. For a period of three days, artificially
inseminated queens, were examined
regarding their behavior, also were fed with
honey in small quantities.
To introduce the batch of queens,
instrumentally inseminated and the naturally
mated, who served as witness batch, were
prepared nucs, in which were formed 16 new
colonies, 8 nucs for instrumentally

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inseminated queens and 8 for naturally mated
queens. Nucs were created equally on 6
frames of standard horizontal hives,
including three frames of the hatching brood
with a dominant number of young bees(5),
and a feeder. Such nuc prepared for queen
introduction were left for 3 days to become
queen less, and before to introduce the queen,
nucs were inspected if there are natural queen
cells.
Instrumentally inseminated queens and
naturally mated queens were introduced into
the nuc prepared earlier using the indirect
method of introduction. In the moment of
queen introduction each nucs was feed with
0,5 l, 1:1 sugar syrup(6). During a week the
nucs were feed with syrup and given them
frames with young brood, to make them all
equally.
All nucs were treated against varroa mite
twice (in mid-September and late September)
and were ready for wintering.
Throughout the experiment was studied
the behavior of both, queens and the bees
from the nest of colonies, considering the
following indices:
- Acceptance of queens, by bees from the
nucs;
Tabel 1
Comparative evaluation of the behavior of colonies in new created nucs
Nr.
Indeces
Crt.
Acceptance of queens, by bees
1 87,5
from the nucs %
2 Laying star-up of queens %
Resistance of bees at wintering
3 100
process %
4 Early build-up of colonies, %
5 Honey consumption
When the nucs were checked for natural
cells, in 7 of them was found natural cells.
From 8 queens artificially inseminated, 2
queens were killed, and from the naturally
mated- one. It is believed that in both cases,
queens were killed because of the high
aggression of bees in these nucs.
From 13 queen accepted only 2 queens
start to laying after four days, after the
introduction. None of the artificial
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
- Laying star-up of queens;
- Resistance of bees at wintering process(7);
- Early build-up of colonies.
Interpretation of result was made
according to husbandry rule regarding
evaluation of bee colonies and certification of
bee breeding material(8).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
To do instrumental insemination during
passive period of the year is difficult,
primarily because of lack of drones. From
nearly 200 drones harvested to collect semen
50% were immature, 20% too mature, while
the remaining 30% had very small quantity
of semen. Thus queens were inseminated
only with half of the normal quantity,
recommended quantity is 8 µl / queen.
There were not being observed abnormal
deviations of queen behavior right after
insemination and by the time being in the
queen banks. None of the inseminated queens
died as a result of insemination process. After
insemination process queens were active and
the bees from the bank were not being
aggressive against these queens.
Queens
Queens
instrumental
naturally mated
insemianted
75
28 0
83
66 60
Relative-low Relative-low
inseminated did not began to lay. This can be
explained that after a day of placing the
queens in the nucs, air temperature dropped
suddenly and followed a period of 10 days
with high variation of temperature during day
and low night temperatures. During this
period in some colonies was observed
formation of bee nest, even during the days.
During the observation time in
November, December and January was found
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
out that colonies are wintering well,
including those 2 families whose queens had
started to lay and those 11 colonies who
entered in the wintering season with queens
which didn’t have a chance to start laying.
During a quick review in early February
was identified that one of the 6 families with
instrumental inseminated queen died, cause
being mice invasion. Frome 7 families with
queens naturally mated none died.
After last data collected at the end of
February from 13 families who have
prepared for winter only one was lost, the
other one wintered well. There was a low
consumption of honey, in both cases, in the
colonies with instrumentally inseminated
queens as well as in those with queens
naturally mated. At that time, 3 queens from
those instrumentally inseminated and 4
naturally mated began to lay.
CONCLUSIONS
As the result of the research was found
out that doing artificial insemination in
September is risky because of lack of drones
in hives and their inadequate quality, and also
that the queens have no sufficient time to
start to lay before entering in winter. Also
were detected no variation regarding honey
consumption in the colonies with
- 30 -
instrumentally inseminated queens and those
naturally mated. But it was found that
introduction of instrumentally inseminated
queens is more difficult and can record high
losses if it is not taken into account this
specific.
REFERENCES
Journal articles
[1] Page R.E., Laidlaw H.H. (1985) Closed
Population Honeybee Breeding, Bee World 66,
63–72, SUA.
[3] Laidlaw H.H. (1987) Instrumental
Insemination of honey bee queens: Its origin and
development, Bee World 68, 17–38, 71–88, SUA.
Books
[2] Joseph S. Latshaw (2003), Evaluating queen
stock, Bee Culture March, SUA
[4] Joseph S. Latshaw, (2006) Flexible II
technique,
http://www.latshawapiaries.com/care_of_ii_queen
s.htm
[5] Friedrich Ruttner Breeding (1988) Techniques
and Selection for the Honeybee - Germany.
Translated by Ashleigh & Eric Milner. UK.
[6] Root A..I. (2007) ABC&XYZ of Bee Culture,
A.I. Root Company, Ohio, USA
[7] Stu Jacobson (2002), Genetics for disease
resistance, Bee Culture November, SUA
[8] Norma zootehnica cu privire la bonitarea
familiilor de albine si certificarea materialului
genitoriu apicol, 2008, IZ ASM, Chisinau
 BACK

Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

CHARACTERIZATION OF THE REPRODUCTIVE

ACTIVITY OF SOWS BELONGING TO A MANGALITA
SWINE POPULATION

V. Miclea, M. Zăhan, Ileana Miclea

University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine,

Faculty of Animal Husbandry and Biotechnologies,Cluj-Napoca, Romania
e-mail: vasilemiclea21@yahoo.com

Abstract
The number of pigs belonging to the Mangaliţa breed is currently under rapid decline. As a
consequence is the need for a conservation program presents itself. It should include the breed’s
characterization from a morphological and productive point of view. Therefore, our aim has been to
establish reproductive indexes for 25 sows belonging to a population kept at SUINPROD Roman.
Research on these animals will continue, the final goal being to preserve it ex situ. Following
bibliographical investigations we have concluded that an intensive rearing system reduces the age
of the first mating to 9.2 months, the sows having 106.52 kg and the number of piglets is above
breed average. The mean number of piglets increases from the first birth (7.96 piglets) to the third
(8.46 piglets) without any negative influence on their weight which is between 1.0 – 1.04 kg.
Mortality rates are the highest for young sows (13.56%) decreasing steadily as the animals get
older. With optimum rearing and feeding piglets are weaned at 30-32 days. The total weight of the
piglets at weaning rises, due to improvement in sow ability to feed them.
Key words: sows, reproductive indexes, Mangaliţa

INTRODUCTION MATERIALS AND METHODS

Mangaliţa is one of the oldest swine
breeds that have been replaced, in Romania
as well as in other eastern European countries
by more economically efficient hybrids that
suited consumer demands better. The danger
of extinction has lead to the establishment of
in situ conservation programs. Preserving
genetic resources is widely supported by
government and non-governmental
organizations, which are involved in over
360 such programs all aver Europe [7]. The
importance of conserving biodiversity stems
from its scientific and economic significance
coupled with the social and historical
importance [6].
The preservation of certain breeds entails
keeping and rearing a certain number of
animals but also organising reproductive and
selection activities. Considering this our goal
has been to characterize the reproductive
activity of Mangaliţa sows during 2008, even
if this has already been attempted by other
authors [4].
The sows used in this research came from
the genetic stock kept at SCDA Turda. Some
of the animals were transferred to
SUINPROD Roman where Mangaliţa boars
from Hungary and Austria had been brought,
to avoid inbreeding. All the animals belong
to the red Mangaliţa variety.
The sows were kept in groups of 15-20
animals in a perimeter of 1-1.2 m2/animal.
Pregnant sows were kept in individual stands
for the first month and then transferred to
group stands. They were fed so as to ensure
the necessary amount of protein and energy
for physiological processes and production.
Reproductive characteristics were
measured for 25 animals selected according
to the following criteria: the accuracy of
phenotypic traits and genetic purity
established with the help of fingerprinting
using microsatellites technique.
The fact that most sows had already given
birth three times enabled us to easily follow
their reproductive characteristic. These were

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
represented by age, weight at the first mating,
number and weight of piglets at every birth,
number of live and dead born piglets and
weight at weaning. Piglets were weaned at
30-32 days much faster than in the extensive
rearing system.
Data was analyzed using ANOVA by
computing mean, standard error of the mean,
standard deviation and variation coefficient.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The age of the first birth was considered
to be very important as it is the end of a long
interval of investment in the animal without
any production. Feeding and keeping young
sows in our experimental conditions reduced
the growth time so that the animals can be
used for reproductive purposes at 276.16
days (9.2 months approximately) when their
weight is 106.52 kg. When compared with
the data presented by Istvan Egerszegi et al.
(2003) for the Hungarian Mangaliţa, this
advances growth by 1-3 months. Not all the
animals have identical responses to the
improved feed and keeping. There are
animals that were used in reproduction at 248
days but also animals that achieved the same
stage only at 318 days. All mated animals
were between 97-115 kg, thus proving the
importance of weight for reproductive
maturity. Improved rearing conditions for
Mangaliţa sows help the animals reach the
correct weight or reproduction faster.
However, the use of such technology
depends on the possibility to recuperate the
invested resources by an increase in the
number of piglets.
The number of piglets per female is
higher than the breed average even for the
first birth. Other authors [4] mention that the
average for Romanian Mangaliţa is 5 to 6
piglets, the Hungarian Mangaliţa being
similar with 4-7 piglets, the sows in our study
have a mean of 7,96 animals. There are sows
that have given birth to 5 piglets and others
for which the number is up to 10. Better
feeding and keeping are considered to be the
main reason for the improvement on breed
average, but we haven’t noticed any direct
correlation between female weight at mating
and the number of piglets. Also, the genetic
- 32 -
make up of each animal has a great influence
on these results.
Mean piglet weight on the first birth was
1.04 kg, the limits being 0.8-1.46 kg. For the
sows that give birth to a number of piglets
close to breed average, their number and
weight are not proportional. Piglet weight for
females with a high number of offspring per
litter is low while for sows with a low
number the weight is high.
On the second birth the average number
of piglets is 8 animals, the limits being
between 6 and 10. At 1.01 kg mean piglet
weight is close to that registered on the first
birth.
This is in accordance with the research of
Ratky et al. (2005) [5] who have shown that
in Mangaliţa sown during the first month of
gestation the increase in length of the uterus
and horns is minimal although the increase in
weight is significant. The lack of growth in
length is probably the reason for the reduced
number of piglets but it may also favour an
increase in their weight.
At the third birth the average number of
piglets per female is 8.46. The lower limit for
this characteristic is close to the values
registered font hr first two births. Therefore,
we can recommend the removal of sows that
give birth to a small number of piglets after
the first birth. Piglet average weight is around
1000 g, the differences being due to a
decrease of the higher limit.
The early weaning of the piglets was
possible because they had switched from
milk to feed and were eating enough to
sustain physiological processes and growth.
86.34% of the piglets from the first birth
were weaned and 13.57% died. The lack of
experience and a reduced maternal instinct, a
characteristic of the breed were the main
causes for this occurrence. The piglets have a
mean weight of 6.11 kg indicating a low
growth rate. There are animals with a weight
of 3.57 kg together with others that have 8.57
kg. Considering growth rate and weight,
piglets were weaned at 32 days. 90% of the
piglets born after the second mating were
weaned. The decrease in mortality despite an
increase in the number of piglets and a
reduction of their weight is a consequence of
 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

the females acquiring experience. The being between 4.5 kg and 7.57 kg, the
average weight of the piglets is similar to the animals being more similar to one another.
one registered for the first birth, the limits

Table 1
Mean values and the variation of reproductive characteristics
Characteristics MU n Statistical parameters Limits
X ± sx s V% Minimal Maximal
Sows mated for the
first time: days 25 276,16 ± 7,51 37,54 13,59 148,00 318,00
- age kg 25
- weight 106,52 ± 1,07 5,35 5,02 97,00 115,00
Piglets at first birth:
- number animals 25 7,96 ± 0,3 1,49 18,66 5,00 10,00
- litter weight kg 25 8,14 ± 0,20 1,01 12,42 6,00 9,80
- average weight kg 25 1,04 ± 0,03 0,16 15,50 0,80 1,46
Piglets at second
birth:
- number animals 25 8 ± 0,2 1,00 12,50 6,00 10,00
- litter weight kg 25 8,05 ± 0,09 0,49 6,09 7,20 8,90
- average weight kg 25 1,01 ± 0,02 0,12 11,53 0,76 1,31
Piglets at third birth:
- number animals 13 8,46 ± 0,29 1,05 12,41 7,00 10,00
- litter weight kg 13 8,36 ± 0,19 0,69 8,25 6,90 9,30
- average weight kg 13 1 ± 0,03 0,10 9,62 0,80 1,16
Piglets weaned after
the first birth:
- number animals 25 6,88 ± 0,32 1,59 23,10 4,00 10,00
- litter weight kg 25 41,57 ± 2,02 10,10 24,31 30,00 60,00
- average weight kg 25 6,106 ± 0,2 1,01 16,55 3,57 8,57
- mortalities animals 25 1,08 ± 0,2 1,00 92,28 0,00 3,00
Piglets weaned after
the second birth:
- number animals 25 7,2 ± 0,16 0,82 11,34 5,00 8,00
- litter weight kg 25 44,24 ± 1,21 6,06 13,70 36,00 55,00
- average weight kg 25 6,17 ± 0,15 0,76 12,26 4,50 7,57
- mortalities animals 25 0,8 ± 0,17 0,87 108,25 0,00 3,00
Piglets weaned after
the third birth:
- number animals 13 7,46 ± 0,14 0,52 6,95 7,00 8,00
- litter weight kg 13 48,23 ± 1,75 6,32 13,11 34,00 57,00
- average weight kg 13 6,47 ± 0,21 0,77 11,88 4,85 7,85
- mortalities animals 13 1 ± 0,28 1,00 100,00 0,00 3,00

The piglets produced by sows on the third
birth have 6.46 kg at weaning, the average
number of deaths being 1 per sow. They too
are more similar to one another, the
difference between the lower and the higher
limits being of only 3 kg (4.85 – 7.85 kg).
CONCLUSIONS
Reproductive activity of Mangaliţa sows
can be characterized following the dynamic
analysis of piglet number, weight and
mortality as follows.
1. Intensive rearing decreases the age of
reproductive maturity to 276.16 days, the
sows having 106.52 kg and increases the
number of piglets from the first birth above
breed average.
2. The number of piglets increases from
7.96 animals (first birth) to 8.46 animals
(second birth)

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
3. Piglet average weight at birth is not
influenced by sow prolificacy and it is
between 1.00 and 1.04 kg.
4. The percentage of dead piglets is
highest for the first birth (13.56 %),
decreasing by 10.00% (second birth) because
of improved maternal behaviour.
5. When intensively reared Mangaliţa can
be weaned at 30-32 days, their weight being
between 6.01 – 6.47 kg/animal.
6. Total piglet weight at weaning
increases steadily because of sow ability to
produce better milk for more piglets.
REFERENCES
Journal articles
[1] Egerszegi I., Schneider F., Ratky J., Soos F.,
Solti F., Manabe N., Brussow K.P.,: Comparison
of luteinizing hormone and steroid hormone
secretion during the peri- and post ovulatory
periods in Mangaliţa and Landrace gilts, J. of
Reproduction and Development, 2003, 49(4): 291-
296.
[2] Gajic Z., Bogosavlievic-Boskovic Snezana,
Pusic M., ,Mitrovic S.,: Livestock production
- 34 -
system and animal genetic resources preservation
and utilisation, Acta Agriculturae Serbica, 2003,
VIII(16): 37-47.
[3] Hollo G., Seregi J., Euder K., Nuernberg K.,
Wegner J., Segner J., Hollo I., Repa I.,:
Examination of meat quality and fatty acid
composition of Mangalitsa, Acta Agraria
Koposvariensis, 2003, 7(2): 19-32.
[4] Pop T.M., Vlaic A., Spădaru F., Moldovan I.,
Bidian Altina,: Cercetări privind structura genetică
a unei populaţii de suine din rasa Mangaliţa pentru
fundamentarea elaborării planului de ameliorare,
Simpozion USAMV, Cluj-Napoca, 1993, vol.
XIX: 186-192.
[5] Ratky J., Brussow K.P., Solti L., Torner H.,
Sarbos P.,: Ovarian response, embryo recovery
and results of embryo transfer in a Hungarian
native pig breed, Theriogenology, 2001, 56: 969-
978.
[6] Ruane J.,: A critical review of the value of
genetic distance studies in conservation of animal
genetics resources, J. Anim. Breed. Genet., 1999,
116: 317-323.
[7] Simon D.L.,: European approaches to
conservation of farm animal genetic resources,
Anim.Genet. Resources Inform., 1999, 25: 79-99.
 BACK

Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

THE EFFECT OF SEVERAL ASCORBIC ACID

CONCENTRATIONS ON SWINE OOCYTE MATURATION
AND EMBRYO CULTURE

Ileana Miclea, M. Zăhan, A. Rusu, F. Ghiuru, V. Miclea

University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine,

Faculty of Animal Husbandry and Biotechnologies, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
e-mail: ileanamiclea@yahoo.com

Abstract
Considering that free radicals are easily formed both in vivo and in vitro and that swine oocytes
and embryos have a high content of unsaturated and therefore highly oxidizable fatty acids
antioxidants must be added to the culture media. Ascorbic acid has been shown to improve swine
oocyte maturation and the development of bovine and swine embryos. The goal of this study was to
establish the influence of several ascorbic acid and α-tocopherol concentrations on swine oocyte
maturation in order to improve oocyte maturation media. Pig oocytes were cultured for 44 hours at
37°C in 5% CO2 atmosphere, in M199 containing several ascorbic acid (50, 150, 250, 500 and 750
µM) concentrations. Oocytes were fertilized and the embryos were cultured for another 94 hours in
TALP medium containing the same antioxidant concentrations. The addition of 50, 150, 500 and
750 mM ascorbic acid to the maturation medium lead to an increase in the number of oocytes
assessed as 3 and 4 and a decrease in the number assessed with 0. The number of embryos that
developed in medium supplemented with 50 µM ascorbic acid was significantly higher than the
contro, thus proving the beneficial influence of ascorbic acid on embryo development.
Key words: antioxidant, swine oocytes, embryos, ascorbic acid

INTRODUCTION acid and oleic acid Triacylglycerol, free fatty

In the cell, free radicals function as signal
molecules by activating transcription factors
and enzymatic reactions [2]. They are also
involved in regulating embryo development
and implantation [4]. Their endogenous
overproduction and the exogenous sources
lead to an imbalance in redox metabolism
and therefore to oxidative stress.
In the oocyte and embryo free radical
levels are controlled by metabolic pathways
mediated by enzymes such as glutathione.
However the oocyte contains a large quantity
of lipid droplets. This is particularly evident in
the oocytes of the domestic pig, where very
high levels of lipid have been reported, 161 µg
(McEvoy et al., 2000). Triacylglycerol was the
major lipid component followed by cholesterol
and phosphatidylcholine. Analysis of fatty
acids esterified to the individual phospholipids
and neutral lipids has shown that in all the
classes examined, particularly in the neutral
lipid fractions, there are high levels of palmitic
acids and most of the phospholipids,
particularly phosphatidylethanolamine, are
considerably enriched in n-6 polyunsaturated
fatty acids, specifically linoleic, arachidonic
and adrenic acids [5]. All these unsaturated
and therefore easy oxidizable lipids increase
their sensitivity to oxidative stress induced by
culture conditions. That is why we believe that
oocyte maturation and embryo culture can be
improved by adding antioxidants to the culture
medium in order to reduce the stress [11].
Oocyte maturation encompasses nuclear
maturation and maturation of the cytoplasm.
While the first refers to the resumption of
meiosis and progression to the metaphase II
(MII) stage and can be assessed by the
presence or absence of the first polar body, the
second comprises poorly understood processes
[7]. These processes are believed to progress
in parallel to one another, and synchronization
of nuclear and cytoplasmic maturation is
essential for establishing optimal oocyte

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
developmental potential [8]. The efficiency of
this process is indicated by the ability of the
oocyte to block polispermic fertilization and
allow the formation of the male pronucleus.
Whereas nuclear maturation can be evaluated
by nuclear staining methods that reveal the
first polar body, cytoplasmic maturation can
only be determined by indirect means such as
cumulus oophorus expansion, the
measurement of glutathione content and
fluorescent viability coloration. Out of these
only the first leaves the oocyte intact and has
the least effect on its viability and ability to
sustain fertilization. Therefore it becomes the
most important mean of assessing maturation.
Ascorbic acid is the most important
antioxidant outside the cell [12]. It functions
as a reducing agent of oxygen and cytocromes
c and a, but can also protect membranes
against peroxidation. It can prevent apoptosis
in cultured mouse follicles and improve swine
oocyte maturation [10] and embryo
development of swine embryos [6].
The goal of this research was to
establish whether supplementation with
ascorbic acid could improve viability and
meiotic maturation of porcine oocytes,
cumulus cell function and embryo ability to
develop in vitro.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
Oocyte collection and maturation
Oocytes were harvested in M 199
supplemented with L-glutamine (3.4 g/l),
NaHCO3 (2.2 g/l), Hepes (25 mM), penicillin
(100 µg /ml) and streptomycin (100 IU/ml)
and with the pH adjusted to 7. For oocyte
maturation M 199 was supplemented with L-
glutamine (3.4 g/l), Chorulon (10 IU/ml),
Folligon (10 IU/ml), fetal calf serum 10%,
penicillin (100 µg /ml) and streptomycin (100
IU/ml). Ascorbic acid dissolved in ultrapure
water was added to the maturation medium in
order to arrive at concentrations of 50, 150,
250, 500 and 750 µM active substance. For
viability assessment bovine serum albumin
(5 mg/ml) and 3’6’ flourescein diacetate
(1 µg/ml) were added to PBS.
Porcine ovaries were collected from pre-
pubertal gilts and transported to the
laboratory in a thermal container containing
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sterile saline solution (NaCl 0.9%) at 37°C
supplemented with penicillin (100 µg /ml)
and streptomycin (100 IU/ml). The contents
of follicles of 2–6 mm in diameter on the
ovarian surface were aspired with a 10 ml
syringe equipped with an 21-gauge needle
and collected a Petri dishes containing
harvest medium. Oocytes with a uniform
ooplasm and compact cumulus cell mass
were washed 2 times with harvest medium
and then placed in 30 µl droplets of
maturation medium containing the various
vitamin concentrations. All the droplets were
covered in paraffin oil and incubated for 48
hours at 38°C in an atmosphere with 5%
CO2. Then they were evaluated using an
Olympus inverted phase contrast microscope,
in order to assess cumulus oophorus
expansion and/or the presence of the first
polar body. Cumulus expansion was assessed
44 h after incubation by a subjective scoring
method [1]. Briefly, no response was scored
as 0, minimum observable response as 1,
expansion of outer cumulus-enclosed oocyte
layers as 2, expansion of all cumulus-
enclosed oocyte layers except the corona
radiata as 3, and expansion of all cumulus-
enclosed oocyte layers as 4. Each group was
compared to the control in order to establish
whether any differences existed between the
degrees of cumulus expansion and if they
were significant. The differences between
treatments were analyzed by ANOVA and
interpreted using the Student test. For all
comparisons, the values were considered
statistically significant when p < 0.05.
Oocyte viability was certified by using
3’6’ fluorescein diacetate (FDA) fluorescent
coloration. After morphological evaluation the
cumulus-oocyte complexes were transferred to
PBS and mechanically denuded. The oocytes
were then transferred to PBS supplemented
with bovine serum albumin and FDA and
incubated at 38°C for 10 minutes. At the end
of this time they were examined under ultra-
violet light at 495 nm wavelength.
In vitro fertilization and embryo culture
The fertilization medium was TALP-Fert,
which is based on Tyrode’s saline solution
supplemented with bovine serum albumin

(0.004 g/l), glucose (1.00 g/l), sodium lactate
(10 µl/ml), sodium pyruvate (0.288 µg/ml) and
antibiotics (100 µg /ml penicillin and 100 IU/ml
streptomycin). The embryo culture medium had
the same composition and ascorbic acid was
added in order to make up concentrations of 50,
150, 250, 500 and 750 µM.
Spermatozoa were capacitated in Tyrode
using the swim-up technique and a
haemocytometer was employed to establish
concentration. After cumulus expansion
assessment the oocytes were transferred to
TALP-Fert and mechanically denuded using a
micropipette. Afterwards they were placed in
30 µl droplets and the sperm cells were added.
The concentration for fertilization was 1 x 106
spermatozoa/ml and it was computed
according to the following formula:
volume(µl) = 30 x 1 x 106 /the concentration
of capacitated spermatozoa. After the sperm
cells were added the droplets were covered
with paraffin oil to prevent media evaporation
Fig. 1. Oocyte assessed as 4 due to complete
cumulus expansion (100x magnification)
None of the 5 ascorbic acid concentrations
led to significant differences in oocyte cumulus
expansion when compared to the control.
However, the percentage of oocytes to be
scored as 3 was higher than the control in
several cases amounting to 22.62% for C50,
30.51% for C150, 23.28% for C500 and
30.84% for C750 as compared to 21.91% (table
1). More oocytes reached the 4th grade of
cumulus expansion for C50, C150 and C 750
than had done so in the case of control cells.
Because cumulus cells act as a ‘go-
between’ between the oocyte and the
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
and incubated at 38°C and 5 % CO2 in air.
After 16 hours the spermatozoa were removed
mechanically using a micropipette and the
presumed zygotes were cultured in TALP
droplets supplemented with ascorbic acid (50,
150, 250, 500 and 750 µM) and covered with
mineral oil for 92 hours in the same conditions
as described before. During this time the
number of embryos that had developed was
counted and compared to the control, and the
differences analyzed using ANOVA and
interpreted using the Student test.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The goal of this study was to establish the
influence of several ascorbic acid
concentrations (50, 150, 250, 500 and 750
mM) on swine oocyte maturation. At the end
of 44 hours, the oocytes were assessed for
cumulus expansion (figure 1) and sometimes
the presence of the first polar body (figure 1).
Fig. 2 Oocyte showing the first polar body as a
sign of nuclear maturation (100x magnification)
follicular or culture environment, their
expansion is considered to be reliable sign of
this elusive process having taken place. It is
also worth noting that fewer oocytes were
scored as 0 for all the ascorbic acid
concentrations than the control. Therefore,
ascorbic acid addition did not interfere with
cumulus expansion and oocyte maturation
and in view of the results presented above
seems to indicate that adding ascorbic acid to
the maturation medium diminishes the
number of oocytes that show no signs of
nmaturation.
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

Table 1
The differences for ascorbic acid and their significance

Treatment Total Stage of The percentage of oocytes to have Significance

number of cumulus reached a certain stage of cumulus of
oocytes expansion expansion differences
M 210
0 12,38% -
1 10,95% -
2 20,48% -
3 21,91% -
4 34,28% -
C 50 252
0 3,57% ns
1 13,49% ns
2 25,40% ns
3 22,62% ns
4 34,92% ns
C 150 236
0 5,93% ns
1 10,59% ns
2 22,88% ns
3 30,51% ns
4 30,10% ns
C 250 215 ns
0 8,37% ns
1 20,47% ns
2 15,81% ns
3 19,17% ns
4 36,28% ns
C 500 232
0 3,02% ns
1 25,26% ns
2 28,02% ns
3 23,28% ns
4 25,43% ns
C 750 227
0 3,52% ns
1 14,57% ns
2 15,86% ns
3 30,84% ns
4 38,33% ns
ns - not significant (p>0,05); * - significant

\
The fact that oocytes that had undergone images in figure 3: one taken in visible light
culture were alive was confirmed by (figure 3a) and the other one in ultraviolet
fluorescent staining with FDA. Living cells light at 495 nm (figure 3b).
were highly fluorescent when compared with
dead ones, as can be inferred from the two

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

a b
Fig. 3. Flourescent-living and non-fluorescent-dead oocytes: a – visible ligh;
b – ultraviolet light at 495 nm (100x magnification)

Oocytes were then incubated with
spermatozoa in order for fertilization to occur
and the embryos were cultured in medium
supplemented with the same ascorbic acid
concentrations for 92 hours. The numbers of
embryos that had resulted for each treatment
was counted, all the stages such as 2 cells
(figure 4), 4 cells (figure 4)and morula
(figure 5) being taken into account. 233
embryos resulted, the rate being 18.1%.

Fig. 4. Embryos at 2 and 4-8 cells stage (100x Fig. 5. Embryos at the morula stage (200x
magnification) magnification)

The number was compared with the control and the differences analyzed using ANOVA
and interpreted using the Student test. The results can be seen in table 2.
Table 2
The percentage of embryos that developed during culture with ascorbic acid and the significance of
differences
Treatment Number of fertilized Percentage of developed Significance of
oocytes embryos differences
M 183 9,83% -
C 50 243 20,57% *
C 150 232 19,4% ns
C 250 195 17,44% ns
C 500 194 23,08% ns
C 750 242 16,94% ns
ns - not significant (p>0,05); * - significant (p<0,05)

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
The percentage of embryos that
developed in medium supplemented with
ascorbic acid was higher than the control
(9.83%) for all the treatments. The highest
values were registered for 500 µM (23.08%)
and 50 µM (20.57%) and the lowest for C750
(16.94%) and C250 (17.44%). The number of
embryos for 50 µM was statistically
significant. The results are similar to the
research conducted by Tatemoto et al.
(2001), where the addition of ascorbic acid to
the maturation and embryo culture media
resulted in a significant increase in the
number of embryos.
CONCLUSIONS
The results, as they have been presented
above lead to the following conclusions.
Fluorescein diacetate can be used to
easily differentiate between living that are
fluorescent and dead oocytes, which are dark.
Adding 50, 150, 500 and 750 mM
ascorbic acid to oocyte maturation medium
had a beneficial effect on cumulus oophorus
expansion and resulted in an increase in the
number of oocytes that were scored as 3 and
4, therefore being considered mature and in a
decrease in the number scored at 0. However
this number was not statistically significant.
After fertilization the number of embryos
that developed in medium supplemented with
50 µM ascorbic acid was statistically
significant and higher than the control,
indicating a beneficial effect.
REFERENCES
Journal articles
[1] Downs S.M.,: Specificity of epidermal growth
factor action on maturation of the murine oocyte
and cumulus oophorus in vitro, Biol. Reprod.,
1989, 41: 371–379.
[2] Droge W.,: Free radicals in the physiological
control of cell function, Physiology Reviews 2002,
82: 47–95.
- 40 -
[3] Ducibella T.,: Biochemical and cellular
insights into the temporal window of normal
fertilization, Theriogenology, 1998, 49: 53-65.
[4] Guerin P., Mouatassim S.E., Menezo Y.,:
Oxidative stres and protection against reactive
oxygen species in the preimplantation embryo and
its surroundings, Human Reproduction Update,
2001, 7(2):175-189.
[5] Homa S., Racow C., McGaughey R.,: Lipid
analysis of immature pig oocytes, Journal of
Reproduction and Fertility, 1986, 77: 425–434.
[6] Hossein, M.S., Hashem M.A., Jeong Y.W., Lee
M.S., Kim Sue, Kim J.H., Koo. O.J., Park S.M.,
Lee E.G., Park S.W., Kang S.K., Lee B.C., Hwang
W.S.,: Temporal effect of α-tocoferol and L-
ascorbic on in vitro fertilized porcine embryo
development, Animal Reproduction Science,
2007,100: 107-117.
[8] Kidson Anadie, In vitro embryo development
in the pig-impact of oocyte maturation milieu on
blastocyst morphology and viability, Faculty of
Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, 2004,
ISBN 90-393-3730-6.
[9] McEvoy T., Coull G., Broadbent P.,
Hutchinson J., Speake B.,: Fatty acid composition
of lipids in immature cattle pig and sheep oocytes
with intact zona pellucida, Journal of
Reproduction and Fertility, 2000,118: 163–170.
[10] Tao Y., Zhou B., Xia G., Wang F., Wu Z., Fu
M.,: Exposure to L-ascorbic acid or α-tocopherol
facilitates the development of porcine denuded
oocytes from metaphase I to metaphase II and
prevents cumulus cells from fragmentation,
Reprod. Dom. Anim, 2004,39 52–57.
[11] Tatemoto H., Ootaki K., Shigeta K., Muto
N.,: Enhancement of developmental competence
after in vitro fertilization of porcine oocytes by
treatment with ascorbic acid 2-O-alpha-glucoside
during in vitro maturation, Biology of
Reproduction, 2001, 65: 1800-1806.
[12] Warren S., Patel S., Kapron C.M.,: The effect
of vitamin E exposure on cadmium toxicity in
mouse embryo cells in vitro, Toxicology,
2000,142, 119–126.
Book
[7] Ladoşi I., Embriologie animală, Editura Victor
Melenti, Cluj-Napoca, 1999.
 BACK

Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

HORMONE-THERAPY – MANAGEMENT SOLUTION

FOR THE REPRODUCTION ENHANCEMENT AT SOW

Gh. Nacu, C. Pascal, Cecilia Pop

Faculty of Animal Sciences, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine

„Ion Ionescu de la Brad” Iasi, Romania
e-mail: nacu_gherasim@yahoo.com

Abstract
Researches were made in 1138 by Camborough sows, grouped into 3 groups as follows: WB
(witness batch ) - 462 sows of untreated hormone; EB 1 (experimental batch 1) - 436 sows
stimulated hormone in the weaning day; EB 2 (experimental batch 2 ) - 240 sows stimulate the
hormone at 10 days after weaning. Hormonal stimulating has been given intramuscularly to the
basis of the ear, with a dose of 5 ml PG 600. In all the batches was chased fecundity and dynamic
heat coming into a period of 30 days after weaning. Application of the treatment in the weaning day
resulted grouping heat in day 3 and day 4 after treatment (65.8% of sows in estrus at EB 1, and only
13.9% registered at the witness batch). Application of treatment to 10 days after weaning led to the
emergence of estrus following 5 days at 69.5% of sows. In the first 16 days after weaning have heat
66.6% of sows in WB, 82.1% of sows in EB 1 and 88.2% of sows in EB 2. Administration PG 600 in
weaning day led to reduced weaning-estru interval from 6.3 days to 3.9 days. For stimulate sows
hormonal in weaning day, fecundity was insignificant lower (74%) than the untreated sows(76.9%)
or stimulated sows at 10 days after weaning (78.1%). The hormone-therapy is an effective way
to improve results obtained in the reproduction sector because corrects some
reproduction indices (fecundity and prolificity) and contribute to more intensive use by
reducing the unproductive period at sows (weaning-estru interval).
Key words: sows, estrus, hormone therapy, management

INTRODUCTION purpose in research, we used the preparation

An efficient management in reproduction
sows to include measures for shortening the
unproductive periods (seasonal anestru,
weaning-estru period), to improve the
fecundity and prolificity. The function of
reproduction is directly influenced by the work
of neuro-endocrine sistem. To sow,
physiologic lactation anestrus is due to reduced
secretion of FSH and LH through negative
feedback exerted by Prolactin (produced in
large amount under the stimuli influence
represented by suckling) on the release of these
hormones. After weaning, folicular growth is
unlocked and most sows (60% -90%) [5] enter
in heat. There are situations where heat
occurring in large intervals of time after
weaning, the phenomenon is often caused by
high temperatures in summer season. For
routing reproduction function commonly used
hormonal preparations [1,2,3,4]. With this
PG 600.
MATERIAL AND METHODS OF
WORK
The biological material was represented
by 1138 of sows Camborough who had
between 2 and 5 birth, grouped into 3 groups
as follows: WB (witness batch) - 462 of
untreated hormonal sows; EB 1
(experimental batch 1) - 436 sows hormonal
stimulated in weaning day; BE 2
(experimental batch 2) - 240 sows hormonal
stimulate at 10 days after weaning.
Observations were made in the summer
season. Hormonal treatment consisted of
intramuscular inoculation, at the ear, a dose
of 5 ml PG 600. PG 600 contains 400 UI
FSH and 200 UI LH. In all batches, starting
the second day after weaning, has been the
discovery of sows in heat with boars. The

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

action took place over a period of 30 days.
Sows detected in heat were artificially
insemination twice within 12 hours, with
dose characterized by 80 ml volume and 3
billion mobile sperm. After insemination, the
following 2 intervals of 21 days ± 3 days, I
checked the heat returns, and based on the
results we calculated the fecundity. At birth
we held the prolificity.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
In the first 10 days after weaning entered
into heat 81.4% of hormone-treated sows on
weaning day (EB 1) and only 64.0% of the
unstimulated sows (WB) (table 1), differences
between groups were significant (p < 0.01).
The administration preparation based on
gonadotrop hormones resulted folicular
development and entry of grouped sows in
heat. Thus, if EB 1, on days 3 and 4 after
treatment, which correspond to days 3 and 4
after weaning entered the heat of sows 65.8%,
significantly more than in WB (13.9%).
Unlike the EB 1, sows on the WB entered
staggered in estru, registering the maximum
on day 5th of the weaning (13.6%).
The sows in to the EB 2 which do not
showed heat within 10 days after weaning were
inoculated with PG 600. The treatment
response to consisted, as in the batch EB 1,
grouping heat following 5 days when they
were discovered in estru 69.5% of treated sows
(26.6% of the herd wean). During the same
period, showed estru only 2.6% of the lot WB
and 0.7% of the lot EB 1. Between 17 and 30
days after weaning, the effect of hormonal
therapy has disappeared and the lot EB 2.
Thus, the proportion of sows that have entered
the heat was closer to the 3 lots (table 1).
Under the conditions mentioned in the 3-
30 days after weaning, the proportion of sows
that came into heat was 73.3% in the WB
group, 83.7% in the group EB 1 and 92.5%
in group EB 2.

Table 1
The dinamic of the estrus appearance
Days after The batch
1 2 3
weaning WB (No.= 462) EB1 (No. = 436) EB2 (No. = 240)
no. % no. % no. %
3 29 6,8 164 37,6 12 5,0
4 33 7,1 123 28,2 8 3,3
5 63 13,6 37 8,5 30 12,5
6 61 13,2 20 4,6 32 13,3
7 49 10,6 5 1,1 24 10,0
8 32 6,9 5 1,1 20 7,2
9 20 4,3 1 0,2 8 3,3
10 9 1,9 - - 14 5,8
3-10 269 64,0 355 81,4 148 61,6
11-16 12 2,6 3 0,7 64 26,6
17-30 31 6,7 7 1,6 10 4,2
3-30 339 73,3 365 83,7 222 92,5
1
sows of untreated hormone
2
sows hormonal stimulated in the weaning day
3
sows hormonal stimulated at 10 days after weaning

The fecundity at stimulated hormonal The average number of pigs produced /

sows in weaning day was slightly less
(74.0%) than that of untreatedd sows (76.9%)
or stimulated at 10 days after weaning
(78.1%) (Table 2) (p <0.5). The fecundity
slightly lower in sows lot of EB 1 may be due
to the short period between weaning and
insemination.
calving was slightly higher in stimulated
hormone sows (12.24 ± 0.11 piglets at EB 2,
12.01 ± 0.10 at EB lot, 11.94 ± 0.09 pigs at
lot WB).The sows to stimulate hormone was
obtained a slightly higher number of piglets
than in WB group, because hormonal
preparation used contains PMSG with
poliovulator effect.

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

Table 2
The sow´s fecundity
Batch Sows artificial Pregnancy sows (No.) Fecundity (%)
insemination (No.)
4
WB 308 237 76,9
5
EB1 358 265 74,0
6
EB2 64 50 78,1
4
sows of untreated hormone
5
sows hormonal stimulated in the weaning day
6
sows hormonal stimulated at 10 days after weaning

CONCLUSSIONS
Using the hormone therapy at sows is an
effective way to improve the results in
reproduction compartment because:
- PG 600 resulted grouped entry of sows
into heat and shortening the interval weaning
estru with 61.9%;
- hormone treatment resulted in
improvement the fecundity with 1.2% when
applied at 10 days after weaning and did not
diminished considerably when applied in
weaning day;
- stimulating hormone caused increased
the prolificity until to 0.3 piglets / farrowing.
The cumulative benefits mentioned are
arguments for using hormone-therapy as a
modern management measure applied in
reproduction farms.
REFERENCES
Journal articles
[1] Dial G.D., Bevier G. W.,: Pharmacologic
control of estrus in the pig, Theriogenology, 1989,
2: 912-914.
[2] Estiene M.J.,: Effects of PG 600 on the onset
of ovulation rate into gilts treated With Regumate,
Anim. Breed. Abstr., 2001, 70: 589
[3] Knox R.V., Althouse G.K.,: Administration of
PG 600 to sows at weaning and the time of
ovulation as determined ultrasound, J of Anim.
Sci., 2001, 79: 796-802.
[4] Rensis F., Benedetti S., Silva P., Kirkwood
R.N.,: Fertility of sows following artificial
insemination at a gonadotropin-induced estrus
coincident with weaning, Anim. Repr. Sci., 2003,
76: 245-250
Book:
[5] Tănase D.,: Cercetări asupra influenţei unor
factori stresanţi din combinatele de porci asupra
fertilităţii scroafelor, Teză doctorat IAI,1981.

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 BACK
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

RESEARCHES CONCERNING BREEDING PERFOMANCES

RECORDED TO PIC 1050 AND CAMBOROUGH SOWS
EXPLOITED IN SC SUINPROD SA ROMAN

B. Păsărin1, G. Hoha1, Elena Costăchescu1, I. Bănăţean Dunea2

1
Faculty of Animal Sciences, University of Agricultural Sciences
and Veterinary Medicine „Ion Ionescu de la Brad” Iasi, Romania
e-mail: pbeno@univagro-iasi.ro
2
U.S.A.M.V. a Banatului Timişoara

Through this paper, we proposed to establish the reproduction performances of sows PIC lines
exploited within a top unit in Moldova in swine husbandry - S.C.SUINPROD S.A. ROMAN. There
have been studied individuals resulted from GP 1050 and Camborough sows, following the
standard working protocol in the unit. Comparing the fecundity values, they passed over 81 % in
both groups (PIC 1050 – 81.72 %; Camborough – 81.90 %), suggesting thus that both groups
present special maternal features. Average prolificacy of the sows, expressed as the amount of
farrowed pigs, was higher in Camborough sows (12.11 piglets / parturition) as compared to PIC
1050 sows (11.33 piglets / parturition), meaning + 6.8%. Both achieved values were in accordance
with the data specified by the scientific references. Piglets casualties, in both groups, were less than
10%, compared to the references, which indicate 15 % casualties till weaning. The reduced casualty
percentage could be explained by both better sows quality and provided technological conditions
during gestation, parturition and weaning. From the analysis of the achieved performances at GP
1050 and Camborough sows, it revealed that these females present remarkable maternal qualities:
very good fecundity, high prolificacy, docile temperament and long lasting exploitation period.
Key words: sows, PIC, performance, reproduction

INTRODUCTION The biological material comprised PIC

Swine husbandry the main meat
producing industry in the world and in
Romania, meaning 50% of the total meat
yield (live weight). Almost the same
proportion could be observed in human
consumption for this product.
Quality and efficiency of this production
branch depends to the greatest extent of the
genetic value of the pigs used for
reproduction, of feeding and accommodation
technologies, being also able to highlight the
existing genetic potential.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Through this work, we proposed to
establish the reproduction performances
(fecundity, prolificacy, amount of piglets
brought forth alive, amount of weaned piglets
etc.) achieved by the PIC sows used under
intensive system at S.C. SUINPROD S.A.
ROMAN.
1050 and Camborough sows, usually used
within the previously mentioned company.
PIC 1050 females are used in the
hybridization farm, to produce Camborough
sows. These are used within the complex to
cross with terminal boars, in order to produce
industrial hybrids for slaughter. The sows
have been studied since the beginning of
their reproductive life, till their culling.
The working method included the groups
of animals, meaning 50 individuals from
each bloodline. The experimental conditions
were those commonly applied by the
production technology in the unit, the
technological flow being undisturbed.
The animals received identical conditions
of accommodation and feeding throughout
the experimental period.

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS hours prior to ovulation. This period mainly

1. PIC sows fecundity comprises the time required by
Speaking about fecundity, specifically for spermatozoids ascension and capacitating
females, it is analyzed the real situation of through the uterine horns (between 15-20
the females that become pregnant after minute) and through the oviduct (2-4 hours)
mating or artificial insemination. [1, 6].
Concerning the optimal insemination The data concerning the PIC 1050 and
moment of sows, it was found that the best Camborough sows fecundity are given in
fertility was achieved when females were tab.1 and fig. 1.
inseminated with 10, respectively with 6

Table 1
Fecundity of the PIC sows, depending on the parturitions chronology

o Fecundity (%)
Parturition n PIC 1050 sows Camborough sows
I 82.2 80.6
II 83.8 83.1
III 82.9 83.4
IV 81.7 82.1
V 80.0 80.3
Average ( X ) 81.75 81.90
Fisher test n.s. n.s.

PIC 1050 Cam borough

85
83,8 83,4
83,1 82,9
83 82,2
81,7 82,1 81,75 81,9
80,6
81 80 80,3
%

79

77

75
I II III IV V Media
Fătarea

Fig. 1 Fecundity of the PIC sows, depending on parturitions chronology

Comparing the values recorded in the 2
analyzed sows lines, it could be observed that
the average fecundity is very good, over 81%
in both groups (PIC 1050 - 81.72%;
Camborough - 81.90%), which indicates that
the two groups of sows have very well
maternal features. There were also found
differences between parturitions. Therefore, it
was found an ascendant fecundity curve till
the 2nd parturition (PIC line 1050) or until the
3rd one (Camborough), which decreased
towards the end of the reliable exploitation
period, registering a fecundity of about 80.0%,
during the 5th parturition, in both liner.
Consequently, sows aged, while the fecundity
decreased. There were not found statistical
differences between the two groups of sows.
The achieved results were comprised within

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

the limits set by the literature on fertility
(between 80 - 92.5%) [4, 5, 7, 8].
The descending slope of the fecundity
curve, observed during ageing, is normal,
knowing that the parturition succession lead
to lower resistance of the organism and
increase the occurrence possibility of some
common gynecological disorders.
2. Prolificacy of the PIC sows,
depending on season
Reproductive capacity of swine is
evaluated through prolificacy, which
supposes the appliance and compliance with
a complex of activities and measures, some
dependent of animal, others related to the
environmental conditions, finalizing with the
amount and quality of weaned piglets, during
a year of production. Higher the weaned
piglets amount and better their quality, better
is considered the fertility. Therefore, it is not
sufficient to have sows with high fecundity
and prolificacy, because these qualities need
to be accompanied by high milking capacity,
by sows care for piglets and by the human
removal of any events causing descendants
mortality during pre-and postnatal periods,
until weaning.
Prolificacy is conditioned by ovulation
rate, fecundity, nidation of zygotes, as well as
by embryonic and fetal mortality.
Prolificacy is a very important
reproductive index, assessed by the amount
of farrowed piglets. Data on the PIC sows
prolificacy, related to season, are presented in
tab. 2.

Table 2
Prolificacy of the PIC sows, depending on season

Piglets Piglets Total Weaned

Weaned
farrowed farrowed farrowed piglets from
Season piglets
alive dead piglets farrowed
(capitis)
(capitis) (capitis)) (capitis) ones (%)
PIC 1050 10.63 0.68 11.31 10.20 90.26
Winter Camborough 11.52 0.62 12.14 11.12 91.60
PIC 1050 10.75 0.78 11.53 10.30 89.41
Spring Camborough 11.64 0.66 12.30 11.25 90.72
PIC 1050 10.61 0.66 11.27 10.18 90.48
Summer Camborough 11.14 0.81 12.05 10.62 90.54
PIC 1050 10.49 0.70 11.19 9.92 89.12
Autumn Camborough 11.14 0.81 11.95 10.62 90.54
Annual PIC 1050 10.62 0.71 11.33 10.15 89.92
average Camborough 11.43 0.68 12.11 11.06 91.07

Comparing the results achieved by both
sow groups, we observe that the reproduction
performances were similar during the four
seasons.
From the data presented in tab. 2, it was
found that the amounts of piglets farrowed
alive were close during the 4 seasons,
resulting that in intensive growing
conditions, when the appropriate rearing
technology is fulfilled, the season has low
influence on sows prolificacy.
The highest amount of farrowed piglets
was achieved from both PIC lines, during
spring, while the lowest one was recorded
during autumn. The possible causes which
led to these results, could be the
reminiscences inherited from the ancestral
wild pig, when parturitions passed during
spring, while for the autumn season, the
excessive heat during summer overlaps with
pregnancy, leading thus to modest results.
It was also noticed that the greatest
amount of piglets have been achieved by the
Camborough sows. The difference against
the 1050 PIC sows was 8.96% (0.91 capitis).
It should also be noticed the very high
percentage of weaned piglets, from the
farrowed ones, meaning approximately 90%

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

in both groups, which demonstrate the
excellent potential as good mothers of the
PIC sows and the very well technology
practiced in the unit.
Literature [2, 4, 5, 6, 8] indicates a
survival rate of 85-94% for the weaned
piglets, basing on the amount of the farrowed
ones. This proves that the productions
achieved within the S.C. SUINPROD
ROMAN S.A. are very good.
3. Prolificacy of the PIC sows,
according to the parturition chronology
Age sows may affect prolificacy in that
sows passing over 3.5 years, which have
decreasing reproduction indexes, while those
too young are not fully physiologically
prepared.
Concerning the sows prolificacy, as
influenced by age, data in literature indicate
that best reproduction results are obtained
during the 3rd, 4th and 5th parturition,
regardless the breed, so between the ages of 2
and 3 years. However, the sow live weight
should not exceed 160 kg.
Regarding the prolificacy of the sows, as
influenced by age, the data from both sows
groups are presented in tab.3 and fig. 2.

Table 3
Prolificacy of the PIC sows, depending on the parturitions chronology

Piglets Piglets Total Weaned

Weaned
farrowed farrowed farrowed piglets from
Season piglets
alive dead piglets farrowed
(capitis)
(capitis) (capitis)) (capitis) ones (%)
I PIC 1050 10,50 0,78 11,28 9,92 87,94
Camborough 11,20 0,73 11,93 10,68 89,50
II PIC 1050 10,59 0,70 11,33 10,20 90,34
Camborough 11,34 0,66 12,00 10,95 91,10
III PIC 1050 10,80 0,62 11,42 10,44 91,42
Camborough 11,65 0,61 12,26 11,33 92,41
IV PIC 1050 10,72 0,66 11,38 10,18 89,46
Camborough 11,58 0,64 12,22 11,24 91,59
V PIC 1050 10,50 0,77 11,27 10,02 88,91
Camborough 11,38 0,74 12,12 11,00 90,75
Annual PIC 1050 10,62 0,71 11,33 10,15 89,92
average Camborough 11,43 0,68 12,11 11,06 91,07

PIC 1050 Camborough

12.5 12,26 12,22 12,12 12,11
11,93 12
11.9 11,42
11,28 11,33 11,38 11,27 11,33
Capete

11.3
10.7
10.1
9.5
I II III IV V Media
Fătarea anuală

Fig. 2 Amount of piglets farrowed by the PIC sows

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
From the data presented in tab. 3, it could
be noticed that prolificacy, expressed by the
amount of farrowed piglets calved, was
higher in Camborough sows than in the PIC
1050 ones, during the 5 parturitions.
Expressed in relative terms, these differences
were comprised between 5.91% and 7.54%.
The percentage of piglets farrowed alive
was in both groups of sows (93.73% at PIC
1050 and 94.38% at Camborough), which
demonstrates the very well genetic potential
of the PIC sows.
Concerning the amount of dead farrowed
piglets, the average values were close in both
groups (0.71 capitis in PIC 1050 and 0.68
capitis in Camborough).
Prolificacy of the high productivity
hybrids is situated between 12.05 and 13.2
piglets/farrowing [1, 5, 6, 7, 8], meaning that
the performances achieved within the S.C.
ROMAN SUINPROD S.A. company were
situated at the lower limit.
CONCLUSIONS
1. Fecundity was poorly influenced by
parturition chronology at all studied sows,
the differences recorded in the 5 observed
parturitions being very low.
2. Comparing the fecundity values
recorded at the 2 analyzed sows lines, it
could be observed a very well average value,
passing over 81% in both groups (PIC 1050 -
81.72%; Camborough - 81.90%), indicating
that the sows in both groups have special
maternal features.
3. The average prolificacy, expressed by
the farrowed piglets amount, was higher in
Camborough sows (12.11 piglets/farrowing)
than in PIC 1050 sows (11.33
piglets/farrowing), meaning a difference of
6.8%. Both values were comprised within the
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literature recommendations for this
parameter.
4. Piglets casualties, recorded in both
groups, were below 10%, compared with the
literature statement (around 15%) until
weaning moment. They could be due both to
the very good sows quality and technological
conditions provided during gestation and
from farrowing to weaning, as well.
REFERENCES
Journal articles
[2] Farmer C., Robert S. and Matte J.J., 1996 –
Lactation performance of sows fed a bulky diet
during gestation and receiving growth hormone
releasing factor during lactation, Journal of
Animal Science, vol.74, pg. 1298-1306
[3] Johnson R.K., 2000 – Maternal heterosis in
swine: productive performance and dam
productivity, Journal of Animal Science, vol.40,
pg. 1021-1026
[4] Mc Glone J.J., and Hicks T.A., 2006 –
Farrowing hut design and sow genotype
(Camborough vs. 25% Meishan) effects on
outdoor sow and litter productivity, Journal of
Animal Science, vol.78, pg. 2832-2835
[5] Păsărin B., Stan T., Tărăboanţă Gh., Gîlcă I.,
1999 – Researches regarding the influence of Hal
and hal gene son some production and
reproduction indices at sows, Lucrări ştiinţifice
U.A.M.V. Iaşi, vol.41-42
[6] Tănase D. şi col., 1990 – Dinamica unor indici
de reproducţie la scroafe în raport cu intensitatea
de folosire la reproducţie a vierilor, Lucrări
ştiinţifice vol. 33-34, Institutul Agronomic Iaşi,
seria Zootehnie-Medicină Veterinară
Books
[1] Cuc Aurelia, 1981- Optimizarea criteriilor de
selecţie pentru obţinerea materialului porcin de
prăsilă în fermele de elită – Teză de doctorat;
U.Ş.A.M.V. Bucureşti
[7] Buletine Informative PIC, colecţia 2003-2007
[8] www.hypor.com
 BACK

Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

INTRARASIAL TYPE OF BIG

MOLDOVAN KARAKUL SHEEP

I. Buzu, Silvia Evtodienco, O. Maşner, P. Liuţkanov

Institute of Zootechny and Veterinary Medicine

Abstract
The purpose of research is to create a new intraraceal type of Karakul sheep, which would ensure
a high productivity of fur leather, meat, milk. Was used a method of growing through cross-breeding of
sheep of indigenous breed named Tsushca with those from Karakul classic breed of asian type. As a
result was created a new type of sheep population named Moldavian Flesh Karakul, with a typical
exterior for Karakul race, from which will be obtained 68,5-71,2% of fur leather of highest sorts with a
large surface (1839 cm2). Body mass of adult rams is 89.0 - 98.5 kg, of sheep - 55.5 - 57.2 kg. Ewe’s
production of milk is 76,6-80 kg. Ewe’s genotype is 12.5 - 25.0% share of blood of Tsushca breed and
87.5 - 75.0% of Asian Karakul breed. New type of Karakul sheep breed overcomes the classical
Karakul breed mass body with 45.1%, milk production with 53.2% and fur leather surface with 31.3%.
Mass of reformed sheep carcass after the fattening is 32.3 ± 1.0 kg, of 6 months lambs- 16.6 ± 0.3 kg.
The slaughter benefit is respectively 54.8% and 47.5%.
Key words: Type, sheep, Karakul fur leather, meat, milk

INTRODUCTION MATERIALS AND METHODS

In Moldova there are around 800
thousand sheep, 400 thousand of which are
Karakul breed, Tsushca and their metisses
(Karakul x Tsushca). These sheep breeds
ensure, firstofall, food security of rural
population with dairy products (cheese,
urda), meat and the manufacturing processes
raw materials ( fur leather, fur, skins, wool).
The sheep use effectively to feed the natural
pastures and crop residues as a result of
harvesting crops. Therefore, sheepbreeding is
an accessible branch, essential to the rural
population. Nearly 95% of the sheepherd is
in individual sector, but their productivity is
not high. From one sheep it is obtained
annual an average of 40-45 kg milk, 7-8 kg
meat, 2,0-2,2 kg wool, and 10-15 % fur
leather of high quality, which is inferior to
economical requests of this branch. To
increase the production potential of animals
is required a genetic improvement of
autochton sheep breed, which is scientifically
argued, taking in consideration the
biological characteristics of sheep and
historical traditions of our people.
As a biological material for researches,
have served the aboriginal sheep breed
Tsushca, classic breed Karakul (Asian),
imported from Central Asia countries
(Uzbechistan, Turkmenistan) and their
metisses of different generations.
Tsushca sheep breed is described by
researchers [6,7,8] as animals which are easy
to feed and maintain, with robust
constitution, resistant body to different
diseases and environements, but at the same
time, with a low productivity for the mixed
type of milk-fur leather-wool. The sheep
body has a pear-shaped form, the head is
elongate with a right profile, with horns or
without horns, small ears, short and thin or
long tails. The udder has a globular shape
with well-developed nipples. Tsushca sheep
have a good milk production which is over
100 kg per lactation. [8] Their body mass is
about 42-45 kg. Their prolificity is 105-
107%. Average yield of raw wool is 2,5-3,0
kg. Rams have horns twisting in a spiral with
very robust members, hoof horn resistant to
necrobacterioziz, and body mass of 60-65 kg.
From Tsushca lambs, slaughtered at 2-3 days
after birth can be obtained fur leather with

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low quality loops, attributed to the
assortment of "smushca". On the main
regions of fur leather (buttocks, back) are
separated non-valuable ring-type loops, half
rings and peas, on the lateral sides overbear
loops of snail type, and smoothness. The
pilose covering consists of overgrown fibers,
which are rough, with gloss or opaque
appearance, fibers pigmentation is reduced-
black, and the light grey fur leathers are
mixed with white fibers.
Classic Karakul breed is famous in the
world for its valuable and unique loops
characteristics of lambs fur leather,
slaughtered at 1-3 days after birth, this is well
described by a number of notorious
researchers [3,4,10]. However, pure Karakul
sheep breed of import manifest in Republic
of Moldova, also some negative features such
as low resistance to a number of helmintious
and respiratory diseases, a law potential of
milk and meat production (small body mass).
In this context, our purpose was to create a
new intrarasial sheep type, which would
combine a good quality of fur leathers loops,
inherited from Karakul breed, with a high milk
productivity, inherited from Tsushca race and
a high body mass development (potential for
meat), obtained by selection. At different
stages of this type creating, various methods of
research and breeding have been applied.
At the first stage (1978-1985) was
implemented a method of growing through
cross breeding of Karakul sheep breed with
Tsushca, according to the following schedule
(Figure. 1). To infuse gene (We) of quetsch
color has been practiced heterogeneous mating
of black sheep (Karakul and metise) with
Tsushca rams and quetsch metisses (Karakul X
Tsushca) especially selected, and the metis
quetsch sheep (initially there were no quetsch
Karakul sheep in the flock) with black Karakul
rams. Since third-generation all metise females,
with different participation rate to Karakul
breed (3 / 4 and 7 / 8), and the Karakul breed
sheep, were mated, in biggest part with metis
rams of their own reproduction. Since 1982
imports of rams from Republic of Moldova, has
been suspended. Selection works were done
through the method of increasing the sheep herd
"in itself". The biggest part of sheep genotypes
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remained 12,5% share of blood Tsushca breed
and 87,5% share of Karakul breed.
In the second phase (1986-1996) were
applied well-known methods of intensive
selection in order to improve the
characteristics of quetsch by using their
breeding rams, tested after the qualities of
progeny fur leather.
At the third stage (1997-2000) was
practiced the targeted, progressive method of
selection according to the three main
characters: fur leather quality (class), body
mass and milk production. At this stage we
sought to maintain the quality of fur leather
and milk production at the already attained
sufficient level, and to increase essentially
the animals body weight (meat production
potential). Were selected the most burliness
breeders, mostly without horns. Were set
minimal limits of characters for sheep
selection in weeding nucleuses: the fur
leather quality - class I, body mass: rams - 85
kg, sheep - 50 kg, mutton of 18 months - 65
kg, ewe lamb - 44 kg, rams of 6 months - 35
kg, ewe lambs of 6 months - 30 kg, milk
production per lactation -65 kg.
The fourth phase (2001-2005) was a
period of consolidation, at a desirable level, of
morphoproductiv characteristics in the sheep
population genotype, with a well defined
structure type. In the list of continuers lines
were selected only tested young rams after the
progeny qualities, by applying methods of
imunogenetical monitoring and being
confirmed as enhancers.
The qualities of lamb fur leather were
examined 1-2 days after delivery by the
methods indicated in the USSR Instructions
(Samarkand, 1989) of Karakul lambs
inventory [9] - at first stages of research and
selection, using the methods developed by
the authors of this work [1] - the second
phase of research and selection. Milk
production of sheep was assessed by control
milking over the entire lactation, according to
the method of T. Nica [2].Animal body
developing was determined by their
individual weigh at birth, at age of 20 days,
age of 60 days, 6 months, 18 months, and all
adult sheep - annually before monti, at the
end of October. In the warm period (May-

November) sheep were brought to grazing
natural meadows and lands with stubble, in
the cold period (December-April) - the
stabulation, feeding them with corn silage,
straw and concentrates, according to
zootechnical rules.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
During the period of about 25 years,
beginning with selection and growth work of
sheep sovkhoz of Cotovski (Cainari district)
and continuing with selection work at
breeding farms of National Institute of
Zootechny and Veterinary Medicine and at
CAP «Agrosargal", has been created a new
intrarasial sheep type for fur leather-milk-
meat, called by some researchers [13] as an
intensive type, whith special features
comparing to baseline breeds. Karakul sheep
of Moldovan type is characterized by
uniformity of individuals appearances
represented by three color varieties – black,
light grey and grey.
Rams are burliness have robust
constitution, an oblong head with convex
profile, long ears, hanging down (drooping),
Table 1
Inventory lambs ratings from IZMV flock
Inventory year,
specification n Elite
head
2004, total 392 80
including, light 160 28
grey
2005, total 362 84
including, light 105 16
grey
In 2004-2005, high classes lambs share
was about 76-77% in the whole flock , 20,4-
23,2% of which were of the highest class
(elite). Most lambs had desired loop types:
jackets (tubular) - 49.6%, costal - 18.9% and
flatten - 13.9%. The unwanted types – that
kaukazian had only 17.5% of lambs. Lambs
at birth are well developed in size of body
length and height waist. Slaughting them, is
obtained fur leather mostly of highest sorts,
with a big surface, which determines their
Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
long and strong neck, long and straight or
slightly convex back, long and splay groat,
palm and massive tail, formed in two
emphasized parts, almost reaching jarets, the
top of tail is thin, forming "S" and hanging
below jarets. The trunk has a cylindrical
shape, with strong legs, parallel located.
Requested rams type, in their majority are
hornless, or with just horns rudiments, after
their temperament and neuro-physiological
type are mildler as the asian Karakul type.
Sheep are also very well developed, with
robust constitution, elongate head elongate
with a less convex profile, long, hanging
ears, elongate neck, straight or slightly
convex back, a pear-shaped trunk, and long
legs. Well-developed mammary glands. All
sheep are hornless.
Fur leather production
New born lambs of Moldovan Karalul
type have a silky pilose coating, consisting of
valuable loops that mostly correspond (over
70%), to the inventory requirements of upper
classes - elite and class I (Table1).
Lambs classes
I Class II Class
% head % head %
20,4 222 56,6 90 23,0
17,5 83 51,9 49 30,6
23,2 191 52,8 87 24,0
15,2 52 49,5 37 35,3
commercial value. (tab. 2). Despite the fact
that to slaughtening were delivered only
lambs which hadn’t met the requirements for
reproduction, the fur leather share of Ist sort
was quite high - about 65,5-68,5%. The
average usefull surface of fur leather is over
1800 cm2, which exceeds with 28.6% the
standard Karakul breed (1400 cm2). Under
the grading standards in force, 85.5 - 90.6%
of fur leather surface is large (> 1400 cm2).
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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

Table 2
The quality of merchandising fur leather, obtained from Karakul lambs of Moldovan type
*
type, fur leather sort Period of research
2003 2004 2005
pcs % pcs % pcs. %
Pure Karakul 125 89,9 158 90,8 146 90,1
Including: Ist sort 87 62,6 110 63,2 107 66,0

of which: jacket type 42 33,6 35 22,2 49 45,8

Ist costal type 12 9,6 27 17,1 24 22,4
Ist flat type 13 10,4 30 19,0 19 17,8
Ist kaukazian type 20 16,0 18 11,4 15 14,0
ON THE WHOLE 139 100 174 100 162 100
Including: Ist sort 92 66,2 114 65,5 111 68,5
Fur leather average
2
surface, cm 1744±25 1677±20 1839±26
including: big >1400 126 90,6 149 85,6 143 88,3
very big >1800 50 36 60 34,5 92 56,8
medium 900 - 1400 13 9,4 25 14,4 19 11,7
small 700 - 900 - - - - - -

* Note: Fur leather sorting was done according ГОСТ requierements – 8748-70, 2865-68, 11124-
65 and 10327-75

There are up to 56.8% of fur leather with
very large surface (> 1800 cm2). Practically
there are no fur leather with small surfaces.
Milk production
Control of milk production performance,
during 2003-2005 showed that Moldovan
type of Karakul sheep has an increased
potential of this productive character (tab. 3).

Table 3
Milk production of Moldovan type of Karakul sheep
Year nb Lactation term, days Milk production per lactation,
kg
2003 119 174,2±2,7 72,4±1,3
2004 163 171,8±1,8 78,0±1,5
2005 209 157,5±1,3 77,8±1,1
Average 491 166,3±1,8 76,6±1,3

The average milk yield of sheep per
lactation with an average duration of 166.3
days was 76.6 kilograms, and in the most
favorable year (2004) - 78.0 ± 1.5 kg. It is
important to notice that a part of sheep
(40.5%) had a milk production over 80 kg
per lactation. Sheep-recorder registered with
no 8846 produced during 170 days - 139 kg
of milk. In the lactation diagram is registered
the maximum production of milk per day at
40-45 days after lactation (in May), and then
in June, it is decreasing a little bit in August,
and subsequently, in September-October is
suddenly diminishing. According to chemical
composition (Table. 4) and physical
properties, Moldovan Karakul sheep milk has
a higher value compared to other sheep
breeds known throughout the world [8,11].

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

Table 4
Chemical composition and physical properties of Moldovan Karakul sheep milk
Quantitative indicators (M±m)
Color of
Milk Total of
sheep Total of
n production Fat Casein dry Acidity Density
pilose protein, 0 0
per % % substance, T A
coating %
lactation, kg %
Black 46 80,9±3,5 7,5±0,4 5,2±0,3 4,0±0,2 18,3±0,7 21,7±0,8 35,2±0,8
Light grey 37 77,9±4,5 7,8±0,4 5,6±0,3 4,3±0,3 18,8±0,5 21,2±0,9 35,0±0,5
Grey 17 95,4±5,8 7,9±0,4 5,3±0,3 4,2±0,2 18,2±0,5 21,9±0,8 33,8±0,9

Content of dry matters is on average 18,2-
18,8%, exceeding average sheep species with
5,1% [11], including fat content with 14,9%.
The content of dry substances varies from 16,0-
17,4% - in the first half of lactation and up to
19,4-20,4%, in second half of lactation. Fats are
on average 7.5 - 7.9%, with a lowest level (6,4-
6,8%) in the first half of lactation and higher
(8,2-9,3) in the second half. Total protein in
milk is on average 5,2-5,6%, with deviations
from 4,3-4,8%, in the first half of lactation and
5,6-6,4% in the second half, from which the
caseins in lactating are on average 4,0-4,3%,
with variation of 3,5-3,7% in the first half of
lactation and 4,4-4,9% in the second half.
Average acidity per lactation is 21,2-21,9o T, the
density 34,0-35,2 o A. From Karakul sheep milk
is prepared Moldovan traditional cheese, with
increased content of dry nutrients and with
delicious specific taste qualities.
Body development and meat production
Results of body measurements show
certainly (tab. 5) that the new created type is
a part of sheep population with high waist,
with back height of 76.8 ± 1.8 cm for rams
and 64.6 ± 0.4 cm for sheep.

Table 5
Body measurements of Moldovan Karakul sheep, cm (M±m)
New type rams New type sheep New type Asian type
Specification Breeders Rams of (N=20) ewes sheep
(N=10) 18 mths (N=23) (N=35)
(N=4)
Hight at the top 76,8±1,8 69,7±1,5 **64,6±0,4 60,1±0,4 61,6±0,3
Hight at the
80,8±2,0 77,0±1,7 ***69,9±0,7 64,7±0,5 66,9±0,5
croupe
Chest depth 37,3±0,8 34,3±3,7 ***33,1±0,4 29,7±0,4 29,8±0,3
Chest width 25,3±0,8 24,7±3,7 *21,1±0,3 18,8±0,2 20,3±0,2
Chest perimeter 100,5±1,7 92,3±0,7 ***86,9±0,9 77,4±0,9 77,7±0,5
Oblique length of 90,7±1,8 86,0±1,5 ***81,9±0,7 76,2±0,5 65,7±0,3
the trunk
Width at hips 20,8±0,3 17,3±0,3 19,0±0,2 15,5±0,2 -
groats
Groat width at 15,2±0,5 14,3±0,9 12,7±0,3 10,5±0,2 -
makloks
Whistle 11,3±0,2 11,3±0,3 8,3±0,1 7,8±0,1 7,9±0,2
perimeter
**P≤0,01; ***P≤0,001

Thorax is sufficiently developed with a
clear superiority of depth. Chest perimeter is
100.5 ± 1.7 cm for rams and 86.9 ± 0.9 cm
for sheep. The body is rather long, at both
males and females. Body length for rams is
90.7 ± 0.3 and 81.9 ± 0.7 cm for sheep. The
posterior train is also well developed. Width
groats at the hips for rams is 20.8 ± 0.3 cm,
and for sheep - 19.0 ± 0.2 cm. Thus,
Moldovan Karakul sheep is significantly

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

higher compared to Asian Karakul sheep on
top - with 4.9% (P ≤ 0.01), the rump - with
4.0% (P ≤ 0.01) have a more developed and
extensive thorax, and the perimeter - with 9.2
cm (P ≤ 0001). The most pronounced
superiority of the new type of sheep is
manifested by body length. Thus, the new
type of sheep are longer compared to
Karakulul Asian sheep with 16.2 cm (P ≤
0001). The sheep body conformation is a
dolicomorf type, specific to this breed.

Table 20
Body clues of Moldovan Karakul sheep, %
Breeding Rams Sheep Ewes
Body clu rams Ewes (n=20) (n=23)
(n=10) (n=4)
Body format 120,2±4,4 123,6±4,6 126,9±1,2 127,9±1,9
(obl. length/ top hight) x 100 %
Robustness 110,6±2,7 107,4±1,5 106,4±1,5 97,6±4,0
(chest perim./obl. length) x 100 %
Thorax 67,8±2,3 71,8±10,0 63,8±1,1 63,4±0,6
(thor. width/tor. depth) x 100 %
Skeleton 14,8±0,3 16,3±0,5 12,8±0,2 13,0±0,2
(whistle perim./ top hight) x 100 %

Body size has a rectangle shape at rams
and trapeze at ewes, with width, depth and
length good emphasized. Thus the oblique
trunk length exceeds the height values at top
with 20.2% - for rams, and 26.9% - for
sheep. The same thing is observed at young
sheep. Thorax clu has high values: at rams -
67.8 ± 2.3% at ewe lambs - 71.8 ± 10.0%), at
sheep - 63.8 ± 1.1% and at ewes - 63.4 ±
0.6%. These, generally, reflect a large
habitus, big and long body, which obviously
correlates with positive potential of meat
production of the animal.
New type sheep are quite precocious,
starting even from intrauterine development
stage. It was found that young sheep body
mass, at all ages, overcome that of standard
Asian Karakul breed (tab. 6).

Table 6
Dynamic of body weight development at Moldovan Karakul lambs, kg
Young Breed 2003 (N=210) 2004 (N=164) 2005 (N=193)
sheep age standard M±m Cv, % M±m Cv,% M±m Cv,%
At birth 4,0 4,5±0,1 17,5 4,4±0,1 19,3 5,2±0,1 19,7
At 20 days 7,5 7,7±0,3 24,7 7,9±0,2 21,5 9,1±0,2 20,3
At 3 months 15,0 19,8±0,7 23,4 22,4±0,6 21,2 23,7±0,4 16,5
(weaning)

Body mass of lambs (2005) was: at birth
5.2 ± 0.1 kg, at the age of 20 days - 9.1 ± 0.2
kg, at 3 months - 23.7 ± 0.4 kg, by this clu
exceeding Asian Karakul lambs, respectively
with 30.0, 21.3 and 58.0.
At the age of 6 months new type Karakul
lambs reach body mass of 35 - 40 kg and
ewe lambs 32 -35 kg (Table 7).
At the age of 18 months, ewe rams has a
body mass of 65 - 70 kg and the ewes
weighing 45 - 50 kg, what is more than the
standard race, with 27 and respective with
19%. The intensity of relative growth of
young sheep from birth to the age of 20 days
was (2005) 75.0%, from age of 20 days to
weaning (3 months) -157%, from age of 3
months up to 6 months -- 48%, from 6
months up to 18 months - 52%.
Rams-breeders had over the years (2003-
2005), average body mass of 91.9 ± 3.3 kg,
ranging from 88.2 up to 98.5 kg, adult sheep
- 52,9-57, 2 kg, rams of 18 months - 69,6-
73,3 kg.

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

Table 7
Body mass of Moldovan Karakul sheep (M±m), kg
Year Average
Specification 2003 2004 2005
n M±m n M±m n M±m M±m
Rams breeders 15 88,2±3,0 11 89,0±2,2 9 98,5±2,9 91,9±3,3
Sheep 543 52,9±0,5 493 57,2±0,4 496 55,5±0,3 55,2±1,3
Rams of 18 mths 6 73,3±1,9 4 70,0±2,1 5 69,6±1,7 71,0±1,2
Ewes of 18 mths 286 49,0±0,5 245 52,1±0,5 178 49,3±0,4 50,1±1,0
Lambs of 6 mths 6 43,0±1,2 5 40,0±3,1 7 41,2±2,6 41,4±0,9
Ewe lambs of 6 283 30,1±0,3 232 34,4±0,4 287 32,5±0,3 32,3±1,2
mths

Body mass of 18 months ewes was on
average 49.0, 52.1, and 49.3 kg properly.
Lambs of 6 months selected for breeding,
had body mass of 40.0 - 43.0 kg. Body mass
of 6 months ewe lambs ranged on average
from 30.1 ± 0.3 up to 34.4 ± 0.4 kg. New
type Karakul sheep have a well developed
body and respectively a high potential of
meat production (tab. 8).

Table 8
Values of main slaughtering clues of Moldovan Karakul sheep
Adult sheep (reformed) Lambs of 6 mths
Specification % at BM % at BM
M±m before M±m before
slaught slaught
Body mass before slaughtering, kg 64,6±1,1 100 35,8±0,3 100
Carcass weight, kg 32,3±1,0 50,0 16,6±0,3 46,7
Internal fat 2,97±0,4 4,6 0,32±0,1 0,87
Yield of cutting, % 54,8 47,5

At adult sheep slaughtering reformed
with body mass before slaughtering of 64.6 ±
1.1 kg, were collected carcasses weighing
32.3 ± 1.0 kg, which is 50.0% of weight
before slaughtering. Carcasses were covered
with a uniform layer of fat. At halfcarcasses
could be observed a good developing
longitudinal muscle. The meat is dark brown
color. Return to slaughter (which includes the
carcass with kidney and internal fat), at
slaughtered sheep was - 54, 8%, which could
be compared with other famous sheep breeds
in the world [12, 13].
At the slaughtering of 6 months lambs
with body weight of 35.8 ± 0.3 kg, was
obtained carcasses with average weight of
16.6 ± 0.3 kg. Percentage report of carcass
from the mass of slaughtering of lambs is
46.7%. Yield of cutting of slaughtered lambs
is 47.5%, exceeding the metis breeds for
meat [5]. Young sheep meat, at this age, has
a pale red color, with moderate saturation of
intramuscular fat, which has aspecifical and
juicy delicious taste, buttocks are well
developed, with considerable fat deposits
what is specific to Karakul breed.
Regarding general appearance of sheep
and lambs carcasses, both are long, the main
parts muscles are sufficiently developed,
having a layer of pericorporal fat, with a
well commercial appearance what is
important to make growth the Karakul sheep
in Moldovan economic conditions in present
and for the future.
Intrarasial type of Moldovan Fat Karakul
sheep was ratified by the Board Member and
approved by order of the Ministry of
Agriculture and Food Industry No.. 238 of
23. 12. 2007 as achieved selection.
CONCLUSIONS
1. In Republica of Moldova was created
and ratified a new sheep type „Big Moldovan
Karakul”.

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
2. Karakul sheep of moldovan type differ
from classical Karakul breed of Asian type
by more developed body mass and incresed
milk production, they also have a better
resistance to some diseases and pedo-
climatic calamities, yelding up a little for
their fur leather qualities.
3. Compared with Tsushca sheep breed,
Karakul of Moldovan type have a bigger
body development, much better fur leather,
but yelding up a little for their milk
production.
4. Share of higher class lambs (elite and
Ist class) is on average per flock 76-77% ,
from them is obtained fur leather of Ist sort,
88,3-90,6% of which have a large surface.
Average fur leather surface is 1839.2 cm2.
5. New type young sheep is quite
precocious, reaching an average body mass at
birth - 5.2 ± 0.1 kg, at the age of 20 days - 9.1
± 0.2 kg, 3 months - 23.7 ± 0.4 kg lambs of 6
months - 41.4 ± 0.9 kg, ewe lambs of 6
months - 34.4 ± 0.4 kg, rams of 18 months -
71.0 ± 1.2 kg, ewes of 18 months -50 , 1 ±
1.0 kg.
6. Adult rams have an average body mass
of 98.5 ± 2.9 kg, adult sheep - 55.5 ± 0.3 kg,
exceeding the clasical Karakul breed
representants, with respectively 51.5 and
23.3%.
7. New type of sheep have increased
skills for meat production. Mass of 6 months
lambs carcasses is 16.6 ± 0.3 kg, of reformed
sheep after the fattening - 32.3 ± 1.0 kg, the
yield of cutting presents respectively 47.5
and 54.8%.
8. Karakul sheep of Moldovan type have
a good milk production which is on average
per lactation 76.6 ± 1.3 kilograms, exceeding
the classical Karakul breed with 53.2%. Milk
is distinguished by increased content of dry
substances - 18,2-18,8%, including fats - 7,5-
7,9%.
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REFERENCES
Journal articles
[5] Ерохин А. И., Нассири М. Р., Шикалова В.
П. Откормочные качества и мясная
продуктивность баранчиков породы финский
ландрас и их помесей. Ж. Овцы, козы,
шерстяное дело. 1999, № 3, стр. 22-24.
[8] Ильев Ф. В. О молочной продуктивности
овец. Труды Кишиневского
сельскохозяйственного института им. М. В.
Фрунзе, т. 47, 1966, стр. 83-88.
[11] Литовченко Г. Р., Есаулов Н. А. Молочная
продуктивность овец. В книге «Овцеводство»,
т. 1, М. «Колос», 1972, стр. 370-396.
[12] Фазульзянов Ф. Х. Продуктивность овец
породы прекос. Ж. Зоотехния, 1999, № 11, стр.
11-12.
[2] Nica Th. Îndrumări de modul cum trebuie
efectuat controlul producţiei laptelui la oi. Foaia de
informaţiuni REAZ, nr. 5-6, Bucureşti, 1937
Books
[1] Instrucţiuni de bonitare a mieilor Karakul cu
principii de ameliorare. Chişinău, 1996.
[3] Васин Б. Н. Руководство по
каракулеводству. М., «Колос», 1971, 320 с.
[4] Дъячков И. Н. Племенное дело в
каракульском овцеводстве. Ташкент, изд.
«Фан», 1980.
[6] Ильев Ф. В. Крештереа оилор ын Молдова.
Едитура «Картеа молдовенеаскэ», Кишинэу,
1969.
[7] Ильев Ф. В. Методы скрещивания,
применяемые при выведении молдавского
каракуля, и полученые результаты. Труды
Кишиневского сельскохозяйственного
института им. М. В. Фрунзе, т. ХIV, 1957, стр.
25-100.
[9] Инструкция по бонитировке каракульских
ягнят с основами племенного дела. Самарканд,
1989.
[10] Кошевой М. А. Селекция и условия
разведения каракульских овец. Ташкент, изд.
«Фан», 1975.
[13] Яцкин В. И. Повышение еффективности
производства баранины. М. 2004, стр. 300.
 BACK

Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

ELITE TYPE OF SHEEP OF MOLDAVIAN TSIGAIE

OF ALEXANDERFELD

I. Buzu, O. Maşner, P. Liuţcanov

Scientific practical Institute of Biotechnologies in Medicine and Veterinary Zootehny

Abstract
The purpose of research - creating a new type of sheep tsigaie which would ensure a high
production of wool-meat-milk. It was used the method of intrarasial crossing with sheep breed of
Tsigaie of indigenous type (mother base) with intrarasial rams of Crimean Tsigaie and Tsigaie
Priazov. After five levels was created a sheep population named new type of Moldovan Tsigaie of
Alexanderfeld with productive capacity much higher then indigenous sheep type of tsigaie,exceeding
the standard requirements for wool production with 46.8%, body weight with 32 %, milk production
with 57%. The created population has a specific genotype with a high frequency of blood antigens
Cb, II, Bb, Aa, Ca and Ma. Genealogical structure of the new type of sheep include two elite lines.
Key words: type, sheep, wool, meat, milk.

INTRODUCTION MATERIALS AND METHODS

Breeding of Tsigaie sheep Budjac steppe
of Republic is dated to the second half of
XVIII century. These, according to
researches of F. V. Iliev (1966) were brought
in south of the republic by Bulgarians and
were used mainly to produce wool and milk.
Under the influence of socio-economic,
climateric factors (nutrients) and the
traditions of indigenous people on the
exploitation of this sheep breed and recovery
of obtained products, was formed its
ecological and morfoproductiv (domestic)
type of sheep of tsigaie. Many researchers in
different periods (T. Iliev, 1969; F. Dovbuş,
1974; V. Babenco et al. , 1988) found that
sheep of tsigaie of coresponding type is
characterized by the indices of production
relatively low, including the habitus, but has
an increased resistance to specific conditions
of republic south area. Because of world
trends of exploration and improvement of
sheep, will be taken the direction of
increasement of milk and meat production,
skills improvement of local (native) breed,
maintenance and development of sheep
genofond. Since 1962 have been initiated
works in order to improve and create a new
type of sheepof tsigaie with highest potential
for meat-wool-milk, keeping at the same time
adaptive capacity of this breed.
As a biological material for research and
improvement has served the initial efective
of sheep flock of Agricultural Production
Cooperative "Elita-Alexanderfeld", Cahul
district. After composition (genotypic and
phenotypical), the flock is quite diverse,
comprising both sheep Tsigaie-bred of pure
type – indigenous bred type - for wool-milk,
also sheep resulting from previous crosses of
tsigaie sheep of indigenous type with merino
rams, and also hybrids (metis) from crosses
of tsigaie x Tsushca and merino x Tsushca of
different generations. As breeder material
were used rams of intrarasial types well
known in tsiagie breed - for wool-meat
(Crimean type) and meat-wool (type
Priazov), other rams from initial flock were
removed of breeding (F. Dovbuş, 1968).
Works were done in five consecutive
stages: I (1962-1976), II (1977-1986), III
(1989-1996), IV (1996-2000). Each phase is
completed by strengthening character, using
the sheep breeding in „itself” method "itself"
according to time requierements. In
improvement process were used combinations
of classical methods of sheep breeding of pure
breed and through crossing with
recombination of breeder material, according
to the goal and necessity of correction of one
or another character. So rams of crimean type

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participated in phases I and III and type
Priazov at stages II, IV and V.
Priority directions of improvement process
of indigenous Tsigaie sheep and creating new
type were: body mass increasing, exterior
indices improvement, higher meat production
(young sheep precocity and carcasses quality),
improvement of wool production quality
(fineness, uniformity, length , extension) and
quantitatively, especially in first two stages,
maintaining and increasing milk production.
Basic methods and procedures which were
used: testing and selecting rams after their
origin, phenotype and genotype, performance
evaluation and selection of young sheep at
weaning (3,5-4 months) after their body mass,
exterior and length of wool locks; implements
and selection of young sheep at age of 12 -14
months after exterior type, body mass and
characteristics of wool sheepskin; sheep
selection after the method of independent
limits to the three products – wool, body mass
(potential for meat production) and milk
production, creation of selected groups by
applying different selection intensity; directed
reproduction of requested sheep type and
creating of elite lines. Since 2000, requested
sheep type is reproducing in "itself" with
application of high selection intensity,
particularly for remount rams.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
After the realisation of improvement five
steps by using genitorial material (rams) of
intrarasial types for wool-meat and meat-
wool, works were finished by breeding in
„itself" of sheep with a genotype consisting
of the three blood morfoproductive types
shares of Tsigaie breed (fig. 1).

Tip de
Crimeea (lana- Tip indigen
carne) 10,27%
48,67% Tip Priazov
(carne-lana)
40,56%

Figure 1. Blood shares of different morfoproductive types in the new type Tsigaie sheep
(wool-meat-milk)

This synthetic genotype, as is shown in
figure 1, with 10.27% blood share from
Tsigaie – indigenous type for wool-milk,
48.67% of Tsigaie - of Crimean type for
wool- meat and 40.56% of Tsigaie -- type
Priazov for meat-wool allows the realisation
of high mixed productivity.
In this context, according to research to
improve the breed of Tsigaie made by M.
Jireacov, V. Luşnicov (1997), A. Karpova
(2002), new type (sheep) creation inside of
the breed with specific unique genotypes for
maintaining the genetic variability of the
breed, ensure its development through
recombination of these genotypes and
reproduction of individuals corresponding to
improvement direction. It is important to note
that research for improvement of local breed
of Tsigaie sheep, were done at different
stages and in other countries, where these
sheep are breeded, so remarkable results were
obtained (A Mihailov., Et al., 1987; Ćinculov
M., M Krajinović, I Pihler., 2003, Iaţchin V.,
2004; and others )
Applying the classical methods of efective
improving by combining the proper
elaborations with use of differential selection
intensity, according to improvement value of
gender and age groups contributed
significantly to improving the initial flock of
sheep but the new-created type being better
after production indices, comparing to
standard Tsigaie breed in Republic, and to the
flock level at an earlier stage of work (Tab. 1).

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Table 1.
Comparative values of production indices characteristic to the new type comparing to initial flock
Indices Gender and age groups
sheep Ewe sheep (12-14 lambs (12-14 months)
months)
Initial flock (after F. Dovbuş, 1968)
Body mass, kg 41,8 30,0 -
Wool production, kg 2,90 3,68 -
Wool length, cm - 8,41 -
Standard of Tsigaie breed (Implements instructions of Tsigaie sheep breed, Chişinău, 1997)
Body mass, kg 45,0 35,0 40,0
Wool production, kg 4,0 4,0 4,0
Wool length, cm 8,0 8,5 8,5
Actual flock of the new elite type
Body mass, kg 54,2 46,07 63,4
Wool production, kg 4,74 5,58 8,25
Wool length, cm 9,0 13,9 14,3

According to results presented in the measurements are well-developed at rams for

table, there is an essential superiority of the
new elite type flock comparing to initial
flock after all analysed indices, especially
after the body mass and wool.
High productivity of the new type sheep, is
in concordance with corresponding values of
sheep exterior, also confirmed by
measurements, and respectively body indices
(Table. 2). After the analysis of body
development after the main measurements can
be said that the new type of Tsigaie sheep are
with high waist, elongate and massive body,
with well pronounced wide and depths. Height
at top is 77.8 cm for breeding rams and 70.0
cm for adult females (ewes), oblique length of
the trunk is 93.1 and 82.5 cm corresponding to
gender and thorax perimeter respectively
100.9 and 92, 6 cm. Also other body
breeding and ewes. It is obvious also that adult
sheep of new type for meat-wool-milk
compared with those of indigenous type for
wool and milk (widespread in the southern
republic) where all measurements are higher,
especially after the height of the withers and to
rump length of the oblique trunk. These
features to print a massive body, well
developed in length and depth. It is obvious
also that the adult sheep of new type for meat-
wool-milk compared with those of indigenous
type for wool and milk (widespread in the
south of republic) where all measurements are
higher, especially after the height at top and
cruppers, oblique length of trunk. These
features print a massive body, well developed
in length and depth.

Table 2.
Principal values of measurements and body indices of new type Tsigaie sheep, (M±m), cm
Rams (new type wool- Sheep
Specification meat-milk)
breeding Ewe rams New type Indigenous type
wool-meat-milk wool-milk
Height at top 77,8±0,7 72,7±0,5 70,0±0,5 64,6
Height at cruppers 80,0±0,8 75,3±0,7 73,1±0,4 65,3
Thorax width 25,2±0,5 23,7±0,6 21,7±0,4 20,1
Thorax depth 35,6±0,3 31,8±0,6 32,3±0,3 30,5
Thorax perimeter 100,9±1,2 94,1±1,1 92,6±1,0 84,0
Oblique length of trunk 93,1±0,8 85,2±1,3 82,5±0,6 72,4
Whistle perimeter 10,1±0,1 9,8±0,2 8,4±0,1 8,28
Body indices,%:
format 119,7 116,8 117,9
thorax 71,5 73,5 67,2
bones 13,0 13,1 11,9
compacted 129,1 129,4 132,4

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

Body indices, demonstrate a relatively long The average milk production of primipar
body with well developed thorax at rams and sheep was 94.9 ± 3.96 kg (70,14-139,35 kg).
ewes. Values of compacted index confirms Results obtained by us in development of new
skills for mixed productivity of these sheep. production capacities for mixed production of
New type Tsigaie sheep has advantages Tsigaie sheep confirmed that among the three
over the standard breed from republic after productions there is no physiological
wool production on average with 46.8% and antagonism and selection process support with
body mass with 32.0%. According to our appropriate sheep alimentation, allows
research of milk production of new type sheep achieving intended results (V. Taffeta, I. Vintila
established that milk production, throughout S. Zamfirescu, 1997),
period of lactation, was on average 118.2 kg or After investigating the meat production
more than 2 kg milk to 1 kg of body weight at skills of new-type sheep (rams of 8-9
females. Females already in first lactation has a months) were determined high values
good lactogen potential and capacity to grow statistically authentic difference compared
(nurse) two lambs. with the same type of indigenous rams of
indigenous Tsigaie sheep (tab. 3).
Table 3
Meat production of young rams of the new type for wool-meat-milk comparing to indigenous type for
wool-milk
Rams of 8-9 months Ramsof 9 months
Specification (new type wool-meat-milk) (indigenous type - wool-milk,
after I. Mogoreanu, 1985)
M±m % M±m %
Weight at slaughter, kg **35,6±0,9 - 30,70±0,48 -
Carcass weight, kg **16,3±0,6 100 13,17±0,62 100
Internal fat weight, kg *0,453±0,06 2,78 0,75±0,09 5,69
Slaughter yield,% 45,8±0,5 - 44,23±1,41 -
In carcass: meat, kg ***12,3±0,23 80,0 9,02±0,40 75,12
bones, kg 3,10±0,25 19,0 2,75±0,14 24,07
joints, kg 0,134±0,05 1,0 - -
Ratio meat:bones 4,21:1 3,28:1
*P≤0,05; **P≤0,01; ***P≤0,001

The results of young rams slaughtering at
the age of 8 - 9 months (no special fattening)
from the new type of sheep, shows that from
Tsigaie rams of the new type with average
body mass of 35.6 kg, are obtained carcass
with weight of 16.3 kg, return of the
slaughter is 45.8%. After taking the bones
out of carcass, was established that carcass
contains 80% meat, 19% bones and around
1% joints, and ratio meat: bones is 4,21:1.
Obtained carcases have a good commercial
aspect. Comparing obtained indices with
results from slaughtering indigenous type
rams for wool-milk, obtained by previous
research of I. Mogoreanu (1985), was found
an authentic statistical superiority (P ≤ 0,05-
0001) for rams of new type of Tsigaie sheep.
Phenotypic particularities of new type of
Tsigaie sheep, existing significant differences
compared to indigenous type of sheep breed
for wool-milk is explained by genetical
specific population concerned, as a result of
the initial flock improvement. Therefore,
applied methods and genetic material used in
improvement process, conditions offered for
this genotype, contributed to create a whole
new type of sheep. Imunogenetical
researches showed that hereditary basis of the
new type of sheep is composed of 38
genotypes, the occurrence of which is due to
the combination of those 20 alele.
Number of genotypes varies according to
the blood groups, such as A - includes 8
genotypes, B and C each have 9 genotypes, and
D, M, R I - 3 genotypes in each. Systems A, B
and C include 4 locus and in the other there are
2 effective locus. More frequent type of alele at
the new type of Tsigaie sheep are: A - A
(0,582), in B - B (0,693), in C - C (0,718), D -
D (0,682), in M - M (0,616) in R - R (0,584)
and in I - I (0,702). The degree of homozigoted
into the blood groups (%):A - 42.73, B - 49.81,
C - 48.94 D - 68.0, M - 61.4, R - 53.51; I --
63.51, and the general degree of homozigoted is
52.98%, which confirms a hereditary
strengthening coresponding to the population.
After effective alele (Na) was established
that the highest values are in A, B and C

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systems – 2,340, 2,008 and 2,034
accordingly, followed by R (1,869), M
(1,629), I (1,575) and D ( 1,471). Total
efficiency per locus is – 1,888.
Except genetic particularities of the new
type of sheep also was ascertained a difference
in antigens frequency in the system of blood
groups of the original type (indigenous for
wool-milk) and intrarasial types Crimean and
Priazov used as improvement material to
create a new type for wool-meat-milk.
According to obtained results, was determined
that in improvement process, the new type of
Table 4
Genetic distances between types of Tsigaie sheep participants in improvement process
Tsigaie sheep breed
New type for wool-meat-milk
Crimean type for woll-meat
Type Priazov meat-wool
Indigenous (initial) wool-milk
Thus, from the analysis presented in table
and genetic distance calculations is found that
the new type of sheep and wool-meat type
(Crimean) genetic distance is 0.1687, wool-
meat type (Priazov) is 0.3002 and indigenous
type for wool-milk respectively 0.3120.
CONCLUSIONS
1. New type of elite Tsigaie sheep created
in our republic, is an improved sheep
population with specifical phenotypic and
genotypic features which ensure the
achievement of skills for a mixed
productivity, and the genetic improvement of
initial flockof tsigaie sheep is confirmed by
imunogenetical research results, determining
genetic distances among morfoproductive
Tsigaie sheep types participated in improving
of indigenous Tsigaie sheep for wool-milk.
2.Tsigaie sheep of elite new type is valuable
genetic material for increasing productive
capacity of indigenous type of Tsigaie sheep
breed, can be successfully used to maintain
genetic variability and development of Tsigaie
sheep breed in the world.
REFERENCES
Journal articles
[1] Ćinkulov M., Krajinović M., Pihler I.
Diferenţe fenotipice între două tipuri de oi din
rasa Ţigaie. Lucrări ştiinţifice, Zootehnie şi
Biotehnologii, vol. XXXVI, AGROPRINT,
Timişoara, 2003, p. 295-299.
[2] Tafta V., Vintilă I., Zamfirescu S. Producţia,
ameliorarea şi reproducţia ovinelor, Cereş,
Bucureşti, 1997, p.152-153.
Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
sheep took from Crimean type high frequency
antigens Bb (0.87) and Ca (0.65) and from the
type Priazov low frequency antigens Be
(0.29). In process of selection, at created sheep
population Bd and Bi antigens disappeared
which were quite common (0.72, and 0.53) in
the initial flock.
Genetic improvement of initial flock of
sheep and a new type of sheep pan with
specific hereditary characteristics, is
confirmed by genetic distance from the initial
population and types amelioratoare (tab. 4)
Code 1 2 3
1
2 0,1729
3 0,2567 0,3140
4 0,2706 0,3250 0,3141
[3] Бабенко В.Ф., Ожог Е.А., Барташ А.А.
Сравнительная характеристика цигайских,
остфризских овец и их помесей прямого и
реципрокного скрещивания. Сборник научных
трудов МНИИЖиВ // Технологическое и
ветеринарное обеспечение животноводства,
Штиинца, Кишинев, 1988, с. 61-71.
[6] Жиряков А. М., Лушников В.П.
Эффективность массового отбора цигайских
овец по живой массе, Ж. Зоотехния (1997) 9: 7-8.
[7] Ильев Ф.В. Из прошлого цигайского
овцеводства Молдавии, Труды Кишиневского
КСХ, Овцеводство, Картя Молдовеняскэ,
Кишинев, 1966, Т. 47, с. 10-20.
[9] Карпова О. С. Актуальные вопросы
селекции цигайских овец. Ж. Овцы, козы,
шерстяное дело (2002) 4: с. 26-29.
[10] Михайлов А.А., Андруцкий Н.А., Жарук
П.Г. Откормочные и мясные качества
цигайских овец нового заводского типа. Ж.
Овцеводство (1987) 24: 48-51.
[12] Яцкин В.И. Повышение эффективности
производства баранины: Монография, Москва,
2004, c. 307-313.
Books
[4] Довбуш Ф.М. Овцеводство в совхозе
«Победа», Картя Молдовеняскэ, Кишинев,
1968. 46 c.
[5] Довбуш Ф.М. Раса де ой Цигэй ши методеле
де ымбунэтэцире а ей, Кишинэу, 1974.
[8] Ильев Ф.В. Крештеря оилор ын Молдова,
Картя Молдовеняскэ, Кишинэу, 1969, 187 п.
[11] Могоряну И. И. Цигайское овцеводство
Молдавии и пути его совершенствования.
Автореферат диссертации на соискание ученой
степени доктора сельскохозяйственных наук,
Москва, 1985, 30с.
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 BACK

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

STUDY OF THE GENETIC STRUCTURE OF THE

POPULATIONS OF SHEEP AND POULTRY ON THE BASIS
OF IMMUNOGENETIC MARKERS

Tatiana Lupolov, Valentina Petcu

Mozyr State Pedagogical University, Belarus

e-mail: LupolovT@tut.by
University of Agriculture of Republic of Moldova, Chişinău

In this work the results of the genofund structure and the possibility of using of immunogenetic
markers, β-Lg, Оv, Cn etc in selection are given. For this reason the breed, lines, hybrids of various
kinds of sheeps and poultry were studied on the basis of such exponents as frequency of alleles and
genotypes, genetic similarity of population, genetic balance, the structure of polymorphic system of
blood albumen and milk of sheep and polymorphic blood systems and albumen of hen eggs.
At sheeps was founded polymorphism lactoproteins αS1Cn, βCn, kCn, βLg. In the locus αS1Cn,
there are three alleles which are most typilcal for the type αS1CnВ –0,9354. In the locus βCn there
are two alleles which have been discovered in the type βCn with the frequency of 0,5988. The loci of
the genes kCn and βLg are characterized by two alleles which are most often found in the type kCn
0,7581 and βLgA0,6776. La ovine, în cercetările noastre a fost stabilit polimorfismul
lactoproteinelor αS1Cn, βCn, kCn, βLg
At hens crosses hybrids Albo-70, Roso SL 2000 and Roso 93 in the systems of hemoglobin,
transferrins and ceruloplasmins were characterized by the presence of two alleles: A and B. The
frequency of occurrence of alleles is different: in the system of hemoglobin the allel HbA has a
higher frequency –0,9000–0,9875. In the system of transferrins the allel TfB is found more often–
0,7625–0,7879. The advantage of allel СрА has been proved in the locus of ceruloplasmins as well.
Thus the ascertained polymorphism of the milk proteins may be widely used as a biochemical
test to evaluate the state of the breed gene pool as for predicting the productive qualities of these
animals.
Key words: allele, frequency, genotype, polymorphic system, locus

INTRODUCTION LG is characterized by higher per cent of

Currently the searching of different genes
as markers allows to hold purposeful
selection, revealing the most useful
genotypes. The study of albumen’s
polymorphism in economically profitable
loci represents the first step to the modern
approach of domestic animal breeding [9].
Such an approach allows to reveal correlation
of polymorphous features with productive
quality of hens, deducibility of chickens,
viability, etc [8].
In sheep breeding milk albumen β-LG is
an object of great interest, its locus can be
used as a marker for diagnosing contents fat
and protein of sheep’s productivity milk [4,
5]. The results of some investigations point
out that sheep milk with BB genotype of β-
protein and larger output of cheese [2, 3].
The purpose investigations – study
polymorphic systems in milk of sheep’s and
blood of poultry and the aim of possible use
the genetic marker in selection.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The experiments on hen crosses Albo 70,
Roso Sl 2000, Roso 93 (n=40) which are
used in Open Corporate Enterprise “Avicola-
Nord”. For holding the investigations
samples were selected in order to study the
polymorphous blood systems Hb, Tf, Cp.
On the example of populations of sheep
of Karakul breed (n=31), on sheep breeding
farm “Tevit” of village Maksimovka, New
Annensk region, inheritably specified

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

albumen types α1S1Cn, βCn, kCn, βLg. The
investigation was held on the base of
Agricultural University of Moldova,
Kishinev. The defining of genetic variants of
albumens was carried out with the help of
electrophoresis on starchy gel on the basis of
O. Smith’s [6] method and Zhebrovsky [7].
For defining the genetic distance between the
crosses Mayal-Lingstrem formula was used.
The biometrical processing was held on
the basis of commonly used methods [1].
RESULTS AND DISCUTIONS
In hen system of hemoglobine 2 alleles HbA
and HbB were found. They have higher
frequency for HbA 0,9000-0,9875 type (table 1).

Table 1.
The frequency of alleles of albumen’s loci of hens of different crosses

System protein Allele Crosses

Albo 70- Roso SL 2000 Roso SL 93
Hemoglobin (Hb) A 0,9875 0,9000 0,9250
B 0,0125 0,1000 0,0750
Transferin (Tf) B 0,7879 0,7625 0,7625
C 0,2125 0,2375 0,2375
Ceruloplasmin (Cp) A 0,5250 0,5379 0,5250
B 0,4750 0,4625 0,4750

In a transferine system we discovered 2 The presence of two alleles lead to the

TfB и TfC alleles with the highest frequency
of TfB allele. The frequency of TfB allele was
in limits of 0,7625-0,7879, the highest –
0,7879 was observed in hen population Albo-
70. In the same population TfC had the lowest
index–0,2125. What concerns the hens of
Roso SL 93 and Roso SL 2000, they had the
same frequency of two alleles meaning was
identical, which prove common origin.
The next analyzed polymorphous system
was ceruloplasmin, in the locus of which two
alleles –CpA and CpB - of approximately
equal frequency, with a small advantage of
CpA allele–0,5379 of hens Roso SL 2000
were found. The rest two populations had the
same frequency of CpA allele – 0,5250.
formation of three genotypes: HbAA, HbAB,
HbBB. Roso SL 2000 and Roso SL 93 crosses
had predominantly homozygous AA
genotype- 35 individuals (87,5%), but
heterozygous AB genotypes in these
populations had–- 2 and 4 individuals
accordingly. BB genotype in Roso SL 2000
population had 3 individuals (7,5%), but
Roso SL 93 – 1 individual (2,5%). The hens
of Albo 70 cross revealed only 2 types of AA
genotypes – 39 individuals (97,5%) and AB –
1 individual (2,5%).
The results χ 2 (1,02 – 1,73) show genetic
balance in investigated populations (table 2).

Table 2
The frequency of alleles of loci of albumen system of hens of various crosses
Crosses The frequency of χ2 The frequency of χ2 The frequency of χ2
genotypes of Hb genotypes of Tf genotypes of Ср
HbAA HbAB HbBB TfCC TfBC TfBB СрАА СрАВ СрВВ
Albo 70 39 1 – 1,02 29 5 6 1,83 19 4 17 2,19
(39,00)* (0,98) (1,00) (24,83) (13,38) (17,00) (11,01) (19,99) (9,02)
Roso 35 4 1 1,3 28 5 7 2,08 16 10 14 9,34
SL 93 (37) (5,55) (6,00) (23,25) (14,48) (19,00) (11,57) (19,99) (9,08)
Roso 35 2 3 1,73 28 5 7 2,08 19 13 12 1,94
SL (36) (7,2) (8,00) (23,25) (14,48) (19,00) (11,12) (19,88) (8,55)
2000
*Theoretically expected number

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

The presence of two alleles in analyzed
populations lead to differentiation of hens on
the basis of the types of transferine with three
genotypes. Homozygous TfCC genotype –28
and 29 (70% and 72,5%) individuals was the
most frequent in all tested groups. 5
individuals (12,5%) in all populations
possessed heterozygous genotypes.
The populations of hens of the
investigated crosses on ceruloplasmine types
were differentiated on the basis of three
genotypes – AA, AB and BB. The largest
number were homozygous genotypes AA of
Albo -70 and crosses – 19 (47,5%)
individuals, homozygous genotypes BB – 17
individuals (42,5%).
Loci of blood albumens are used while
studding the genetic similarities between
populations. The genetic similarity between
crosses is shown in table 3.

Table 3.
Coefficients of genetic similarity between investigated crosses
Specification r mr
Roso SL 2000 – Roso SL 93 0,9601 0,0010
Roso SL 2000 – Albo 70 0,9366 0,0016
Roso SL 93 – Albo 70 0,9325 0,0017

Roso SL 2000 – Roso SL 93 crosses,
which were obtained by crossing lines of
hens Rhode-Island, are very similar and the
quantity r is the largest - 0,9601 ± 0,0010,
that proves their common origin.
Among sheep the greatest interest takes
milk albumen βLg, which is connected with
indices of milk productivity of animals. In
our investigations 2 alleles were revealed in
the locus - βLgА и βLgВ, with higher
frequency for type βLgА – 0,6774 (picture 1).
With the aim of possible use the locus as
a marker, we analyzed individuals of
different genotypes of βLg according to their
milk productivity. The obtained results are
given in the table.

Picture 1. The frequency of alleles of βLg in milk of sheeps Karakul

Table 4
The characteristics sheep’s Karakul of of different genotypes βLg according to their milk productivity

Index β-Lg АА(n=15) β-Lg АB(n=12) β-Lg BB(n=4)

Х ± Sx CV,±Scv % Х ± Sx CV,±Scv % Х ± Sx CV,±Scv %
Productivity,l 11,61±0,552 37,5± 3,42 10,24±0,5 50 ± 5,1 9,09± 0,75 40 ± 7,07
Fat, % 8,07 ± 1,041 17,6± 1,61 7,94±1,14 17,76± 1,8 8,55± 2,14 16,96 ± 2,3
Dry substance % 18,93 ± 2,44 10,51±0,96 18,69±2,7 11,23±1,14 19,48±4,87 11,24±1,99
Protein, % 4,66 ± 0,6 21,03±1,92 4,82 ± 0,7 18,26±1,87 4,37 ± 1,1 22,88±4,04
Casein, % 3,7 ± 0,48 21,62±1,97 3,73±0,54 18,23± ,86 3,45 ± 0,86 23,48±4,15

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According to the results of the table the
following conclusions can be drawn:
1. Tthe sheep with βLg AA genotype
have higher productivity 11,611.
2. The sheep with βLg BB genotype
have the highest per cent of fat 8,55%.It
points out the fact that milk from these
individuals exeeds average index of butter-fat
for this breed 0,4%.
3. In sheep milk with βLg AB
genotype the concentration of protein and
casein was the highest – 4,82% and – 3,73%
accordingly.
CONCLUSION
From the presented dates, we infer the
following conclusions:
1. There were 2 alleles discovered in
loci that define the systems of blood albumen
that belong to hens of investigated crosses. In
such a way, the observed polymorphism
allows to reveal the most important
genotypes in order to diagnose useful
qualities of hens.
2. The most genetically similar
crosses are Roso SL 2000 and Roso 93.
3. As a result of defining of the
influence of locus βLg on the productive
qualities of sheep it became clear that AA
genotype influences milk productivity, the
individuals with such a genotype produce
more milk compared to other genotypes.
What concerns fat, the priority of βLg BB
genotype was pointed out, and in case of
common albumen and casein – heterozygote
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
AB. That’s why we suggest using locus βLg
as a genetic marker in selection of sheep
according to milk productivity.
4. Analyzed populations were in
genetic balance of loci according to Hardy
Weinberg law.
REFERENCES
Journal articles
[1] Bucătaru N.,: Genetică, Chişinău,
Universitatea, 1993, 235–248.
[2] Korman K., [et al.]: Wstępne badania nad
określeniem wpływu genotypu laktoglobuliny na
przydatność mleka do wyrobu serów
podpuszczkowych i serwatkowych, J. Zeszyt
Specjalny, 2002, 14: 85–92.
[3] Kukovics S.,: The effect of β-lactoglobulin
genotype on cheese yield, EAAP, 1998, Publ. 95:
524–527.
[4] Manchego A. I., Garzon Sigler [et al.]:
Relacion entre la β- lactoglobulina y los indices
tecnologicos en ganado ovino, Archivos de
Zootecnia, 1993, 42, № 1:155–160.
[5] Schmoll F., [et al.] Associations of beta-
lactoglobulin variants with milk production, milk
composition and reproductive performance in milk
sheep, Wiener Tieraerztliche Monatsschrift, 1999,
2:57–60.
[6] Smithies O.,: Zone electrophoresis in starch
gels, J.Biochem. 1955, 61: 629–641.
[7] Жебровский Л.С.: Изучение состава
молочных белков, Ленинград, 1979, 125.
[8] Коваленко В.П., Бондаренко Ю.В.,:
Генофонд сельскохозяйственной птицы, 1977,
3:15-17.
[9] Кушнер Х., Зубарева Л., Гинтовт В.,:
Генетика белкового полиморфизма у животных
и птиц, М.: Колос, 1970, 15.
 BACK
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

DESCRIPTION OF THE HAEMOLYTIC SYSTEM FOR

TESTING THE BLOOD GROUPS IN SMALL RUMINANTS

Gh. Hrincă

Station of Research and Development for Sheep and Goat Breeding, Popauti-Botosani
e-mail: ghrinca@yahoo.com

Abstract
The paper analyses the biochemical, structural and physiological peculiarities of the
haemolytic system (antigen–antibody–complement) which underlines the technique used in the
serology of blood groups – haemolysis – for detecting the blood group factors in sheep and goats.
The evolution of the whole haemolytic process in ovicaprinae is presented (sensitiveness of
erythrocytes, their coupling with antibodies, forming operation of antigen-antibody complex,
`
activity phases of the complement fractions and C1 -esterase, alteration of erythrocyte membrane,
haemoglobin remission).
Key words: antigen, antibody, complement, blood group, ovicaprinae.

INTRODUCTION principle. Thus, the reactant elements are as

The techniques used in the blood group
serology in animals are based on the
reciprocal reaction capacity of antigens with
antibodies when they are in immediate
contact. The combination of these two
immunobiochemical entities engenders a
complex (antigen-antibody complex) with
diverse properties of those of the component
elements.
In the blood group serology in animals
there are two phenomenon categories at the
level of antigen-antibody complex: 1)
aggregation phenomena by
haemagglutination and 2) phenomena of
structural and functional cellular alteration by
haemolysis reaction. In this last phenomenon,
besides antigens and antibodies, the presence
of a third component of haemolytic system –
complement – is necessary.
In small ruminants (sheep and goats),
the immunogenetic test for detecting the
blood group factors is haemolysis.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
In such experimental works, the blood of
different animal species (sheep, goat, cow,
rabbit, guinea pig etc.) is used. The blood is
drawn on sodium citrate (anticoagulant).
The classical method of haemolytic test
for immunogenetic studies is based on the
antigen-antibody immunoserological reaction
follows: red cells of sheep or goats are used as
antigens; the erythrocyte suspensions are
prepared from the fresh drawn blood
according to the standard method. As
antibodies, the monospecific reagent sera are
used; these anti-sera can be obtained either by
isoimmunisation method or by
heteroimmunisation method, depending on the
animal species used as donor in the donor-
receiver couples in the immunization process.
In order to normally develop the antigen-
antibody reaction, the complement of rabbit or
guinea pig, absorbed on sheep or goat red
cells, is added to these component elements.
At the same time, two serological controls
(one of the physiological serum and another of
the complement) are made to avoid pseudo
reactions. All immunoserogical reactions take
place in the micro-titrater Takátsy under
thermostatic conditions of 25-260C.
The aspect of cellular or membrane
ultrastructure can be pointed out by
electronic microscopy and the aspects of
biochemical structures can be achieved by
electrophoresis, chromatography etc.
METHODOLOGY AND
DISCUSSIONS
The essence of the haemolytic process in
the blood group serology in sheep and goats is
based on the structural and electrochemical

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structure between antigen and antibody and
the specificity of enzymatic reactivity of the
complement on the antigen-antibody
complement.
Antigens
The antigens of haemolytic system are
represented by erythrocytes that own a
mosaic of glycopeptides, lipoproteins and
mucous-polysaccharides structures endowed
with antigenic specificities on the external
surface of their membranes [3, 4, 7]. It seems
that the antigenic specificity of the
macromolecular structures of erythrocyte
membrane is conferred by the sialic acid [fig.
1b] which is constituted, in its turn, of the
neuraminic acid residues [5, 8]. The
neuraminic acid is a more complex
aminoglucide composed of a pyruvic acid
residue and another of mannose amine [fig.
1a]. Therefore, the sialic acids are
homogeneous mucous polysaccharides made
a b
Neuraminic acid Sialic acid
Fig. 1 – Biochemical structures of glycoproteins on the surface of red cells
The antigenic specificity conferred by
sialoproteins can be increased by the
presence of some complex lipids (named
sphingolipids) [fig. 2] which are associated
Fig. 2 – Biochemical structure of sphingolipid (ceramide)
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
of N-acetylated neuraminic acid residues
associated by 2,4- β-glycoside bindings [fig.
1c]. These glycoproteins are named
sialoglycoproteins because the sialic acid is
present in their structure; the
sialoglycoproteins are constituents of the
cellular membranes and have an important
role for membrane integrity. The
sialoglycoproteins have molecular masses of
approximately 30000 daltons. Depending on
the biochemical composition, isomeric
structure and stereochemical configuration,
there are three types of sialoglycoproteins:
glycophorine A, glycophorine B and
glycophorine C. Approximately 131 amino-
acids enter in their structure having the N-
terminal extremity orientated to the exterior
of erythrocyte membrane and the C-terminal
extremity in cytoplasm [3, 6, 7, 8]. These
substances can be destroyed by
neuraminidase.
c
Fragment of sialoprotein
with glycoproteins in the structure of red
corpuscle membranes [fig. 3], together
determining the specificity of blood group.
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

Fig. 3 – Saccharide-lipid-protein complex on the red corpuscle membrane

In generic terms, the antigens are
constituted of two fragments:
- a protein which confers antigenic
valence to antigen molecule, having a high
enough molecular mass;
- a coupled grouping which confers
strictness specificity to antigenic molecule
and which electively joins with the adequate
antibody. Separated from the protein
macromolecule, the coupled grouping is able
to specifically join with the antibody, but it is
almost missed of antigenic valence [3, 4, 7].
The antigenity of erythrocyte antigens is
conferred not so by their chemical
composition (being very similar in most
species), but especially by the presence of
some isomeric and stereochemical structures
of the erythrocyte membrane [fig. 4a] [5, 6, 7].
The biochemical structures on or in the red
corpuscle walls, which confer antigenity, are
also named haptenes or antigenic determinants
[fig. 4b], representing the antigen fragments on
which the antibodies are fixed; the haptenes are
represented by the coupled groupings of the
antigen molecule. The configuration of these
biostructures determines their specific
interaction with the antibody molecules, the
haptene finding a complementary structure on
the antibody molecule. More haptenes can be
fixed on a cellular membrane, either the same
haptene in more places, or different haptens on
whole erythrocyte surface. Consequently, the
antigen molecule contains more combination
zones (antigenic determinants), where the
antibody molecules are bound; therefore, the
antigen is “polyvalent” and the antigenic
determinants are represented by different
chemical groupings (-NH2, -OH, -SH etc.) or
cyclic amino-acid radicals (Phe, Tir, Trp) [fig.
4c] [3, 4, 5, 7].

a b c
Stereochemical structure Haptene Molecular structure of haptene
Fig. 4 – Antigen structure

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The differences among the antigenic
determinants concerning their arrangement in
or on the cellular membrane, isomeric
structure and spatial conformation will lead
up to as many differentiations among the
glycoprotein, lipoprotein or mucous-
polysaccharide molecules; these aspects
determine a certain antigenic individuality, a
certain specificity for each substance,
conferring a metabolic individuality to each
red cell and, consequently, to each organism.
Thus, the surface of red cell of one individual
has a certain antigenic constellation. The vast
antigenic diversity is pointed out by the
agency of the specific antibodies.
Antibodies
The antibodies of the haemolytic system
are represented by γ-globulins with decreased
electrophoresis mobility at pH=8.6 and γ-
microglobulins of Bence-Jones type [fig. 5a].
Because the antibodies are implied in the
immune response they are also named
immunoglobulins (Ig) [1, 2, 4].
All immunoglobulins are composed of
four chains: two longer chains named heavy
chains (HC) and two shorter chains named
light chains (LC). The heavy chains are
constitutes of approximately 446 amino-acids
and the light chains are formed of 214 amino-
acids. Disulphide bindings (S-S) join the
heavy chains between them and the heavy
chains with the light chains [fig. 5b, c]. The
molecular mass of the L chains is 23000
daltons and the one of the H chains is 55000
daltons, so that whole molecular mass of an
antibody molecule is approximately 150000
daltons. The two chain classes are combined
in such a way as to result a characteristic
configuration of the antibody molecule,
having a forked shape (Y), which suit to the
functional valences. Each branch of Y
structure is named Fab fragment and it is
endowed with a combination zone for antigen.
The caudal zone of Y structure is named Fc,
being responsible of affixation of the
antibody molecule on the red cell surface
with antigenic properties [fig. 7] [1, 2, 7].
The sequence of amino-acids pointed
out that about a half of each light chain and
about three quarters of each heavy chain keep
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
the same structure of the COOH extremity in
all immunoglobulins. That is why these
regions were named constant regions (C).
The amino extremity (NH2) of each heavy
chain and of each light chain differs from an
antigen class to another one owing to a
certain number of substitutions. These
regions were named variable regions (V). In
certain zones of these regions, an emphasised
variability appears, so that these zones were
named hypervariable regions too; they
occupy the positions 26-32, 48-55 and 90-95
in the light chains and the positions 31-37,
51-68, 84-91 and 101-110 in the heavy
chains [fig. 5b, c]. However, trifling
variations appear in the constant regions too,
but only as regards the amino-acids
succession. These variations are named
allotypes. If the V region determines the
antibody specificity, the constant region is
implied in the antibody attaching on the red
cell surface [2, 7].
The two chain types form pleat series
named fields. In the constant region of heavy
chains there are three fields: CH3; CH2 şi
CH1; each field is composed of 108 amino
acids. In the constant region of light chains
there is only a similar structure to the one of
the heavy chain fields [7].
The variable region has capacity to
specifically bind the antigens. The constant
fields intervene in other immune processes. It
seems that they join with the complement
generating a reaction series that lead to the
red cell destruction.
At the end of each branch of the
bifurcation fork (Y) there is the binding site
of antigen which consists in a hollow resulted
by folding of the N-terminal regions of the
co-operant light and heavy chains. So, each
Ig molecule has two identical binding sites
for an antigen [7]. Therefore, unlike antigens,
the antibodies are “bivalent”, their molecule
containing two combination sites at which
level the antigens are bound. These sites are
characterised by a certain spatial organization
(stereospecificity) which is complementary to
the antigenic determinants [fig. 5a]. The Fab
fragments confer to antibody molecule the
property to combine with the respective
antigen; in fact, the two Fab molecular
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

fragments determine the “bivalence” of the the level of the Fab N-terminal segments
antibody molecule, therefore the capacity to appears to be the structural base of the
be bond with the two antigen molecules [fig. antibody specificity [1, 7].
7]. The variability of primary structure from

a b c
Stereochemical structure Immunoglobulin chains Chemical bindings

Fig. 5 – Antibody structure

The antibody biosynthesis is started by under a strictly genetic control. On that

an antigen. The antibody owns the capacity
to specifically react with the antigen which
caused their forming operation. So, the
antibody synthesis is determined by an
antigenic stimulus and constitutes the
immune response within the defence reaction
of organism against some strange agents. The
biochemical process of antibody producing is
named immunisation and the animal which
biosynthesized antibody becomes immunised.
The immune serum or antiserum represents
the blood serum of an animal which was
immunised [8].
The two combination types from the
same antibody molecule (Ac) have the same
specificity for a certain antigen (Ag) and take
part in achievement of reaction between these
structures, a complex antigen-antibody (Ag-
Ac) resulting. The antigen-antibody reaction
is stereospecific and the combination
between Ac and Ag is based on existence of
a structural and electrochemical
complementarity between the Ac site and
antigenic determinants [fig. 7].
Both polypeptides chains (heavy and
light) from both regions (constant and
variable) are synthesized in the organism
account the antibodies have a high specificity
being coupled only with the antigen which
determined their appearance. The forming
operation of an antibody implies the
integration of the two regions (C and V).
Because there is a vast diversity of variable
regions and a small number of constant
regions, it can be assumed that the two
regions are separately synthesized, being
united by a certain mechanism in the somatic
cells. Therefore, the constant and variable
regions both of heavy chains and of light
chains are controlled by two genes.- one for
the constant regions and an other for the
variable regions.
In immunogenetics, the alleles are
named allotypical variants. The genes VH
and CH, (that control the synthesis of variable
and constant regions of heavy chains), on the
one hand, and the genes VL and CL (that
control the synthesis of variable and constant
regions of light chains), on the other hand,
are linked to direct the synthesis of a single
polypeptide [3, 8].
To immunoserologically typify the sheep
and goats, both isoantibodies (antibodies
proceed from immunization of sheep or goats)

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

and heteroantibodies (antibodies proceed from found dissolved in plasma in variable

immunization of animals belonging to other
species in which the sheep or goat
erythrocytes were injected) are used.
In the haemolysis reaction, a molecule
category, represented by complement,
intervenes for amplification and completion
of the effect of antibodies on the antigenic
red cells.
Complement
The complement or alexine is a
thermolabile substance being present in
blood serum and achieves the lysis of red
cells of sheep and goat that were sensitized
by an immune serum. In the laboratory, the
most frequent source of complement is the
fresh blood serum of rabbit or guinea pig.
The complement is that integrant part of
haemolytic system which makes the red cell
on which the antibodies were fixed to be
destroyed. The haemolysis reaction does not
occur without the presence of complement.
The complement system includes a
complex activity series implied in
immunological mechanisms of the
haemolytic process. The complement is
quantities and it is composed of several
globulin and lipoprotein fractions which can
react with the complex antigen-antibody. Its
biochemical composition presents two
structural groups: a grouping named
“haptophor” which achieves the binding with
erythrocyte antigens and the second grouping
named “toxophor” which accomplishes the
proper lysis processes [fig. 6a] [3, 4]. The
complement, symbolised by C`, is composed
from four various factors: C1` , C 2` , C 3` and
`
C . It is possible that, besides the four
4
factors of complement, there can be found
`
another four factors ( C 5 , C 6` , C 7` and
C8` ), but their structure and immunological
function are not yet well-known [fig. 6b].
`
There was demonstrated that the C1 factor
has a complex enough structure, being
composed from three fractions: C1q ,
`
C1`r
and C1`s [fig. 6c] [4, 7].

a b c
`
Stereochemical structure Complement factors Fraction C1q

Fig. 6 – Complement structure

Antigen-Antibody Interaction complement intervene in a certain succession

in the haemolysis reaction. The first fraction
The action of diverse factors of
complement is achieved in more phases. First which reacts is C1` , after that the fraction
of all, the sensitized erythrocytes of sheep or C `
and then the fraction C 2` intervene and
goat react with anti-red cell antibodies of 4
`
sheep, respectively goat: E + A =EA the fraction C 3 appears towards the end
(sensitized erythrocytes). Then the factors of which finally releases the haemolysis.

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

By identification of polymorphism of the C1` -esterase, substance that represents

serumal esterases [2, 3] and of more complex
`
structure of the C1 factor, the action only a portion of the C1` macroglobulin.
mechanism of the complement is much more Practically, the C1` -esterase
represents the
complex in the haemolysis phenomenon. active haemolytic fraction, its role being, on
Another fraction of the C1` factor was the one hand, the hydrolysis of some esters
` with limited number of amino-acids and, on
discovered, being noted C 1a . In fact, this the other hand, inactivating the components
fraction is an isoenzymatic form of esterase, C 4` and C 2` when they are in solution.

Fig. 7 – Antigen-Antibody-Complement complex in the haemolysis process

As a result of involvement of the C1 -
esterase in the haemolytic phenomenon, its
successive phases should be the following:
the sensitized erythrocytes of sheep or goat
join with antibody achieving the
immunogenetic couple erythrocyte-antibody
(EA), at which the fraction C1 of
complement is attached, resulting the
` `
complex EA C1 . To fix the fraction C 4 at
this complex the presence of active form of
the C1` -esterase is necessary to achieve the
`
intermediate complex EA C1 C 4` .
C `
1 -esterase can not carry on the enzymatic
activity if it has not the fraction C 2 as
substratum. In the presence of magnesium
ions, another intermediate complex is
` ` ` `
achieved: EA C1 C 4 C 2 . This intermediate
complex has a very short existence because
theC1` -esterase lyses the fraction C 2` in the
`
moment in which the fraction C 3 is also
attached, fraction which, practically,
`
determines alteration of erythrocyte membrane
and, at last, causes the erythrocyte lysis and
the haemoglobin remission in solution [3, 4, 7].
To avoid the crossed reactions in the
haemolysis reaction the absorption of serum
of rabbit or guinea pig on sheep or goat
erythrocyte is obligatory.
But the
CONCLUSIONS
1. The haemolytic system (antigen–
`
antibody–complement) underlines the technique
used in the serology of blood groups –
haemolysis – for detecting the blood group
factors in sheep and goats.

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2. The antigens of the immunoserological
system in ovicaprinae are represented by
erythrocytes. The antigenic valences are
represented by the mosaic of glycopeptides,
lipoproteins and mucous-polysaccharides
structures (especially of sialoglycoproteins) met
on or in the erythrocyte membrane.
3. The antibodies are immunobiochemical
replies of specific erythrocyte antigens; they are
composed of γ-globulins arranged in heavy
chains (HC) and light chains (LC) and present a
stereospecific forked configuration (Y) having
combination sites with antigens (variable
regions) and complement (constant region).
The biosynthesis of protein chains is genetically
controlled.
4. The complement is composed of several
thermolabile globulin and lipoprotein fractions
which cause the erythrocyte lysis of sheep and
goat sensitized by an immune serum, presenting
two structural groups: “haptophor” (which
makes the binding with erythrocyte antigens)
and “toxophor” (which accomplishes the proper
lysis processes). The complement is composed
of several fractions having enzymatic action on
the antigen-antibody complex.
5. The whole haemolytic process in
ovicaprinae takes place in more phases:
sensitiveness of erythrocytes, their coupling
with antibodies, forming operation of antigen-
antibody complex, activity phases of the
complement fractions, alteration of erythrocyte
membrane, haemoglobin remission.
- 73 -
Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
REFERENCES
Journal articles
[5] Monnier N., Higo-Moriguchi K, Sun Z. Yu J.,
Prasad B. V. V., Taniguchi K., Dormitzer Ph. R. -
High-Resolution Molecular and Antigen Structure
of the VP8 Core of a Sialic Acid-Independent
Human Rotavirus Strain. J. of Virology, 2006, 80,
3: 1513-1523.
[6] Rhind S. N., Hopkins J., Dutia Bernadette M., -
Amino-terminal sequencing of sheep CD1
antigens and identification of a sheep CD1D gene.
Immunogenetics, 1999, 49, 3: 225-230, Publisher:
Springer Berlin / Heidelberg, 1999.
Books
[1] Antibody Resource Page - The Study of
Antibody Recognition,
http://www.antibodyresource.com, 2009.
[2] Capra J. D., Rodgers W. A., Wilson P. C. -
Molecular Immunogenetics Research Program at
OMRF (Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation),
1997-2007.
[3] Klein J. - Immunogenetics. Biological &
Biomedical Science. The McGraw-Hill
Companies, 2003.
[4] Mihaescu Gr. – Imunologie şi imunochimie.
Edit. Univ. Bucureşti, 2001.
[7] The University of Arizona - The Biology
Project, http://www.biology.arizona.edu, 2000.
[8] Travers P. J. – Immunology. Internat. J. of
Immunogenetics. Blackwell Publishing, 2006.
 BACK

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

NEW TYPE BOVINE OF BLACK AND WHITE BREED

S. Chilimar1, V. Focşa2
1
Agrarian State University of Republic Moldova
e-mail: schilimar@rambler.ru
2
Institut of Biotechnology in the Animal Breeding and Veterinary Medicine

Abstract
Within last three decades in Republic Moldova new zonal type of bovines of Black and White
breed has been created. Animals of new type are characterized by high genetic potential of dairy
production (7 - 9 thousand in kg of milk for lactation). On 53 best farms it is received on 5 - 7
thousand in kg of milk from each cow for a year. The young growth has good parameters of meat
production. At intensive cultivation the daily average gain of alive weight has made 900 - 1100
grammes. At slaughter an output of carcase has made more 55%
Key words: cattle, Black Mottled, milk, beef, slaughtering efficiency

INTRODUCTION efficiency of mothers (6539-6135 kg)

The breeds of large horned livestock earlier
brought up in Republic of Moldova - red
steppe and Simmental had low potential of the
dairy efficiency, insufficient fitness to machine
milking, did not meet the requirements of
industrial conducting dairy cattle breeding.
During the period since 1960 for 1974 work on
crossing the specified breeds with Jercy race
was carried out. At cross-breed cows the
maintenance of fat in milk on 0.2-0.3 % has
raised, but dairy efficiency remained at a level
3.0 – 3.5 thousand in kg of milk for a year. In
this connection the program of creation of new
type of dairy cattle has been developed and
realized.
Technique of creation of new type of
Black and White cattle
For creation of new type of cattle
crossing cows of local populations Red of
Steppe (RS) and Simmental (S) cows with
bulls of Black and White (BW) and Holstein
(H) breeds was carried out. With 1971 on
1976 in Republic Moldova 95 bulls -
manufacturers have been delivered from
Estonia, Ukraine, Moscow, Leningrad and
Kaliningrad areas of 22.5 thousand heads of
Black and White cattle, including on
genealogic structure of 27.5 % of Black and
White bulls concerned to a line of Dutch bull
Annas Adema 30587. The highest dairy
characterized manufacturers of lines Hilteese
Аdеmа 37910, Niko 31652 and Lindberg M-
2363. In Republic Moldova bulls of many
known lines of Holstein cattle from
Germany, Denmark, Great Britain, Bulgaria,
Romania, Estonia, Lithuania, Russia, and
other countries were delivered. Due to use of
bulls Holstein breeds in republic the high
genetic potential of dairy efficiency is
created. Most the wide circulation was
received with line Wes Bac Adiale 1013415.
Stage-by-stage use of bulls of improving
breeds was planned. At the first stage of
cows Red Steppe and Simmental breeds
crossed to bulls of Black and White breed,
and received half-breed cows were crossed
to bulls Holstein breeds. At the second stage
half-breed animals with a high share of
genes of improving breeds to breed in it self
for fastening desirable attributes. In
structure of new type there are two
subtypes: „northern”, created on the basis of
crossing Simmental cows with bulls of
improving breeds and „southern”, created
on the basis of crossing Red of Steppe cows
with bulls of improving breeds.
Results of creation of new type of
cattle
The basic stages of creation of new type
of cattle: During 1975-1980 hybrids of the

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

first generation from crossing local
populations of cows Red Steppe and
Simmental breeds with bulls of black -
motley breed have been received. Their
biological features and productive qualities
are investigated. Per 1981-1985 intermediate
genotypes have been received and approved.
For 1986-1990 carried out selection of
animals of desirable type with an optimum
share of genes of improving breeds, studying
of their моrfо-productive features, a
bookmark of genealogic lines of new type of
cattle. Per 1991-2008 carried out selection
and duplication of animals of desirable type,
studying of genetic structure and approbation
of new type of Blak and White breed.
Researches of cross-breed cows with a
different share of genes of improving breeds
have shown, that increase of a share of genes
Holstein breeds from 50 % up to 75 % and
from 75 % up to 87.5 % at the some people
cross-breed cows was observed easing the
constitution. It has allowed to draw a
conclusion what to conduct escalating share
of genes on Holstein breed to over 75-87.5 %
of a share of genes at animals of new type is
inexpedient.
For "northern" zone subtype the variant
of crossing with use cross-breed bulls that
will allow to receive animal genes from
shares Holstein breeds at a level of 75-81.2
% with the subsequent cultivation "in itself "
is optimum. For a "southern" zone subtype it
is desirable to use the circuit of crossing as a
result of which the share of genes Holstein
breeds at animals will make 62.5-75.0 %.

Efficiency of cows for 305 days for first lactation

Dairy productivity ± at standard of race

Share of genes
n Milk Fat milk, kg fat, %
Holstein breed, %
М ± m, kg М ± m, %
Subtip "northern"
25-50 75 4249±128.2 3.55±0.010 + 449 -0.05
51-75 604 5145± 38.4 3.58±0.040 +1345 -0.02
76-87,5 1302 5224± 26.4 3.58±0.002 +1424 -0.02
90 and + 342 4578± 37.7 3.59±0.004 + 778 -0.10
Media: 2323 5077± 20.0 3.58±0.002 +1277 -0.02
Subtip "southern"
25-50 273 4862± 72.6 3.69±0.010 +1262 +0,09
51-75 850 4634± 58.9 3.71±0.010 +1034 +0,11
76-87,5 487 3938± 58.7 3.74±0.007 + 338 +0,14
90 and+ 68 3423± 81.9 3.75±0.018 - 177 +0,15
Media: 1678 4420± 37.8 3.2±0.006 + 820 +0,12

The studies of the mongrels with share
miscellaneous gene perfecting sorts have
shown that increasing of the share gene
Holstein race with 50 % before 75 % and
with 75 % before 87,5 % weakening existed
beside some with high half bred of the
mongrels to constitutions. This has allowed
to draw a conclusion about that to lead
increasing the bloodies to race over 75-87.5
% share gene beside animal of the new type
inadvisable.
Optimum for "north" zonal subtype is a
variant of the crossbreeding with use cross-
breed that will allow to get the animal with
share gene Holstein of the race at a rate of
75-81,2% with the following breeding "in
itself". For "south" zonal subtype advisable
to use the scheme of the crossbreeding, as a
result which share gene Holstein of the race
beside animal will form 62.5-75.0%.

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
CONCLUSION
As a result called on studies is created
new inside the breed type Black and White
race for breeding in Republic Moldova. The
dairy productivity cortex on the first lactation
forms from 4420 ± 37.8 kg before 5077 ±
20.0 kg milk with contents of fat 3,58 - 3,72
%. Cows of the new type have milk
productivity on 820-1277 kg above standard
of the race.
The сows of the south subtype exceed the
standard of fat in milk on 0.12%, cows of the
south subtype had a contents of fat on 0,02%
below standard. The velocity of the milking
has at the average formed 1.80 l at minute.
In new type there are 5 genealogical lines
oxen. It is determined genetic feature to new
population animal type.
- 76 -
REFERENCES
Journal articles
[1] Chilimar S., Miron I. Выращивание
племенных бычков на элевере НПО «Тевит»,
Научный сборник № 31-32 «Разведение и
генетика животных», Киев, 1999.
[2] Chilimar S. Tendinţe şi strategia dezvoltării
zootehniei în R. Moldova. Culegere a lucrărilor
simpozionului „Fondul afrosilvopastoral şi
creşterea animalelor”, Braşov, 2001
[3] Chilimar S. şi al. Tipul intrarasial de taurine
Bălţat cu Negru în R. Moldova. Simpozion
internaţional „50 ani de învăţământ superior
zootehnic la Iaşi”, 2001.
[4] Chilimar S. şi al. „Rezultatele creşterii şi
testării tăuraşilor de prăsilă după performanţele
proprii”. Culegere de lucrări ştiinţifice a INZMV,
2001.
[5] Chilimar S. Producţia de carne a tineretului
bovin din rasele simmental şi Bălţată cu Negru.
 BACK

Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

QUANTITATIVE GENETICS RESEARCHES ON THE B.N.R.

POPULATION REARED IN THE PRIVATE FARMS FROM
THE NORTH-EASTERN AREA OF ROMANIA

V. Ujică1, V. Maciuc1, Rodica Dănăilă1, Şt. Creangă1, I. Nistor2

1
Faculty of Animal Sciences, University of Agricultural Sciences
and Veterinary Medicine „Ion Ionescu de la Brad” Iasi, Romania
e-mail: vmaciuc@yahoo.fr
2
O.A.R.Z. Iaşi

Abstract
The research has been conducted in terms of household and semiintensive operating Black and
White Romanian cows from Moldova region. The primary data came from a database of OARZ:
Iasi, Bacau, Botosani, Suceava, Vaslui and Vrancea, obtained by control of production,
supplemented by direct observations of some personal holdings taken in research. The heritability
for milk quantity varies between 0.21 and 0.37 for the Black and White Romanian cows from Bacau
and Vrancea. The fat quantity has a medium value, between 0,27 şi 0,38 %. The percentaj of fat and
protein from milk is strongly genetically determinated and in our case the coeficient of heritability
has value between 0.57 for the Black and White Romanian cows from Iasi and 0.83 for the Black
and White Romanian cows from Vaslui. The quantity of milk is strongly and positively correlated
with the quantity of fat (r = 0.99) and the quantity of protein from milk (r = 0.85). Between the
quantity of milk and other characters for milk quality and reproduction indices the correlations
were negative and had low value for: fat content in milk r = - 0.24, protein content of milk r = -
0.23, dry period r = -0.35 etc.
Key words: Cows, Black And White Romanian, Milk, Heritability, Correlation

MATERIAL AND METHOD by literature. When estimating genetic

The research was conducted in conditions
of household system and semiintensiv system
dairy cows, Black and White Romanian
(BNR), reared in Moldova. The primary data
came from OARZ database of Iaşi, Bacău,
Botoşani, Suceava, Vaslui şi Vrancea,
obtained by official control of production,
supplemented by direct personal observations
made in research holdings. The herds of cows
in this area were raised, fed, maintained and
exploited in some private households which
were differentiated in terms of fodder and
provision of food, management of
technological factors of production, the
degree of technical equipment, manpower
and method of production capitalization.
Complexity of the issues imposed the use
of a varied methodology of work according
to the pursued aspects, using and respecting
the methodology of investigation specific for
research in animal husbandry recommended
parameters the used method was REML
(Restricted Maximum Likelihood).
This method is based on an iterative
process of a function maximization.
Calculation techniques vary according to the
chosen optimization algorithm, but they all
require BLUP solutions for different effects
of the model in every iterative cycle. Also, a
large number of iterative processes are made
until convergence is reached.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
For all studied characters, respectively,
length of first total lactation, the quantity of
milk in first normal lactation, fat content,
amount of fat, protein content, protein
quantity, age at first calving, interval between
birth to first fecund insemination (SP1), dry
period between first and second lactation
(RM2) and the interval between first and
second birth (CI2), heritability coefficients

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

were estimated (Table 1) and comparison
was made between characters and between
regions for the same character.
Thus, it may be noted that for the length
of the first lactation, the lowest coefficient
was recorded in the group of Black and
White Romanian cows from Bacau and
Vaslui (h2 = 0.12) and the highest in Vrancea
(h2 = 0 , 38). For this character, all values are
in compliance with those of literature,
showing that this character is medium to low
heritable.
The heritability coefficient for the
quantity of milk ranged between 0.21 and
0.37, values recorded in populations of dairy
cows in Bacau and Vrancea.
It may be concluded that the results from
this research includes the character of milk
quantity in the category of those medium
heritable. The fat and protein quantity are
included in the same group of characters with
medium heritability .
For fat, the average values are between
0.27 and 0.38 (Bacau, Vrancea and Vaslui,
respectively). For the protein, the heritability
coefficient had values between 0.25 (Bacau)
and 0.36 (Vaslui).
Fat and protein in milk have a strong
hereditary transmission (h2> 0.4),
considering that these are quantitative
characters which influence the milk quality.
Values between 0.57 (the population of dairy
cows in Iasi) and 0.83 (the population of
BNR dairy cows Vaslui) have emerged from
the sorted and processed raw data in these
investigations. The values for protein
heritability coefficient ranged between 0.46
and 0.80 set out in Bacau and Vaslui.
By comparison between the coefficients
of heritability established for the dairy cow
populations used in the 6 regions for age at
first calving, it can be noted that the lowest
value was found in Iasi, 0.21, and the highest,
0, 37, in Vrancea. All estimated heritability
coefficients are in accordance with the
literature.
The interval between birth to first fecund
insemination (SP1)- this being another
character considered in the research- had a
heritability coefficient between 0.14 and
0.29, extremes found Bacau and Vrancea,
which makes them medium to low heritable
characters.

Table 1
The heritability (h2) of the morphoproductive characters of the B.N.R. population from NE areas of the
country

Total Total Total Total Total Total Total

number number number number number number number
Specification of BNR of BNR of BNR of BNR of BNR of BNR of BNR
Iaşi Bacău Botoşani Suceava Vaslui Vrancea Moldova
(1005) (881) (493) (80) (103) (687) (3249)
Length of first
0,14 0,12 0,30 0,30 0,12 0,38 0,29
normal lactation
Milk quantity (305
0,24 0,21 0,23 0,25 0,24 0,37 0,27
days)
Fat content 0,57 0,58 0,62 0,61 0,83 0,74 0,75
Fat quantity 0,32 0,27 0,35 0,32 0,38 0,38 0,30
Protein content 0,50 0,46 0,51 0,54 0,80 0,65 0,64
Protein quantity 0,30 0,25 0,34 0,29 0,36 0,30 0,28
Age at first birth 0,21 0,35 0,27 0,31 0,26 0,37 0,26
SP 1 0,22 0,14 0,21 0,22 0,27 0,29 0,20
RM 2 0,24 0,18 0,17 0,22 0,21 0,24 0,08
CI 2 0,34 0,17 0,28 0,36 0,32 0,39 0,18

The heritability coefficient for the dry Botosani, Iasi and Vrancea, respectively. For
period between first and second lactation the whole population of Black and White
(RM2) was between 0.17 and 0.24, Romanian cows, the heritability coefficient is
calculated on the basis of the data from

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

0.08; this result was obtained due to the very
large number of individuals.
The hereditary transmission for the
interval between the first and second
parturition (CI2) had values between 0.17
and 0.36 for populations of dairy cows in
Bacau, Suceava respectively.
According to data from literature, the
interval between birth to first fecund
insemination (SP1), the dry period between
the first and second lactation (RM2) and the
interval between the first and second
parturition, as well (CI2) are low heritable
characters.
In addition to heritability for populations
of cows analyzed in Moldova (BNR),
repeatability has also been estimated (tab.2.)
for the same characters: length for first total
lactation, the quantity of milk in first normal
lactation, fat content, fat quantity, protein
content, protein quantity, age at first calving,
length from birth to first fecund insemination
(SP1), dry period between lactation I and II
(RM2) and the interval between births I and
II (CI2).
The coefficients of repeatability found in
this research have the following limits: 0.15 -
0.32, for the length of the first normal
lactation, 0.22 and 0.30 for the quantity of
milk on normal lactation at first lactation,
varies between 0.60 and 0.74 for the fat
content, between 0.29 and 0.40 for quantity
of fat, between 0.53 and 0.69 for protein
content and between 0.27 - 0.33 for the
quantity of protein (Table 2). All these values
are close to those in the literature for each
character.
Regarding repeatability for the
reproduction characters it can be stated that
repeatability had the lowest value for the
population of cows from Bacău (0.18) for the
service period (SP1) and the greatest for the
population of cows in Suceava and Vrancea
(0.24); for the dry period (RM2), the lowest
repeatability was for the population from
Bacau (0.16) and the largest for the
population in Suceava and Vaslui (0, 20).

Table 2
The repeatability of the morphoproductive characters of the B.N.R. population from NE areas of the
country

Total Total Total Total Total Total Total

number number number of number of number number of number of
Specification of BNR of BNR BNR BNR of BNR BNR BNR
Iaşi Bacău Botoşani Suceava Vaslui Vrancea Moldova
(1005) (881) (493) (80) (103) (687) (3249)
Length of
first normal 0,21 0,20 0,32 0,29 0,15 0,32 0,26
lactation
Milk quantity
0,28 0,24 0,25 0,26 0,22 0,30 0,28
(305 days)
Fat content 0,60 0,61 0,70 0,72 0,74 0,69 0,72
Fat quantity 0,30 0,29 0,40 0,30 0,32 0,34 0,31
Protein
0,53 0,53 0,61 0,61 0,69 0,62 0,60
content
Protein
0,29 0,27 0,33 0,28 0,29 0,28 0,30
quantity
SP 1 0,20 0,18 0,20 0,24 0,23 0,24 0,17
RM 2 0,17 0,16 0,19 0,20 0,20 0,17 0,10
CI 2 0,31 0,25 0,34 0,35 0,30 0,33 0,20

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

Table 3
The correlations between some of the morphproductive and reproduction features for the first normal
lactation of the B.N.R. population from NE areas of the country

Correlated characters n rg rp
Length of first normal lactation 3249 0,57 0,76
Fat content 3249 -0,22 -0,24
Fat quantity 3249 0,99 0,99
Protein content 2977 -0,20 -0,23
Milk quantity (305
Protein quantity 2977 0,73 0,85
days)
Age at first calving 3249 -0,10 -0,14
SP 2 2194 -0,35 -0,37
RM 2 2194 -0,22 -0,35
CI 2 2194 -0,36 -0,41
Fat content 3249 0,90 0,97
Fat quantity 3249 0,89 0,93
Length of first normal
Protein content 2977 0,95 0,98
lactation
Protein quantity 2977 0,91 0,94
Age at first parturition 3249 -0,19 -0,17
Fat quantity 3249 0,96 0,98
Protein content 2977 0,99 0,97
Fat content
Protein quantity 2977 0,92 0,95
Age at first parturition 3249 -0,21 -0,17
Protein content 2977 0,89 0,90
Fat quantity Protein quantity 2977 0,99 0,98
Age at first parturition 3249 -0,12 -0,13
Protein quantity 2977 0,98 0,99
Protein content
Age at first parturition 3249 -0,20 -0,22
SP 2 2194 0,15 0,16
VP RM 2 2194 0,11 0,15
CI 2 2194 0,18 0,17
RM 2 2194 0,67 0,51
SP 2
CI 2 2194 0,83 0,69
RM 2 CI 2 2194 0,71 0,60

The lowest value for the repeatability of
the calving interval (CI2) (0.25) was also
found in Bacău and the highest value (0.35) in
Suceava. And in these cases, the values of the
repeatability coefficient are close to those in
the literature for each character. The estimated
genetic parameters for the analyzed population
include correlations (tab. 3.) between the main
morpho-productive characters.
Thus, it may find that between the
quantity of milk from first lactation, assessed
for normal lactation and other characters are
both positively and negatively correlated for
the BNR population of cows. The quantity of
milk is strongly positively correlated with
length of lactation (0.76), with the quantity of
milk fat (0.99) and the amount of milk
protein (0.85). Between the quantity of milk
and the other characters the correlations are
negative and the quantity of milk and the fat
content of milk (-0.24), the quantity of milk
and the protein content of milk (-0.23), the
quantity of milk and service-period (-0.37),
the quantity of milk and the dry period
(-0.35), the quantity of milk and calving
interval (-0.41) are medium correlated.
Between length of the first lactation and
content of milk fat, the quantity of milk fat,
content and quantity of milk protein there are
strong positive correlations (0.97, 0.93, 0.98,
and 0.94). The length of the first lactation is
low and negatively correlated with age at
first calving (-0.17).
The content of milk fat is strongly
positively correlated with the amount of milk
fat (+0.98) with the milk protein content
(+0.97) and the amount of milk protein. A
low negative correlation is established
between the fat content of milk and age at
first calving (-0.17).
Between the quantity of milk fat and
protein content of milk there is a strong

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positive correlation (+0.90), as well as
between the quantity of milk fat and the
quantity of milk protein (+0.98). Between the
quantity of milk fat and age at first calving,
the correlation is low negative (-0.13).
The milk protein content is strongly
positively correlated with the quantity of milk
protein (+0.99) and medium negatively
correlated with the age at first calving (-0.22).
The reproduction characters considered
for the study are positively correlated, ie. the
age at first calving is low positively
correlated with the service period (+0.16), the
dry period (+0.15) and the calving interval
(+0.17); the service period is strongly
positively correlated with the dry period
(+0.51) and the calving interval (+0.69) and
the dry period is also strongly positively
correlated with the calving interval (+0.60).
CONCLUSIONS
Following the study we can conclude the
following:
The quantity of milk is a character for
which the heritability coefficient ranged
between 0.21 and 0.37, values recorded in
populations of dairy cows in Bacau and
Vrancea. It may be said that the results from
this research includes the character milk
quantity in the category of those medium
heritable. The quantity of fat and protein can
be included in the same group of characters
with medium heritability. For fat, the average
values are between 0.27 and 0.38 (Bacau,
Vrancea and Vaslui respectively). For the
quantity of protein, the coefficient of
heritability had values between 0.25 (Bacau)
and 0.36 (Vaslui). Fat content values are
between 0.57 (at the population of dairy cows
in Iasi) and 0.83 (the population of BNR
cows of Vaslui).
The coefficients of repeatability found in
this research have the following limits: 0.15 -
0.32, for the length of the first normal
lactation, 0.22 and 0.30 for the quantity of
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
milk on normal lactation at first lactation,
varies between 0.60 and 0.74 for the fat
content, between 0.29 and 0.40 for quantity
of fat, between 0.53 and 0.69 for protein
content and between 0.27 - 0.33 for the
quantity of protein (Table 6.4, Fig. 6.19-
6.21). All these values are close to those in
the literature for each character.
The quantity of milk is strongly positively
correlated with length of lactation (0.76), the
quantity of milk fat (0.99) and the quantity of
milk protein (0.85). Between the quantity of milk
and the other characters correlations are negative;
the quantity of milk and quantity of milk fat
(-0.24), the quantity of milk and the protein
content of milk (-0.23), the quantity of milk and
service-period (-0.37), the quantity of milk and
the dry period (-0.35); the quantity of milk and
calving interval (-0.41) are medium correlated.
REFERENCES
Journal articles
[4] Ujică V., Maciuc V.,: The genetic evaluation of
exterior character in Romanian cattel population
Black and white (BNR), Interbull meeting,
Uppsala, Sweden, 2000.
[5] Ujică V., Nistor I., Pantazi D., Gavrilaş
Angela,: Valoarea genetică şi managementul
creşterii taurinelor de rasa Brună în exploataţiile
private (familiale) din Moldova, Simpozion
stiinţific în zootehnie, Editia a 10-a, Universitatea
Agronomică şi de Medicină Veterinară “Ion
Ionescu de la Brad”, Iaşi, 1999.
Books
[1] Dănăilă Rodica,: Contribuţii la studiul
producţiei de lapte a vacilor exploatate în unele
ferme private din zona de Est a ţării. Teză de
doctorat. Facultatea de Zootehnie, U.S.A.M.V.
Iaşi, 2009.
[2] Maciuc V., Ujică V., Nistor I.,: Ghid practic de
ameliorare genetică a bovinelor pentru lapte,
Editura Alfa, Iaşi, 2003.
[3] Maciuc V.,: Managementul creşterii bovinelor.
Edit. Alfa, Iaşi, 2006.
[7] Ujică V., Maciuc V., Nistor, I.,: Managementul
creşterii vacilor de lapte. Edit. Alfa, Iaşi, 2007.
 BACK
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

RESEARCHES CONCERNING THE INFLUENCE

OF THE BIOACTIVE SUBSTANCES ON
THE BOAR SPERM PRESERVATION

Elena Marandici1, G. Darie1, P. Chintea2

1
Agrarian State University of Moldova
e-mail: darie@mail.ru, lenutamar@gmail.com
2
Institute of Genetics and Plant Physiology of the ASM

Abstract
The experiences were held on the boar sperm. There were studied the bioactive substances with
the role of antioxidizer made at the Institute of Genetic of Science Academy of Republic of Moldova.
The bioactive substances (PGL-1) were used as a structure dilution GHTS what is used for boars
sperm dilution with the concentration of 0,1 – 1%. The experimental researches showed that the
studied substances were not toxic for sperm used in the structure of GHTS dilution with the
concentration of 0,1-1 whit gave the possibility to increase the period of boar sperm stoking till 168
hours, keeping the sperms mobility at the level of standard of artificial insemination.
Key word: Boar, sperm, dilution, motility, concentration, bioactive substances, antioxidizer

INTRODUCTION A lot of researches what were held into

The perfection of swine reproductive
methods has forced using the artificial
insemination. One of the direction of this
brunch in is finding of one dilution for using
it for sperm, because of this process it is
possible to increase the quantity of sperm,
and it is as well possible to reduce the
number of boars at the reproduction units.
The sperm dilution at the solution units it is
very necessary for valuable boars rising. For
a large number of females, and reducing the
improvement period of animal herds.
The researches in this brunch for studding
the boar sperm dilution were held and are
developed around the warden as well in
Republic of Moldova Milovanov V.C.
(1977), Nauk V.A. (1991), Serdiuk S.I.
(1977), Darie G. (1999), Gusicov A.M.
(1993), have studied the dilutions what have
in their composition neelectrolits, electrolist,
antioxidants, egg yolk, antibiotics, etc.
direction of dilution and boar sperm
conservation for finding of one dilution with
a large using in practice, give the positive
results but this did not allow at the moment
their large using in practice as well as for
bulls, the problem is still open. Our
researches are held to this direction as well.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
The researches were held using the boar
sperm of Landrace, Marele alb, Duroc,
Pietrain breeds.
Ejaculates were collected using manual
technique with the stop between collection –
three days. Emidiafly after collecting the
ejaculates were appreciated using the class
method under the mobility, concentration and
sperms′ morphology. There were used just
ejaculates with standard indices of sperm in
this experiment (table 1).

Table 1
Standard indices of boar row sperm used for artificial insemination
Indices Characteristics
Consistence As milk to cream – colored
Color Grey – white to white
9
Concentration 25 x 10 sperms / ejaculate
The sperm mobility ≥ 7 points
Abnormal sperms ≤ 15 %

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

As a dilute for boar sperm diluting there RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

were studied dilute GHTS, in its composition
as a supplement there was introduced the
preparation PGL-1, what has the feature of
antioxidant with the concentration of 0.1-1%/
The sperm conservation was developed at the
temperature of +16 – 180C.
The females′ insemination has been done
using the diluted sperm under next program:
there was done the first insemination, which
has been repetition after 12 hours for all
groups at the interval of 2,4 and 6 days.
The insemination results where evaluated
under the furrowing index (%).
After the held analysis immediate after
the collection? There was shown that sperm
what had to be diluted and user for females
had a good quality. The average of its
mobility was 9 points, and the concentration
of sperms was 0,22 mlrd/ml with low percent
of abnormal sperms.
Under the concentration of substance
PGL-1, which was introduced as an
additional component with the concentration
of 0,1; 0,5; 1% of dilute GHTS, the sperms′
mobility after dilution had not change (figure
1), but there was noticed a easy increasing of
percent of dead and abnormal sperms.

9 9 9 9
9
8,33
8
7,83
8 7,66
7,16 7,33 7,16
6,83
7 6,83

6 5,66
6 5,66
5,33
5 0 hours
4,5 4,33 0,10%
3,66 3,66
4 0,30%
3 0,50%
3

2 1,83 1,66 1,66

1,33
1 0,66 0,83 0,66
0,66
0 0
0
0 hours 24 48 72 96 120 144 168 hors

Figure 1. Motility, hours

After 24 hours of incubation at the
temperature of +16-180C there were noticed
changes of sperms′ mobility under the
substance PGL-1 concentration, what was
introduced as a supplementary component in
dilute GHTS. The best results were received
when the concentration of PGL-1 substance
was – 0.5%. The changes of sperms′
mobility happens after 96 hours of sperms
conservation. The sperms′ mobility was 7,16
points in the experimental group where the
concentration of substance PGL-1 was 0,5%
compare with the control group where the
sperms′ mobility was just 0,6%, but after 168
hours of sperm conservation, their mobility
was 3 points and zero point correspondingly.
As well there were changes of absolute
index of sperms maintenance (figure 2).

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
250
200
167
150
100
120 hours
50
0
0,1%
Figure 2. Sperms maintenance after 168 hours incubation
The better index of maintenance was
received in the experimental group where the
concentration of substance PGL-1 was 5%.
This can be explained that sperms being a
special cells feature with their autonomy
presents very special physiology’s what
allow to pass from one kind of metabolism to
of another, and tinning their energetic
resources. These biologic peculiarities can be
by using bioactive substances with the role
satisfied of antioxidant for providing the
Table 2
The females′ fecundation
The length of sperm conservation
2 days
4 days
6 days
It can be explained by the positive
influence of PGL-1 substance added to dilute
GHTS.
CONCLUSIONS
The biologic substances using with the
role of antioxidant user in composition of
dilute GHTS led to next conclusions.
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248
197
144 hours
168 ore
0,5% 1%
maintenance and mobility, what was shown
in our experiences.
After the results analyses the females′
fecundity (table 1) which were inseminated
artificially with the sperm what was diluted
and conservation during 6 days was just
62,9% compare with 69,5% when the
females insemination was done with the
diluted sperm using GHTS with its
composition of 0,5% of substance PGL-1 and
conservation during 2 days.
GHŢS+PGL-1
69,5
67,3
62,9
From those studied three concentrations
PGL-1 substance, what were entered in the
dilute GHTS components, provided higher
results at boar sperm conservation, when the
concentration was 0,5%. This dilute can be
used successfully for boar sperm dilution,
what allows the sperm conservation at the
 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

temperature of +16-180C during 5-6 days, [3] СЕРДЮК, С. Искусственное осеменение в

without diminution of fecundity. промышленном свиноводстве. Москва.
«Колос», 1977, 159 с.
[4] DARIE, G. Studii cu privire la influenţa
REFERENCES oxidanţilor asupra indicilor spermatici.
Journal articles Simpozionul ştiinţific “Realizarea zootehniei – o
[1] НАУК, В. Структура и функция спермиев şansă pentru România în mileniu III”, Iaşi, 1999,
сельскохозяйственных животных при p.12.
криоконсервации. Кишинев, Штиинца, 1991, [5] ГУСЬКОВ, А. Физиолого-биологические и
197 с. технологические аспекты повышения
[2] МИЛОВАНОВ, В. Теория и практика воспроизводительной способности животных.
длительного сохранения семени барана и Автореферат дис.докт.биол.наук Дубровицы,
хряка. Физиология воспроизведения 1993, с. 38.
сельскохозяйственных животных. Харьков,
1977, с.12 – 25.

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

OBSERVATIONS CONCERNING HAEMATOLOGICAL

PROFILE IN GOAT

Stela Zamfirescu1, Irina Topoleanu2, Dorina Nadolu2

1
Ovidius University of Constanta, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural, Romania
e-mail: stela@canals.ro
2
The Research and Developmental Institute for Sheep and Goat Palas Constanta

Abstract
This study had analysed the hematological profile of goats (adult and youg females and males)
and the influence of sex on the hematological values whith MS4/5 Hematological Anlyser (Melet
Schloesing, France). On the red blood cell (RBC) counts of goats , sex had any influence. The
hemoglobin (Hb) and hematocrit (Ht) values were smaller in both sexes (8.18±0.27 in females and
8,2±0,17 in males) as well as the packed cell volume (PCV)values(14,37±0,36 in females and
15,5±1,6 in males) .Mean of the hemoglobin concentration (MCHC) was higher in the female than
male goats ,(43,65±1,01 in male and 44,09±1,21 in female).Leukocytes mean was high in both
sexes, which may be interpreted as a potential infection. Lymphocytes represented more than 50%
of the total white blood cell (WBC) counts in male and females goats.Monocyte and basophile mean
was not influenced by sex. But, in the case of eosinophil average, the males had smaller values than
females and both were smaller than normal. Mean of neutrophils was lower than normal.The
haematologic profile on the youg goats of 3 month age, male and female, was the lower values with
8-10 % in comparison with the adult goats and bucks. Since the animals are apparently healthy, any
value may be regarded as possible infection or metabolic and nutritional disorder.
Key words: goat, hematological profile,hemoglobin,eritrocyte, leukocyte.

INTRODUCTION alter the blood values of goats (Anosa and

Despite the social and economic values of
goats as source of meat, milk and hides, with
a great production potential, the research
effected on goats in our country were
neglected for long time.The goats revaluation
depends on various factors, including the
great prevalence of diseases, poor
management practices and extensive
production systems .The diseases action is
the most aggressive on animals.From this
point view, clinic and paraclinic exams are
essential to sanitary strategies (control,
prevention or treatment).
The hematological tests served as
information base for animal health assistance.
It has been reported that regardless of age, sex
and climate, goats reared under traditional
husbandry system have low hematological
values compared to those reared under
modern husbandry (Coles, 1980; Schalm et al,
1975). Low nutritional grassland pasture,
stress, parturition and climatic factors greatly
Isoun, 1978, Radostits et al 1994).
Blood is an important and reliable
medium for assessing the health status of
individual animals (Oduye, 1976). Much
work has not been done on hematological
profiles of goats. Therefore, this paper
focused on the hematological values of
apparently healthy goats as influenced by sex
in The Department of Reproduction and
Biotechnologies from The Research and
Developmental Institute for Sheep and Goat
Palas Constanta,
The RBC, Hb, PCV, MCV, MCHC and
WBC values obtained in this study in both
sexes in goats were comparable to those
previosly reported (Sarror and Schil, 1977;
Anosa and Todd et al, 1952);
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The goats used in this study were kept in
The Department of Reproduction and
Biotechnologies bio-base. The animals were

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

apparently healthy. The study was made on determined as described by Schaim et al

14 goats , divided by sex (14 females and 4
males).Two ml of blood was collected from
each animal from the external jugular vein
following proper restraint by the attendants
and with minimal excitement. The blood
were collected in ethylenediamine tetracetate
(EDTA) vacutainer tubes and transported to
the laboratory for analysis. The samples were
analyzed within two hours from collection
with the hematological analyzer MS 4-5
Meled Schloesing,Germany.
The red blood cell (RBC), white blood cell
(WBC), packed cell volume (PCV),
hemoglobin concentration (Hb), differential
leukocyte counts (DLC) mean corpuscular
volume (MCV) and mean corpuscular
hemoglobin concentration (MCHC) were
(1975).All of them were statisticcally processed
with the purpose of constituting the
hematological profile. It is know that goats and
the sheep have smallest erythrocytes as
volume, but in highest number 14-15 mil/mm)
The statistical analysis was carried out
using statistical Student test.
RESULTS
The hematological (mean ± Se) profiles of
the goats are presented in tables 1 to 6. The RBC
mean on female was, 13.06±0.45 and
12,57±0,28. The coefficients of variance permits
the use of mean as statistic interpretation.This
means are closed to the normal mean of RBC
14-15 mil/mm(Table 1 and 2).

Table1
Erythocyte paramters (mean ± S.e.) of female goats

Statistics
Female
Sd Se
N Mean Min Max Median CV
(yEr±) (yEr±)
RBC
14 13.06 1.72 0.46 9.11 15.8 13.37 13%
(m/mm)
MCV 14 14.38 1.37 0.36 12.6 18.3 14.35 9%
HCT
14 18.78 3.309 0.88 12.4 23.8 20.05 18%
(%)
MCH
14 6.23 0.34 0.09 5.7 6.7 6.25 5%
(pg)
MCHC
14 44.09 4.55 1.22 35.7 53.9 43.85 10%
(g/dl)

Table 2
Erythrocyte parameters (mean ± S.e.) of male goats

Male
Statistics
RBC MCV HCT MCH MCHC
(m/mm) (%) (pg) (g/dl)
N 4 4 4 4 4
Mean 12.57 15.5 19.55 6.5 43.65
Sd(yEr±) 0.5658 3.23316 4.90748 0 9.17987
Se(yEr±) 0.2829 1.61658 2.45374 0 4.58993
Min 12.08 12.7 15.3 6.5 35.7
Max 13.06 18.3 23.8 6.5 51.6
Median 12.57 15.5 19.55 6.5 43.65
CV 5% 21% 25% 0% 21%

In both, males and females the coefficient of goats. The erythrocyte parameters HCT,
of variance is less than 30% which revealed MCH and MCHC were analyzed in both
that the mean of erytrocytes and erytrocitar sexes. HCT mean was 18,77 ±0,88% in
constants are representative for this category females and 19,55±2,45 % in males. MCH

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

had the following values: 6,22±0,08 in
females and 6,5±0 pg in males. MCHC was
44,09 ±1,21 in females compared with
43,65±1,01 in males.
Coefficient of variance did not exceed the
limit of 35%, which can by used in statistically
interpretation. Except MCHC, HCT and MCH
were higher in males than females.
The mean of hemoglobin concentration
was lower than normal :8,18 ±0,27 g/100 ml
in females with a minimum of 5,5 and a
maximum of 9,3 and 8,2±0,17 in males with
a minimum of 7,9 and a maximumof 8,5.
These parameters translated to a
potential presence of anemic disease which
can explaine the biological reduction of the
hemoglobin. The hemoglobin mean is
smaller than the normal values 10-15
g/100ml. In corroboration, the hemoglobin
with the hematocrit can establish the anemic
status of animal (table 3 and 4)

Table 3
The hematocrit and hemoglobin means in female goats

Female
Statistics
HCT Hb
(%) (g/dl)
N 14 14
Mean 18.78 8.19
Sd(yEr±) 3.31 1.01
Se(yEr±) 0.88 0.27
Min 12.4 5.5
Max 23.8 9.3
Median 20.05 8.55
CV 18% 12%

Table 4
The hematocrit and hemoglobin means in male goats

Male
Statistics HCT Hb
(%) (g/dl)
N 4 4
Mean 19.55 8.2
Sd(yEr±) 4.9 0.35
Se(yEr±) 2.45 0.17
Min 15.3 7.9
Max 23.8 8.5
Median 19.55 8.2
CV 25% 4%

The RBC values in the ruminants in this
study may, among other things, be due to
excitement or strenuous exercise during
handling (Gartner et al., 1969). This leads to
the release of adrenaline and hence spleen
contracts and this causes the release of more
RBC into circulation.The MCV and MCHC
values in both sexes fluctuated and their
values are dependent upon RBC, Hb and
PCV values.

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

Figure 1 .Representation of erythrocytic parameters in male and female goat

45

40

35

30

25 FEMALE
MALE
20

15

10

0
RBC PCV HCT HB MCH MCHC

The fluctuation of this values are and a maximum of 15,33, respectively. Both
represented in figure 1., where we observed categories of goats had higher values than
the differences between females and males. normal (5-14 mil/mm) and can be attributed
The total WBS mean in males and to immune response to different
females is between 15,41± 1,43 with a environmental factors and physiological
minimum of 10,21 and a maximum of23,75 status (table 5-6).
and 12,77±1,47 with a minimum of 10,21
Table 5
Leucocyte values (mean ± S.E. ) of female goats

Statistics
Females
N Mean Sd(yEr±) Se(yEr±) Min Max Median CV
WBC
14 15.41 4.52 1.21 10.21 23.75 14.89 29%
(m/mm)
Lym(%) 14 54.54 5.36 1.431 49.3 69.4 52.2 10%
Mon(%) 14 4.83 0.76 0.20 3.6 6.4 4.9 16%
NEU(%) 14 35.5 4.93 1.32 22.6 41.8 35.7 14%
EO(%) 14 4.16 2.54 0.68 0 8.8 3.35 61%
BA(%) 14 0.47 0.27 0.07 0.1 1 0.45 57%

Table 6
Leucocyte values (mean ± S.E. ) of male goats

male
Statistics WBC Lym Mon NEU EO BA
(m/mm) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
N 4 4 4 4 4 4
Mean 12.77 53.8 4.85 38.1 2.85 0.4
Sd(yEr±) 2.96 2.65 0.29 2.42 0.40 0.12
Se(yEr±) 1.48 1.33 0.14 1.21 0.20 0.06
Min 10.21 51.5 4.6 36 2.5 0.3
Max 15.33 56.1 5.1 40.2 3.2 0.5
Median 12.77 53.8 4.85 38.1 2.85 0.4
CV 23% 5% 6% 6% 14% 29%

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

Figure 2. Representation of leucocytar parameters in male and female goats

60

50

40

FEMALE
30
MALE

20

10

0
WBC Lym% Mon % Neut % Eo %

In leukocytary series, the mean of
lymphocytes was 54,53 ±1,43% in female
and 53,8±1,32%in males, respecting the
normal rapport between 50-55%. The
monocytes are in the same normal limit(3-
5%) and their means are 4,82± 0,20% for
females and 4,85±0,28 %in male.
Neutrophils average was smaller than normal
(40-45%) as follows: 35,5±1,31% in females
and 38,1±1,21% in males.The 4,16±0,68%
value of eosinophils in females indicated a
potential helmintic or infectious aggression
Table 7
Hematological values (mean ± S.E. ) young female goat
compared with the males value 2,85±0,20%
(figure 2).This fact can be explained by the
isolation of females that graze on the field,
from the males which remain in the stable.
The white blood cells (WBC) are the
soldiers of the body and their high counts
may also be due to the increase of the
complement in the immune systems o the
animals. It may also be attributed to
physiological phenomena i.e. excitement or
strenuous exercise during handling.

Statistics
Young female
N Mean Sd(yEr±) Se(yEr±) Min Max Median CV
WBC
14 15.41 4.52 1.21 10.21 23.75 14.89 29%
(m/mm)
Lym(%) 14 54.54 5.36 1.431 49.3 69.4 52.2 10%
Mon(%) 14 4.83 0.76 0.20 3.6 6.4 4.9 16%
NEU(%) 14 35.5 4.93 1.32 22.6 41.8 35.7 14%
EO(%) 14 4.16 2.54 0.68 0 8.8 3.35 61%
BA(%) 14 0.47 0.27 0.07 0.1 1 0.45 57%

Table 8
Hematocrit and hemoglobin values (mean ± S.E. ) of young female goat
Young female kidds
Statistics HCT Hb
(%) (g/dl)
N 14 14
Mean 18.78 8.19
Sd(yEr±) 3.31 1.01
Se(yEr±) 0.88 0.27
Min 12.4 5.5
Max 23.8 9.3
Median 20.05 8.55
CV 18% 12%

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The haematologic profile on the female
youg goats of 3 month age(tab .7 and tab. 8),
a was the lower values with 8-10 % in
comparison with the adult goats and bucks.
Since the animals are apparently healthy, any
value may be regarded as possible infection
or metabolic and nutritional disorder.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The MCV and MCHC values in both sexes
fluctuated and their values are dependent
upon RBC, Hb and PCV values. Hemoglobin
has low level, indicating an anemic status of
female and male goats.
2.The total WBC mean had very high values
in both sexes and can be attributed to the
immune response to different factors.
3. The high lymphocyte counts in the animals
in this study might be attributed to stress
and immune response to the environment
which harbours various detectable and
undetectable parasitic and/or bacterial
organisms. The eosinophil values can
translate to an infection or helmintic
aggression.
4. Since the animals are apparently healthy,
any value beyond the upper limit in one or
both sexes may be regarded as leucocytosis
and any value below the lower limit may be
termed leucopaenia.
5. Sex showed relatively influence on the
haematological values of the goat studied ,
existing fluctuations in all the hematological
parameters of both sexes
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
6. What caused the fluctuation in various
parameters may be undetected minor
infections, weather extremities and poor
management
REFERENCES
Journal articles
[1] Anosa, V.O. (1978): Haematological studies
of domestic animals in Nigeria. Zbc. Vet. Med. 25:
640 – 646.
[2] Coles, E.H., (1980). Veterinary clinicla
pathology, 3rdEdn., W.B. Sanders Co.
Philadelphia, pp 10 –20.
[3] Holman, H.H. (1964): The blood picture of the
goat II.Changes in erythrocyte shape, size and
number associated with age. Res. Vet. Sci. 5:274.
[4] Holman, H.H., and Dew, S.M. (1965a): The
bloodpicture of the goat III. Changes in Hb
concentrations and physical measurements
occurring with age. Res. Vet. Sci.6: 245.
[5] Holman, H.H. and Dew, S.M (1965b). The
blood picture of the goats. Iv. Changes in
coagulation times, platelet counts, and leucoytes
numbers associated with age. Res.Vet. Sci.
[6] Oduye, O.O. (1976). Haematol. Val. of
nIgeriagoats and sheep. Trop. Animal. Health .and
prod. 8:131-136.
[7] Radostits, O.M. Blood, D.C. (1994).Vet. Med., 8th
edition, Bailliere Tindall, London, pp 86-180.
[8] Schlam, O.W. Jain, N.C. and Carol, E.I.
(1975).Veterinary Heamatology. 3rd edn. Lea and
Fibinger, Philadelphia. P. 144 – 167.
[9] Todd, A.C., Wyant, Z.N., Stone, W.M. and Elam,
G.W.(1952). On the blood picture of healthy Soujthern
andHampshire Ewes, Amer. J. Vet. Res. 13:74.
[10] Wilkins, J.H. and Hodges, R.E.D.H.
(1962):Observations on normal goats blood. Royal
Army Vet. Corp. J. 33:7.
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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

RESULTS CONCERNING THE FREEZING PRETABILITY

OF BUCK SEMEN AND FECUNDITY AFTER ARTIFICIAL
INSEMINATION OF LOCAL GOAT

Stela Zamfirescu1, Dorina Nadolu2

1
Ovidius University of Constanta, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural, Romania
e-mail: stela@canals.ro
2
The Research and Developmental Institute for Sheep and Goat Palas Constanta

Abstract
The aim of this study was to evaluate the freezing pretability of semen collected from 38 bucks
Alpine and Saanen breeds , imported from Germany(2005).For this reason semen was frozen in Tris
and Natrium citrate extenders, besides seminal plasma, using the rapid freezing methodin liquid
nitrogen. The results of freezing pretability of semen were valuated by monitoring spermatic and
cryobiological index : the fresh semen motility versus freezing-thawing semen motility at 24 h after
freezing , motility after Bloom staining of spermatozoa, ultrastructural damages studied by electron
microscopy and finally, by direct testing of fecundante capacityof spermatozoa by artificial
insemination of goat.The mean values of fresh semen motility were 86.81±0.88% for Alpine and
85±2,24% for Saanen, while after defreezing were 46.34±2.66% for Alpine semen and 56.12±4,02%
for Saanen semen.Some ultrastructural damages were observed in freezing- thawing spermatozoa(
partial and integral plasmatic membranae loss, nuclear and mithocondrial degenaration) .The
results were appreciated by „in vivo”testing of frozen semen, using artificial insemination of goats
and monitoring the fecundity and prolificacy.So, we obtained a very good fecundity ( 60%) after
artificial insemination of very good motylity of the spermatozoa. All the results showed that buck
semen has high pretability to freezing and can be used for artificial insemination.This study
followed to find a possibility to preserve the good quality semen and to be distributed in time and
space for the amelioration of the Romanian local goats.
Key words: frozen semen, pretability, motility, fecundity, prolificacy

INTRODUCTION in view to freezing. The semen was collected

The advantages of frozen semen are
well-known: zootehnically, economically and
veterinary. Preservation of genes from goats
and its dissemination in time and space, make
easy the international genes exchanges.
Artificial insemination with frozen semen
contributes to improvement of local goats
populations. All this presume the
technologies improvement for semen
freezing process. The frozen buck semen at
high quality is used in artificial insemination
of goats from farms in natural mate season
and against season.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The studies were made on 38 bucks from
Alpine and Saanen breed imported from
Germany, from which semen was collected
with artificially vagina after bucks training
for 7-10 days , in the presence of one goat
with induced oestrus .After semen collecting
it was made the first dilution 1:1 with Tris
and natrium citrate medium , at pH 6,8-6,9.
The fresh semen valuation referred to:
spermatic volume directly readed in
collection glass ; spermatozoon concentration
valuated with Spermaque photometer;
valuation of semen motility on 1 to 100 scale
in microscope. The ejaculates with more than
70% motility were washed in washing
medium in view to remove the seminal
plasma.
The semen dilutions were made in
laboratory as follows: a dilution at 37°C until
the semen concentration reached to
1x10⁹/ml;the last dilution at 4°C with

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

dilution medium containing the glycerol as vaginoscope and insemination pistolet, in 1

cryoprotector. Then, the semen was frozen
IN Tris and sodium citrate medium with a
glycerinic level 8% and 10% yolk of egg,
using the rapidly freezing method. The
packing of semen prepared for freezing was
done in plastique paillettes with 0,25 ml
volume, in the freezing room. This method
presume to place for 8 minutes the paillettes
on a support at 4 cm distance from nitrogen
level (nitrogen vapours) and then by
immersing in the nitrogen liquid at -196°C.
The frozen-defrozen semen valuation was
execute after 24 hours from freezing process
by monitoring the general motility, individual
motility ,the percent of alives or deaded
spermatozoons (viability) by eosine-
nigrosine colouring of semen smear.In our
experiment were frozen 2800 paillettes.
To „in vivo” testing of frozen semen , the
goats were prepaired for artificial
insemination .The oestrus was induced using
Chronogest sponges with 45 mg
fluorogestone acetate for 11 days, then it
were administrated 125 µg prostaglandine
PGF2α and Folligon 400 UI on day
8.Artificial inseminations were done at 43
hours after sponges removal, using a
or 2 intracervically insemination.
RESULTS
The results valuation was made by:
monitoring of cryobiological indicators
compairing with spermatic indicators (fresh
semen motility versus frozen semen motility
at 24 h after freezing process), motility after
eosine-nigrosine colouring and finally,
directly testing of fecundante capacity by
artificial insemination of goat.The it was
calculated the reproduction indicators: the
fecundity and the prolificacy of inseminated
goat.
The mean motility of Alpine fresh semen
was 86.81±0.88% and the coefficient of
variance 8% .The mean motility for Saanen
fresh semen was 85±2,24% and the
coefficient of variance 14%.After defreezing,
the viability mean expressed by by eosine-
nigrosine colouring of semen smear, was
46.34±2.66% for Alpine semen and
56.12±4,02% for Saanen semen. The
coefficient of variance were 48% and
39%,respectively, which indicated a high
individual variability concerning the semen
pretability to freezing (table 1)

Table 1
The cryobiological indicators of frozen semen (Alpine and Saanen
Alpine Saanen
Motility of Motility of Motility of Motility of
Volume fresh freezing- Volume fresh freezing-
Statistics
semen thawaing semen thawaing
semen semen
(ml) (%) (ml) (%)
(%) (%)
N 10 10 10 10 10 10
Mean 1,07 86,81 46,35 1,16 85 56,13
Sd(yEr±) 0,33 7,32 22,18 0,366 12,32 21,66
Se(yEr±) 0,04 0,88 2,67 0,07 2,25 4,02
Min 0,3 70 0 0,3 45 10
Max 2 95 80 1,8 95 90
Median 1 90 47,6 1,15 90 59,15
CV 31% 8% 48% 31% 14% 39%

The figure 1 shows the comparative diagram of minimum and maximum values of fresh
and frozen semen:45% and 95% motility for fresh semen versus 10% and 90% for frozen
semen (Saanen breed).

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

Figure 1 Motility of Saanen fresh and frozen semen

The individual variability concerning the semen pretability to freezing is show in figure 2
and 3, where it notice the motility dynamic of the two types of semen (fresh and frozen) from
Alpine and Saanen breed.

Figure 2 Dynamics of fresh and frozen semen of Saanen bucks

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

Figure 3 Dynamics of fresh and frozen semen of Alpine bucks

The fecundity was tested “in vivo” on
255 goats with induced oestrous (Chronogest,
45 mg FGA) from private farms. It was
appreciated the fecundity and prolificacy
percent.
The artificial insemination in single dose
with frozen Saanen semen was done on 195
goats from Avram farm. The fecundity
percent was 28,2%, the number of dropping
goats being 55. The prolificacy was 160%,
the number of kids being 88.
On 60 goat from Boitan farm were done
artificial inseminations in double doses with
Alpine buck semen .The fecundity percent
was 46,6 % (n=28) and the prolificacy 132%
(n=37). In the table 3 are presented the
fecundity result after the insemination of 382
goat and the conception rate was ranged
between 51-66%.

Table 2.
Conception rate after artificial insemination of goats with freezing semen(2006)
Female
Number of Fecundity Prolificacy
Exploitation inseminated
inseminations (n/%) (n/%)
(n)
1.Avram exploatation 195 1 55/ 28.2 88/160
2.Boitan exploatation 60 2 28//46.6 37/132

Table 3
Kidding rate (F %) of the goats( in induced oestrous) which were artificially inseminated with frozen
sperm from bucks of Saanen breed (ICDOC Palas Constanta -October –November 2006)
Inseminated
Fertility
Lot Farm goats
(%)
(n)
Lot 1 Topolog Farm (County of Tulcea) 162 59.68
Lot 2 Onesti Farm * 60 65.00
Lot 3 SC Holder Trade Farm - Baia, County of Tulcea 46 51,00
Lot 4 ICDOC Palas - biobasis 114 50.00
TOTAL 382 66.15
*- semen imported from France

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
CONCLUSIONS
1. The buck semen is pretable to freezing
in view to preserve the genetic material.
2. The motility after freezing was 40-60%,
which make possible the artificial
insemination
3. A high individual variability of semen
concerning pretability to freezing it was
notice.
4. Fecundity and prolificacy had high
values on condition that the technologies
of freezing and artificial insemination
are respected.
REFERENCES
Journal articles
[1] Baril, 1993. Synchronization of estrus in goats:
The relationship between time of occurrence of
estrus and fertility following artificial
insemination. Theriogenology, 40, 621-628.
[2] Belley, C., Forgerit, Y. & Corteel, J.M. 1986. -
Essais préliminaires de diagnostics précoces de la
gestation chez la chèvre laitière par échographie.
Xème Congrès de la Société Française pour
l'Application des Ultrasons à la Médecine et à la
Biologie, 15-17 September 1986, Tours, France.
[3] Bindon, B.M. & Piper, L.R. 1986.- The
reproductive biology of prolific sheep. Oxford
Rev. Reprod. Biol., 8:414-451.
[4] Bindon, B.M., Piper, L.R., Cahill, L.P.,
Driancourt, MA. & O'Shea, T. 1986. - Genetic and
hormonal factors affecting superovulation.
Theriogenology, 25:53-70.
[5] Chemineau, 1989 - Le soisonnement de la
reproduction des caprins des zones temperees et
des zones tropicales, Bull. Tech. Ovine et caprin,
27, 43-51).
- 96 -
[6] Chemineau, P. 1984. - "Buck effect" in tropical
goats. In Courot, M, ed., The male in farm animal
reproduction. Martinus Nijhoff Publ. Colloque
CEE, 6-7 October 1983, Nouzilly, France. p. 310-
315.
[7] Cognie, Y., Colas, G. & Thimonier, J.,1984.-
Control of reproduction in the ewe. In Ortavant, R.
& Schindler, H., eds., The reproductive potential
of cattle and sheep. INRA, Paris. Les Colloques de
l'INRA No. 27. Joint Israeli-French Symposium,
21-23 February 1984, Rehovot, Israel. p. 175-190.
[8] Corteel şi colab., 1998, - Artificial breeding of
adult goat and kids induced with hormones to
ovulate outside the breeding season-Small
Rum.Res., 1, 19-35).
[9] LeBoeuf B., Manfred E., Boue P., Piacere A.,
Baril G., Boqua C., Humblot P., 1998,.-
L’insemination artificielle et l’ameleration
genetique dez lachevre latiere en France, INRA
Prod. Anim., 11(3), 171-181).
[10] LeBoeuf B., 1998. Artificial insemination of
dairy goats in France. Elsevier – Live stoc
production science. Nr 55. p 193-203.
[12] Terqui, M. & Cognie, Y. 1984.- Definition of
ovarian activity and restoration of pituitary and
ovarian functions in ewes and cows. In Ortavant,
R. & Schindler, H., eds., The reproductive
potential of cattle and sheep. INRA, Paris. Les
Colloques de 1' INRA No. 27. Joint Israeli-French
Symposium, 21-23 February 1984, Rehovot,
Israel, p. 11-24.
Book
[11] Smith, J.F. 1980. - Influence of nutrition on
ovulation. A summary of recent pasture allowance
trials in New Zealand. In Lindsay, D.R., ed., Proc.
Workshop on Influence of nutrition on the fertility
of male and female sheep in Australia and New
Zealand, August 1980, Perth, Australia.
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

THE COMPETITIVENESS OF THE ROMANIAN ECONOMY

IN THE CONTEXT OF EUROPEAN UNION ACCESSION.
SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS REGARDING
AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT

Roxana Paraschiv, G. Mursa

Faculty of Economics and Business Administration, ”Al. I. Cuza” University Iasi

e-mail: roxana_paraschiv@yahoo.com

Abstract
Member of the European Union, Romania faces huge competitiveness problems which affect the
capacity of taking advantage of its new status. This paper aims at identifying Romania’s major
competitiveness difficulties, with a special focus on the agriculture and rural development in order to
find the best solution for improving the current situation. The methodology of our study included both
statistical analysis methods and sociologic analysis methods. We had a large survey of economic
literature on competitiveness, agriculture and rural development matters, we analyzed the European
and Romanian statistics, as well as other studies and strategies concerning Romania’s economic
situation. We notice that, despite pre-accession funds and some other efforts to improve Romania’s
competitiveness, our country possess, at this moment, not even a single competitive advantage on the
European market and the situation of agriculture and rural economy is particularly difficult. The
paper details these problems, the impact of European integration on Romania’s competitiveness and
especially the impact of the common agricultural policy on Romanian agriculture and rural economy,
also trying to offer solution for surpassing these difficulties.
Key words: rural development, competitiveness, European integration

INTRODUCTION MATERIAL AND METHOD

Romania’s integration in the European
Union raises the sensitive problem of the
economic competitiveness and the question
of our country’s ability to take advantage of
the integration’s benefits. The
competitiveness problem appears even more
acute because of the European Union’s
Lisbon Agenda, whose objective is
improving European economy
competitiveness performances. For our
country this issue is a sensitive one because
the planned economy and the transition
seriously affected the ability to compete on
external markets. Our analysis is motivated
by these acute realities, which we try to
understand and find the proper solution.
Identifying Romania’s potential competitive
sectors as well as the necessary measures for
improving these sectors’ performances is not
only an up-to-date issue, but also an
emergency for Romania’s development.
The specific nature of our analysis has
determined the structure of the paper. The
paper elaboration has been preceded by the
analysis and understanding of the Romanian
rural sector through the available statistics.
For this reason, the paper presents the facts
together with their interpretation and the
proposed solutions in the next section. The
methodology of our study included both
statistical analysis methods and sociologic
analysis methods. We had a large survey of
economic literature on competitiveness,
agriculture and rural development matters,
we analyzed the European and Romanian
statistics, as well as other studies and
strategies concerning Romania’s economic
situation.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The World Economic Forum, a well-
known institution specialized in studying
competitiveness, has identified three

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
development stages for an economy: factor-
driven stage of development (when the main
competitive resources of a country are its
primarily production factors such as
abundant natural resources and cheap,
unskilled labor), efficiency-driven stage of
development (when, as wages are increasing,
the economy must stimulate the products
quality and complexity, and the
competitiveness is driven by higher
education and training, efficient good
markets and efficient use of existing
technologies) and the innovation-driven stage
(when the competitiveness is based on
innovation capacity, on new products and
technologies) [4].
There is a logic sequence of these stages
and every country must favor the factors with
greater contribution at increasing the
competitiveness, according to its
development stage – for the first stage the
institutions, the infrastructure, the
macroeconomic stability, health and primary
education, for the second stage, higher
education and training, market efficiency and
the technologies and for the third stage,
innovation and business climate.
At the global level, World Economic
Forum places Romania on the 68th place
(from a total of 134 countries). Among the
EU member countries, Romania holds the
26th place, preceding only Bulgaria. The best
competitive advantages of our country are the
public debt (the 12th place), higher education
(the 45th place), technical education (the 12th
place), business starting procedures (the 13th
place), internal market size (the 39th place).
The weak points are related to the
governmental decisions’ transparency (the
126th place), public expenditure efficiency
(the 107th place), the firms’ ethical behavior
(the 103rd place), roads’ quality (the 123rd
place), the savings rate (the 101st place), the
local competition intensity (the 82nd place),
the fiscal burden (the 108th place), the private
expenditure for research and development
(the 89th place), the last generation
technologies (the 93rd place), the link
between the universities and business (the
90th place). The most important problems of
the business climate are, according to the
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World Economic Forum, the fiscal burden
and the fiscal legislation. Corruption,
underdeveloped infrastructure and political
instability are as well important obstacles
while inflation didn’t appear, last year as a
major problem.
Our country’s weak competitiveness
performances lead to the incapacity of taking
advantage of the EU integration benefits.
According to the Finance Ministry in the first
semester after Romania’s integration the
commercial deficit was about 7 million euro,
increasing with 3.3 million euro (86%)
compared to the similar period of the
previous year. The most important part of
this deficit is coming from EU trading
partners, implying that removing the
commercial obstacles has favored the
European producers, while the Romanian
exporters do not have the capacity of
exploiting this advantage. Besides the
commercial deficit is also caused by the
improper structure of exports comparing to
the imports – we generally export low added
value products (textiles, metal products,
inferior steel, furniture, cellulose, paper,
wood) and we import high technology
products, with high added value. Even if on
2004 there was a small decrease of resource
and low technology products exports and an
increase in medium technology products
exports, from that year on there were no
significant evolution in this direction. But
Romania imports the most part of the
necessary technology and this implies an
improper connection between the research
and the production sectors. In these
circumstances the commercial balance
account could be improved if Romania
exported not only price competitive products,
but also innovation competitive products.
Through its nature, the economic
competitiveness concept implies the
comparison with the other actors on the
market. Romania’s situation comparing with
the European Union reflected in table 1
should generate quick answers and measures
reduce the economic gap. The possibilities of
being competitive on a more developed
market are extremely low, and the cheap
labor is not a long lasting advantage. These

difficulties become more evident as we see
that the gaps concern not only the GDP per
capita but also the education and research
Table 1
Main structural indicators of Romania for 2004-2006 comparing to EU average [3]
EU 25
GDP per capita (% of EU average) 100%
Labour productivity (% of EU average) 100%
Employment rate 64,7%
Research and development
1.85%
expenditure (% of GDP)
Educational level(% of population
between 20-24 years old which 77.7%
attended secondary schools)
GDP growth 3%
Inflation rate 2.2%
Unemployment rate 7.9%
The lack of competitiveness is a major
problem of the Romanian economy, even if
the Post accession Strategy 2007-2013
identifies in an optimistic manner a number
of sectors which could offer Romania an
advantage in European competition:
ecological agriculture, IT industry, wine
industry, tourism (agrotourism, cultural
tourism), textiles, handcraft products,
furniture industry, natural pharmaceutical
industry [7]. A closer look at these sectors
tempers he authorities’ optimism.
The IT industry, a sector included by the
Romanian authorities in the above mentioned
list has a long way until being able to
compete with the big, world-known
producers. In this sector we only have the
human capital, which we export, but we lack
the necessary investment. The Ireland case,
often reminded, could be relevant for
Romania when we look not only at the final
results but also at the efforts made for their
achievement, meaning the investment in
education and in attracting foreign
investment.
The textile and clothing industry is not
able to offer Romania a long term
competitive advantage, because of the
increasing Asian competition, the Asian work
force being cheaper that the Romanian and
the quality constantly improved. Besides, for
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
and development activities, which lower even
more the possibility of reducing the gaps.
Romania
2004 2005 2006
32.5% 33% 36.2%
33.4% 34.2% 36.8%
57.7% 57.6% 58.8%
0.39% 0.41% 0.46%
74.8% 75.2% 77.2%
8.5% 4.1% 7.7%
11.9% 9.1% 6.6%
8.1% 7.2% 7.3%
this sector we could already notice in the last
years a slower growth rate.
Some potentially competitive sectors
presented in the Post-accession Strategy are
directly or indirectly related to agriculture
and rural development, but the situation of
these sectors is not better.
Concerning the ecological agriculture,
Romania is criticized by the international
organization for the lack of the necessary
mechanism for controlling the agricultural
and food products quality. The European
Commission in its report from 2006
regarding Romanian agriculture brings into
attention these deficiencies [6]. Although
2006 was the last year for genetically
modified organisms culture, Romania does
not have a single laboratory meeting the EU
standards for controlling the products
containing these kinds of organisms. The
same lack of control and information is
visible in using fertilizers and herbicides in
agricultural production or additives in food
industry. In these circumstances it is hard to
speak about entering the European market of
ecological products, both because of the lack
of expertise and because of the strict EU
standards for these products.
The wine industry, although there are
studies suggesting that Romania has a
competitive advantage in this sector because
of the low costs, is a part of the first stage of
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
development identified by the World
Economic Forum because it is based on
cheap and abundant resources and, in this
context, could not sustain Romanian
competitiveness on long term. We have the
same situation with the handcraft products or
the furniture industry that are low value
added and high consumer of resources
sectors. Especially regarding the furniture
industry there are studies including it among
the loser Romanian industry after EU trade
liberalization. The comparative advantage of
this sector is reducing together with the share
of the furniture exports in the total exports to
EU [1]. In these circumstances we can not
talk about the furniture industry as about a
competitive industry on the European market.
The tourism, although it benefits of
special natural resources, continues to be
affected by the lack of expertise which would
permit the exploitation of these benefits as
well as by the poor infrastructure and by the
lack of promotion and visibility. For many
years we have been spoken about Romania’s
important tourism potential, but up to now it
hasn’t become a real competitive advantage
and is improbable to become in the close
future. We are constantly surpassed even by
neighbor countries which know better how to
respond to clients’ needs and to attract them
not only through the natural resources but
also through their services. Romania is not
any more a preferred destination for
Romanians and even less for high income
foreigners from West.
The natural pharmaceutical industry
although expanding in Romania, is a market
hard to penetrate in the western countries.
The necessary studies and certificates
demand for high financial resources and
important efforts that could not be made on
short or medium term. The introduction of a
new drug in the human consumption needs,
in the classical industry, tens of years of tests
and studies and that tempers our optimism
regarding this sector.
The reality is that, up to now, despite the
sectors that could offer Romania a
competitive advantage on the European
market, our country could not develop even a
single competitive advantage regarding the
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EU 15 countries or even regarding the new
member states. The Romanian officials admit
the fact that the only competitive advantage
is the 16% flat tax.
Coming back to agriculture and rural
development, we have to mention that
Romania has some advantages that could
favor its development, such as:
- the important agricultural potential;
- low industrialization and extensive
agriculture that have limited the pollution in
this sector;
- the availability of human resources;
- the availability of the resources for
rural tourism and ecological agriculture;
- the still well preserved traditions that
characterizes the Romanian village and that
could represent an opportunity for rural
tourism development.
Unfortunately these advantages are
accompanied by numerous weak points:
- the climate variability and the recent
extreme meteorological phenomena that
affect the production and lead to soil erosion.
The insufficient financial resources impede
the farmers to use soil improvement
techniques and that determines a reduction of
the production potential. Besides, because of
the lack of the financial resources, the
Romanian agriculture is four times less
secured than the European agriculture and the
climate variability determines huge loses for
farmers.
- the high share of sustenance farms,
with an average area of 2.15 ha, too small to
use modern and efficient production
methods;
- the lower income in rural sector
compared to the urban sector, that
discourages the involvement in agricultural
production;
- insufficient financial resources for
agricultural activities, which are not preferred
by the banks in their financing operations
because the farmers have not enough
guarantees;
- poor infrastructure in the rural areas
both physical (roads, utilities) as well as
medical and educational;
- the low interest and possibilities of the
rural population for secondary and higher

education. The low social-economical and
educational level of the rural population
makes almost impossible the exploitation of
the opportunities for rural development.
Taking into account the difficulties faced
by our country’s agriculture, the government
has designed the National Strategic Plan of
Rural Development 2007-2013, which
entitles Romania to receive about 8 million
euros from European funds in the above
mentioned interval of time. The plan
determines four major development axes:[5]
- improving the competitiveness of the
agricultural and forestry sectors – 45% of the
total funds;
- improving the environment and the
countryside – 25% of the total funds;
- improving the quality of life in rural
areas and rural economy diversification -
30% of the total funds;
- implementation of the public/private
partnership organized as Local Action
Groups – 2.5% of the total funds;
The government involvement through
proper measures and well designed priorities
is essential for avoiding the increase of
poorness and unemployment in the rural area
after the implementation of the common
agricultural policy and the program for the
agriculture restructuring. The priorities of the
Romanian rural sector are the workforce
excess and the fragmentation of the land,
which represent the main cause of low
competitiveness of this sector, encouraging
the subsistence agriculture.
The present situation of agricultural
sector, the low income, the high share in
GDP, the excess of workforce represents a
threat even for Romanian ability to adopt
euro, because the success of the Monetary
Union depends on the resemblance of the
productive structure of the member states.
The structural reform of the Romanian
rural sector should, in this context, include,
as main measures:
- the reduction of the workforce
employed in the agricultural sector. In order
to come close to the European agricultural
labor force average (about 15%) we need to
dismiss about 2 million persons [2]. The
retirement of the persons above 60 years old
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
would reduce the employed population with
about 1 million, but this implies the
involvement of the government in order to
raise the pension level, very small at this
moment;
- increasing the farms areas, in order
to create the conditions for a modern
agricultural production and higher
productivity;
- creating stimulus and support for
the development of alternative economic
activities in the rural area. The rural
development is not synonymous with
agricultural development and the alternative
activities such as rural tourism, food industry,
forestry activities, handcraft activities could
use a part of the agricultural workforce and
could represent a source of higher income for
rural population. In order to achieve these
goals several other measures, presented here
would be necessary;
- the development of the
infrastructure, an essential condition for the
development of alternative activities;
- supplementary investment in
agriculture and in the other activities related
to the rural sector. This needs access to
proper financial resources, hard to get
because of the low income in this sector and
because of the impossibility to offer the
guarantees for bank loan. The government
should support, in this case, the finance
process in the rural area in order to make
possible the development of the agriculture,
of the alternative economic activities and the
reduction of the workforce employed in
agriculture;
- the access to educational and
training programs for the rural workforce,
essential for their capacity of involvement in
the development of the alternative economic
activities.
In order to apply all these reforms,
Romania can benefit of the financial support
from the European Union and must be able to
fully benefit of this opportunity.
CONCLUSIONS
Economic globalization has determined
the increasing of the competition at the
international level, and in this context the
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
competitiveness of an economy is essential
for its surviving. Romania’s integration in the
EU and the removal of the economic
obstacles have stressed the competition
pressure faced by our country. Romanian
economic performances are behind the
European average and our country’s
economy did not manage, despite its
potential, to develop even a single
competitive advantage in front of its
European partners. In this context, our
country’s capacity to benefit from the
integration advantages is strongly questioned.
The situation of the Romanian rural
sector is particularly difficult. This sector is
dominated by agriculture, whose key features
are the workforce excess, the subsistence
farms and the low productivity. The physical
and social poor infrastructure, the lack of the
financial resources for investment worsen
this sector’s problems.
Romania’s economic stability depends on
the agricultural restructuring and on the rural
development. In this process our country
could also benefit of the financial support of
the EU. Among the solution proposed in this
paper for Romanian rural development, two
might be considered top priorities – the
reduction of the agricultural workforce and
the increase of the farms’ size. These reforms
are conditioned by the government
involvement in providing a proper level of
agricultural pensions, in facilitating the
access to financial resources and in
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encouraging investments, in developing the
physical, medical and educational
infrastructure. Together with the European
and national public financial resources, there
is also necessary the development of
public/private partnership for the rural sector.
REFERENCES
Journal Articles
[2] Dumitriu, M., Diminescu, D., Lazea, V.: Rural
development and the Romanian Agriculture
Reform, Working Papers Series, European
Institute of Romania 2004, 10-11
[3] ***, Eurostat, http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu,
2007
[4] ***, Global Competitiveness Report
2008/2009, World Economic Forum, 2008,
www.weforum.org
[5] ***, National Strategic Plan of Rural
Development 2007-2013, Romanian Government,
http://www.maap.ro/pages/dezvoltare_rurala/NSP_
octombrie_2006_en.pdf
[6] ***, Monitoring report on the state of
preparedness for EU membership of Bulgaria and
Romania, European Commission, Bruxelles, 2006
[7] ***, Post-accession Strategy 2007-2013,
Romanian government,
http://www.guv.ro/presa/integrare /12/
strategie_post_aderare.pdf
Book
[1] Daianu, D. (ed): Winners and Losers in the
Process of European Integration. A Look at
România, Romanian Center for Economic
Policies, Bucuresti, 2001.
 BACK

Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

CHALLENGES OF THE COMMON AGRICULTURAL

POLICY IN THE ENLARGED EUROPE

Roxana Paraschiv, G. Mursa

Faculty of Economics and Business Administration, ”Al. I. Cuza” University Iasi

e-mail: roxana_paraschiv@yahoo.com

Abstract
The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) has its roots in the 1950’s, when the western European
economies, seriously damaged by the war, could not guarantee the food supplies. Initially, the CAP
aimed at increasing agricultural productivity in order to solve the food supply problems. Since then,
the CAP faced continuous change and adjustment process. This paper aims at analysing the recent
changes of the CAP, their impact on the member states as well as the future challenges of the CAP
in the enlarged European Union. The approached subject needed an adequate methodology, which
included both statistical analysis methods and sociologic analysis methods. We had a large survey
of economic literature on the subject, on the European statistics and debates and we have also
analysed the current economic and agricultural situation of the new member countries and the
challenges they are facing after their accession in the EU. We noticed that, despite the reform of the
CAP in the perspective of enlargement and despite the structural funds for the new member states,
these countries face huge problems, especially where the agricultural sector has an important
share. Besides that, the CAP faces other challenges too, such as the environment protection, food
safety problems or the financial support for agricultural policy. All these problems have been
analyzed in the present paper as well as some solution we propose for overwhelming them.
Key words: Common Agricultural Policy, enlargement

INTRODUCTION of CAP, but despite all these, it still needs

Agriculture may be considered, without
any mistake, a key sector for an economy,
providing the vital food resources for the
population. At the European Community
level, the importance of this sector was
clearly visible after the Second World War
when, as a result of the war damages, the
food supplies could not be guaranteed any
longer. The need to increase agricultural
productivity and to support the farmers led,
in the 1950s, to a common agricultural policy
at the European Economic Community
(EEC) level. The Common Agricultural
Policy (CAP) was the first and the most
developed common policy of the EEC and
the large budgetary expenditure for its
objectives stress its importance. Although
CAP succeeded in reaching its main
objective – European food self-sufficiency, it
has faced strong criticism and opposition
both inside and outside the EEC. The
evolution of the EEC economic and
agricultural conditions led to several reforms
further improvements. Our analysis is
motivated by the present context of another
CAP reform (agreed on November 2008 and
voted on January 2009) and of EU East
enlargement that has imposed an important
pressure on CAP. Understanding CAP, its
evolution, reforms, challenges and future
perspectives is essential especially for our
country, which must find its place in the
European agriculture and must take
advantage of the opportunities CAP offers.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
Due to the specific of our research, the
dates and statistics included in this paper
have already been processed and are not
included in a rough form in the paper. For
this reason our paper presents the facts
together with their interpretation in the next
section. Our methodology included statistical
analysis methods and sociologic analysis
methods as well as a large survey of

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
economic literature on the subject, on the
European statistics and debates and the
analysis of the current economic and
agricultural situation of the new member
countries and the challenges they are facing
after their accession in the EU.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP)
is determined at EU level and operated by the
member states, aiming at supporting farmer’s
incomes and also at encouraging then to
produce high quality products demanded by
the market, using new and environmentally
friendly technologies.
Starting from the 1980s, the CAP
succeeded in assuring EU self-sufficiency
and also led to important surpluses for the
major farm commodities which were
exported or stored. Despite the general good
results of the CAP, this policy has also
determined huge controversies and debates at
EEC/EU level, being criticized both in and
outside the Community. The major points of
discontent were the high budgetary cost, the
distortion of the world markets and the
environmental sustainability.
During the 1980s, the distortion of the
markets because of the intensive production
beyond the market absorption power became
obvious, as well as the financial imbalances –
80% of the budget for agriculture was
allocated to 20% of the European farmers,
mainly large and developed, while the small
farmers struggled to access the new,
expensive technologies. But the most
important and visible financial imbalance
was the share of the agricultural expenditures
in EEC’s budget – from 35.7% in the 1965 to
70.8% in 1985 and about 60.7% during 1980-
1992. All these problems led to some
important reforms of the CAP.
The first one was MacSharry reform from
1992, aiming at limiting the production rise
by reducing the level of support prices for
some major commodities. MacSharry reform
also introduced the direct payment system to
support the farmers’ income. Although this
reform has some positive effects – the partial
absorption of agricultural surpluses, the raise
of farmers’ income, the decrease of consumer
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prices- other challenges occurred – the
imbalances o the financial support among
EEC’s regions, the World Trade Organisation
negotiations, the still existing surpluses in
beef, cheese, milk and the perspective of EU
enlargement to the East. [1]
In this context, Agenda 2000, proposed
by the European Commission in 1997
included other reforms – a. the further
reduction of support prices for cereals, beef
and (for the first time) dairy products in order
to reduce the gap between EU and the world
prices and b. the integration of rural
development policy as a second pillar of the
CAP. [4] Consequently, the CAP currently
has two pillars:
- Pillar 1 – that provides direct aid
and market interventions to secure food
production and farmers’ income, being
responsible for more than 70% of the total
CAP expenditure;
- Pillar 2 – that focuses on rural
development, supporting the restructuring of
the agricultural sector, the protection of the
environment, diversification and innovation
in rural areas.
In 2002, the European Commission
decided a more radical CAP reform by
increasing the support to rural development
and decoupling direct payments from
production. The “decoupling” process means
that the farmers are no longer paid just to
produce food. The financial support for the
farmers is paid independently of how much
they produce, but instead they have to respect
environmental, food safety, phytosanitary
and animal welfare standards. The direct
payments would be reduced for the farmers
that do not meet these requirements. By the
decoupling process, the farmers are also free
to produce what is more profitable, according
to what markets want.
The CAP faces today other major
challenges – EU enlargement, food safety
problems, environmental problems, WTO
negotiations. By 2005, the debates
concerning the agricultural policy focused on
the continuation of the 2003 reforms, as a
part of another adjustment process, called
“Health Check”. The debates on this new
adjustment concluded recently, on the 20th of

November 2008 with the political agreement
of the EU agricultural ministers, adopted as a
legislative text in January 2009. The Health
Check, taking into account the present
challenges, aims at modernising and
simplifying the CAP and wants to help the
farmers to respond better to the market
signals. The Health Check was not intended
to be a major CAP reform, but an
improvement and modernisation of the 2003
reform. The major adjustments refer to
improving the Single Payment Scheme, the
market conditions and the capacity to deal
with new challenges.
The most important measures included in
the Health Check are: [3]
- Phasing out milk quotas – the milk
quotas will be increased by one percent every
year between 2009-2014 and will completely
expire in April 2015.
- Decoupling of the support – as we said
before, previous reform has partially
decoupled the direct payments to the farmers
from the level of production. The remaining
coupled payments will also be decoupled and
moved into the Single Payment Scheme
(SPS). The only exceptions are the suckler
cow, goat and sheep, where the member
states may maintain the current level of
coupled support.
- Assistance to sectors with special
problems (so called “Article 68 measures”) –
the member states have the right to retain by
sector 10% of their national budget ceiling
for direct payments to be used for
environmental measures or for improving the
quality of the products from that sector. From
now on, this money may be more flexible
used, not necessary in the same sector.
- Extending the Single Area Payment
Scheme (SAPS) – the countries that are using
the SAPS may continue to do so until 2013
and will not be forced to apply the Single
Payment Scheme by 2010.
- Additional funding for EU-12 farmers –
90 million euro will be allocated for the new
member states in order to support them until
the direct payments to the farmers have been
completely implemented.
- Using the currently unspent money –
unspent money might either be used by the
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
countries applying the Single Payment
Scheme for article 68 measures or might be
transferred to the Rural Development Fund.
- Shifting money for direct aid to Rural
Development – currently, 5% of the
payments for the farmers receiving more than
5000 euro in direct aid is transferred to the
Rural Development budget. This percent will
rise to 10 by 2012, and an additional 4% of
the payments above 300.000 euro will be
used in the same purpose. Member states
may use this money for programs concerning
the climatic change, renewable energy, water
management, biodiversity, innovation.
- Investment aid for young farmers –
these investments will be increased from
55.000 euro to 70.000 euro.
- Abolition of the set-aside – the Health
Check abolishes the requirement for arable
farmers to leave 10% of their land fallow.
- Cross-compliance – the financial aid for
the farmers is conditioned by the fulfilment
of the environmental, animal welfare and
food quality standards. The Health Check
simplifies the cross compliance by
withdrawing irrelevant standards.
- Intervention mechanisms – the
intervention mechanisms are reformed so as
not to affect the farmers’ capacity to respond
to market signals.
Even if it is too soon to evaluate the impact
of Health Check reform, there are already
voices criticizing the measures concerning
the environment, considered insufficient for
the present situation. A number of new
member countries (Latvia, Estonia, Slovakia)
voted against the final deal, with the Czech
Republic abstained, feeling that the reform is
encouraging more the old member states than
the new ones. Nevertheless we must admit
the strong pressure of the East enlargement
on the CAP. Even if the Central and Eastern
European countries received 520 million euro
per year during 2000-2006 to prepare for
participating at CAP, the agricultural sector
of these countries is more fragmented,
inefficient and traditional than in the old
member countries but also plays a greater
economic role and has a bigger share in
GDP. In the Central and Eastern European
(CEE) countries, the agriculture employs
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
over 20% of the workforce (about 9.5 million
people) compared to 6% in the rest of the EU
(8.2 million people). The agriculture
contribution to the GDP is on average 8% in
the CEE countries, while it reaches only
2.5% in the rest of the EU. Additionally,
agriculture, like the entire economy of these
countries has suffered a transition process
and the property reform has caused great
difficulties. The CAP still needs
improvement to meet the needs of the new
member states. The financial resources for
rural development are insufficient and CAP
provides more incentives against the
restructuring of agricultural activities.
The CAP reform process will never be
over, since EU is evolving and so is the
international context. The future
development of the CAP must focus on the
sustainable development, coordination the
agricultural production, rural development,
environment protection. CAP must also adapt
to the globalisation challenges as it continues
to attract criticism and create tensions in the
EU’s relations with its trading partners. In the
present context, CAP has the difficult task of
helping European agriculture to become
internationally competitive without reliance
on subsidy and protection. This would solve
both the problem of international tensions as
well as the internal discontent regarding the
cost of this policy - at this moment the CAP
costs EU consumers and taxpayers about 100
billion euro each year [2].
The CAP does not meet the standards of
the Lisbon Strategy, which wants to increase
the European economy competitiveness. The
costs of the agricultural policy as well as its
distorting trade effects do not help the
European Union to reach Lisbon objectives.
The distorting trade effects of the CAP
strongly affect the developing and poor
countries which rely mostly on the
agricultural production and exports. In these
countries agriculture accounts for 40 per cent
of GDP, 35 per cent of exports and 50-70 per
cent of total employment.
The future evolution of the CAP must also
be coherent with other EU policies,
especially with those concerning economic
reform, cohesion and enlargement. The
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future reform of CAP and the perspective of
reduction the financial support for farmers
are accompanied by the fear that this would
cause the decline of the agricultural sector,
taking into account its vulnerability. But the
farmers could still manage agricultural risk
by using strategies such as:
- diversification of agricultural
activities;
- the use of storage, forward contracts
and credit markets;
- the use of future and option
markets;
- diversification into non-agricultural
activities;
- part-time farming.
It has already been noticed that the farmers
tend to diversify their production, although
the CAP encourages specialisation and also
that the majority of the farmers are already
working part time. The present forms of
financial support do not consider the income
of the farmers or that they are working full or
part time.
Another fear regarding future CAP reform
is related to the impact on food security.
Defined by some key features such as food
accessibility, stability, affordability and
nutrition, food security is normally associated
with developing countries with low
production, unaffordable imports and
distributional deficiencies. Nevertheless the
developed countries are also concerned about
food security because the reduction of
internal production might increase import
dependency which is considered a risky
strategy. However studies concerning the
impact of agricultural liberalisation suggest
that this would result in a small decrease in
self-sufficiency of agriculture for developed
countries from 98% to 93% [2]. Besides,
food security is not exactly synonymous with
self sufficiency and usually the efforts to
assure self-sufficiency have significant costs
in terms of efficiency.
CONCLUSIONS
The Common Agricultural Policy is one of
the most important common policies at EU
level. After succeeding in assuring European
food self-sufficiency and under the pressure

of its critics, CAP has passed through several
reforms that aimed at reflecting both
European and international evolutions.
Despite the important progress that has been
achieved, the CAP still faces important
challenges such as environment protection,
food safety problems, WTO negotiation, East
enlargement whose problems are not entirely
solved. Taking into account the present
context and challenges CAP must focus in
the future on some key issues:
- promoting sustainable agriculture
on a broad scale. The CAP focused too much
only on production and farmers’ income and
the consequences were high budgetary
expenditure, high prices, high surpluses as
well as the damage of the environment. The
CAP should focus from now more on the
quality of products and production methods,
food safety, social coherence in rural areas,
environment and the effects of the
agricultural policy on the small-scale farmers
outside the European Union.
- re-thinking the budgetary
expenditure and re-directing the money from
subsidies to sustainable production based on
high ecological and quality criteria.
- the total decouple of the financial
support from the production as well as
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
quality and environmental criteria as a
condition for receiving the money;
- increasing the focus and the
financial support for the second pillar of the
CAP, the rural development.
Some of these reforms might be difficult to
be achieved but they are nevertheless
necessary.
REFERENCES
Journal articles
[1] Rusu M., Giurca D., Luca L.: Analysis of the
Common Agricultural Evolution and Directions –
a Romanian Perspective, European Institute of
Romania, 2007,
http://www.ier.ro/SPOS2007/EN/Studiu%
203_agricultura_final_EN.pdf
[2] ***, A Vision for the Common Agricultural
Policy, Department for Environment Food and
Rural Affairs, HM Treasury, dec 2005, London,
http://www.hm-
treasury.gov.uk/d/A_Vision_for_the_CAP.pdf
[3] ***, "Health Check" of the Common
Agricultural Policy, 2009,
http://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/ healthcheck/
index_en.htm
[4] ***, The CAP Reform Process, Institute for
International Integration Studies, 2005,
http://www.tcd.ie/ iiis/
policycoherence/index.php/iiis/eu_agricultural_pol
icy_reform/the_cap_reform_process
 BACK
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

IS THE EUROPEAN UNION AN OPTIMUM CURRENCY

AREA?

V.-L. Ichim

“Ştefan Lupaşcu” Institute of European Studies – Iaşi, Romania

e-mail: liviuichim@yahoo.com

Abstract
The criteria to determine the optimum currency areas established by Robert Mundell have
dominated the majority of the UME debates and the conclusions showed that Europe, made either of
6, 15 or more countries doesn’t represent an optimum currency area, because it doesn’t meet but
only partially these criteria. Though, the adoption of the single currency can contribute to the
increasing of the monetary optimality degree because the monetary unification accelerates the
economic integration and thus leads to a better synchronization of the business cycles and,
implicitly to the possibility of utilizing only one monetary policy in the countries part of the currency
area.
Key words: Optimum Currency Area, economic integration, asymmetrical shocks

MATERIAL AND METHOD RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The Mundell’s theory concerning
monetary areas, published in 1961, although
subsequently was largely developed, was
frequently used more to discourage than to
encourage the foundation of monetary unions.
An important discussion connected to the
influence of the economic integration over the
EU monetary area optimality determined the
separation of optimality criteria as follows:
a) Exogenous criteria, that must be
fulfilled before forming a monetary union or
before adhesion to a monetary union: the
degree of economic opening, symmetry of
business cycles and shocks, inflation rates,
mobility of production factors, production
variation and price and salary flexibility;
b) Endogenous criteria, which are
considered to be fulfilled as an effect of
monetary union achievement or adhesion to
such a union: trade integration, shock
symmetry, financial integrity and mobility of
production factors.
In other words, appears the following
question: The states desiring to form a
monetary union, but do not fulfill the criteria
mentioned by the optimal monetary area
theory, could fulfill these criteria
subsequently to monetary area foundation?
The criteria mentioned by Mundell
(1961) in order to determine the optimal
monetary areas prevailed in most of the
debates concerning European Monetary
Union, debates with conclusions underlying
that Europe, formed either from 6 or 15
states, does not represent an optimal
monetary union because it fulfills only in part
the mentioned criteria.
A first reason would be that the optimal
monetary areas will never fit in the borders
of a state or of a state union.
On the other hand, the work markets in
the main European states suffer from
profound rigidity, the labor factor, less
mobile in some states, is even less mobile
taken as an average for all states.
It is estimated that in 1995, in EU the
migration represented less than 1% from total
population amount while in USA 3% of the
population change their residency annually
(Cerna, 2006). The greater mobility of the
labor force in USA can be explained by: lack
of linguistic and cultural borders, unitary
system of study degree recognition,
budgetary federalism, good functioning of
the social and insurance protection systems,
use of one currency and last, but not least, the

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greater relevance of the statistical data
concerning this phenomenon.
However, the labor force migration inside
EU represents a fact with an underestimated
real dimension, also due to the lack of a
unitary reporting and collection system for
statistical data concerning this phenomenon.
In our opinion, on a long term, it does not
contribute to the increase of the optimality
degree in the EU developed areas and poor
developed areas because the labor force
migrates only in one direction, from poor
states – as the ones found in transition to
market economy – to developed ones,
leading to appearance of deficits of labor
force in certain areas of the ex-communist
states economies. This situation increases the
gap between the economic operators in the
developed countries that enrich their
productivity, financial power and consolidate
their position on the market, and those found
in the transition economies.
The extension towards East of EU made
the entire Union monetary optimality to
decrease as a result of great development
gaps between old and new members, and
also, because of the different economic
structures and little correlated business cycles
characterizing the West European and East
European states.
The analysis of the economic integration
effects over business cycles synchronicity led
to two different points of view, known in the
scientific debates under the name „European
Commission point of view”, and „
Krugman’s point of view”, respectively.
Distinct from European Commission that
in 1990 affirmed that as the integration
degree increases, the asymmetrical shocks
frequency decreases and the business cycles
among the countries become more
synchronized, Paul Krugman declared in 1993
that a closer integration has as result a greater
specialization and implicitly an increase of the
asymmetrical shocks.
These points of view were discussed
again and reconsidered by other authors.
Paul Krugman and A.J. Venables (1996)
question the validity of the optimal monetary
area theory, declaring that in an economic
and monetary union the tendency towards
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
specialization appears in time for its different
regions. Starting from the fact that in the
United States the industrial production
specialization degree is greater than in
European states, it results that in time in the
European Union will appear the same
phenomenon, and a greater specializations
means a smaller degree of production
variation and as a result, an increased
vulnerability in front of asymmetrical shocks.
Christian Hen and Jaques Léonard
(2002), referring to the fact that EU weight in
the world trade exchange registered a slight
rebuff beginning in the ’70 because the
community exports are based less on the high
technology areas contribution (characterized
by a high demand) in comparison to USA
and Japan, and mentions that the high
technology products represent 26% of the
Union exports against 30% for USA and 35%
for Japan. Also, they state that one third of
the increase registered by the American
economy in the second half of the ’90 is
based on the IT and communication
technology (IT&C), while this contributed
with only 15% to GDP increase in EU.
Paul Krugman (1993) foresees that the
monetary union will determine the member
states to be more specialized in achieving
products for which they register comparative
advantages, starting from the example of an
American region, New England, for which he
observed that the economic integration had as
effect the increase both in the specialization
degree at regional level and also increase of
the risk for severe recession appearance with
regional character. At the end of 1987, the
American state Massachusetts (located in
New England) registered an unemployment
rate of 2.5%, representing less than half of
the national average, but the asymmetrical
shocks taken place in 1990 determined the
decrease of demand for the products made in
New England, and this led to local economy
collapse and to an unemployment rate almost
four times higher. Therefore, Krugman
reaches the conclusion that the economy
integration does not guarantees the economic
structure convergence because leads to
geographical focus of an industry and
formation of regional clusters.
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
This example confirms in a certain
measure the thesis of the so called
integration paradox, formulated by
Krugman. It is true that under condition of
scale economies for which the economic
integration opens the way, the increase of
specialization degree seems possible. But,
also, the situation to which we refer can be
the result of different performances registered
in research or teaching areas in the above
mentioned states, or only a problem of
option.
De Grauwe (1997) does not agree with
Krugman’s opinion concerning the
integration effects, justifying that this starts
from the theory according to which the
industry focus will not exceed the member
states borders, but the borders will have little
importance in the regional delimitation of the
industrial focus. Consequently, the
asymmetrical shocks will not possess a
national character, and in this case the
floating currency rates would not be used for
counterpoising these shocks. Also, among the
Union member states there will be produced
the trade creation phenomenon.
The European Commission point of view
is supported by J. Frankel and A.K. Rose
(1998a,b), that declare that a greater
integration of the trade leads to a closer
correlation of the business cycles among the
states. More than that, the authors consider
that the business cycles and trade integration
are inter-connected processes and
endogenous to monetary union foundation.
Therefore, they demonstrate that the states
that do not fulfill the optimal monetary area
criteria before adhesion to the monetary
union (ex ante) can fulfill these subsequently
to this adhesion (ex post), because inside a
monetary union the trade connections
between member states are intensifying and
this leads to increase of business cycles
symmetry among the member states. As a
consequence, the costs for passing to a single
currency are considered to be relatively low.
The above mentioned reasoning promotes
the thesis of endogenous optimality of
monetary areas, according to which the
formation of a monetary union ensures in
time the optimality of the monetary areas
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included in the union because the single
currency accelerates the economic integration
process. Out of this reason it is estimated that
the optimal monetary areas theory is
validating itself (Cerna, 2006). Therefore, the
adhesion opportunity to a monetary union is
granted a new perspective.
Such reasoning corresponds to an
approach of Lucas criticism type, according
to which under hypothesis of rational
expectations the initially considered
parameters in an econometrical model will
not be maintained. The policy changes
determine a behavior modification of the
economic agents in order to adapt to a new
reality. Consequently the econometrical
models cannot be used for foundation of
economic policy objectives.
Additionally, the verification of
optimality criteria observation is relatively
difficult and not very accurate. For example,
if we consider the shock similarity criterion
the difficulty consists of establishing the
symmetrical and asymmetrical shocks
causes. These shocks can be induced by
modifications registered by demand or
supply, can be the result of inefficient or
even abusive national macro-economical
policies can possess a temporary or
permanent character.
The validity of the endogenous optimality
in monetary area theory is considered by
H.A. Hallett and L. Piscitelli (2001) to be
uncertain and dependant in a great degree of
the structural convergence in the starting
stage of a monetary union. If it is decided the
transition to a single currency under
conditions of structural divergence, this
divergence will accentuate itself.
This point of view justifies the adhesion
conditioning to UEM according to Maastricht
criteria that imply that the states desiring to
join the Euro area to have low and similar
inflation rates, close interest rates on long
term periods, a high degree of financial
convergence and to observe the budgetary
discipline (fact allowing the inflation rate to
be maintained to a low level) and a steady
currency against Euro in the last two years
before adhesion (the possible exceeding of
the fluctuation limit of ±15% shows a high

volatility of the exchange rate and the fact
that the state desiring to use Euro does not
have a convergent enough economy with the
Euro area).
The European Commission point of view
is in a great extent supported also by
empirical studies analyzing the effects of
trade integration over the shocks symmetry in
case of the transition states.
For example, Ian Babetskii (2004)
reaches the following conclusions:
- trade focusing leads to increase of
symmetry of shocks registered at demand
level;
- the integration effects over the
asymmetry of shocks registered by offer are
different from one state to another;
- reduction of exchange rate volatility has
a positive effect over convergence of shocks
registered by demand.
As a result, we can estimate that the
results obtained as concerns shocks produced
over demand support the hypothesis of
monetary areas endogenous optimality.
Also, the results obtained by Ian
Babetskii acknowledge the statement of P.
Kenen (2001), stating that the impact of the
trade integration over shock asymmetry
depends on the shock type.
CONCLUSIONS
Against numerous critics UEM can prove
in time its viability by cumulated action of
several factors.
First, the common currency benefits (that is
also a universal currency) and its effects applied
towards integration of product, service and
financial markets or increase of the
convergence degree are often underestimated or
ignored.
Second, the capital mobility allowed by
an integrated financial market (the greatest
worldwide) can replace the labor force
mobility facilitating the adaptation process
imposed by modification in supply and
demand. The monetary union in itself is an
integration factor that will develop at the
same time the mobility of production factors
and will reduce the probability of
asymmetrical shocks.
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
Third, the regulation according to which
the floating rates are superior to the steady
ones or to a common currency in diminishing
the asymmetrical shocks effect is not always
valid because is conditioned, in case of free
capital circulation, by the adopted monetary
policy, importance granted to financial policy
and economy opening degree.
The UME member states register a high
volume of mutual trade exchanges, and that
justifies the option made in favor of a
common currency.
Fourth, because it is founded on internal
stability maintenance principle, UME ensures
by means of BCE the premises of a healthy
and coherent economic development for the
Euro states.
In this context, Tomasz Koźluk (2003)
stated: „Assuming that adhesion to a
monetary union should increase credibility
(of monetary policy – n.n.), it becomes easier
to maintain inflation to a low level”.
Consequently, the Central European Bank
must promote a prudent monetary policy in
line of reaching his basic objective: price
stability. Its mission becomes more difficult
as the Euro area extends.
We must underline that the adhesion to a
monetary union does not entirely solve the
various problems the national economies
confront, as the ones connected to
unemployment, production or inflation, but
implies toleration of some constraints and
some costs. On the other hand, on background
of increase of the economic opening degree,
production variation, the monetary union
adhesion benefits, as concerns liquidity increase
and financial stability, can compensate the
additional adjusting costs necessary for joining
the union.
REFERENCES
Journal articles
[1] Babetskii, I. (2004): „EU Enlargement and
Endogeneity of some OCA Criteria: Evidence
from the CEECs”, Working Paper Series, nr. 2,
Czech National Bank.
[3] De Grauwe, P., (1997): The Economics of
Monetary Integration, Oxford University Press,
Oxford.
[4] Frankel, J. and Rose, A.K. (1998a): „Is EMU
More Justifiable Ex Post than Ex Ante?”,
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
European Economic Review, nr. 41, 1998, pp.
563-570.
[5] Frankel, J. and Rose, A.K. (1998b):
„Endogeneity of the Optimum Currency Criteria”,
Economic Journal, nr. 108, 1998, pp. 1009-1025.
[6] Hallett, H.A. and Piscitelli, L. (2001): „The
Endogenous Optimal Currency Area Hypothesis:
Will a Single Currency Induce Convergence in
Europe?”, Paper Presented at The Royal Economic
Society Annual Conference, University of
Durham.
[7] Hen, C. and Léonard, J. (2002): Uniunea
Europeană. Un memento complet asupra
integrării europene, ediţia a X-a, Editura CNI
Coresi SA, Bucureşti.
[11] Krugman, P. and Venables, A.J. (1996):
„Integration, Specialization, and the Adjustment”,
European Economic Review, nr. 40, 1996, pp.
959-967.
- 112 -
[12] Mundell, R. (1961): „A Theory of Optimum
Currency Areas”, American Economic Review,
vol. 51.
Books
[2] Cerna, S. (2006): Teoria zonelor monetare
optime, Editura Universităţii de Vest, Timişoara.
[8] Kenen, P.B. (2001): „Currency Areas, Policy
Domains, and the Institutionalization of Fixed
Exchange Rates”, Centre for Economic
Performance.
[9] Koźluk, T. (2003): CEEC Accession Countries
and the EMU. An Assessment of Relative
Suitability and Readiness for Euro-Area
Membership, Departmento Economico, Istituto
Universitario Europeo, Florenţa.
[10] Krugman, P., (1993): „Lessons of
Massachusetts for EMU”, în Torres Francisco,
Francesco Giavazzi (eds.), The Transition to
Economic and Monetary Union, Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge.
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

CHOICES IN INTEREST RATE RISK MANAGEMENT

PROCESS

Cecilia Pop1, Roxana Calistru2

1
Facultatea de Agricultură – U.S.A.M.V. Iaşi
e-mail: cicippp@yahoo.com
2
Facultatea de Economie – Univ. “Petre Andrei” din Iaşi

Abstract
The purpose of this paper is to highlight the presence of interest rate risk at the level of non
financial companies, risk which, although incidental, affects the decision process in its core; and to
offer modern management solutions, in order to support the managers that underlie the investment
financing decisions at the level of these companies. Methodologically, the research has been done
mainly as a quantitative intercession, with estimates and tests of inductive type and appeal to
adequate techniques of analysis and reading off. The results of research reveal the placing of
estimation and interest rate risk management in the decision making problems of non financial
company; the setting-up of interest rate risk management into a suitable algorithm developed on
logical steps; the structured analysis of the derivatives for the interest rate risk management; the
growth of applied component, as an actual way to estimate and test the acquired results. As a result
of the research, we can draw the conclusion that the efficient management of the interest rate risk
depends on the moment in which the tools we use interfere with the risk management decisions and
on the way in which the management strategies answer to each manager’s own decisions.
Key words: management, interest rate, risk, derivatives

INTRODUCTION interest rate, on the success of which they are

The management of interest rate risk is
part of the broader function of risk
management at the level of a company. Even
the companies outside the banking and
financial sectors become more aware of the
need to actively manage the risks incumbent
on them. The risk management and business
management become inseparably. Making
choice of the most suitable approach of the
interest rate risk management, the risk
manager must know which are the available
ways to assess the risks: from sparing or
accepting, to diversification or hedging. The
hedging technique’s goal is to neutralize and
remove the risk, as compared to
diversification, which follows rather its
reduction. Thus, for non-financial companies,
the hedging with derivative tools headed the
previous practice of diversification.
Generally, the interest rate risk management
using the techniques of hedging with
derivatives allows a company to obtain the
estimated revenues from transactions or other
operations influenced by the change in
dependent.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
Decision making presumes to get
through several preliminary stages within the
interest rate risk management process: from
identifying the risk types that economic agent
faces with, grouping and sorting out the
manageable ones, passing through their
analysis and quantification, continuing with
the examination that can take different shapes
[1] (sparing, acceptance, transfer,
diversification, covering etc.) and monitoring
of examination strategies, to the assessment
of the results. Thus, the decisions affecting
the future and on which the efficiency and
effectiveness of the risk management process
depend, are the ones adopted in the
examination stage.
The examination of a position exposed
to the interest rate risk is achieved by
adopting an opposed and equal position,
either through traditional measures, or
through operations on capital market [4].

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
Both categories of operations generate
additional costs bore by the society in the
form of an insurance premium against the
interest rate risk.
Traditionally, a company opted for the
revision of contractual regulations on the
claims and debts at maturity, setting one’s
sights on the possibilities of early
reimbursement/ redemption of the
debts/investment or on renegotiate the
interest rate, in the case of an unfavorable
change of it. When in the company’s balance
there is a trade-off for the positions that are
sensitive to interest rate, one can act to eve up
the claims and debts at the same maturity.
The protection against the interest rate risk
can be done through the immunization of
each claim and debt at maturity. This
assumes each of them to be contracted in
terms that make the immunization period and
its maturity equal.
Operations on capital market using
derivatives that have as support assets
sensitive to interest rate represent the newest
and most dynamic tool for interest rate risk
management.
The derivatives are complex products and
their use assumes knowing in detail their
features, developing and use of proper
assessment techniques and mechanisms, and
expertise. Moreover, one must keep in mind
that any model, no matter how sophisticated,
offers only a partial representation of reality
and can generate a result only for the
environment he recovers. The decisions belong
at each level to the people, the expertise being
an important element in this equation.
The implementation of any interest rate
risk examination strategy using derivatives
implies several preliminary steps to be taken
by the risk manager:
1. Determining the objectives of the strategy
The tools for risk measurement provide
the information concerning the potential loss
of a position. Having this information, the
manager can determine what is expected
from the strategy of risk examination. If the
goal intended through the strategy consists of
the compensation of the effect of an adverse
change in the price of basic asset or liability
through the result of the position on the
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derivative’s market, then the strategy is
called hedging [2].
2. Determination of the most suitable tool
to be used in the risk’s examination
In order to control the interest rate risk
of a position or portfolio, one must initiate a
position on another tool or tools. The most
important category of such tools integrates
the derivate financial products or derivatives.
The first factor in determination of the tool or
tools that should be use in controlling the risk
is the correlation degree between the interest
rate on which is based the derivative tool and
the interest rate that creates the support risk
that manager intends to cap. In addition, for a
position that request liquidity, one doesn’t
want the risk to be controlled by an
instrument with a reduced liquidity or an
instrument whose value is determined solely
by a counterparty.
3. Determination of the position that
should be taken in the case of chosen
tool for risk’s examination
Once chosen the risk’s examination
tools and the goals of the strategy, one must
determine the position that is to be taken in
the case of the tool, namely the two
dimensions of the position: the type and the
size. The position’s type refers to the
orientation of the operation that is to be
initiated on the derivate tool: sell (short
position) or buy (long position). For instance,
if one wants to decrease the exposure to the
interest rate risk of a long position in
governmental bonds using futures contracts
that have governmental bonds as support,
then the most appropriate step is to initiate a
short position on that futures contract. The
second dimension is the size of position
initiated on the examination tool of the
selected risk. For instance, when futures
contracts or bonds are used, the size of the
position is represented by the number of
contracts. The position’s value depends on
the volatility of the price of position whose
risk is to be controlled.
4. The assessment of the potential result of
the risk examination strategy
After choosing the position on the tool or
tools for risk examination, the next step is the
determination of the potential result of the

strategy. Most of the times this step asks for
the determination of the strategy’s result for
different scenarios that take into account
different levels of the future interest rate. The
analyzed scenarios can be compared later to
the goals set for the risk examination strategy.
One can notice, for instance, that in the case of
some scenarios the goals can be met, while for
others, the results of risk examination strategy
can be below the results of the situation when
anything would be done.
In order to analyze the way in which the
interest rate risk management strategies using
derivatives respond to the goals set by the
risk manager, we opted for three strategies:
hedging with futures contracts, buying PUT
options and selling CALL options applied to
the same spot position exposed to the interest
rate risk.
Hedging with futures contracts means
to initiate a futures position, as a temporary
substitute for a transaction that will take
place in the future on the cash market. If
prices on demand and futures change in the
same time, then any loss made by hedger at
any position, either cash or futures, will be
compensated by the profit made at the other
position. Hedging is a special case of
examination of the interest rate risk. The risk
manager follows a duration equal to zero. [3]
The most frequently met case is the one
in which the asset held spot, whose risk must
be hedge, is not identical with the asset
supporting the futures contract. This type of
hedging is known as cross-hedge. In the
analysis, one wants to hedge in July this year
the interest rate risk pertaining to a portfolio
of corporate bonds on long term (coupon
11.75%, maturity in 2029, nominal value of
10,000,000 units) that the company intends to
sell at the end of September, in order to make
available funds necessary for a new project.
The risk manager must cover himself against
the risk of interest rate increase till the end of
September, fact that would lead to the
decrease of the bonds’ selling price. As the
derivate tools having as support the corporate
bond held as spot can’t be found on the
market, the risk manager goes toward a
largely traded type of contract, whose
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
reference asset has a price variation very
close to the price variation of the held bond.
Thus, he chooses to sell futures contracts for
treasury bonds, with maturity in September
this year, in order to cap the selling of
corporate bonds. In this situation, one can
talk about a cross-hedge, because the
reference asset of the chosen contract is not
the same to the asset whose interest rate risk
is capped.
The information given by the stock
exchange at the date of hedging strategy’s
initiation are the following: the corporate
bond is traded at a 12.4% yield; the futures
price of the contract on treasury bonds,
maturity in September is 70, the nominal
value is 10,000,000 units and the conversion
factor for the deliverable bond is 0.9660; the
deliverable bond, coupon of 7.625%,
maturity in 2029 is “the cheapest at the
delivery” of futures contract on treasury
bonds, in September this year and is traded at
an yield of 11.50%.
Because the conversion factor is 0.9660,
the target price of hedging strategy is 70 *
0.9660 = 67.62 and the expected yield is
11.789% (yield at a price of 67.62). The
expected yield for the held corporate bond is
11.789% + 0.90% = 12.689%, corresponding
to a selling price effectively blocked at
92.628.
At these target levels, the value of
absolute period, at a change by 50 basic
points of the interest rate is of 2.8166% for
the deliverable bond and 3.6282% for the
corporate bond. As a result, at a nominal
value of 10,000,000 units of the bond whose
risk must be capped, the absolute period is
3.6282% * 10,000,000 units = 362,820 units;
and at a nominal value of 100,000 units of
the deliverable bonds, the absolute period is
2.8166% * 100,000 units = 2816.6 units.
The number of futures contracts
(hedging rate) = 0.9660 * (-362,820 /
2816.6)=-124 contracts
One must sell 124 futures contracts on
treasury bonds in order to cap the interest rate
risk generated by the spot position held on
corporate bonds, succeeding thus to block a
selling price of 92.628.
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

In order to test the strategy, one can future interest rate, during July – September,
determine the result for different scenarios reflected in the price of corporate bond in the
that take into account different levels of the last day of maturity month:

Table 1
The target rate in a strategy of cross-hedge with futures contracts on treasury bonds
Value of Yield of Yield of Price of Total
Futures Fin. result
corp. bond corp.bond at deliverable deliverable financial
price** for 124FC
at selling selling % bond * bond result
7 600 000 15,468 14,568 54,590 56,511 1 672 636 9 272 636
8 000 000 14,696 13,769 57,741 59,773 1 268 148 9 268 148
8 400 000 13,996 13,096 60,887 63,030 864 280 9 264 280
8 800 000 13,359 12,459 64,018 66,271 462 396 9 262 396
9 200 000 12,776 11,876 67,134 69,497 62 372 9 262 372
9 600 000 12,240 11,340 70,233 72,705 - 335 420 9 264 580
10 000 000 11,745 10,845 73,312 75,892 - 730 608 9 269 392
10 400 000 11,287 10,387 76,364 79,052 -1122448 9 277 552
10 800 000 10,861 9,961 79,394 82,188 -1511312 9 288 688
11 200 000 10,463 9,563 82,403 85,303 -1897572 9 302 428
* The yield of deliverable bond is kept at a distance of 90 basic points against the corporate bond’s yield, i.e. they
evolve in parallel (the difference between the two yields is constant in time, respective 12.40% - 11.5% = 0.90%).
**Through convergence, the futures price equals the price of the deliverable bond divided by the conversion factor
0.9660

By adding in the last column the results
from the two markets, spot and futures, one
obtains values very close to 9,262,800 units,
meaning a price of 92.628 for the sold corporate
bonds, identical to the price that the manager
blocked as target price of the strategy.
In the second strategy, the risk manager
uses options on futures contracts, instead of
futures contracts, in order to protect himself
against the rise in interest rate. The strategy
he must use in this case is the buying of PUT
options or long PUT [5]. A first step consists
of selecting the strike price for the chosen
option as tool of interest rate risk
Table 2
Strategy of hedging with PUT options on futures contracts on treasury bonds
management. First of all, the risk manager
must determine the minimum selling price
that he accepts for the bonds that are to be
capped. Comparing the price the strategy
with futures contracts can block, we assume
that the risk manager considers a minimum
acceptable a price of the bond of 87.668 that
corresponds to a futures price of 66.
In the next Table there are integrated
the strategy’s results for a wide range of
possible values of the interest rate, reflected
in the price of corporate bond in the last day
of the maturity month:

Value of corp. Yield of corp. Futures Value for Premium for Total financial
bond at selling bond at selling % price* 124 PUT** 124 PUT result
7 600 000 15,468 56,511 1 176 636 46 500 8 730 136
8 000 000 14,696 59,773 772 148 46 500 8 725 648
8 400 000 13,996 63,030 368 280 46 500 8 721 780
8 800 000 13,359 66,271 0 46 500 8 753 500
9 200 000 12,776 69,497 0 46 500 9 153 500
9 600 000 12,240 72,705 0 46 500 9 553 500
10 000 000 11,745 75,892 0 46 500 9 953 500
10 400 000 11,287 79,052 0 46 500 10 353 500
10 800 000 10,861 82,188 0 46 500 10 753 500
11 200 000 10,463 85,303 0 46 500 11 153 500
*is determined identically as in Table 1
** Value for 124 PUT = 124 * 100,000 units * 1% * max [(66 – futures price), 0]

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

The total financial result that allows the
determination of the actual selling price of
the capped bonds is computed in the last
column. It is composed of the result obtained
on spot market, from the selling of the bonds
at the current market price and the result
obtained from the exercise of the PUT option
at maturity, revised with the premium paid
for options. The financial result of the
transaction on the PUT options market is
equal to the value of option minus the cost of
the option, being about a buying. The value
of the PUT option in the moment of exercise
is the price of exercise minus the futures
price of the support contract, everything
multiplied by the nominal value of the
support asset (1000 units). If the difference is
negative, the buyer gives up the option, case
in which its value is equal to zero. Following
the last column in the table, one can notice
that the actual selling price of the capped
bonds never decreases below the minimum
acceptable price set by the risk manager
(87.668) minus the options premium at 100
units nominal value (0.465), respectively
below 87.203. This minimum actual price can
be calculated by the risk manager before the
hedging strategy to be initiated.
The degree in which the strategy of
selling CALL options responds to the needs
of covering the interest rate risk [5], in the
case of the same portfolio of corporate bonds,
is pursued in Table 3. The strategy starts
from a price of future contracts on treasury
bonds of 71-24 at the date of hedging
initiation, case in which the selling of CALL
options on future contracts is good to be done
at the price of exercise of 78, receiving in
exchange a premium of 24 points. The
number of contracts of sold options will be
the same, 124, for a nominal value of
10,000,000 units of the corporate bonds spot
held. For the same range of possible prices of
the bond at the option’s maturity, based on
the way the interest rate fluctuates, the
obtained results are integrated in the
following table:

Table 3
Strategy of hedging with CALL options on futures contracts on treasury bonds
The amount Total
Value of corp. Yield of corp. Futures The premium
due for 124 financial
bond at selling bond at selling % price* for 124 CALL
CALL** result
7 600 000 15,468 56,511 0 46 500 7 646 500
8 000 000 14,696 59,773 0 46 500 8 046 500
8 400 000 13,996 63,030 0 46 500 8 446 500
8 800 000 13,359 66,271 0 46 500 8 846 500
9 200 000 12,776 69,497 0 46 500 9 246 500
9 600 000 12,240 72,705 0 46 500 9 646 500
10 000 000 11,745 75,892 0 46 500 10 046 500
10 400 000 11,287 79,052 - 130 448 46 500 10 316 052
10 800 000 10,861 82,188 - 519 312 46 500 10 327 188
11 200 000 10,463 85,303 - 905 572 46 500 10 340 928
*is determined identically as in Table 1
**The amount due in the sold CALL contract computed as 124 * 100 000 USD * max [(futures price - 78), 0]

The selling actual maximum price in the
case of CALL capping strategy can be
computed before launching the strategy. It is
equal to the price of the capped bond
corresponding to the price of exercise of the
sold option, plus the received premium. In the
given example, the price of exercise of sold
CALL option is 78. Multiplying the price of
exercise by the conversion factor 0.966 we get
the price of the cheapest bond at the
dissolution of the futures contract underlying
the option, 75.348 respectively. This price
corresponds to a yield of 10.536% for the
deliverable bond. The equivalent yield for the
corporate bond is 90 basic points higher or
11.436%, corresponding to a price of 102.666.
Adding the received premium of 0.465 basic
points, one obtains the price of 103.410. This
price is the maximum possible for the actual
price of selling the bond to be hedged.

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS derivatives offered by stock market,

Comparing the alternate strategies regulated, respond to the goals of each risk
we’ve proposed for hedging the interest rate manager. The results of the three proposed
risk faced by the investor that possesses a strategies: hedging with futures contracts,
corporate bond portfolio, we can draw a hedging with PUT options and hedging by
conclusion on the way in which the strategies selling CALL options are integrated in the
for interest rate risk management with following graph:

Figure 1 – Comparison between the results of the alternate strategies of capping the interest rate risk
by derivate financial products
115,00
o piaţă în creştere
110,00
(scădere a ratei dobânzii):
obligatiunilor corporatiste

105,00 pozitia neacoperita

Pret de vanzare al

100,00
nu are nici un punct de
95,00
vedere: short futures
90,00

85,00
o piaţă în scădere sigură
80,00 (creştere a ratei dobânzii):
75,00 long PUT
70,00
o piaţă staţionară cu o
uşoară scădere: short
68

96

96

59

03

45

61

63
,4

,6

,9

,3

,5

,7

,8

,4

CALL
15

14

13

13

12

11

10

10

Rata dobanzii %

- If the manager anticipates a market in - If, in exchange, he anticipates a

sure decrease for the support asset (increase stationary market with a slight decrease, then
of interest rate) or basically “bearish”, buying is better to cash the premium into a strategy of
a PUT option and paying the premium is the selling the CALL. This strategy doesn’t limit
right strategy. Buying the PUT option offers the level of potential losses at an unfavorable
the possibility to obtain an unlimited gain at a evolution of interest rate, reason for which
decrease of support asset’s price (an increase many managers do not consider it a strategy of
of interest rate), that compensates the loss on covering the risks. However, the potential
the spot market. If the evolution is not as losses are smaller than the ones generated by
expected (the interest rate decreases), but the unfavorable movement of the interest rate
favorable to the cash position because it on the unhedged cash position. The difference
assimilates to the growth of the prices of titles comes from the premium cashed from the
in portfolio, the gain on spot market is buyer through the sale of the CALL option.
adjusted with the premium paid for the PUT’s The premium acts as a buffer for the
procurement. The hedging with PUT option downward movement of the prices, reducing
allows to the investor to make profit from the the losses when the rate increases. The cost of
growth of prices (the interest rate decrease), this buffer is that the manager gives up the
offering the necessary protection against their potential gains generated by a reduction of the
decrease (increase of interest rate) as well. The interest rate, because his revenues have a
PUT protection strategy ensures the selling ceiling in this strategy. The selling actual
minimum actual price of the bonds in portfolio maximum price in the case of CALL hedging
(87.203 in the given example) before the strategy can be computed before the launching
initialization of the strategy, as being the of the strategy and it is equal to the price of the
minimum acceptable price set by the risk capped bond corresponding to the price of
manager minus the premium. exercise of the sold option, plus the cashed
premium (103.410 in our example).

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- If he has no point of view regarding the
future evolution of interest rate, but he wants
to cap the risk at all costs, then he will have to
access the futures market. The futures
strategy allows him to block the selling price
of the support asset (92.628 in our example),
no matter the interest rate evolution. One
avoids thus the potential losses, but does not
allow to the operator to benefit from the
favorable evolution of the interest rate: the
gain from the cash market will be annihilated
by the loss on the futures market.
- There is yet the situation in which the
prevision of the interest rate evolution
indicates a growing market for the held
asset or “bullish”, case in which initiating no
hedging position is the best strategy.
CONCLUSIONS
One cannot say that one or another
interest rate risk hedging strategy using
derivatives is „the best” or „the most correct”
one. Each strategy has its advantages and
disadvantages. In order to choose one of them,
one must analyze them and compare them to
the goals of each risk manager. The best
strategy and the best strike price depend upon
the point of view of the manager regarding the
market evolution. The manager responsible
with the selection of strategy has his own
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
perspective on the market, based on which he
will act on the parallel derivative market.
The derivatives are complex products
and their use assumes knowing in detail their
features, the development and use of several
proper techniques and mechanisms for
assessment, and expertise. In addition, one
must keep in mind that any model, no matter
how sophisticated, offers only a partial
representation of reality, and the model can
generate a result only for the environment he
recovers. The decisions belong to people at
each level, the expertise being an important
element in this equation.
REFERENCES
Books:
[1] Bodie, Z.; Merton, R.: Finance, Prentice Hall,
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, 2000, p.200-210
[2] Corduneanu, C.: Instrumente, mecanisme şi
strategii de administrare a riscurilor ratei dobânzii,
Editura Mirton, Timişoara, 2005, p.
[3] Fabozzi, J.F.: Bond markets, Analysis and
Strategies, 5th edition, Pearson Education
International, Prentice Hall, 2004, p.9-35
[4] Stancu, I.: Finanţe, Editura Economica,
Bucureşti, 1997, p.676-681
[5] Stephens J.J.: Managing Interest Rate Risk
using Financial Derivatives, The Institute of
Internal Auditors UK and Ireland, John Wiley &
Sons LTD, England, 2002, p.63-91; p.107-137
 BACK
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

ESTIMATION OF INTEREST RATE RISK ATTENDING

THE BONDS LOAN

Roxana Calistru1, Cecilia Pop2

1
Facultatea de Economie – Univ. “Petre Andrei” din Iaşi
e-mail: oxdav@gmail.com
2
Facultatea de Agricultură – U.S.A.M.V. Iaşi

Abstract
The purpose of this paper is to identify and analyze the techniques and methods to estimate the
interest rate risk attending a bonds loan, in order to be able to offer a useful and efficient tool for
underlying and improve the investment financing decisions. Methodologically, the research has
recourse to adequate methods of assessment of financial flows: the binomial method, the decision
tree, the Monte Carlo simulation and the specific parameters for updating the cash flow, as well as
the statistical measurement of output’s volatility through the chronological series method. The
research relieves placing the interest rate risk’s estimation in decision process of the companies;
systematization and clarification of ways to estimate the interest rate risk in relation with the
strategy of the company and the investment programs’ financing source; the conveyance and
estimation of bond’s price volatility as a fundamental of the interest rate risk; quantification of
sensitivity of held position to interest rate change. The success in interest rate risk management
can’t be achieved unless a good quantification is made, allowing afterwards diminishing the risk
exposure to admissible level.
Key words: interest rate, risk, bond, valuation, duration

INTRODUCTION Interest rate risk assessment that follows

The ideal of every manager is to find
some interest rate model that explains, but
especially forecasts, the behavior of interest
rates. Alas, none presently do so [2]. That is
not to say that interest rate behavior cannot
be explained. Various economical, financial,
political or social factors explain some of the
behavior of interest rates over history.
Interest rates can be seen to fluctuate from
day to day, intra-day or longer period, due to
the changes in monetary politics.
The implications are clear. Corporations
with debts can rely only on uncertainty as far
as their cost of funds and payment aschedule
(cash flows) are concerned. Investors with
portfolios of bonds will also have to manage
the constant volatility in interest rates, in
order to protect the value of their
investments. Either issuer or underwriter,
seller or buyer, portfolio owner or manager,
the holder of a bond position is eager for
controlling interest rate risk, impossible to be
done without passing through risk
quantification phase.
bond loan is an essential phase in the ample
interest rate risk management process,
retraced in order to achieve the optimization
of investments fund decisions.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
The comprehension and the knowledge of
interest rate risk management start up with the
wise attitude on the wide nature of this risk.
Interest rate risk could be identify with the
possibility that the holder of a debenture
and/or debt, a present or a future one, with
fixed or flexible interest rate, to record a loss
due to the future changes in the market interest
rate (decrease, increase or changing in interest
rate structure outwards or at term) [5].
For the bond loans drawn up with fixed
interest rate, the decrease of market interest
rate involves an increase of the update value
of debts. The increase of the market value of
debts leads to the decrease of the common
stock value, calculated as difference between
assets and liabilities. The effect is similar for
debts drawn up with variable interest rate as

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the matching is done quarterly, half/yearly or
yearly, and the loss could be marked inside
the period.
As underwriter for bond loans with fixed
interest rate, the company will bear an
opportunity loss when the market interest rate
grows up. The company will collect much
less from financial incomes then the credit
market could offer in present. The decrease
of market value for these assets leads to the
same loss of the common stock value, as
result of the ineffective management of
interest rate. The effects are the same for the
investments done with variable interest rates.
The key to measuring the potential loss
of a position is how good the estimate is of
the value of the position after an adverse rate
change. The fundamental relationship for the
loss of a position result from the adverse
change in interest rate is: potential loss of a
position = value of position after adverse
rate change – current market value of
position. [4]
A bond valuation model is used to
determine the value of a position. For any
bond in which neither the issuer nor the
investor can alter the repayment of the
principal before its contractual date, the
valuation process is easier. The fundamental
principle of valuation is that the value of a
financial asset is the present value of the
expected cash flow [1]. Cash flow in the case
of a bond derives from interest income or
repayment of principal. Once the cash flow
for a bond is estimated, the next step is to
determine the appropriate interest rate to use
to discount the cash flow. The traditional
practice in valuation has been to discount
every cash flow of a bond by the same
interest rate (discount rate). The fundamental
flaw of the traditional approach is that it
views each security as the same package of
cash flows. The proper way to view a bond is
as a package of zero-coupon instruments.
The reason that this is the proper way is
because it does not allow a market participant
to realize an arbitrage profit. By viewing any
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
financial asset in this way, a consistent
valuation framework can be developed.
The starting point for the determination
of the appropriate rate is the theoretical spot
rate on default-free securities. Since
Treasury securities are viewed as default-free
securities, the theoretical spot rates on these
securities are the benchmark rates. They
could be obtain from the Treasury Yield
Curve, that is the graphical depiction of the
relationship between the yield on zero-
coupon Treasury securities of different
maturities, typically constructed from the on-
the-run Treasury issues. For a non-Treasury
bond, the theoretical value must reflect not
only the spot rate for default-free bonds, but
also a risk premium to reflect default risk and
any options embedded in the issue. There is
no reason to expect the credit spread to be the
same regardless of when the cash flow is
expected to be received, that involve the
necessity to build up a term structure for
credit spreads.
For a correct estimation of cash flows
for bonds with embedded options, is
necessary to induct in analysis the possibility
that interest rates will change in future and
the way these changes will affect the issuer
of the bond or the bondholder decision to
exercise an option. This is done in valuation
methodologies by introducing a parameter
that reflects the interest rate volatility. There
are two main approaches to the valuation of
bonds with embedded options: the binomial
method and the Monte Carlo simulation
method. [4]
The binomial method is a technique for
valuing callable and putable bonds. Once we
allow for embedded options, consideration
must be given to interest rate volatility. This
can be done by introducing a binomial
interest rate tree [2]. This tree is nothing
more than a graphical depiction of the
interest rates over time based on some
assumption about interest rate volatility. How
this tree is constructed is illustrated below:
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

Figure 1 – Binomial interest rate tree

σ
r4e8
NHHHH
6σ
r3e
NHHH
σ σ
r2e4 r4e6
NHH NHHHL
2σ 4σ
r1e r3e
NH NHHL
σ σ
r0 r2e2 r4e4
N NHL NHHLL
r1 2σ
r3e
NL NHLL
σ
r2 r4e2
NLL NHLLL

r3
NLLL
r4
NLLLL
Azi 1 an 2 ani 3 ani 4 ani

The point denoted by N is the root of the
tree and correspond to the current one year
spot rate, noted by r0. What we have assumed
in creating this tree is that the one year rate
can take on two possible values the next
period and the two rates have the same
probability of occurring. One rate will be
higher than the other. It is assumed that the
one year rate can evolve over time based on a
random process called a lognormal random
walk with a certain volatility.
We use the following notation to
describe the tree in the first year:
σ = assumed volatility of the one year rate;
r1,L = lower one year rate one year from now;
r1,H = higher one year rate one year from
now.
The relationship between r1,L and r1,H is
as follows:
r1,H = r1,L (e2σ), where e is the base of the
natural logarithm 2.71828, so r1,H is replaced
by r1,L (e2σ) in the tree.
Each node represents a time period that
is equal to one year from the node to its left.
Each node is labeled with N, representing
node, and a subscript that indicates the path
that one year interest rate took to get to that
node and is calculated using the same
lognormal random walk describe earlier. L
represents the lower of the two one-year rates
and H represents the higher.
To find the value of the bond at a node,
we first calculate the bond’s value at the two
nodes to the right of the node we are interest
in using the following notations: VH = bond’s
value for the higher one-year rate; VL =
bond’s value for the lower one-year rate; C =
coupon payment.
1 VH + C VL + C 
Bond `s value at a node =  + 
2  (1 + rx ) (1 + rx ) 
The volatility assumption has an
important impact on the theoretical value.
More specifically, the higher the expected
volatility (σ), the higher the value of a bond.

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The second method for valuing bonds
with embedded options is Monte Carlo
simulation [1]. The method involves
simulating a sufficiently large number of
potential interest rate paths in order to assess
the value of a security along these different
paths. This method is most flexible of the
two valuation methodologies for valuing
interest rate sensitive instruments where the
history of interest rate is important.
Mortgage-backed securities are commonly
valued using this method, but it is use by
some dealers to value callable and putable
bonds too. The simulating works by
generating a set of cash flows based on future
simulated refinancing rates, that involves
simulating of anticipated payment rates.
For an effective control of exposure to
the interest rate risk, the quantification of the
sensitivity of the held position to the changes
Table 1
The value of a basic point
Initial price at 8%
Bond
yield
Coupon 8%, 5 years maturity 100,0000
Coupon 8%, 20 years maturity 100,0000
Coupon 5%, 5 years maturity 87,8337
Coupon 5%, 20 years maturity 70,3108
Zero-coupon, 5 years maturity 67,5564
Zero-coupon, 20 years maturity 20,8289
The indicator can’t serve, though, for the
calculation of the absolute change of the
price when the yield changes by a larger
number of basic points (100, for instance).
2. Yield variation at the price change
This indicator assumes the calculation of
the yield until the maturity if the bond’s price
decreases by X units. The difference between
the initial yield and the one obtained in that
way represents the yield’s variation at a
change by X units of the bond’s price.
Table 2
Example setting the yield variation at the drop by an eighth of the bond’s price
Initial yield Initial price minus
Bond Initial price
(%)
7%/20 5,000 125,10
7%-5 5,000 108,75
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
in interest rate is needed [4]. The choice and
implementation of the most suitable trading
strategy or hedging is determined by finding
a mean to measure the volatility of a bond’s
price. The most frequently used indicators
measuring the degree of exposure of these
financial tools to the change of yield and,
thus, of interest rate are the following: value
of a „basic point”; yield variation at the price
change; duration and convexity.
1. Value of a „basic point”
The value of a „basic point” [3]
represents the absolute (not relative) change of
a bond’s price when the yield changes by 1
basic point (by 0.01%). The price of a „basic
point” is the same at the growth by 0.01% of
the yield and at the drop by 0.01% of it. For
six bonds taken into account, the price of a
basic point can be determined as follows:
Price at Price of a basic
8.01% yield point
99,9595 0,0405
99,9019 0,0981
87,7961 0,0376
70,2340 0,0768
67,5239 0,0325
20,7889 0,0400
In USA, the corporate and municipal
bonds are traded in eighths of percentage
points of the nominal value, i.e. changes
smaller than 1/8 * 1% * 100 USD nominal
value = 0.125 USD are not accepted. As a
consequence, the investors want to know
what yield variation draws in the price’s
change by 0.125 USD, or which is „the yield
of an eighth”. The yield variation at a
decrease by an eighth of the price of two
hypothetical bonds is the following:
The new Yield
an eighth yield variation
124,975 5,00872 0,00872
108,625 5,02760 0,0276
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

3. Duration bond is determined using these methods, the

The most relevant way for measuring the
sensitivity of a bond’s price to the changes in
the interest rate is the one setting how the
price will change, as percentage from the
actual price, if the interest rate changes by a
smaller number of basic points.
Duration can be defined as the
approximate percentage change of the bond’s
price at the parallel move of the yield’s curve
by 100 basic points. For instance, a bond
with a life of 5 will change its price by
approx. 5% at the parallel move of the yield’s
curve by 100 basic points. At the parallel
move by 50 basic points of the yield’s curve,
the bond’s price will change by about 2.5%.
A manager that anticipates a drop of the
interest rate will extend (increase) the
portfolio’s duration. Assuming that the
manager increases the portfolio’s life from 4
to 6, it means that at a decrease of the interest
rate by 100 basic points, the portfolio’s value
will increase by another 2%, as compared to
the case in which the duration would have
remain unchanged.
The form preferred by practitioners is
modified duration, meaning by that the
approximate percentage change of the bond’s
price at the parallel move of the yield’s curve
by 100 basic points, assuming that the cash
flows of the bond do not change when the
curve moves. The change of the bond’s price
when the curve is moved by a smaller
number of basic points is due only to the
update by the new level of the yield.
The assumption that the cash flows will
not change when the yield curve is moving is
valid only when one talks about bonds
without included options, such as, for
instance, the Treasury bonds, because the
result obtained for the life takes into account
both the updating with many interest rates,
and the eventually changes of the cash flows.
If the life is computed as such, is called
effective duration or option-adjusted
duration.
The difference between modified
duration and effective duration for bonds
with included options can be, sometimes,
very large. So that, for the bonds with
included options, one considers that the
actual life is the best measure of the
sensitivity of price to the parallel movements
of the yield curve.
Starting from the theoretical form of the
price of a bond:
C C C M
P= + +...+ +
1+ y (1+ y)2
(1+ y) (1+ y)n
n
where:
P = bond’s price;
C = semi-annual coupon (in units);
y = half of the yield until maturity or the
requested yield;
n = number of semesters (number of years
until maturity * 2);
M = principal reimbursed at maturity.
One can determine the approximate
change of the price in the case of small
changes of yield [3], computing the 1st degree
derivative of the previous equation in terms
of the yield. That allows us to identify the
computing formula for the Macauly duration
indicator:
n
tC nM
∑ (1 + y ) + (1 + y )
t =1
t n

payments made by the state to the bond Macaulay duration =

P
holders do not change when the yield curve is
changed. One cannot say the same neither in and the relation between this and the
the case of bought back and paid back bonds, modified duration:
nor in the case of mortgage bonds. For this
type of bonds, a yield change will draw up an Macaulay duration
alteration of the expected cash flows. Modified duration =
The assessment methods previously 1+ y
described take into account the effects
produced by the movement of the yield curve There is presented in Table 3 an
on the cash flows. Thus, if the value of the example for the calculation of the two

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

indicators: Macauly duration and modified coupon 5% and 8% yield until maturity.
duration for a bond with 5 years maturity,

Table 3
The calculation of Macauly duration and modified duration for the 5%/5 bond, 8% yield until maturity
1 3
CF for 100 units 2 3 PVCF pondered with
Period (t) PV for 1 unit PVCF
par value maturity
t
a b c=1/(1+0.04) d=b*c e=a*d
1 2,5 0,96153846 2,4038462 2,4038462
2 2,5 0,92455621 2,3113905 4,6227811
3 2,5 0,88899636 2,2224909 6,6674727
4 2,5 0,85480419 2,1370105 8,5480419
5 2,5 0,82192711 2,0548178 10,2740888
6 2,5 0,79031453 1,9757863 11,8547179
7 2,5 0,75991781 1,8997945 13,2985617
8 2,5 0,73069021 1,8267255 14,6138041
9 2,5 0,70258674 1,7564668 15,8082016
10 102,5 0,67556417 69,2453273 692,4532730
87,8336563 780,5447890
1
CF = cash flow; 2PV = present value; 3PVCF = present value of cash flow.

Macauly duration (in halves of years) = 780.544789 / 87.8336563 = 8.89

Annualized Macauly duration = 8.89 / 2 = 4.45
Annualized modified duration = 4.45 / 1.04 = 4.27
The properties of these two indicators can be seen computing the indicators in a similar
way as in the previous example, for the six considered hypothetical bonds:

Table 4
Macauly life and changed life for the six hypothetical bonds
Bond Macauly duration Modified duration
8% / 5 4,22 4,06
8% / 20 10,29 9,90
5% / 5 4,45 4,27
5% / 20 11,37 10,93
0% / 5 5 4,81
0% / 20 20 19,23

One can notice that the values obtained
for the two indicators are, for all the six
bonds, smaller than the maturity. The only
case in which the Macauly duration is equal
to maturity is the one of the bond with zero
coupon, and that can be seen from the
formula. The modified duration is, though,
smaller than maturity in the case of zero
coupon bond as well.
The properties of the modified duration,
noticed in the proposed example, are the
following:
- The longer the maturity, other factors
being constant, the longer the modified
duration;
- Generally, the smaller the coupon, other
factors being constant, the longer the
modified duration;
- The lower the level of yield to maturity,
other factors being constant, the longer
the modified duration.
4. Convexity
The 2nd degree derivative of the price
function is called the measure of the absolute
convexity and serves for the correction of the
approximation of price-yield relation:
d 2P
the measureof the absolute convexity =
dy 2

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
And in the case of convexity we can talk
about changed convexity (doesn’t take into
account the potential changes in the cash
flows that can occur when the yield is
changed) and actual convexity (admits that in
the cash flows changes can occur by
changing the yield). For the bonds with
included options or for the mortgage ones,
significant differences between the two types
of convexity can occur.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The properties of the duration are similar
to those of the bond’s price volatility, so that
the link between the modified duration and
price’s volatility is direct: the longer the
modified duration, the higher the bond’s
price volatility, making a good measure of
the interest rate risk for small changes of the
yield.
The drawback is that, no matter an
upward or downward movement of the yield
curve, the duration approximates the same
percentage change of the price, which is not
always true. At small changes of the yield,
the percentage change of the price is the
same, whether the yield increases or
decreases, while at large changes of it, that is
not so.
Duration offers, in fact, a first
approximation for small parallel movements
of the yield curve. The approximation can be
improved, continuing the process on the
second level. The convexity is the additional
measuring tool of the bond’s price change
that supplements the approximation offered
by duration.
Duration and convexity give us the
amplitude of the price’s volatility at yield’s
changes. The measurement of the interest
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rate risk pertaining a bond position must take
into consideration the expected volatility of
the yield. The larger the yield’s expected
volatility, the larger the interest rate risk for a
position with the given life and current value.
The measurement of the yield’s volatility is
made using statistical methods and
indicators. The modern theories of portfolio
management, developed by M. Markovitz
and J. Tobin, introduced the concepts of
standard deviation and variance, through
which one measure how much can an event
deviate from the average, the element’s
volatility respectively. The variance is one of
the possibilities to quantify the risk.
CONCLUSIONS
Once measured the interest rate risk for
a bond position or for a bonds portfolio, the
next step in risk management is the
diminishment of exposure to the risk up to an
acceptable level. This phase is called risk
control.
REFERENCES
Books:
[1] Anghelache, G.: Piaţa de capital: caracteristici,
evoluţii, tranzacţii, Editura Economică, Bucureşti,
2004
[2] Cooke, S.; Slack, N.: Making Management
Decisions, Second Edition, Prentice Hall Int (UK)
LTD, 1991, p.177-191
[3] Corduneanu, C.: Instrumente, mecanisme şi
strategii de administrare a riscurilor ratei dobânzii,
Editura Mirton, Timişoara, 2005, p.200-210
[4] Fabozzi, J.F.: Bond markets, Analysis and
Strategies, 5th edition, Pearson Education
International, Prentice Hall, 2004, p.59-63
[5] Stancu, I.: Finanţe, Editura Economica,
Bucureşti, 1997, p.676-681
 BACK

Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

REFLECTIONS ABOUT THE ROLE OF CIVIL SOCIETY

IN THE RURAL DEVELOPMENT

C. Bulgariu

Universitatea "P. Andrei" din Iaşi

e-mail: bulgariuc@xnet.ro

Abstract
Especially after the integration of Romania in the European Union the possibilities of recuperation
of the fallbacks of our rural areas in the process of a durable development have been diversified. The
primary actors involved in creating and funding the programmes are the people which put into action
the programme and the local authorities. Along side them we consider that the civil society must be a
catalyst for the programmes and help the local community absorb the funds given to it and help it
multiply the results. The involvement of the civil society in the formation of certain conducts , in
promoting the universal values , in harnessing the local resources , in talking and helping each
individual ,etc. are just some suggestions to go on. The projects which aimed to help the rural areas by
encouraging initiative and raise the awareness of local resources have reduced results because of the
Romanian peasant’s feeling that everything he already has is enough and his is satisfied with himself.
The role of civil society should be to help the people understand that the must not settle for a little and
that they should work so that they can help themselves and they’re community. The conclusions of this
study, based on the projects build on European funding in the North-Eastern region concerning the
development of peoples awareness of they’re own resources in the rural areas, are that certain
financial solutions must be found and that certain procedures are needed so that the civil society can
take part in the long term development of these areas. The civil society could represent a link between
the local communities and the economical experts.
Key words: civil society, public authorities, juridical persons, rural development, conduct

INTRODUCTION The role of comercial societies is a

The fact analysis that contribue to the
rural progress showed that the public
authorities and the economical
representatives play an important part in the
growing wellfair of the local comunity.
The role of the administrative teritorial
units is represented by : the ensurance of a
complex infrastructure ( the utility ensurance,
the culturale and educational spaces
ensurance, the ensurance of a better transport
network etc.)[1];the maintenance of great
conditions destinated to the drawing in of
investors by the offering of emplacements,
imposit deductions etc.;the continuous
information given to the colectivities
members of the existing develloping
opportunities; the drawing in of new
financing sources through different projects
and programs of rural develloping in every
existing activity domain.
primordial economical one (of offering
incomes to the employees but also to the
local authorities through taxes and imposits),
but to this one it should be added a
technological one (the obligation of inducing
the technical progress,mostly in what regards
the environment protection) and a social role
for the creation of a healthy social
environment.
The question we have always asked
ourselves is if those two actors are enough
(the state and the economical companies ) for
the ensurance of a right rythm for the rural
devellopment? Are there any other factors
that should be involved? The answer is surley
afirmative and it regards the civil society.
METHOD AND MATERIAL
This examination used the statistical data
offered by the firms that have implemented

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
the projects[4] regarding the entrepreneuring
develloping in the rural medium generalizing
their conclusions.Even more, there were used
informations that came from the city halls of
the townships,especially from the
develloping Region from North-East.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Althought in these past five years there
have been many programs of entrepreneuring
education ,especially in the rural
environment,the results are not very
decisive.The number of the new opened
firms is the one imposed by the financers, the
firms that already exited did not
significatively improved the level of
profitability, but in our opinion the most
nocive aspect was represented by the
people’s perception regarding risc and
private intiative.Even more,the perception of
those who did not participate to these kind of
projects ,ene though no one forbidden them
the access, considered that the ones that are
interrested are part of the „people that know
other people” category. All those who are not
interested in participating in an economical
activitie settle with what they have and think
that money is „the devil’s eye” and that’s
why he won’t participate in the development
of his community.They consider that the state
should take care of everything , because
they’re poor and they can not.
This kind of thinking not only doesn’t
help the community but it also amkes the gap
between the rural and urban areas so much
more greater.That’s why we consider that for
supporting the economical developmen we
need to give great attention the the
psichological „traning” of the people which
live in rural areas and make them understand
that change isn’t necessarily a bad thing.
Anyone who would come from outside
this area of semi-closure and tried to help the
community won’t be able to get through to
the people becase they consider that only
their problems are important and only they
can understand them.That’s why every
community need a couple a persons that the
people trust and that are open to change , that
would be the civil society.
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The civil society is, in our opinion, an
engine of the rural development which is not
used to it’s potential .This opinion is
sustained by the role the civil society has:
-it promotes universal values
-it help use the financel,turist and other
resources
-it help with the human resources of the
community
-consults and advises anyone who wants to
build a busyness or expend one.
-the creation of certain work procedures
through with experience can be exchanged
and through which people could be helped on
other levels not just the economical one.
-encouraging the protection of the
environment, respecting each other person
and respecting the work you do.
None the less, to succeed in these goals is
very hard because of the small communities
where the civil society is very small and as a
consequence has small possibilities.The lack
of local newspapers,radio stations,televisions
and financial support are just a couple of the
difficulties of the romanian villages.
The exchange of experience is twice as
succesful if it works together with the civil
society. The big difference is that people
would be more confident if they had the
certainty that the things presented to them are
real and it would be a very good guideline for
them.This is the only way we can change that
neutral state and make people realize they
can trully do something great for themselves
and their community. The positive attitudes
concerning change spred a lot more faster is
the civil society gets involved.
The role of the civil society is that more
important as the average age of the people is
quite high.Even if you can’t do a lot of fizical
work , if you do a thing and you do it right, if
you have a positive attitude about work and
respect the people who have studied a lot,
you can make a difference.Furthermore you
should teach your children to apply by these
„rules” because this is the only way we can
really make a difference.
Even if, we can say that the civil spirit is
better in the rural area than in the cities , this
attitude isn’t used to it’s full potential.that’s
why we think that too much respect is not

that good and the civil society should be
more agressive.
A change is possible here only with the
intervention of the local authorities.The
involvement of the cityhall of town hall in as
many projects as possible would be a great
help for the civil society.Unfortunatly , the
law does say that the city hall must
participate ut the law also doesn’t say that the
city hall doesn’t have to,so it’s all up to us.In
the latest years such „partnerships” have been
encouraged so taht we may change the rural
mentality and succed in trully developping
the rural area.Financing non-guvernmental
organizations out of the local budget is only
present in the urban area because in the rural
areas there are never funds for such kinds of
projects, which makes the civil society
almost non-existent.
A solution for this problem would be the
help of the District Council.These institutians
have the resources to get these programmes
going and help the civil society become an
active factor in prommoting the long-term
development.Although we can’t say exactly
how much the civil society will help the
economy or how long it will take we
consider it to be very important because it
gives as an example of a normal and healthy
social and economical life.
We don’t have to finance such activities
all the time.If the cvil society becomes more
and more „popular” it can finance itself
without needing funds from the local
budget.We also have to add that these
investments can be seen as long –term
investments in human resources.The benefits
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
of these actions will be seen in the medium
and long term.
CONCLUSIONS
Studing the results of more programmes
of busyness development ,especially from the
North-Eastern area, has shown that progress
can be achieved in the rural areas through
responsobility and taking a chance with an
idea, with a busyness.We believe that with
the civil society we could sustain this
progress and build on it.It’s main objectives
are to mobilize the creative sparks in every
person and encourage them in order to help
the people and help the community.
Last, but not least, we consider that a
programme of finance through european or
budgetary funds is necessary , which would
have as main objectives the development of
the civil society and integrating it in the life
of the community, especially in the small
communities.
REFERENCES
Journal articles
[1] nb. 189/1998 Law regarding local and public
finances, Monitorul Oficial al României nb.
404/22 octombrie 1998
[2] Nb 215/2002 Law regarding the public
administration , Monitorul Oficial al României nr.
204/23 aprilie 2002
[3] nb. 273/2006 Law regarding local and public
finance, Monitorul Oficial al României nr. 618/18
iulie 2006
[4] www.esfcrea.ro
 BACK
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

THE PROCEDURES TO BALANCE A LOCAL BUDGET IN

ROMANIA

C. Bulgariu

Universitatea "P. Andrei" din Iaşi

e-mail: bulgariuc@xnet.ro

Abstract
In the latest years the problem of balancing the local budgets has required more and more
complexes procedures which could adapt to Romania’s economical and social development. The
rising proportion of the taxes on the income given and the rising proportions of current income given
from the state to the local communities help balance the budgets. This work paper propose a analyze
of this relations between the public budget fund of state and the local budgets in Romania in the last
five years. Because of the decentralization of public administration more and more tasks of the state
have been transferred to the public authorities. Although the funding for these is still done through
transfers from the state budget, they are more solid than ever and they give mayors and local
councils the possibility to create programmes and projects for long-term development. In our
opinion, although the steps taken towards the decentralization of public finance are small, they are
solid and they could lead to a very good result. The regularization of transfers on the basis of the
criteria presented here is a modern one and it suits our country after the year 2000, although, in
some small areas the sums calculated are insufficient to cover all the current costs.
Key words: balanced local budget, transfer from public budget of state, separates quota, income
tax, fiscal code

INTRODUCTION statisticly analyse the way financial exchange

The premise I started from in writting this
paper is that Romania’s local financial
autonomy is at an insatisfactory level for it to
be able to ensure a long-term regional
development.The causes which lead to this
premise have their origins in the
administrativ – territorial organization of the
country before 1989, but also in the way in
which reforms were introduced in the public
administration.The efforts, in the five years
after 2003, to ensure a solid financing for the
local communities ,together with the
procedures used have been analysed to find
possible ways to make the city halls the
motors of economical development.
There are still a lot of ways used under
their potential to help the relationship
between the local authorities and romanian
public funds and even european.
THE MATERIAL AND THE METHODE
The yearbook of Romania[6] and the
curent legislation ,that have been used to
between the state’s budget and the budgets of
the local communities have been done, were
used in the elaboration of this paper.
RESULTS AND DISCUTIONS
Starting with the fact that the request of
resources is always bigger than the offer , the
sums offered for each district , in conformity
to the laws current to each year, have been
smaller than the actions which requested
financial support in each of the districts in the
perioed 2003-2008.
The connections between the budgetary
fund of the state the the local budgetary funds
depends on the economical development of
the administrativ –territorial unit.The
connection between the way funds are
distributed and the requests of financing can
be established with the help of certain
criterias and procedures.
In conformity to the law 273/2006 [4]
about the due in the income of the budgetary
fund of the state, for every level of each

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administrativ –territorial unit, every month,
in 5 working days from the end of the last
month when this due was collected 47 %
goes to the budgets of local communities,
towns and cities in the region where the due
was collected from, 13 % goes to the district
and 22 % to the district treasury to help
balance the local budgets of the willages,
towns and cities in that district.
82% of the due on the income from
Bucharest is divided as following:23,5 % to
the sectors of the city, 47,5 % to the local
budget of Bucharest and 11% in a special
account for public financing in this city.
S rj =
n  I vmtj
∑ 
i =1
Where:
Srj -the sums broken down for each district
Srtj – the sums broken down for all the districts
Ivmj – the due on the income for every person in a certain district in the year prior to the year in
which this criterias is made.
Ivmtj -the due on the income for every person in the year prior to the year in which this criterias
is made.
Nr. locj – the number of people in the district;
Nr. loctj – the total number of people in the districts.
- the surface of the district 30%;
From the sums broken down from some
of the incomes of the state’s budget for
balancing local budgets and the 22% , 27% is
given to the local district’s budget and the
rest to the local budgets of the towns and
cities as following:
a. 80% is given through a decision
of the director of the general direction in
public financing depending on:population,
surface,financel capacity,etc.
b. 20% is given through a decision
of the local council for the support of the
development programmes, where the
programmes neeed local funding.
To be able to distribute the sums broken
down form the state’s budget , there are some
indicators that can be calculated:”the due for
a average income for each person from each
administrativ territorial unit”, „the due from a
average income for each person in the
district”.
Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
In conformity to the local laws nb.
273/2006[4], 82% of the due on the income
is distributed ,every month, to the locla
budgets of villages, towns and cities.11% in
Bucharest and 22% in the rest goes to special
accounts to help balance the budgets of each
of the communities in every area.
The sums from these special accounts are
distributed after the following criterias:
- the financial capacity of the district
based on the due of the income collected
from each person in proportion of 70%:
I vmtj Nr . loc j
×
× S rtj
I vmj Nr . loc tj
Nr . locj 
 I vmj
×
Nr . loc . tj


 
I
I = vl
vml Nr . loc l
I vj
I vmj =
Nr .loc . j
The first stage in distributing the funds
from the sums broken down by the
authorities limit the sums so that the average
for each person is less or equal to the due on
the average income for each person from the
district in the last year based on the next
criterias:
- the number of people per administrativ
territorial unit that participate in this stage for
75 %
- the surface of living area per
administrativ territorial unit that participates
in this stage 25%
In the second stage, for the funds left
after the first stage, depending on the
financial capacity of every community , the
sums are distrubuted as following :
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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

I vmj Nr . loc
Ivm 1
× Nr . loc
1
j
S re 2 = n
× S rje 2
 I Nr . loc 1 
∑ 

 I
vmj

vm 1
×
Nr . loc . j



i = 1

Where:
- Sre2 the sums distributed to the administrativ territorial units in the second stage
- Srje2 – the sums that must be distributed to the administrativ territorial units in the district in
the second stage ;
- Ivm1 – the due on the average income per person per administrativ territorial unit in the prior year;
- Ivmj – the due on the average income per person in the district in the prior year;
- Nr. loc. 1 –the number of the persons in each administrativ territorial unit.;
- Nr. loc. j – the number of people in the district.

The procedure through which the local budgets are balanced by the state budget.

The sums broken down + 22% from the due on the income

27% for the local budget of 73% for the local budgets of the villages, towns
the district and cities.

80% through a decision of the Director of the

genera direction of public finance for 20% through the decision
adminsitrativ territorial units in two stages: of the Local council for
- financial capacity 70%; economical and social
- the district’s surface 30% development.

Stage 1 – criterias: population 75%

- surface 25%
- financial capacity

Stage 2 - criterias: financial capacity

The connection between the budgetary fund of the state and the local budgetary fund for
balance[1]

After the two stages the sums distributed to
each administrativ territorial unit, including
districts and even Bucharest, will drop with the
use of a multiplication with the divizions
between the sum of dues and local taxs and rents
from the last year and the sum of duesand local
taxes and rents from the last financial year.
Analysing the distributian of the funds,
the transferes to the districts are quite
lineary, without any notable variations.The
funds are greater in certain areas with
bigger requests for develpment in a certain
stage.for example Suceava had received
greater funds than Iasi in 2004 because of
the expences necessary to celebrate 500
years from the death of Stefan The Great.
Hers a chart with the funds awarded by the
state for each district :

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

VR

VL

VS

TL

TM

TL

SV

SB

SJ

SM

PH

OT

NT

MS

MH

MM

IF

IS

IL

HD

HR

GJ

GR

GL

DJ

DM

CV

CT

CJ

CL

CS

BZ

BR

BV

BT

BN

BH

BC

AG

AR

AL
%

0 0,5 1 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5 4 4,5 5 5,5 6

The funds received by every district for the total sum of the funds from the state in the year
2007

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
In order the improve the connection
between the state budgetary fund and the
local budgetary funds, different Guvernments
have tried to apply different rules. (the
189/1998 [2] has been modified by 215/2002
[3] and by 273/2006 [4])
CONCLUSIONS
The local administration, through the
curent laws, can get a loan from the state
treasury, but it can not exceed 5% of the local
incomes estimated for the next year, for
balancing it’s financial situation.
In conformity with the same laws,
villages, towns and cities follow the next
principals when wantign to balance their
financel status:
-the possibility of covering the functioning
section of the local budget from their own
income;
-After calculating the necessary sums for
covering their expenses, certain sums are
proposed for balancing the functioning
section of the local budget.
-minimum prices for public services for the
people
-Certains funds are established for the
development of the local budgets, in
conformity with the state’s budget.
Transfers for the local budgets :represent
a way through which recources from the state
are transfered to the local budgets for
investments financed from external loans , in
which the Guvernment also contribues.
Also, from the state’s budget, throught
the budgets of certain credit supliers,
transfers can be made towards local bugets to
help with national or local plans of
development.
Through percentages of the income
broken down, through certain criterias
established for given local budgets funds, the
state is trying to eliminate the subjectiv
factors of it’s relationship with the local
communities.
Sometimes, the distribution of funds from
the state to the local budgets is caused by
political factors. In this case, certain
administrativ territorial units that have more
- 134 -
recources can provide better services for the
people.
In the past, the way these funds were
distributed didn’t take into consideration the
factors described above and this had serious
effects on the local communities.
In order to build a better relationship
between the state and local communities, in
the year 2009 there will be promoted a set of
principals that will make the communication
between the two „parties” easier and will
help the financial balance and also to set
small costs for the public services offered to
the people. This new set of principal
especially heps the smalll communities to
learn to use their resources efficently and
even gain new funds.
We consider that the rol of the cenral
authorities in coordonating the financial
activities at a local level is still too high and
creats the premises for the intervention of
subjetiv factors in considering the needs and
opportunities of financing some of the
projects.This state will become permenent
only when the local resources will be
considerable larger that the funds from the
state in the local budgets , so that the funds
from the state should only help with the
balancing and development in the region of
certain national strategies from all the
domains of the social and economical life.
REFERENCES
Books
[1] Voinea Gh., Local FInance, Publishing House
Junimea, Iaşi, 2008, p. 101
[2] nb. 189/1998 Law regarding local and public
finances, Monitorul Oficial al României nb.
404/22 octombrie 1998
[3] Nb 215/2002 Law regarding the public
administration, Monitorul Oficial al României nr.
204/23 aprilie 2002
[4] nb. 273/2006 Law regarding local and public
finance, Monitorul Oficial al României nr. 618/18
iulie 2006
[5] The budget law for Romanian for the years
2003 – 2008
[6] The yearbook of Romania for the years 2003 –
2008
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

STATE AND AGRICULTURE. SOME RECOMMENDATIONS

ON AGRICULTURAL POLICY
G. Mursa, Roxana Paraschiv
FEAA, „Al. I. Cuza” University of Jassy
e-mail: mursa@uaic.ro

Abstract
The main purpose of the paper is to make a critical analysis of government policies regarding
agriculture. The reason of this approach is that, over time, various nations have tried many methods
to develop this sector seen as vital especially in the conditions of the demographic growth. Most
governments have considered agriculture as a strategic area that should enjoy preferential policies.
However, despite of huge amount of resources voulme spent by public authorities , the results were
below expectations in many times and in many countries. This analysis uses the specific methods of
modern economic theory to show that the competitivity of agricultural sector does not depend
primarily on the volume of resources invested by government but on a framework that fosters
private investment, an adequate policy of incentives, on the degree of liberalizing trade with
agricultural products. The interpretation of statistical data and the use of the elements of
quantitative analysis leads us to conclude that the development of the agricultural sector primarily
depends on the role played by free markets. Government policies are only adjuvant to be dealt with
the infrastructure, with a basic educational level of labor force and a minimum health care for
people living in rural areas. The comparative analysis of data from the U.S. and the European
Union economies supports this conclusion.
Key words: agrarian policies, preferential policies, open markets, productivity, resources

INTRODUCTION movement of this sector. All these conditions

Economic developments of the last half
century have highlighted the fact that
agricultural production has been increasingly
subject to government intervention. There are
many reasons for this situation. Many experts
have recommended the government
intervention for reasons of food security in
view of population growth after the Second
World War. Other experts, especially in
Western Europe, supported the
interventionism for the retention of part of
the active population in rural areas in despite
of the natural, historical trends that shows
that when the economy develops, the
population tends to leave rural areas for
urban areas. To remove this "cultural
imbalance", European governments have
treated the agricultural sector with special
attention trying to avoid the disappearance of
rural, traditional areas. Another reason why
agriculture has received special attention
from the authorities is due to the immense
pressure created by the trade union
have led governments in recent decades to be
involved deeply in agricultural activities.
Therefore, the agriculture of these countries
benefited from preferential policies, the
increased volume of grants, protection
through customs duties and other trade tools.
Despite these measures, the results were, in
many cases, well below expectations. That is
why the need to achieve both a critical
analysis of government intervention in
agriculture, and on the other hand, to make
some recommendations to follow for
designing future policies in this field.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
The main purpose of the paper is to
demonstrate that the agricultural policies of
many countries of the world must undergo to
a comprehensive process of reform because
they do not achieve their stated objectives.
To reach this conclusion, we have taken as
the basis a significant volume of data that we
analyzed using the classical economic

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
theories of scarces resource
allocation.Therefore, we analyzed the
evolution of spendings for the farming sector
as a share of total public expenditure
focusing in particular on data from Western
countries. To highlight the economic effect
of increasing government funding for
agriculture, the comparisons were made with
the dynamics of the labor force working in
the field of agricultural production, trying in
this way to highlight, in a synthetic manner,
the overall productivity of this sector
compared with the overall performance of the
economic system. The recommendations
derived from the analysis are based on
theoretical foundation conclusions drawn
from comparative analysis of a series of
statistical data provided, firstly, by the U.S.
economy, on the one hand, and by the
European Union, on the other hand. We
utilized this type of comparative analysis
because the agricultural sectors of the two
economic entities presents , in terms of
agricultural policies, both similarities and
differentiations. In the same time, the
interpretation of statistical processed data
highlighted the fact that as the degree of
government intervention in the agricultural
sector increases the distortions in the
allocation of resources are becoming more
important. The use of the comparative
analysis allowed us to show that, as a rule,
the agricultural policies in Western countries
gives support to producers with political
influence, that the decisions to support the
agricultural production is not based on
economic considerations. Moreover, the
processing of the available information
shows that the agricultural policies of
developed countries tend to become
increasingly expensive, to limit competition
between indigenous and foreigners, to
disvantage the agricultural areas of
developing countries.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
In the last half century, the literature
notes that the agricultural sector was one of
the favorite areas of government intervention.
Typically, the reasons invoked to support the
agricultural sector from public funds comes ,
- 136 -
on the one hand, from the continuing fear of
a major food crisis caused by rapidly
increasing world population and, on the
other hand, from the massive migration of
labor force from rural to the urban. Equally
true is the fact that farmers were able to form
a force of significant pressure on public
authorities. For these reasons, governments
of the world, including those of Western
countries, have treated agriculture as a
privileged domain. Basically, we find that in
the last half century, the agricultural
production depends on a growing degree of
increased administrative decisions of
government bureaucracy than the open
market. Instruments that regulate the
activities of this sector are the classics:
subsidies, price controls, restricting
competition through customs duties, quotas,
licensing for cultivation of certain crops or
areas.[2]
Among the tools used by Western
governments, the subsidies appear to be most
common. This is very visible both in
agriculture the European Union and in the
agricultural sector of the United States. The
proof of exponential growth of government
intervention in the agricultural sector is the
share of the increasingly high volume of a
funds allocated as subsidies to farmers in
Western Europe. Today, the Western farms
receive annually about 50% (46.7% in 2006)
of the European Union budget which in
absolute terms is about 50 billion euros for an
annual production of less than 150 billion.
However, there were periods when the share
of funds for the agricultural sector reached
60% of the European Union budget. [4] This
means that one third of farmers' income is
guaranteed by government. From an
economic point of view, we are dealing with
a serious imbalance demonstrating thet the
agriculture sector is treated in the European
Union through preferential policies. Initial
justification for designers of these policies
was to preserve the traditional character of
Western society by maintaining a significant
volume of people in rural areas. However,
the labor force migration to urban areas has
not been hampered in despite a consistent
support received by the rural population by

guaranteeing revenue. Following this policy,
in the EU countries, only 5% of the
population (living and working in the
agricultural sector) receives half of the
annual budget of the European Commission.
This shows that, directly or indirectly, the
farmers in Western Europe get much of their
income from taxpayer's pocket and not from
its own effort and this situation encourages
anti-economic behavior and a poor allocation
of scarce resources. The series of anomalies
due to government intervention does not stop
here. The estimates made in the OECD
shows that these countries' farmers receive as
an annual aid about 280 billion dollars which
means that each year every family of these
countries finances the agricultural sector
directly (taxes and duties turned into
subsidies) or indirectly (higher prices paid by
restriction competitive market for agricultural
products) to approximately $ 1000. The
authors of Human Development Report have
calculated that in 2000, the subsidy received
by a cow in the European Union was 913 $
while the a citizen of a country in Sub-
Saharan Africa received was only $ 8. [6]To
illustrate the size of the imbalances created
by government, Johan Norberg calculated
that citizens of OECD paid directly or
indirectly to agriculture annual an amount
that would allow cows from farms OECD to
fly with business-class around the world with
$ 3000 in its pocket for shopping in duty-
free.[1] The scope of the subsidies paid by
the budgets of these countries is to cover the
difference between the high costs of
agricultural production and prices at which
products are sold on the market. Today, most
prices of agricultural products are subsidized.
For wheat, for example, the subsidy exceeds
60% of the final price. Equally important is
the distortion for the export of sugar. Thus,
for a quantity of sugar exported equivalent to
1 euro, the European Union granted a subsidy
of 3.3 euro. In the United States, each bushel
of wheat sold is subsidized by 52 cents.
[5]Such a policy will lead farmers to expand
their production and to increase their
demands for government subsidies. But at the
whole economic system this means that the
productivity becomes lower. This is because
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
the subsidy means a forced transfer of
resources from an area capable to produce
added value to the less efficient one that is
unable to finance their own activities. As a
consequence, the government policies of
subsidizing agriculture sectors artificially
restrict overall performance transfering
profitable resources to less productive
sectors. The low performance is highlighted
by the fact that although in the agricultural
sector in Western Europe works 5% of the
active population, agriculture's contribution
to the creation of GDP amounts only 3%. In
the same time there a great inequality in the
distribution og these subsidies. Thus, nearly
40% of the total subsidies allocated to
Western Europe agriculture go to only 2.2%
of farmers. Of this imbalance we can conclud
that farming subsidies are not allocated
departing from the principle of helping
farmers with low possibilities, but a tool to
extract benefits for personal or well
organized groups. In the European Union, the
most farmers (80%) receive an annual direct
payment of up to Euro 5000 while only 2.2%
of them receive a higher amount of 50,000
euros. This discrepancy is visible too in the
agriculture of the U.S. where 80% of farmers
receive about 7000 $ annually while the
average subsidy is 16,000 $. Moreover, in
the last 15 years large farms have been able
to obtain government funding for three times
higher while small farmers receive the same
amount. The degree of overall European
agricultural productivity has declined by
joining new members. In this way, the
number of farmers increased by nearly 60%
of the cultivatable area recorded an increase
of 30% while the value of production saw a
jump of only 10-20%.
Another way that many states are involved
in farming is the practice of restrictions on
foreign trade. To ensure high-income
farmers, many states set duties on imports
artificially increasing the sale price of
agricultural products. In Western countries,
customs duties on imports of agricultural
products is on average higher by 30% than
the world average. This technique restricts
competition providing to local farmers an
income higher than that would be obtained
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
under conditions of free trade. However, the
favoring domestic farmers is detrimental to
consumers and foreign farmers. In fact, the
domestic consumers pay higher prices
subsidising without consent the income
national farmers while the foreign farmers
lose because being unable to sell outside the
country borders. The UNCTAD studies show
that those most affected by the protectionism
of the EU and U.S. are the farmers of
developing countries who lose annually
about 700 billion dollars because they can
not sell their products in markets protected
by high customs barriers. This amount is 15
times greater than the external aid provided
by developed countries to developing
countries. The custom barriers impede
competition from foreign agricultural
products, diminish domestic supply, increase
artificially domestic prices, causing a forced
transfer of income from consumers of
agricultural products to protected farmers.
From this process, consumers lose twice.
First, they finance the public subsidies fund
for agriculture and secondly pay higher
prices for agricultural products due to
restriction by competition. It is estimated that
in the European Union the losses suffered by
consumers through artificially high prices are
about 50 billion euros annually. Basically,
the government intervention force the
consumers of agricultural products to finance
farmers' income by this amount.
There are a lot of other instruments by
which the state intervenes in the agricultural
production. One of these relates to price
control. To ensure a certain level of income,
the European Union member states establish
minimum price caps, levels below which the
products of the agricultural sector can not be
traded on market. The justification for such
intervention is that, in this domain, the
production costs are too high causing the lack
of farm profitability. However, such type of
intervention produces serious distortions in
scarce resource allocation encouraging the
production which would not exist in the free
market. The support of prices through
government aid produces in the Western
European countries a chronic overproduction
of agricultural products. To avoid the
- 138 -
collapse of prices, the government buys these
overproductions using the taxpayers' money
forcing them on the one hand, to finance the
agricultural subsidies, to pay higher prices
due to minimum limits, and on the other
hand, to finance the purchases of this
overproductions from their proper pocket.
Therefore, the policy of guaranteeing
minimum prices for agricultural products
shows clearly that, in fact, government
support for agriculture is to the detriment of
consumers and taxpayers.The analysis of
agricultural policies in the last half century
shows that the substitution of free market
mechanisms with the decisions of the
government bureaucracy has created in all
countries considered important distortions in
resource allocation, which diminished the
productive potential of the economic system
as a whole. Basically, in many developed
countries, the agriculture sector has become
heavily funded by taxpayers without their
express agreement to that effect. Slowly,
government policies have transformed the
agricultural sector from one that supports the
prosperity of citizens in one that is supported
by the these . The subsudies have provided
guaranteed income to producers regardless of
their agricultural market which has
encouraged an attitude inconsistent with
economic rationality. The guaranted prices of
agricultural products resulted in ignoring the
costs of production which has made farming
an expensive area. Therefore agriculture
produces only 1.9% of the value added of the
European Union despite the fact that owns
the twentieth part of the workforce. The
guaranted minimum prices has created
important annual surpluses of stocks. To
avoid the collapse of markets, were bought
by governments, ie, using, once again, the
income American and European taxpayers.
Worse is that the United States and the
European Union have come to keep prices
high for farmers, to provide forms of income
to farmers not cultivating their land. In other
words, despite the fact that everyone
complains of a possible food crisis, the
government rewards farmers to reduce
production. All these discrepancies,
distortions, anomalies have turned agriculture

into a large consumer of resources and an
important source of reducing the potential of
the economic system. To reduce the
magnitude of these imbalances, the
governments that practice these policies,
must project a comprehensive reform
program which, in a reasonable time horizon,
to transform agriculture into a performance
area, an important source of creating value
added not a big consumer of resources.
The analysis of statistical data and their
interpretation from the perspective of
conventional theories of scarce resource
allocation lead us to the conclusion that both
U.S. and especially the European Union
agriculture must follow an extensive program
of reforms which aim must be to limit the
degree of involvement of government
intervention and the widespread
reintroduction of the free market
mechanisms.
The first measure should be taken to
avoid distortions in the field is to remove
price controls. In an economic system, the
free prices is only possible way for rational
allocation of scarce resources, the only
acceptable way to connect needs with the
interests of producers. Therefore, the policy
of the European Union must propose phasing
out minimum prices apart from the duty free
market to determine the negotiation of free
consumers of agricultural products and
farmers. In this way, the actual prices would
fall which would allow access to a greater
number of individuals in the consumption of
food.
Secondly, the agriculture of Western
countries needs a comprehensive review of
policies for agricultural subsidies. Annually,
only EU citizens directly contribute 50
billion to subsidize farmers in their countries.
In fact, this amount shows that EU citizens
support a production that otherwise would
not receive the recognition of the free market.
If governments would give up such a policy,
this amount should remain available to
taxpayers and should be directed to other
goods which would give rise to production of
similar size in other parts of the economic
system. Inevitably, the reduction of subsidies
will lead, in the short term, to the liquidation
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
of some farms but the contraction of the
agricultural sector maintained artificially
through subsidies will be offset by extending
that sectors to which will be the channeled
the annually amount of 50 billion euros,
amount representing the agriculture
subsidies. Obviously, Western governments
may retain a portion of these funds; it would
be preferable to invest some amounts in
agricultural research and education.
Removing subsidies in developed countries
would have positive effects on poor countries
or developing countries. A country like Mali
receives annually an external aid
approximately 37 million dollars but lost 43
million of revenue due to decreased export of
cotton because of unfair competition which
rich countries subsidize the cultivation of this
product [3]. The waiving of grant would not
only lead to substantial savings for citizens of
rich countries but it would enable many poor
countries to properly compete with farmers in
the West. This is of paramount importance if
we take into account that in poor countries
about 60% of the labor force works in
agriculture. Moreover, many farmers in poor
countries produce agricultural goods at prices
50% lower than the West but this advantage
is removed by grants awarded in poor
countries. Under conditions of free
competition for this low price would benefit
consumers and Western.
A major source of distortion in western
agriculture is due to the trade barriers. The
analysis of the degree of trade protection in
developed countries shows that customs
duties in the area of agriculture are at least
double compared to those of manufactured
products. The customs duties and other trade
barriers reduce the degree of competition
artificially keeping prices at high level.
Basically, these instruments of trade policy
operates as an indirect subsidy to protected
farmers by ensuring them an unjustified
revenue. There are studies showing that the
abolition of trade barriers will lead to
significant decreases in prices for agricultural
products bringing 350 billion dollars as
estimated profits for farmers in developing
and poor countries. To avoid radical changes
in the market of agricultural products, the
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
Western countries should sign an agreement
which intend a gradual reduction of customs
duties and abolishing all trade barriers.
Should be considered a reasonable time so
that in the plans of farmers to not intervene
sudden changes which could cause
significant losses in the short term.
CONCLUSIONS
Interpreting statistical data through the
filter of conventional economic theory shows
clearly that state intervention in agricultural
production has created serious distortions in
the allocation of scarce resources. Although
the original intention of government was to
support a vital sector of activity, government
policies have reduced the competitiveness of
agriculture transforming this area into an area
funded by taxpayers and consumers.
Although Western governments have sought
to support the agricultural production of
various reasons, the passage of time has
shown that the support has become one of the
long term. Today, the most efficient
agricultural system in the world has turned
into a sector dependent on government funds,
unable to provide economic support alone.
This has created serious problems of
productivity in the agricultural sector
compared with other sectors of the economic
system. The analysis of agricultural policies
in western countries has shown that lack of
competitiveness of these is transfered first to
the payer of duties and taxes, then to the
farmers in poor countries or developing
countries. The elimination of these anomalies
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means a gradual rereduction of government
support for agriculture. To transform the
agricultural sector in an area of high
performance, governments should eliminate
price controls, to eliminate the barriers to
world trade in agricultural products, to
reintroduce the free market mechanisms.
Economic theory supported by statistics and
facts shows that this is the only way to
transform an agriculture sector from one that
wastes resources in an area that creates added
value.
REFERENCES
Journal articles
[1] Norberg, J., American and european
protectionism is killing poor countries and their
people, Investor`s Business Daily, August 25,
2003
[3] ***Adress by President Blaise Compaore of
Burkina Faso, Trade Negotiations Committee
Geneva, 2003,
http://www.wto.org/English/news_e/news03_e/tnc
_10june03_e.htm
[4] ***European Commission, Financial
Programming and Budget, European Commission,
2007,
http://ec.europa.eu/budget/library/publications/fin_
reports/fin_report_07_data_en.pdf
[5] ***Farm Bill Resouces: ERS Research and
Analysis, USDA,
http://www.ers.usda.gov/FarmBill/
[6] ***Human Development Report 2003, Oxford
University Press, Oxford, 2003
Book
[2] Schultz, Th., Distorsions of agricultural
incentives, Indiana University Press, 1978
 BACK

Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

RURAL DEVELOPMENT IN ROMANIA.

OPPORTUNITIES AND DIFFICULTIES
G. Mursa, Roxana Paraschiv
FEAA, „Al. I. Cuza” University of Jassy
e-mail: mursa@uaic.ro

Abstract
The basic objective of this work is to present and analyze the major difficulties faced by the
economic development of rural areas . Secondly, the paper examines the opportunities that can be
exploited to reduce disparities between rural and urban spheres. One of the main features of the
Romanian society is a big gap between the level of economic development in urban and in rural
areas. Unfortunately, this gap is a feature of a less competitive economic systems and is a great
hindrance to the development of overall national economy. This is why one of the fundamental
priorities of government policy should be rural development. To support our argument we will
analyze and interpret available statistical data from the point of view of the methods provided by the
contemporary theory of development. All considerations presented in the paper converge to the
conclusion that economic disparities between the two spheres of the economic system can be
reduced to a acceptable level by government policies to stimulate private investment, by
improving public infrastructure and through a better allocation of resources for education and
health. In these circumstances, the Romanian agricultural sector could exploit its huge potential.
Keywords: rural development, economic disparities, government policy, private investment,
infrastructure

INTRODUCTION it has never reached the level of development

The economic developments in the last
two centuries has highlighted that, as the
passage of time, in the composition of the
economic system is producing enormous
structural changes. In short, we can easily
find that the percentage contribution of
agriculture sector to national income
decreased gradually but in favor of industry
and services. The analysis of advanced
systems in Western Europe and North
America shows clearly that the oldest area of
economic activities (agriculture) has an
increasingly small share in the process of
creating added value. The technological
advances led to an increase both in the
agricultural production of the centuries that
the food needs of the Western world have no
importance so far held two hundred years.
This is why, today, most economic activities
are conducted in industry and services. The
increased productivity of the agricultural
sector has made the prosperity of the rural
environment of Western countries to know an
important leap in the fact that, economically,
of the urban environment. In parallel with the
economic development of occidental village,
was a phenomenon translation population to
urbanize areas where opportunities for
improvement in personal life are more
numerous. For these reasons, the enhancing
of the general welfare of the Western
economies has been increasing standard of
living of man of the village and the moving
to a more important part of the rural
population to worldwide cities. Therefore,
the share of population urbanize in Western
Europe and the United States has increased
continuously representing today more than
90% of the total population of these
countries. Thus, the low share of population
that lives in villages at a level below 10% is
one of the essential features of the level of
performance achieved by the advanced
economic systems. From this perspective, the
Romanian economy shows clear signs of an
backward and underdeveloped economic
system. In our country, the half population
lives and works in agriculture, a sector of low

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
productivity (compared with the performance
of western agriculture), lives without the
minimum offered by urban world. Without
taking into account other elements, we can
say that a huge share of the rural population
is the most obvious evidence of
underdevelopment of the Romanian society.
In addition, a good part of this phenomenon
is due to huge disparities between urban and
rural. This is the reason that we consider
absolutely necessary to radiograph the degree
of development of the Romanian village.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
The structural analysis of local economic
system shows that, in general terms, Romania
presents obvious signs of underdevelopment.
One of the symptoms of underdevelopment is
the major difference between the development
of rural and urban. In the present work, we
intend to highlight this issue to show the causes
of disparities between city and village and to
prove that in the medium and long term,
Romania has enough opportunities for rural
modernization. The conclusions of this analysis
will reveal that the process of rural development
in our country can take advantage of many
opportunities, but may face a lot of obstacles.
The working assumptions are based on
comparison and interpretation of the Human
Development Index (HDI) calculated for the
rural sector and for the urban. In our
demonstration, we gathered, analyzed and
interpreted a significant volume of data able to
support both hypotheses and analysis. The
conclusions drawn from quantitative analysis
were interpreted through the filter of modern
theories of development. In demonstrating the
economic and social disparities between urban
and rural, we used the tools of comparative
analysis, comparing, on the one hand, data from
Western economies with economic data from
the national and, on the other hand, comparing
the specific dimensions provided the analisys of
rural environment with data collected in the
urban economy.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
In any society, the economic system is to
provide the goods and services to individuals
able to cover all types of human need, from the
- 142 -
material to the spiritual order. Given that human
nature is one that seeks to continuously improve
its condition, it is easy to understand why
companies put an emphasis on the economic
performance of the system. But economic
performance is only one component of a
phenomenon more complex and larger, a
phenomenon that highlights the issues of
quantitative and qualitative aspects of a human
life. This sophisticated process is called
development. It includes, in addition to issues
of economic definable quantitative and
qualitative aspects of nature that take into
account other areas of human life such as
degree of education or health. Analysis of
economic and social phenomena in our country
emphasize that the degree of development of
the rural and the urban environment there are
significant differences. Human Development
Index (HDI), a tool increasingly used to
highlight different aspects of qualitative and
quantitative human life shows that Romania is a
country that shows great disparities in this
regard. If we make a comparison village-town,
we find that urban areas of Romania presents a
level of development that puts us in first world
category (only the metropolitan area of
Bucharest reach the average of Portugal country
), while rural lower than the 0800 level,
indicating a specific value for the second group
[1]. The situation is serious considering that in
Romania, as in all underdeveloped countries,
the share of population that lives in rural areas
is extremely high compared with that of
developed societies. Thus, in Romania, almost
half of the population (44.8%) live at a level of
human development specifically
underdeveloped countries. Basically, the
percentage of rural population in Romania is 10
times higher than in Western society. The
nearly 10 million people in Romanian village
living and working in an poor economic area
work to a large extent in agriculture, which at
60% is for subsistence or semi-subsistence. In
addition, a good part of the Romanian rural area
is declared weaker (29.5% of national terioriul
and 11% of the total population). But the best
measure of underdevelopment of the rural
environment is given by the local agriculture's
contribution to Gross Domestic Product.
Despite the fact that the Romanian village

provides half of the workforce of the economic
system, the contribution to the creation of gross
value added is only 8%. [8] This size clearly
shows that the economic performance and the
degree of development in romanian rural area
are far below the Western countries. These
arguments reveal that economic and social
development of Romania depends on
eliminating major structural disparities between
rural and urban. Therefore, the public
authorities must devise a strategy for long term
whose stated purpose must not only be
eliminating disparities of development between
the romanian society and the west but also
between city and local village. In designing
these policies or strategies, policymakers must
consider the alleged difficulties of
implementing such a strategy and the
opportunities that may benefit. The artisans of
private and public policy must take into account
that the process of rural development faces a
number of obstacles or difficulties due to
objective and subjective causes . The difficulty
of implementing a major strategy for rural
development in Romania is a poor state of
infrastructure in rural areas. Unlike the Swiss or
Austrian village, Romanian village lacks an
adequate network of roads, many of which were
constructed between 1960-1970 without having
undergone significant upgrades. Because of this
situation, 60% of villages can not use direct
access roads. Of streets in rural areas, only 10%
have been upgraded in recent years. The status
of this part of the infrastructure is the main drag
of rural development because the opportunity to
transform agriculture into a performance is
impossible without quickly and cheaply access
roads. Despite the fact that Romania has very
good land quality, the lack of investment makes
them poor performance but this slowness is due
to poor quality roads. Romanian rural lacks
other facilities. For example, over 65% of rural
inhabitants are deprived of access to running
water and 90% of them have no access to
sanitation. Meanwhile, the possibilities of using
the Internet are low and the share of those who
use the heat is insignificant (0.5%). [7]
Meanwhile, the number of plants
required for irrigation of crops is far below
that of countries in Western countries. To
infrastructure deficiencies may be added the
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
lack of a suitable conducting material in the
productivity of rural activities. In Romania,
unlike developed countries, the farmer lacks
an adequate endowment of agricultural
machinery and the access to fertilizers and
chemical substances to treat crops is limited
by their own poverty. In addition, land
ownership is very fragmented which prevents
achievement of efficiencies of scale and
reduce the average cost of production.
Immediate consequence of the latter
shortcomings are reflected in high price of
agricultural products produced in Romania.
Another major problem that impedes
development in Romania concerns the quality
of human resources. Although the Romanian
village encompasses half the national
population and the same proportion of active
employment of the nation, the quality of work
force is relatively low. This is due, first, to the
trend of aging of the rural population. To some
extent, young and competitive work force
from rural area has tended to migrate to urban
centers (although not a phenomenon of great
magnitude). On the other hand, the young of
Romanian villages waive economic activities
in local villages preferring same activities in
Western economies. In terms of education,
there is a clear difference between rural and
urban. Firstly, the rate of incorporation in the
education system is lower in the Romanian
villages than in cities. In terms of education
there is a serious gap between urban education
index ( 0.982) and rural education index (
0.786). The main source of these discrepancies
are due in less literacy rates (the spread is only
three percentage points in favor of the urban
environment) and to a large extent the level of
schooling. Thus, the number of urban people
attracted to three cycles of education is double
that of rural areas (93% vs. only 45%), where
the boundless in the secondary and tertiary
cycles is 1 to 3 in ones living in the village.
This is because, due to poor material
condition, very few families can afford the
maintenance of children in following school
and university studies performed, to a large
extent, in cities. This should be added that
many schools in Romanian villages use
unqualified teachers.
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
Educational status has immediate
consequences on economic realities. Thus,
60% of those who drive personal business in
rural areas have only primary or secondary
education. The entrepreneurship education is
quite modest if take into account that only
13% of small companies operate in the
Romanian villages. The quality human
resource can be assessed after the health of
the population. It should be mentioned that
life expectancy in rural areas is 70.8 years
versus 72.5 years in cities and infant
mortality is 17.9 at thousand people in the
villages and only 12.4 at thousand inhabitants
in the cities. This happens primarily due to
reduced quality of medical infrastructure. In
villages, the number of people cared for by a
doctor is 6 times higher than that of those
who populate the towns. [5] Deficiencies of
the educational system and medical causes
human resources in rural Romanian to have a
lower quality than those from urban areas.
Summary radiograph of economic and
social life in rural areas shows that local
major brakes on the development can be
grouped into infrastructure deficiencies and
reduced investment in human resources. But
despite this situation, there are a lot of
opportunities that can be fructificate for a
radical change to the human condition in
Romanian village.
The most important source of
eliminating underdevelopment of Romanian
village is the National Plan for Rural
Development. Aware of the great inequalities
between city and village, the public
authorities in Romania have developed a
strategy that will run during 2007-2013
funded from national and European funds of
over 11 billion euros. The purpose of this
plan is to increase the competitiveness of the
agri-food and forestry, to improve the quality
of the rural environment, to encourage
diversification of economic structure in rural
areas, to encourage rural development
initiatives. [6]. Therefore, local authorities,
private firms and individuals have provided
funds (some grants) to invest in the
construction and upgrading of access roads,
repair schools and dispensaries community to
finance education and health of the rural
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population, to modernize and diversify
agricultural production economic activities.
One of the major opportunities in rural
development in Romania is agri-tourism.
Last two decades have shown that more and
more and more tourists prefer to spend your
free time away from noise and congestion of
large urban concentrations. From this
perspective Romania has a clear comparative
advantage possessing a natural landscapes
covering the entire geographical diversity of
the marine landscapes to mountain, which is
rare on the European continent. Another big
advantage for the agri-tourism is represented
by the good conservation of habits and
popular traditions in many rural areas
(Bucovina, Maramures, Apuseni, Northern
Oltenia). Data provided by specialized
institutions shows that the annual rate of
expansion of rural and cultural tourism
amounts to 15-20%, far exceeding all other
spheres of the field, bringing revenue
amounted to at least 150 million euros. [2]
Therefore, the opportunity for local investors
and national authorities is to exploit this
global trend, which started to manifest in the
territory of Romania. The resources allocated
in recent years Romanian rural tourism, the
emergence of tourist guesthouses (especially
in mountain areas) show that entrepreneurs
have brought opportunities of the changing
preferences of tourists today.
Until now, our country were allocated only
by Sapard funding amounts of over 2000
projects related to the expansion of
accommodation space. Potential investors in
rural tourism have the possibility to attract
grants and investment amounts between 2500
and 100,000 euros for the construction of
pensions in rural areas/. Otherwise, only local
rural tourism in Romania will benefit in 2007-
2013 from European funds of 500 million
together with a national contribution of 87
million. [3] In addition to participating in
recreational needs of clients, tourist activities
can produce significant effects on the Romanian
village. First, in this way the policy can create
employment and purchasing power in an
environment much more poor than the urban
area. Secondly, the development of tourism will
produce itself a improving in other elements of

infrastructure (roads, sewerage,
communications). Obviously the latter is the
condition and result of the progress of tourism
projects in the Romanian village. An
investment in tourism in a rural community can
be an argument powerful enough to convince
the authorities to consider and implement
projects for expansion and improvement of
sanitation facilities, transport, methane gas etc.
Often communities benefit from investments
such developing infrastructure elements
because any accommodation space and
recreation needs water, sanitation, construction
of an access road. In other words, utilities
created by the effort of the private investor can
benefit the rural tourism and an important part
of the community in which the investment is
made. Rural tourism market is an area very little
exploited that Romania. The revenues in
tourism reach only half a billion euros, a
quarter of Bulgaria, but the eighth part of
income similar to Hungary and only 7% of
revenue Croatia. The potential agri-tourism
could create new jobs, would produce an
income and lifting living standards for
employment of Romanian villages. [4]
Another opportunity is the great natural
potential of Romanian agriculture. Despite the
relatively low productivity of the domestic
agricultural sector, the quality of soil and
natural conditions is a remarkable advantages
for rural development. It is estimated that 2 / 3
of the arable land of Romania includes land of
good and very good fertility. To these are added
relatively low costs of labor force to use by the
possible investement in rural areas. At the same
time, the Romanian village can benefit fully
from the large European funds granted for
environmental protection and afforestation.
Obviously, a significant part of labor used for
seasonal and irregular rural can be employed in
those activities for which funds raised are
allocated. But all they can in turn benefit the
agricultural sector in Romania if the investment
in infrastructure, education, public health and
environmental protection are becoming reality.
CONCLUSIONS
Comparing the degree of development of
urban and rural areas of Romania shows that,
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
in terms of modern economic criteria, the
romanian village presents symptoms of
underdevelopment. This is a special problem
for the Romanian society because half the
national population lives and works in these
conditions. Therefore, rural development must
be one of the strategic concerns of national
public authorities. The process of reducing
development disparities between rural and
urban should consider both obstacles and
opportunities. Thus, the most important
problems raised in the process of rural
development in Romania concerns the poor
quality of infrastructure and the relatively
modest investment in human resources.
However, these barriers can be overcome
through public and private investment, by
exploiting the advantage of low cost labor, the
advantages of natural environment that
promotes agri-tourism. Therefore, there are
reasons to believe that in the medium and long
term, the development of the Romanian rural
area will reduce existing disparities between
national areas and the development of the
village in western Europe.
REFERENCES
Journal articles
[1] Mursa, G., HDI - a measure of human development,
in: Popescu, C., (coord.) Human capital, social capital
and economic growth, "Al. I. Cuza" University Press
Iaşi, 2007, ISBN 978-973-703-295-9
[2]*** Developing tourism based on rural tourism
in recent years in Europe, Smart Financial, 2007,
http://www.smartfinancial.ro/smarttourist/turism+r
ural/
[3]*** European funds of 500 million for rural
tourism in 2007 - 2013, January 2007,
http://www.finantare.ro/stire-3336-Fonduri-
europene-de-500-milioane-euro-pentru-turismul-
rural,-in-2007-_-2013.html
[4]*** Impact of tourism and travel on jobs and
the economy , World Travel &Tourism Council –
Roumania, http://mturism.ro/index
[5]*** National Human Development Report
2007, The United Nations Development Program,
Bucharest, 2007
[6]*** National Plan for Rural Development 2007-
2013, http://www.maap.ro/pages/
[7]*** National Strategic Plan 2007 - 2013,
February 2007,http://www.agromediu.ro/
[8]*** Romanian Statistical Yearbook 2007,
Chapter 11 - National Accounts, 2007, INSSE
 BACK
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

INFORMATICS MODEL REGARDING THE ANALYSIS OF

SOME TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC INDICATORS IN
ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

Benedicta Drobotă, Elena Gîndu, A. Chiran, A.-F. Jităreanu

University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Iaşi

e-mail: bdrobota@yahoo.com

Abstract
In Romania, animal husbandry is a basic sub branch of agriculture, which in the last two
decades had an oscillate evolution, determined by the negative influence of some factors that were
after the year 1990.
Negative phenomena have led to radical changes in the evolution of herds and animals
productions; the most species have seen a reduction in number and lower obtained yields.
To revive and improve the technical-economic performance of livestock farms, the authors have
proposed to develop a computer model aimed at creating a database, which is the reference point
for analysis the key indicators.
Designing the information model regarding the technical and economic analysis in livestock
farming was based on analysis of the following data: land cultivated with fodder, livestock, on species
and categories, fixed assets of the units (buildings and agrozootechnical construction, machinery and
agricultural equipment, installations, means of transport, etc.), total production and production for
sale, costs of production, selling prices, subsidies, credits, total revenues, financial costs etc.
Based on this information it will determine the main synthetic and analytical indicators on unit
performance, indicators which must fall within certain limits of efficiency.
The advantage of computer designed model can result in data storage and renewing of data
with overall economic growth.
Key words: informatics model, indicators, animal husbandry, efficiency.

INTRODUCTION As a means of production, the animals

In Romania, animal husbandry is a basic
sub branch of agriculture, which in the last
two decades had an oscillating trend, driven
by the influence of negative factors that were
beyond the year 1990.
Negative phenomena have led to radical
changes in the evolution of herds and livestock
production, which in most species have seen a
reduction in number and lower yields obtained.
Both worldwide and in Romania the
demand for agricultural products and
food is constantly increasing, being
determined by several factors:
- increasing number of population;
- increased income of population;
- changing in the structure of agricultural
products and food;
- ensure of national reserve of food and
agricultural products, etc.
A feature of agriculture is the use in the
production of living organisms (plants and
animals), which are regarded as true "living
machines".
display certain features, such as:
- animals may be used successively as a
means of workt, labor and objects of
consumer goods;
- to ensure the renewal of the herd and, for
continuity of production is necessary to
maintain a certain number of animals
corresponding with natural breeding
conditions, specific for each species of animals;
- animal attrition doesn’t begins as soon
as they are used as means of production, but
much later, corresponding with the curves of
organic production;
- animals may not be subject to partial
replacement, as do other means of production
(machines, buildings, buildings), therefore the
duration of use is determined by the specific of
biological species. After the duration of
operation (use) is over, the waste animals are
reformed and replaced by new ones [1,3,5].
To revive and improve the technical-
economic performance of livestock farms,
the authors have proposed the developing of
a computer model aimed at creating a

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

database, which constitutes the reference regarding the unit performance, indicators which
point for the analysis of key indicators. must fall within certain limits of efficiency.

MATERIAL AND METHOD RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The design of the model was based on
analyzing the following data: land cultivated
with fodder, livestock by species and
categories, fixed assets of units (their
depreciation), the total production and
production for sale, costs of production,
selling prices, subsidies, credits, total
income, financial expenses, etc.
Using this information it will determine the
main synthetic and analytical indicators
Figure 1 – Interface of informatics model
The computer model was made in the
Excel program. The interface comprises link
to 6 Excel pages.
To return to the first page click the
BACK button on each page. It shall only
enter data in white cells.
Based on these data, are calculated
indicators on sectors (plant and animal
husbandry) and on the total unit.

INFORMATICS MODEL REGARDING THE ANALYSIS OF SOME TECHNICAL

AND ECONOMIC INDICATORS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
Drobotă Benedicta, Gîndu Elena, Chiran A., Jităreanu A.-F.
USAMV Iaşi
bdrobota@yahoo.com

EXPLANATIONS
VEGETAL SECTOR
VEGETAL SECTOR INDICATORS
ANIMAL HUSBANDRY SECTOR
ANIMAL HUSBANDRY INDICATORS
TOTAL UNIT INDICATORS
IAŞI 2009

Indicators must fall within certain limits of efficiency, as follows:

1. Gross profit rate must be > 10%
2. Risk of exploitation
o <10% - the company is in a risky or unstable situation;
o 10% - 20% - the company is in a relatively stable situation;
o > 20% - the company is in a situation with no significant risks or comfortable.
3. The net result of the financial year > 0
For example, it was realized a model of a unprofitable crops with ones more profitable,
milk cow’s farm with a herd of 100 heads. To but which can provide the total necessary
ensure the necessary fodder we take into nutrients (tab. 3, tab. 4).
account 0.6 hectares per head. The structure In the livestock sector, the indicators are
of cultures was done according to the feed calculated for each category of animal and on
ration, so that the total feed produced to be total (tab. 5, tab. 6, tab.7).
used in animal feed (tab. 1, tab. 2). For the calculation of indicators on the total
Indicators of the vegetal sector are unit it was considered the self consumption
calculated for each crop, and also on total. In from vegetal (which in the given example was
this way, you can see the effectiveness of 100%) and the livestock (milk needed to calves
each culture and at need it can be replace the feed) sector (table 8, tab.9).

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 Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

Table 1
Data from vegetal sector

The average secondary Fixed Seed/planting

Surface The average main Fertilizers
Year Culture production (straws) costs material
hectare production (kg/he) (lei/he)
(kg/he) (lei/he) (lei/he)
ALFALFA 9,00 13000,00 - 70,00 288,00 -
SILAGE CORN 10,00 40000,00 - 70,00 220,00 105,00
CORN 10,00 7000,00 10500,00 70,00 220,00 105,00
2009 SOY 5,00 3000,00 - 70,00 150,00 -
WHEAT 14,00 3500,00 3500,00 70,00 210,00 95,00
BEET FOR
FEED 2,00 80000,00 - 70,00 350,00 105,00
SUNFLOWER 10,00 3000,00 12000,00 70,00 420,00 90,00

Table 2
Data from vegetal sector

Services
Other Selling price Selling price for
Diesel performed Personnel
Pesticides Lease Insurance operating for main secondary Subsidies
Year Culture by third costs
(lei/he) (lei/he) (lei/he) expenses production production (lei/he)
(lei/he) parties (lei/he)
(lei/he) (lei/kg) (lei/kg)
(lei/he)
ALFALFA - 350,00 250,00 100,00 300,00 80,00 100,00 0,20 - 400,00
SILAGE CORN 70,00 300,00 250,00 100,00 300,00 150,00 100,00 0,06 - 400,00
CORN 70,00 300,00 250,00 100,00 300,00 300,00 100,00 0,40 0,02 400,00
2009 SOY 90,00 300,00 250,00 150,00 300,00 200,00 100,00 0,80 - 400,00
WHEAT 150,00 300,00 250,00 100,00 300,00 90,00 100,00 0,50 0,04 400,00
BEET FOR
FEED 170,00 400,00 250,00 200,00 300,00 500,00 100,00 0,05 0,01 400,00
SUNFLOWER 80,00 300,00 250,00 100,00 300,00 250,00 100,00 1,10 - 400,00

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

Table 3
Indicators from vegetal sector
The total The total Total Standard
Total Production Operating Gross
Surface main secondary variable gross
Year Culture costs costs turnover margin
hectare production production costs margin
(lei/he) (lei/kg) (lei/he) (lei/he)
(tones) (tones) (lei/he) (lei/he)
ALFALFA 9,00 117,00 - 1468,00 1538,00 0,12 2600,00 1132,00 1532,00
SILAGE
CORN 10,00 400,00 - 1595,00 1665,00 0,04 2400,00 805,00 1205,00
CORN 10,00 70,00 105,00 1745,00 1815,00 0,23 3010,00 1265,00 1665,00
2009 SOY 5,00 15,00 0,00 1540,00 1610,00 0,54 2400,00 860,00 1260,00
WHEAT 14,00 49,00 49,00 1595,00 1665,00 0,44 1890,00 295,00 695,00
BEET FOR
FEED 2,00 160,00 - 2375,00 2445,00 0,03 4000,00 1625,00 2025,00
SUNFLOWER 10,00 30,00 120,00 1890,00 1960,00 0,65 3300,00 1410,00 1810,00

Table 4
Indicators from vegetal sector

Gross Threshold Total Gross

Gross profit Risk of Turnover Gross profit
Surface profit of costs on profit on
Year Culture rate per he exploitation on year rate on year
hectare profitability year year (lei)
(%) (%) (lei) (%)
(lei/he) (kg/he) (lei)
ALFALFA 1062,00 69,05 804 1517,14 1062,00
SILAGE CORN 735,00 44,14 3478 1050,00 735,00
CORN 1195,00 65,84 464 1520,18 1195,00
2009 SOY 790,00 49,07 244 1128,57 790,00 156.960,00 104.492,00 52.468,00 50,21
WHEAT 225,00 13,51 1581 139,14 225,00
BEET FOR
FEED 1555,00 63,60 3446 2221,43 1555,00
SUNFLOWER 1340,00 68,37 149 1914,29 1340,00

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 Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

Table 5
Data from animal husbandry sector

The Selling
Other Selling price
Category Number The main secondary Fixed Drugs Animal Personnel price for
Feed/Premix costs for main Subsidies
Year of of production production costs insurance costs secondary
(lei/year) production (lei)
animals animals (kg;l;pieces/year) (manure ) (lei/year) (lei/year) (lei/year) (lei/year) production
(lei/year) (lei/kg;l;pices)
(tones/year) (lei/tone)
MILK
2009 COWS 100,00 6500,00 8,00 100,00 1658,60 60,00 300,00 360,00 50,00 1,00 - 2650,00
CALVES 80,00 50,00 2,00 - - - - - - 7,00 - -

Table 6
Indicators from animal husbandry sector

The total The total Profit

Categor Numbe Variable Standard
main secondar Total Productio Operating Gross Gross per
y of r of costs - gross
Year productio y costs n cost turnover margin profit feed
animals animals total margin
n (1000 productio (lei/year) (lei/kg;l) (lei/year) (lei/year) (lei/he) animal
(lei/year) (lei/he)
UM) n (tone) (lei)
MILK 242860,0 252860,0 650000,0 407140,0 672140,0 397140,0 3971,4
200 COWS 100,00 650,00 800,00 0 0 0,39 0 0 0 0 0
9
CALVES 80,00 4,00 160,00 - - - 28000,00 28000,00 28000,00 28000,00 350,00

Table 7
Indicators from animal husbandry sector

Threshold of Gross
Category of Number of Gross Risk of
profitability Turnover on Total costs per Gross profit profit rate
Year animals animals profit rate exploitation
(kg; l; year - total (lei) year - total (lei) per year - total per year -
(%) (%)
pieces/year) total (%)

2009 MILK COWS 100,00 157,06 159,65 3971,40 678000,00 252860,00 425140,00 168,13
CALVES 80,00 - - -

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

Table 8
Indicators per unit
Sec.
Self Self Self Self Main prod.
Main prod. Sec. prod. prod. for
consumption consumption consumption consumption for sale - Other Total
for sale - for sale - sale – Turnover - Subsidies -
Year - main secondary - main - secondary animal income income -
vegetal vegetal animal lei lei
vegetal vegetal animal prod. animal prod. sector - - lei lei
sector - kg sector - kg sector-
prod.- kg prod. - kg kg;l;pieces - tone kg;l;pieces
tone
117000,00 - 36500 800,00 - - 613500,00 - 613500,00 268600,00 - 882100,00

400000,00 - - 160,00 4000,00 - 28000,00 4000,00 - 32000,00

- -
70000,00 105000,00 4000,00 4000,00
- - - - - - - -
2009
15000,00 - 2000,00 2000,00
- - - - - - - -
49000,00 49000,00 5600,00 5600,00
- - - - - - - -
160000,00 - 800,00 800,00
- - - - - - - -
30000,00 120000,00 - - - - - - - 4000,00 - 4000,00

Table 9
Indicators per unit
Gross Tax on Net results
Personnel Other Other
Material Depreciation Operating Financiar Interest Financial Financial results of profit / of the
costs operating financiar
Year costs costs costs - income – costs - costs - result the financial Turnover financial
– total - costs - costs -
– total lei - lei total - lei total - lei lei total - lei - lei year - lei year
lei lei lei
-TOTAL- lei -TOTAL- lei
188232,00 36720,00 150500 11750,00 387202,00 2300 200000 1500 201500 -199200

7650,00 1500,00 7500,00 16650,00

- - - - - -
7650,00 3000,00 7500,00 18150,00
- - - - - -
2009 3050,00 1000,00 4000,00 8050,00 253448,00 40551,68 212896,32
- - - - - -
11550,00 1260,00 10500,00 23310,00
- - - - - -
2190,00 1000,00 1700,00 4890,00
- - - - - -
9600,00 2500,00 7500,00 19600,00
- - - - - -

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
CONCLUSIONS
1. To increase the performance of
agricultural units, a particular role has the
use of software that allows the
determination and analysis of key
technical-economic indicators
developments.
2. The informatics projected program can
have multiple utilities, of which mention the
most important:
o storing and updating data on the
vegetal sector and / or livestock in
the long term;
o the main technical-economic
indicators on branches and sectors of
activity;
o forecasting of technical-economic
indicators trends of the vegetal
sector and / or livestock, and at
enterprise level;
o technical - economic substantiation
of decisions regarding the production
capacity, reduce costs, maximize
profits, etc.
3. In the future it is recommended the
extension of such software in the farm and
differentiates according to the units profile
and specialization.
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REFERENCES
Journal articles
[5] Gîndu Elena, Chiran A., Ciobotaru Elena-
Adina, Dima T., 2001 – Aspecte privind
marketingul laptelui şi a produselor lactate la
Societatea Agricolă AGROIND Berezeni, jud.
Vaslui. Lucrări ştiinţifice, Seria Agronomie, vol.
44, Iaşi.
[8] Şerbănescu Luminiţa, Necşulescu Consuela,
2008 – Projecting the informatic subsystem for
raw material and finished producrs inventory
management.Lucr. şt. seria I, vol. X (2) –
Management agricol. Ed. AGROPRINT
Timişoara.
Books
[1] Anghel L., Florescu C., Zaharia R., 1999 –
Aplicaţii în marketing. Ed. Expert, Bucureşti.
[2] Chiran A., şi colab., 2007 - Marketing în
agricultură. Ed. Alma Print Galaţi, Galaţi.
[3] Chiran A., Gîndu Elena, 2007 - Zooeconomie.
Ed. PIM, Iaşi.
[4] Gaceu L., 2006 – Inginerie asistată de
calculator. Ed. INFOMARKET, Braşov.
[6] Merce Elena şi colab., 1999 – Strategii de
dimensionare a factorilor de producţie în
agricultură. Ed. ALETHEIA, Bistriţa.
[7] Merce Elena, Merce C.C., Arion F.H., 1999 –
Simularea unui proces tehnico+economic în cadrul
exploataţiei agricole. Ed. STANDARD, Cluj-
Napoca.
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

SOME ASPECTS REGARDING THE DEVELOPMENT OF

TOURISTIC AND AGROTOURISTIC SERVICES
IN ARIEŞENI AREA FROM APUSENI MOUNTAINS
Anca Dudaş, Alina Moşoiu
Universitatea din Oradea
e-mail: iulia_dai@yahoo.com

Abstract
The aim of this work is to highlight the tourism potential existing in Arieseni area, located in the
Bihor Mountains, at an altitude of 800-1000 m, on the Aries Big Valley in Arieseni depression, also
the offer of touristic and agrotouristic services existing here. The tourist offer in this area include
natural and anthropogenic tourism resources , the "production" equipment of touristic services,
mass food supply industrial, intended for tourism, labor specialized in specific activities,
infrastructure, marketing conditions (prices, rates, facilities, etc.). Exploitation of touristic and
Agro-tourism resources in the area Arieseni, took ampleness after 1990. The process took a longer
route and more slowly compared with other similar areas in the country, due to the influence of
factors such as lack of infrastructure, weak information on accessing European funds, reluctance of
local population, etc. Despite these obstacles, this area has seen increasing in recent years, worthy
to be taken into consideration.
Key words: tourism, agro-tourism, rural arrangement, offer

INTRODUCTION courthouse) and 40 km from the nearest town

Tourism, implicitly the agro-tourism is
now, undoubtedly, one of the phenomena that
dominate contemporary world, one of the
most profitable segments of the global
economy, remarkable through dynamic,
multiple motivations and a large variety of
forms of manifestation.
After the data published by the World
Tourism Organization in 2000, tourism
outmatched the expenses for the development
of world agriculture and those for arming,
estimated at over one thousand billion U.S.
dollars annually.
Apuseni Mountains is one of the most
interesting tourist destinations in Romania.
Karst topography (about 400 caves), and
specific flora and fauna, represents also many
reasons why was declared nature reserve.
There is no country in such a concentration
of monuments of nature, falling within a
whole landscape very beautiful and
attractive.
Commune Arieseni of the Apuseni
Mountains is located in the north-eastern
extremity of county of Alba, at the springs of
Big Aries, at 120 km from Alba Iulia (county
- Câmpeni.
Tourism and agro-tourism resources
through their variety and complexity, have a
high value, what gives to the area a high
degree of tourist interest in the summer and
cold season (snow persists about 4-5 months
per year on north versant having an average
thickness of about 60-70 cm).
MATERIAL AND METHOD
The study was performed in the area
"Vartop - Arieseni" in the Apuseni
Mountains and was based on sociological
investigation. To collect information was
used as a tool the written questionnaire.
There were prepared two types of
questionnaires applied to the tourists who
visited and stayed in the area, respectively to
the locals - those who have witnessed the
metamorphosis of the area under the agro
tourism impact. The sample contained a
number of 100 tourists and 60 locals of the
researched area.
Of the investigated tourists 47% were
male, and the difference was represented by
women. Applied questionnaire included

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
questions on: the unit of accommodation, the
number of daisies/stars, type of room
reserved, the accommodation price, degree of
satisfaction, the price-quality report,
gastronomic offer, opportunities for
entertainment, the possibilities of redemption
and prospects of returning to the area.
The questionnaire included a total of 14
questions (some improved with a score from
1 to 5). I note that the questionnaire was
applied only to persons over 18 years, each
questionnaire was validated in the analysis.
The second questionnaire applied to the
locals sought to include as many people who
are proprietary of an agrotouristic hostel.
Thus, in total of 60 people questioned, 40
were owners of agrotouristic hostels or were
directly involved in the agrotouristic
activities in the area. The share of men was
60% (36 men).
The study involved also data collected
from local authorities and public institutions.
Information processing was based on
classical methods and the presentation of the
results was based on the tables, figures or
schemes.
RESULTS AND DISCUTIONS
The agrotourism gives the possibility of
knowing better the countryside with all its
natural, spiritual and occupational valences,
for the urban population. The very existence
and the launch of the Romanian village as a
tourism product, impose the necessity of
knowledge and its differentiation.
Thus, the regional tourist offer is
differentiated according to the villages
characteristics.
If reference is made to the world market,
which is a receiver of the Romanian offer is
considered necessary to know the following
positive aspects, with reference to:
a) The existence of tourists flows that
are possible to be attracted;
b) Tourists arrived in Romania
appreciate the hosting in other spaces than
hotels;
c) The touristic imagine of the country
is getting better
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From the negative aspects, there can be
mentioned the following:
a) There is not yet a notable
preoccupation for the Romanian’s touristic
product image in general on the world market
and much less for that from the rural area;
b) There are insufficient the promotion
materials that are distributed on the external
market;
c) There is not a devoted logo
By capitalizing the offer of
accommodation and services of all structures
of rural tourism, by creating various
programs for tourism, it is developing the
rural tourism movement.
Arieş superior basin may be a point of
attraction for tourists, due to heavy snow so
favorable for the winter sports, and various
beauties (caves, waterfalls, tourist journey)
that presents interest especially during the
summer.
Because tourists are becoming more
pretentious, the offer of tourist services in the
area studied can be easily enriched with a
number of original elements, refined
emphasized in other parts of the earth,
namely: karst phenomena ( caves, keys, etc )
formation of rocks, (teaching role ), the
collection of forest fruits, tourism industry,
(mines, and plants processing minerals )
invite at the parties, the inclusion in the team
waits, practicing ski, competitions, initiation
schools during the summer, (artificial snow),
climbing without a rope (Cheile Turzii),
gold digger in the waters of the mountain,
wise- men for 1-3 days: tourist receives
household (house, garden, poultry and
domestic animals, etc.) which he manages a
certain time without the intervention of the
owners, feeding wild animals (with the
supply of winter hay, salt etc.)
Numerical evolution and territorial
distribution of touristic and agrotouristic
pensions in the Apuseni Mountains followed
several steps:
In 1997, in the ANTREC network, there
were 82 touristic and agrotouristic authorized
pensions in three counties: Cluj county, with
57 pensions ( 69% ) had first place, followed
by Alba, 27% and Sălaj, with about 4%.
 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

Table 1.
The number of pensions and the accommodation capacity between 2006 – 2008

Year 2006 2007 2008

Nr. Nr. Nr. Nr. Nr. Nr.
Locality
pensions places pensions places pensions places
Albac 30 200 31 344 31 396
Arieşeni 30 222 30 414 33 623
Vârtop 19 196 21 380 25 567
Rimetea 32 320 34 356 38 400
Gârda de Sus 15 101 15 116 15 137
Scărişoara 2 8 3 24 5 64
Lupşa 1 10 1 20 1 35
Total 110 861 135 1654 148 2222

Until 2001, the number of touristic and
agrotouristic pensions from ANTREC
network increased noticeably, especially in
the two counties Alba and Cluj, reaching
130, the two counties owning together 95%
of the total number of the rural touristic
pensions from ANTREC of Apuseni
Mountains. They were followed by Bihor
county, with 4 pensions and Salaj, with 2
pensions, counties with an early agrotourism,
at the time.
Most pension were small, the average
being 5 – 8 places/ pension. The most places,
58% were in the county of Alba, followed by
Cluj county, with 37%.
In 2003, in the Apuseni Mountains, were
officially registered 155 touristic and
agrotouristic pensions, with an
accommodation capacity of 1165 places,
41% of ANTREC.
The evolution of number of
accommodation units, including their
capacity between 2006 – 2008, in Alba
county (including the area studied) is shown
in the following table:
Observe that if in 2006 there were
recorded 110 units of accommodation in the
following years the value increased, reaching
135 agrotouristic pensions in 2007 and at the
end of 2008 there were registered 148.
Increasing the number of accommodation
units, respectively upgrading and expansion
of existing, determined the increase of
number of places available from 861 in 2006
to 1654 places in 2007 and at the end of 2008
there were 2222 places.
In the area Vartop – Arieseni in 2006
were registered 49 units of accommodation,
extending in 2007 to 51 pensions, and in
2008 there were 58.
Price / room varies between 30 – 40 RON
for the units of a daisy, 50 – 80 RON for
housing in units with 2 daisies, 70 – 100
RON for pensions with 3 daisies and 150
RON for 4 daisies.
Most pensions, particularly those agro,
have developed very slowly, without
substantial support and therefore have
modest endowments. Many have left the
formal network for various reasons: the
formation of a stable and faithful customers,
elusion from taxes and rates and especially of
the various checks, dissatisfaction with the
modest support given by formal networks
etc.
Tourism and agrotourism has as the main
actor the man, and for this reason the
phenomena that guide the touristic
mechanism should be evaluated primarily in
light of the impact on the human factor.
Under the dome of this consideration we
applied a series of questionnaires to highlight
human behavior in relation with the
agrotouristic supply and demand of the
Vartop Arieseni area.

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

Table 2.
Aspects of the offer assessed by tourists

Nr.
crt
Nr. Daisies 1 × 2 × 3 × 4 ×
1 Number tourists 18 42 26 14
Accommodation period
2 4 5,5 4,5 3
(days/person)
Satisfaction degree
3 2,5 3,9 4,6 4,7
(from 1 to 5 points)
Quality – price report
4 3,5 4,4 4,2 4
(from 1 to 5 points)
Gastronomical offer
5 - 4,1 4,8 5
(from 1 to 5 points)
Entertainment possibilities
6 4 4 4,2 4,9
(from 1 to 5 points)
Internet access possibilities
7 - - 3 5
(from 1 to 5 points)
Retainer/settlement possibilities
8 3,8 4,2 3,9 4,5
(from 1 to 5 points)
Revert temptation
9 3,2 4,3 4,6 4,7
(from 1 to 5 points)

Following evaluation of questionnaires tourist – the beneficiaries of services, but also

given to tourists addition, appears that 18%
were accommodated in a unit of a daisy, 42%
opted for pensions of 2 daisies, 26% chose
the comfort of the accommodation units of 3
daisies and other 14% opted for 4 daisies.
They were asked to give points from 1 to 5 (
1 equivalent to total dissatisfaction, with 5
excellent ) vis-à-vis of agrotouristic offer in
the area. The responses obtained are shown
in the table 2.
The impact of agrotouristic development
of the area was reflected not only on the
Fig. 1 The evaluation of the situation in Vartop-Arieseni area from local’s point of view
on locals, respectively the services offerers.
The appreciation towards the increase of their
income and the possibility of seeking a job,
respectively the dissatisfaction regarding the
lack of an infrastructure to allow easier
access into the area and the appearance of
factors that disturb the peace of another time,
is reflected in the following figure
(appreciation was performed by means of
points from 1 to 5).

Noise
E 3,3
V Pollution
A 3,1
L
U
4,4 Income’s increase
A 4,1
T Jobs
E 2
D Presence of foreigners
3,7
A 4
S The development of
P 3,6 entertaining possibilities
E Locality aspect
3
C
T
S Canalization
0 1 2 3 4 5
Appreciation level Infrastructure

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Monitoring rural tourism phenomenon is
extremely difficult. Is a very dynamic
development, rapid changes of ownership,
classification, number of places. Many
touristic and agrotouristic pensions are being
classified, having files laid-down at the office
of subsidiaries of ANTREC. Others have
only permit from city hall, being in progress
of classification and part work without a
permit (40% ).
CONCLUSIONS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
Assessment and recording responses from
tourists after filling out questionnaires show
that tourists are satisfied with the hospitality
and accommodation that offers the area, but
the stimulate of their return is conditional on
infrastructure development, implementing the
latest technology to improve routes
communication, the arrangement of path, and
diversification of methods of entertainment.
There must be identified ways to promote the
area for to be exploited to maximum the
agrotouristic potential.
Knowing at a medium level an
international language ( English preferred ),
and promoting the offer on the Internet and
other media sources would result in a greater
number of foreign tourists to spent their
leisure in the area Vartop- Arieseni. Among
owners of agrotourisic pensions 70% know
English language at a level that enables them
to communicate with foreign tourists, but
locals or employees know English only in
proportion of 34%.
The development of the area through
tourism and agrotourism is directly
proportional to the incomes recorded by
locals and owners of units of
accommodation.
Also, economic and social status is
improved by increasing the offer of jobs,
decreasing unemployment.
Dissatisfaction of the locals is related to
the attitude of many tourists who pollute
(through negligence and indifference) the
area.
The evolution of number of units of
accommodation (hotel, hostel, villa, tourist
complex) is evident over the past three years.
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
If in 2006, most touristic and
agrotouristic pensions had a capacity of
accommodation averaging 7,8 places /
pension, proving that tourism activity is not
in an advanced stage of development and
bring additional income to the residents ( the
main source of revenue being based on
agricultural activities ), in 2007 the capacity
of accommodation of pensions amounts to an
average of 12,2 places / pension, so that at
the end of 2008, capacity is 15 places /
pension.
In the studied area, Vartop –Arieseni, the
capacity of accommodation in 2006 is
averaging 8,5 places /pension, extending in
2007 to 15,6 places/ pension and reached in
2008 to 20,5 places/ pension.
From a legal point of view, those who
practice tourism and rural tourism in the area
Vartop-Arieseni are authorized as family
associations, authorized persons, legal
persons.
In order to ensure a favorable course for
development of rural tourism, in perspective,
the following are required:
• A rigorous definition of the “rural
tourism” activity in the spirit of European
standards, adapted to the specific of
Romanian realities (by elaboration some
measurable criteria to identify quantitative
and qualitative the integration of the activity
in this field);
• Adoption of new facilities
applicable to the authorized agents that
satisfy the real requirements of the rural
tourism;
• Improving the legislative
framework of pursuing rural tourism through
the elaboration of some sanitary and fiscal
norms concerning direct marketing of
household products, various forms of
insurance, etc.;
• Identify and assess the potential of
rural tourism from the perspective of regional
and local development programs and
elaborate the projects of touristic
arrangements (individual or integrated),
designed to outline and to diversify the
tourism offer;
• Institution of a compulsory of
minimum professional bands of providers of
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
tourist services (peasants, guides, local
agents, etc.), through training, seminars and
information materials developed or supported
by factors empowered in this regard
(associations of providers, consulting and
managerial firms, bodies of government
agencies, educational institutions, etc.);
• Training experts in the agrotouristic
field management at local, regional and
national level;
• Multiplicity of ways to promote
rural tourism offer in the domestic and
international market (organization of
conferences, exhibitions, symposiums, fairs,
elaboration of promotional materials,
organization of marketing and promotion in
the promotional program of MTCT,
collaboration with specialized foreign
companies interested in organization of rural
circuits in the Central Europe and the
introduction of Romanian offer in the
promoting catalogs thereof );
• Identifying by the skill forums
(MTCT, ANTREC etc.) of the touristic offer
of maximum complex and representative for
the Romanian rural and support them through
grants and facilities to promote, nationally
and internationally;
• Facilitating by MTCT of
collaboration between agencies and
organizations involved in developing rural
tourism in Romania and similar bodies and
other European countries with traditionally
rural tourism;
• Assurance of facilities to support
the development of rural tourism: facilitating
access of peasant households and small craft
to credit from funds allocated from the state
budget, the creation of a Mutual Fund for
rural tourism for granting loans with
subsidized interest rates and guarantee
certificates of peasant household etc,;
• Capitalization of natural heritage is
parallel with establishment of an organization
framework for the protection and
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regeneration (specific infrastructure,
legislation, regulations, local orders, etc.);
• Elaboration of some studies for
sustainable development for the destinations
of great attraction;
• Assimilation of the latest and
performant means of promotion and
commercial advertising: video clips, compact
discs, the internet;
• Establishment of specialized
departments in elaborating advertising
materials at a high professional level, able to
penetrate foreign market information
REFERENCES:
Books
[1] Alecu I., Constantin M.,2006 - Agroturism şi
marketing agroturistic, Ed. Ceres, Bucureşti.
[2] Balaure V., Cătoiu I., Vegheş C., 2005 –
Marketing turistic, Ed. Uranus, Bucureşti.
[3] Bran Florina,1998 - Economia turismului şi
mediul înconjurător, Ed. Economică,
Bucureşti.
[4] Chiran A. şi colab, 2008 - Marketing turistic.,
Ed. Universităţii din Oradea.
[5] Cocean P.,2002 - Geografia generală a
turismului, Ed. Meteor Press, Bucureşti.
[6] Coita D., 2002 – Marketing turistic, Ed.
Universităţii din Oradea.
[7] Diaconescu Mihai, 2005 – Marketing
agroalimentar, Ed. Universitară, Bucureşti.
[8] Erdeli G., Gheorghilaş A., 2006 – Amenajări
turistice, Ed. Universitară, Bucureşti.
[9] Ielenicz M., Comănescu L., 2006 – România,
potenţial turistic, Ed. Universitară, Bucureşti.
[10] Minciu Rodica, 2005 – Economia turismului,
ediţia a III a revăzută ţi adăugată, Ed. Uranus,
Bucureşti.
[11] Petrea Rodica, 2004 - Turismul rural în
Munţii Apuseni, Ed. Universităţii din Oradea.
[12] Petrea Rodica, Petrea D., 2000 – Turismul
rural, Ed. Presa universitară clujană, Cluj
Napoca.
[13] Platona Iulia, 2003 – Turismul rural, Ed.
Universităţii din Oradea.
[14] Rusu Maria, 2004 – Pensiune turistică şi
agroturistică, Ed. Rentrop şi Straton.
[15] * * * , 2006 - Institutul Naţional de Statistică:
Anuarul statistic al României, Bucureşti.
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

STUDY OF NATURAL CONDITIONS AND SOCIAL

RESOURCES FROM ŢIBĂNEŞTI MICROZONE,
IAŞI COUNTY

Liliana Biţic, A. Chiran, Elena Gîndu

University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine

„Ion Ionescu de la Brad” Iasi, Romania
e-mail: liliana_b_rotaru@yahoo.fr

Abstract
The studied area focuses on the territory of Ţibăneşti Microzone, Iaşi County, which is an
integrating part of the Northeastern Development Region of Romania. Geomorphologically, the
territory of the Ţibăneşti Microzone belongs to the sculptural relief of the Moldavian Plain, which is
characterized by a highly continental climatic regime with cold winters, very hot summers and
frequent droughts. The Ţibăneşti Microzone includes the Ţibana, Ţibăneşti, Tansa and Dagâţa
communes, having a total area of 24,769 ha and 23,150 people, of which 1192 are employees.
The aim of this work was to show the necessity of taking some measures, which contribute to the
future development of the studied microzone:
-Promotion of investments in the main fields, which use the labour surplus and lead to an
increase in the people’s living level;
-Promotion of some investment projects for increasing the degree of social infrastructure within
the microzone, but especially in the Tansa Commune;
-Setting up viable private farms, for the agriculture straightening, by using at maximum the
entire natural, economic and human potential from the studied area.
The analysis of indicators concerning natural and social conditions of the Ţibăneşti Microzone
emphasised the need of starting development programs where the main objectives be represented by
removing the weak points and changing them into opportunities.
Key words: analysis, natural conditions, social conditions, microzone

PREFACE Our investigation focused on gathering,

The results of scientific research and of
farming practices, obtained under certain
climate and soil conditions, are available only
for a certain area. The extrapolation of these
data to other areas is relative, requiring the
study on each area of the main soil and
climatic conditions that highly influence the
development degree of a certain area (I. P.
Otiman, 2006). Thus, we may explain our
approach concerning the presentation of
essential elements of the natural and social
frame from Ţibăneşti Microzone, Iaşi County.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The scientific research in the economic
and social field is based on using more
classical, modern and economic-
mathematical research methods.
selecting, processing and interpreting data,
drawing conclusions and recommendations.
The studied area is represented by the
territory of the Ţibăneşti Microzone, Iaşi
County, which is an integrating part of the
North-eastern Development Region of
Romania. Using some specific indicators, the
authors had as aim to point out the most
significant aspects concerning the natural and
social conditions, which are determining
factors in projecting the strategies of
economic and social development, in the
prospect of year 2013.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Study of natural conditions
Geomorphologically, the territory of the
Ţibăneşti Microzone belongs to the

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
sculptural relief of the Moldavian Plain,
where there are found slopes, sculptural
interfluves under the shape of plateaus, with
thick weakly bent ridges, while at the base of
slopes there are accumulative-sculptural
areas, represented by narrow valleys.
The eroded slopes occupy large areas,
erosion being a negative phenomenon
resulting in the destruction of the soil layer.
Sometimes, soil is entirely eroded and the
parent rock appears at surface.
Landslides are found on slopes and at the
origin of narrow valleys in the western part of
the territory. The slide-diluvium, made up of a
mixture of clays, clayey-marls and, sometimes,
saliferous deposits, has a fragmented surface
under the shape of waves or hillocks, with a
height varying between 0.2 and 0.8 m and
small moist depressions. In some places, there
are active slides and stabilized slides.
The loessoid deposits occupy the greatest
part of the territory, being spread on slopes
and plateaus. Typical chernozems and leached
chernozems were formed on these deposits.
Marly clays and clayey marls occupy
more reduced areas and are spread on some
ridge plateaus and on slide slopes.
Sometimes, marls have a high content of
soluble salts. Typical leached chernozems
and, sometimes, weakly pseudogleic ones
were formed on these deposits. Fluviatil and
coluvial deposits have been identified on
some narrow valleys.
In very rainy years, the impermeable trait of
parent rocks in the narrow valleys and the soil
clayey texture make waters to be stagnated.
Because of the great variability of soils,
their pH is different, comprised between 2.0
and 8.5, from highly acid to highly alkaline.
The prevalent soils are weakly to moderately
alkaline (47.3 %). The alkaline soils are
present on eroded slopes and the alluvial-
coluvial soils, across valleys, while the more
acid soils are found on the high plateau relief.
Hydrology and hydrogeology of the area
Hydrographically, the Vadu Vejii Rivulet
springs from this area, has a temporary
course with great flow and level variations
and overflows in the dam from the Ţibana
Commune.
The groundwater was found at depth of
4.5 – 10.0 m (on plateaus and slopes), 0.5 –
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2.0 m (on narrow valleys) and at 3.0 – 5.0 m
(in the slide areas).
Climatic regime
The Ţibăneşti Microzone is situated
within the continental climatic region,
climate being continental, with cold winters
and hot summers and frequent droughts.
The microclimate of slopes with
eastern exposure includes less sunny slopes.
During the year, the temperature is lower,
because of reduced sun shining, exposure to
cold winds and snow persistence in spring.
The microclimate of slopes with
western exposure includes sunny slopes, on
which snow melts faster due to a stronger
sunshine.
Strong winds, abundant rainfalls and lower
temperatures characterize the microclimate of
plateaus in summer and in winter.
Thermal regime
The mean annual temperature of air is
of 9.5oC and it is favourable to main crop
growing (wheat, maize, barley, soybean,
sunflower, apple tree, pear tree, alfalfa, etc.).
Minimum absolute temperatures below
0oC were signalled from the second decade
of October until the last decade of May.
The early autumn frosts and the late
spring ones affect especially the valley
bottom. The early hoarfrosts generally appear
before the frosts in the autumn.
The sum of temperature degrees during
1 March - 31 October is of 3476.5o C, with
an average of 14.7oC, and during 1 May – 31
October, it is of 3111.6oC, with an average of
16.9oC.
Rainfall regime
The annual mean of rainfalls is of 580
mm. During May – June, a maximum of 88.9
mm is found.
During the vegetation period, rainfalls
amount to 400 mm. The number of days with
rainfall amounts over 1 mm is, on the
average, of 72, with low variations from one
year to another.
Natural vegetation
Geobotanically, the territory of the
Ţibăneşti Microzone belongs to the forest
steppe.
Grasses covers the bottom of the narrow
valleys and the degraded slopes, affected by
slides and erosion.
 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

The forest fund has almost 19.2 % of the
total area of the microzone and is mainly
made up of more species (Robinia
pseudocacia, Tilia cordata, Populus
canadensis., Fagus sylvatica) and coniferous
species may be found on the highest tops.
On meadows, Festuca vallesiaca and
Stipa joanis associations are often found.
Besides these species, Agropyron cristatum,
Poa pratensis, Bromus inermis and Poa
bulbosa have a high frequency on degraded
meadows. On narrow valleys, there are
hygro-halophytes associations, typical of wet
and salinized areas.
The cultivated plants are wheat, maize,
barley, beans and alfalfa, as well as apple
tree, plum tree, pear tree and other species of
fruit-growing trees.
Human resources and infrastructure
The Ţibăneşti Microzone includes Ţibana,
Ţibăneşti, Tansa and Dagâţa communes,
having a total area of 24,769 ha and 23,150
people, of which 1192 are employees.
The population of the Ţibăneşti
Microzone has a density of 93.6 people/km2,
being very close to the national average, with
clear differentiations according to communes:
83.1 in Ţibăneşti Commune and 105.2, in Ţibana
commune (tab.1). The population natural
increase is positive, except Tansa Commune,
where it is negative. We found a high percentage
of the people aged over 60 (29.9 %), as
compared to the people aged until 18, who are,
on the average, only 20.9 %, while in Tansa
Commune, they represent 12.4%.
The number of services units from rural
environment – that worked as consumption
cooperatives – has diminished because of a
decrease in demand and of the deficient
organization and marketing. The industry
employees from the studied area are
commuters having jobs in the city of Iaşi. We
may notice that in the rural environment, the
people involved in trade reached 17.4%, due
to the creation of mixed shops (tab. 2).

Table 1
Indicators on the population from the Ţibăneşti Microzone, Iaşi County (2007)
Total
Ţiba- Ţibă-
Tansa Dagîţa microz %
Indicators na neşti
one
Total population, of which: 7434 7819 3057 4840 23150 100,0
- women 3579 3790 1549 2298 11216 48.5
- men 3855 4029 1508 2542 11934 51.5
- people aged below 18 1764 1575 380 1114 4833 20.9
- people aged between 18 -60 3731 4009 1780 1874 11394 49.2
- people aged over 60 1939 2235 897 1852 6923 29.9
- born children in life/year 157 115 26 92 390 1.7
- total deceased/year 62 111 31 51 255 1.1
- settlings in the locality - - - - - -
- moving out of the locality 81 77 42 41 241 1.0
- total employees 366 404 186 236 1192 100.0

Table 2
Permanent employees from the Ţibăneşti Microzone (2007)
Total
Ţibă-
Indicators Ţibana Tansa Dagîţa micro- %
neşti
zone
Total employees, of which: 366 404 186 236 1192 100.0
- agriculture 11 13 3 - 27 2.3
- industry 108 79 71 26 284 23.8
- electric, thermal energy, 1 29 2 48 80 6.7
gases, water, constructions
- trade 60 84 38 25 207 17.4
- transport, storing, mail 6 6 5 24 41 3.4
service, communications
- public administration 12 12 14 10 48 4.0
- education 124 124 31 85 364 30.6
- health and social assistance 44 57 22 18 141 11.8

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

Another method of using the available
labour in that microzone was RARE
DESIGN Ltd, the ready-made clothes factory
from Ţibăneşti Commune that had 1400
employees when it set up in 2001, while in
2005, the number of employees decreased at
453. This unit has used especially the
feminine labour, but due to the defective
policy of the firm managers, this unit failed
in March 2006, thus increasing the number of
the unemployed people in that area.
Analysis of indicators reflecting the
situation of infrastructure in the studied
microzone pointed out the following aspects
(table 3):
– 99.7 % of the total dwellings are in
private ownership, 11.08 m2 of habitable
area is due to one inhabitant;

Table 3
Indicators on the actual infrastructure from the Ţibăneşti Microzone, Iaşi County (2007)
Total
Ţiba- Ţibă- Dagâ-
Indicators Tansa micro-
na neşti ţa
zone
Dwellings
- actual dwellings 2013 2490 1345 1577 7425
-private property dwellings 2003 2489 1344 1568 7404
- public property dwellings 10 1 1 9 21
2
-total habitable area– m 73880 88366 42318 52042 256606
- dwellings built in one year 7 8 1 7 23
- dwellings built from private funds 7 8 1 7 23
- water supply and sewage 2.8 7.4 - 1.9 12.1
Mail and telecommunication
- mail offices 2 2 2 2 8
- fixed telephony subscriptions 202 257 418 71 948
- mobile telephony subscriptions 2231 2843 1011 875 6960
Education
- Total education units, of which: 20 14 4 17 55
- kindergartens 9 7 2 8 26
- first degree and second degree 11 6 2 8 27
schools
-high schools, vocational schools - 1 - 1 2
Culture and art
- total public libraries 1 2 1 1 5
- radio subscriptions 1818 1804 695 772 5089
- television subscriptions 1822 1917 695 875 5309
- cable subscriptions 1608 1826 516 613 4563
Health
- beds in maternities–public sector 3 3 2 1 9
- doctors –public sector 4 4 2 3 13
- sanitary staff –public sector 4 4 3 4 15
- sanitary staff –private sector 1 2 1 1 5
- pharmacies –private sector 1 2 1 1 5

– The network of water supply and sewage
is of 12.1 Km, only 327 households
being connected to current water and
sewage , while in Tansa Commune there
is no network of water supply and
sewage;
– One fixed telephone comes to 8
households and one mobile telephone, to
3 people;
– Education and culture are well
represented, being found 26
kindergartens, 29 schools, 5 libraries;
about 70% of the dwellings are
subscribed to radio and TV and 61.5 % -
to cable TV;
– 13 doctors and 20 people, trained in the
sanitary field, make the health control,
and medicines are distributed through
five drugstores.

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CONCLUSIONS
For the Ţibăneşti microzone, it is useful
to initiate some development programs where
the main objectives should be represented by
removing the weak points and their
transformation in opportunities.
- Compulsory environment protection by
forbidding the deforestations in the area;
- The degradation improvement of
meadows and natural hayfields found in
the individual property;
- Applying measures of soil erosion
control on the entire area;
- Increasing the degree of the social
infrastructure (especially, in the Tansa
Commune where sewage is not present);
- Setting up of private viable farms for the
agriculture straightening, by using at
maximum the whole natural and human
potential from the investigated area;
- Promotion of investments in the main
fields, which can use the existing labour
excess and result in the increase of the
population living level.
REFERENCES
Journal article
[9] Gindu Elena şi colab.,2004 – Unele aspecte
privind relaţia populaţie-alimente-alimentaţie-risc
alimentar-sănătate în unele judeţe ale Moldovei.
Lucr. st. USAMV Iaşi, vol. 47, seria Horticultură.
Books
[1] Barberis G.,1995 - L’importance de la vie
rurale dans la société d’aujourd’hui, Troisième
Forum Européen sur l’Agriculture, Vérone .
[2] Bârsan Maria, 1995 - Integrarea economică
europeană, Ed. Carpatica, Cluj-Napoca.
[3] Berindei Mihnea, 2004 - La Roumanie au seuil
de l’Union europeenne: dossier special, Paris:
Politique internationale.
[4] Bohatereţ V. M., 1997 - Dezvoltarea rurală în
Moldova, Editura Academiei Romîne, Bucureşti.
- 163 -
Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
[5] Bleahu Ana, 2005 - Dezvoltarea rurală în
Uniunea Europeană, Calitatea Vietii, XVI, 3-4.
[6] Chiran A., Gindu Elena, Banu A., Ciobotaru
Elena-Adina,2004 - Piaţa produselor agricole şi
agroalimentare- abordare teoretică şi practică Ed.
Ceres, Bucureşti.
[7] Chiran A., Ciurea I. V., Gîndu Elena, Ignat
Gabriela, 2006 – Management, marketing şi
gestiune economică, Ed. Performantica, Iaşi
[8] Chirică C., Tesliuc D.E., 1999 – De la sărăcie
la dezvoltarea rurală, Studiul Băncii Mondiale şi
al Comisiei Naţionale pentru Statistică, Bucureşti.
[10] Dona I., 2000 - Economie rurală, Ed.
Economică, Bucureşti.
[11] Davidovici I. şi colab., 2002 – Economia
creşterii agroalimentare. Ed. Expert, Bucureşti.
[12] Davidovici I., Gavrilescu D., 2003– Politica
agricolă şi de dezvoltare rurală în dezvoltarea
economică a României, Editura Academiei
Române, Bucureşti.
[13] Folescu A., 2004 - Programe Regionale de
Management şi Dezvoltare, Universitatea “Al. I.
Cuza”, Centrul de Studii Europene, Iaşi.
[14] Gavrilescu D.,1998 - Economii rurale locale
– dimensiuni şi perspective, Ed. AGRIS,
Bucureşti.
[15] Groza N., Iagăru G.,1999 - Agricultura în
reformă şi tranziţie. Ed. AGIR, Bucureşti.
[16] Mitrache St., 2000 - Dezvoltarea durabilă
rurală. Ed. Planeta, Bucureşti.
[17] Otiman I. P.,1999 - Economie rurală, Ed.
Agroprint, Timişoara.
[18] Otiman I. P., 2000 - Restructurarea
agriculturii şi dezvoltarea rurală a României în
vederea aderării la UE. Ed. Agroprint, Timişoara.
[19] Otiman I. P., 2006 – Dezvoltarea rurală
durabilă în România, Ed. Academiei Române,
Bucureşti.
[20] Pascariu Gabriela, 1999 - Uniunea
Europeană: politici şi pieţe agricole. Ed. Econo-
mică, Bucureşti.
[21] Zaman GH. 2003 – Dimensiuni ale dezvoltării
rurale durabile, Ed. Academiei Române, vol.
Dezvoltarea economică a României, Bucureşti.
 BACK
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

THE ANALYSIS OF CROP STRUCTURE ACCORDING TO

SOCIAL-ECONOMICAL REQUIREMENTS IN VRANCEA
DISTRICT

Marcela Ştefan, Mariana Bran

Academy of Economical Studies, Bucharest

e-mail: mariana_bran2004@yahoo.com

Abstract
A well established structure of cultures at a level of area, county or farm, is an important
factor for obtaining more stable average yields and closer to natural potential. Choosing the
structure of culture must take account of the purpose (of the products meet nutrition for human and
animal) and a number of restrictions imposed by the specific cultures. There have been developed
several variants corresponding to different situations of resource allocation. The technical and
economical indicators from the optimization model were based on the estimates of expenditure, the
consumption norms of materials and labor, cost recovery and pricing of products analyzed. In
respect of livestock by species and categories, they may correlate with the potential represents the
county, depending on material, social and economic existence at a time. It requires increasing the
areas cultivated with forage plants to meet the necessary volume of feed for cattle and sheep, at the
level of expected livestock production.
Key words: crops optimum structure, safe-food, productivity potential, average yield, food and feed

INTRODUCTION WHO (World Healthy Organization)

The district Vrancea is located in the
South-east of Romania, Eastern limit of
Euroregion Siret – Prut – Nistru. From area
viewpoint, the district has 4,863 km2 , and
from rural area viewpoint is on seven place
among all districts of Romania. As relief, one
can mention the Mountains Vrancea (with
heights between 960 – 1,783 m), hilly
regions (with heights between 350 – 1,001
m) and plain (spreading till rivers Siret,
Trotus and Ramnic). The continental climate
is influenced by air streams from North and
South of Europe. The forests cover about
38% of district area (191,792 ha),
representing one of the most important
richness of this area. The agriculture is well
developed; the agricultural area consists of
255,284 ha, of which 146,792 arable land,
35,000 ha wineyard (main yield of district),
4,654 ha fruit trees.
The overall objectives to determine the
optimum crop structure for the district
Vrancea are:
• achievement of food safety for district
habitants (population);
• yield levels which should cover the
consumption requirements related to EU and
recommendations;
• diminution of decreasing degree of
livestock and poultry at the limit to stop the
decline, observation of parameters in gradual
increasing at the level of expected yield
ensuring;
• increasing of average and total yield level,
as a consequence of improving biological level
of livestock, technologies and feeding
techniques, reproduction and breeding;
• ensuring of nutritive resources adequate
to proposed aims, by optimization of forage
crop structure, realization of grasslands
improvement program;
• livestock productive potential expressing,
by application of scientific nutrition.
The process of optimization ensures the
most advanced balance between production
factors, due to its achieving depending on
some current restrictions and for an
established target. At the same time, the
economical activity optimization allows the
establishment of real, concrete level of
economical efficiency, to reach its external
size, through the maximization of effects
with existing tools, or by minimization of
total expenses regarding the proposed aim.

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

MATERIAL AND METHODS It is necessary to take into consideration

Generally, by choosing of crop structure,
one can understand the optimum level of
food and feed to cover the human and animal
need as well as the optimum utilization of
existing climate and soil resources.
Besides, one can calculate the endowment
to perform mechanical tillage, optimum level
to ensure crop inputs, refering especially to
seeds, chemical and organical fertilizers,
pesticides, other raw matters and materials.
At the same time, one can take into
account the available labour force, due to the
fact that some crops (row crops, for example)
require higher consumption of labour force
that others (cereals).
Under other situations, one can follow to
achieve, on whole crop structure, a low fuel
consumption for mechanical tillage, this
element becoming a restrictive one in
choosing crop component as part of structure.
Also, the agro-productive features of soils
are restrictive. Thus, one can mention acid or
basic soils, salty ones, with moinsture in
excess, which could be optimum utilized
only by certain species cultivation. In the
case in which the water reserve into soil
during autumn – winter is insufficient and the
prognosis show reduced rainfall during
vegetation, it is necessary to increase the
weight of less pretention crops vs. water.
the level of ensuring financial tools for crop’s
establishment as well as their maintenance,
harvesting and yield transportation. In this
respect, one can know the fact that, the own
financial resources of the farmers are
insufficient and using of bank credits is a
hard decision, due to current high interest.
If, by an established crop structure one
can achieve a high net benefit, it means that
the weight of crops which require reduced
expenses must be increased; globally, the
crop structure will be economically more
profitable simultaneously with the
technological restrictions for each crop.
The cereals (wheat, barley, two-rowed
barley, oats, maize for kernels) were
considered as models; together with
industrial crops (sunflower, soybean, rape for
oil, peas, beans, sugar beet, potatoe) and
forage ones (vetch-oats mixture, barley for
green mass, maize for silo, forage beet,
alfalfa for hay) constitute the arable land of
the district Vrancea (141,808 ha), after the
substraction from total district area (148,028
ha) of 50 ha maize, 50 ha sunflower, 14 ha
tobacco, 88 other industrial crops, 5,615 field
legumes, 337 ha melon, 66 ha other crops, all
of them cultivated for seed multiplication.

As an example, the table presents the cereals for grains quantities necessary for district
requirements during an year:
Annual
Cereal Destination Calculation
need, t
For human 160 kg/habitants/year x 400.000 habitants = 64.000t 70.300
consumption
Wheat
21.000 ha x 300 kg/ha (norm, including the reserve)
For seed
= 6.300t
For feeding 55.490 individuals x 0,2 kg/individual/day x 4.211
Barley (swine) 365 days = 4.051t
For seed 800 ha x 200 kg/ha = 160 t
- horses: 2000 individuals for breeding x 4.246
3 kg/individual/day x 365 days = 2.190t
For feeding
Oat - swine: 2400 individuals for breeding x
2 kg/individual/day x 365 days = 1.752t
For seed 1900 ha x 160 kg/ha = 304t
- cattle: 52.609 individuals x 1,8 kg/individual/day x 280.946
365 days = 34.565t
- sheep and goats: 174.746 individuals x
0,5 kg/individual/day x 365 days = 31.891t
For feeding
- swine: 55.490 individuals x 1,6 kg/individual/day x
Maize 365 days = 28.356t
- poultry: 1.966.400 individuals x
0,25 kg/individual/day x 365 days = 179.434t
For human 40 kg/habitant/year x 120.000 habitants (in towns) =
consumption 4.800 tons
For seed 76.000 ha x 25 kg/ha = 1.900t

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

The technical-economical indicators − integrated utilization of arable land;

(table 1) introduced into optimization model
were calculated based on expenses, norms of
material and labour force consumption, costs
and prices of utilization of tested products,
while the restrictions refer to:
− minimum rotation into crop rotation;
− achievement of minimum and maximum
quantity of tested products;
− non-negation restrictions.

Table 1
*
Economical indicators of tested crops
Technical- Spring two-
Nr. Maize for
economical Wheat Barley rowed Oats
crt. kernels
indicators barley
1 Labour force 0.00145 0.00204 0.00184 0.00099 0.01563
consumption,
thousand hours-
worker/ha
2 Fuel consumption, 0.06764 0.07112 0.06463 0.04997 0.07351
thousand l/ha
3 Nitrogen fertilizer 0.135 0.100 0.093 0.050 0.100
consumption, t active
ingredient./ha
4 Phosphorus fertilizer 0.060 0.080 0.067 0.048 0.070
consumption, t a.i./ha
5 Yield expenses, 1.803 1.796 1.599 1.190 1.854
thousand RON/ha
6 Yield value, thousand 1.973 2.000 1.713 1.332 1.980
RON/ha
*
at the level og agricultural year 2006/2007

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Many variants, adequate to various
situations of resources allocation were
performed. The final solution, in which the
objective-function took into consideration
was net benefit, show that this variant is
optimum one under imposed conditions and
restrictions, ensuring a crop structure viable
in the district Vrancea.
The criteria previously exposed are
accomplished:
D the population consumption is entirely
ensured;
D the concentrate fodder necessary for
livestock is entirely ensured;
D the seed supply is ensured.
The results obtained in optimum variant
were synthetized in the following tables:
• table 2 presents the crop optimum
structure (V2) compared to current one (V1)
established in district. The data emphasize
the fact that the area cultivated with cereals
for grains decreases with 5.1% in optimum
structure vs. initial one, at the level of district
in 2007;
• table 3 presents the labour force and
fuel consumptions. To emphasize the
superiority of crop optimum structure, the
level of utilized technology inputs vs. initial
crop structure was comparatively analyzed.
The data underline the fact that, under
optimized variant (V2), the labour force and
fuel consumption is less vs. initial structure
variant (V1);
• in table 4, the comparative analysis of
chemical fertilizer consumptions emphasizes
the fact that under optimum variant (V2), the
chemical fertilizer consumption is higher
than consumptions under initial one (V1) for
2007.
The market requirements and the system
of measures implemented by State or
economical agents, which utilize the products
to stimulate certain crops will have an
important impact on cultivated area structure.

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

Table 2
Comparative analysis between current structure – 2007 – and optimum one
Area under current
Area under optimum structure, V2 V2 vs.
Specification structure, V1
V1 %
ha % of arable ha % of arable
Cereals for 102802 69,4 95198 64,3 - 5,1
grains, of which:
Wheat 21543 14,5 20286 13,7 - 0,8
Barley 786 0,5 1053 0,7 + 0,2
Two-rowed barley 2486 1,7 1500 1,0 - 0,7
Oats 1894 1,3 2123 1,4 + 0,1
Maize for kernels 76093 51,3 70236 47,5 - 3,8

Table 3
Comparative analysis between current structure – 2007 – and optimum one after consumption
hours/human and fuel
Human labor consumption, thousand
Fuel consumption, thousand liters
Specification hours-human
V1 V2 V2 vs. V1 V1 V2 V2 vs. V1
Cereals for 1228,484 1134,213 - 94,271 7361,961 6813,113 - 548,848
grains, of which:
Wheat 31,108 29,415 - 1,693 1457,147 13721,145 - 85,002
Barley 1,603 2,148 + 0,545 55,903 74,889 + 18,986
Two-rowed barley 4,567 2,760 - 1,807 160,678 96,945 - 63,733
Oats 1,873 2,102 + 0,229 94,637 106,086 + 11,449
Maize for kernels 1189,333 1097,788 - 91,545 5593,596 5163,048 - 430,548

Table 4
Comparative analysis between current structure – 2007 – and optimum one after chemical fertilizer
consumption
Nitrogen fertilizer consumption, t Phosphorus fertilizer
Specification active ingredient consumption, t active ingredient
V1 V2 V2 vs. V1 V1 V2 V2 vs. V1
Cereals for 10922,103 10113,16 - 808,943 6933,444 6420,360 - 513,084
grains, of which:
Wheat 2908,305 2738,61 - 169,695 1295,580 1217,160 - 75,420
Barley 78,600 105,300 + 26,700 62,880 84,240 + 21,360
Two-rowed barley 231,198 139,500 - 91,698 166,562 100,500 - 66,062
Oats 94,700 106,150 + 11,450 90,912 101,904 + 10,992
Maize for kernels 7609,300 7023,600 - 585,700 5326,510 4916,520 - 409,990

CONCLUSIONS • By increasing average yield/ha, the

• The choosing of crop structure must
take into considerations both expected task
and each crop requirements.
• In order to optimize crop structure, an
economical-mathematical model was
performed.
• The establishment of adequate crop
structure ensures the achievement of cereal
yield, which entirely cover the internal need
for human consumption, fodder one as well
as raw matter resources for food and adjacent
industries.
weight of area cultivated with cereals for
grains could annually decrease with 2%, in
favour of areas cultivated with industrial
crops and legumes for grains.
• The livestock, on species and categories,
could be correlated with the district potential,
depending on material, social and economical
conditions, at a given time.
• It is necessary to cultivate areas with
forage crops which entirely ensure the fodder
supply for cattle and sheep, at the level of
expected productions.

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
• After joining Romania to EU, it is
necessary to find solutions for European
market competition. From our viewpoint, we
consider that an important niche is the
utilization of slight energy and pollutant
technologies. Under this circumstances, one
can achieve products with no residues or with
residues below the established limits,
meaning acceptable positions of Romanian
products on European market.
REFERENCES
Books
[1] Berca M.,: Optimizarea tehnologiilor la
culturile agricole, Editura Ceres, Bucureşti (1999).
[2] Berca M.,: Ingineria şi managementul
resurselor pentru dezvoltarea rurală, Editura Ceres,
Bucureşti, 2003.
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[3] Bran Mariana,: Ecotehnica exploataţiei
vegetale, Editura Printech, Bucureşti, 2005.
[4] Bran Mariana, Mihnea I., Consuela Roibu,
Marcela Ştefan,: Zootehnie comparată, Editura
Meteor Press, Bucureşti, 2004.
[5] Drăghici M. şi colab.,: Module specifice pentru
pregătirea integrării europene a exploataţiilor
agricole din agrozona de câmpie, Bucureşti, 2005.
[6] Hartia S.,: Folosirea optimă a resurselor în
agricultură, Editura Ceres, Bucureşti, 1978.
[7] Sin, Gh. şi colab.,: Managementul tehnologic
al culturilor de câmp, Editura Ceres, Bucureşti,
2005.
[8] ***: Institutul Naţional de Statistică – Anuarul
Statistic al României, 2006.
[9] ***: MAPDR - Planul naţional strategic pentru
Dezvoltarea Rurală, 2007-2013, Bucureşti, 2006.
[10] * * *: MAPDR, ANCA – Colecţia „Proiect
model”, 2007.
 BACK

Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

MATHEMATICS, THE INSTRUMENT

WE USE IN TEACHING ECOLOGY

D.M. Andrei, Laurenţia Diaconu

„G. E. Palade” High School Group Constanţa

Abstract
By thinking interdisciplinarity and multidisciplinarity either in theory or in practice we can
approach the real facet, of natural phenomena, where we find all the elements blending toghether
to make an intercorelated whole.
Interdisciplinarity was chosen as a method of absortion of knowledge due to all the more
intense tendency of science to assert itself but also because of the crossing over from one
discipline/subject matter science to another, because of obvious connexions between them, logically
speaking, for science has a systematic working pattern. It is when the interdiscyiplinarity
correlation enters the teaching process submitting itself to didactic logics , that we can discuss
interconnection among various subject matters included in the educational process. Thus, the
interdisciplinary connection becomes an issue of didactic methodology.
The present paper underlines a few problems specific to Ecology as subject matter, where
matematics, in an interdisciplinary way, is used as an indispensabil working instrument.
Key words: mathematics, ecology, tool, teaching

MATERIALS AND METHODS OF We will present a series of examples in

WORK / RESULTS
Established connections between
mathematics and other disciplines of learning
the following rules Didactic Action:
- the transfer of information from an area of
study or scientific discipline in the mathematics
lesson to help explaining some events.
- use in the teaching of specific methods or
specific methods of other education subjects.
- the call for values and models offered by
other disciplines.
- use of language classes with other
disciplines in order, to integrate the knowledge
into larger informational assemblies and in the
unit systems of knowledge.
Each of this linking mathematics with
other disciplines is obeying to didactic logic
rules designed to make a optimization of the
connection in the methodology of teaching.
a) Elements of education in lessons of
applied mathematics
Students' education for the surrounding
environment can not be realized without the
mutual effort of the teachers, parents and
authorities. The curricular resources
concerning ecological education are
mentioned in the Mathematics school
curriculum for the primary and secondary
classes, together with the interdisciplinary and
transdisciplinary approach of CDS.
the hypothesis that the concerned educational
unit is part of the Global Program “Eco -
School”or is carring out other environmental
projects.
In the Algebra handbook for 6th grade,
chapter “Direct ratio sets” students can show
in charts the relationship between the
quantities of recyclable waste collected
through selection and the score obtained by
each class of the school. Also, in the Algebra
class, during the lesson “Representations of
functional dependencies by means of tables,
diagrams and charts” belonging to the
chapter “Elements of data organization”, the
students are asked to draw tables and charts
for certain data regarding the influence of the
environment on people's health.
In the Geometry handbook for the 7th
grade, chapter “Area for some geometrical
figures'', students can measure the surface of
the playground in the lesson “Areas (triangles,
square)”; the calculation of surfaces by means
cuts, pavements, networks, using formulas.
Within the same theme, students cansolve
different problems regarding the optimal use
of the playground area so as to create park (till
and flower planting, etc.) Also, we can request
the decision of a plain surface in parcels of
different regular forms.

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
The periodical analysis of air quality
parameters can be carried out during the
Mathematics lessons in the 10th grade (the
most specialties of humanities and sciences,
the theoretical field). The data can be collected
by means of the air quality monitoring stations
located in the main quarters of Romania’s
major cities. The chemical pollutants
monitored are related to the speed of the wind,
temperature, pressure, sub radiations and
relative humidity. Their interpretation, by
statistical can be carried out in the following
lessons: “Statistical data collection,
classification and work, chart representation of
statistical data”, “Statistical data interpretation
by position parameters: average, dispersion,
medium, average exceptions'' (we gave
examples for sciences, specialty Mathematics
– Computer Science).
In mathematical analysis, in the 11th
grade of sciences, examples real number sets
can be given, as a measure of some reality
measures. On this occasion, the extinction of
some flora or fauna species under the impact
of pollutants may be studied, together with
the life expectancy of a radioactive nucleus
or the coming into being of mammal
populations if the natural balance is damaged
(for instance, by respecting the Fibonacci
number u n = u n − 1 + u n − 2 , u 0 = u 1 = 1 ).
The negative impact of radioactive
substances on the environment is well
known. The nuclear security and protection
against radiations is one of the fields of
community acquisition.
The radioactive elements are unstable and
have the tendency to disintegrate. We take a
mass of radioactive nuclei and time T, acer
which half of the initial nuclei are
disintegrating. No is the number of nuclei at
the moment t = 0. We have the following sets:
Avem urmatoarele şiruri:
1) The number of nuclei remained at moment
N 0 ( for t = 1T),
t is: N 0 (for t = 0 ),
2 with the mutant type (aabbcc), the lineage is
N0 N0
(for t = 2T), (for t = 3T),
2 2
23
N0 N0
(for t = 4T ), ( or t = 5T);
2 4
25
2) The number of nuclei desintegred at the
N0
moment t is : 0 (for t = 0) , (for t = 1T),
2 15%:
- 170 -
N0 N0 N N N
+ 2 ( for t = 2T ) , 0 + 20 + 30
2 2 2 2 2
N0 N0 N0 N0
(for t = 3T) ,+ 2 + 3 + 4 (for t =
2 2 2 2
N N N N N
4T ), 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 (for t = 5T)
2 2 2 23 2 4 25
a) The number of radioactive nuclei remained
at moments t = 0 , t = T, t = 2T, …. T = n
T forms geometrical progression
N0 N0 N0 N0 N0 1
N0 , , , , , with ratio .
2 22 23 24 25 2
b) The total number of desintegred nuclei at
the moment t = nT is:
N0 N0 N0 N  1
+ 2 + 3 + ........... + n0 = N 0 1 − n 
2 2 2 2  2 
Mathematical calculations can be applied
to calculate the potential number of pairs of
chromosomes form more combinations in the
case of a the cells. In a species which has 3
pairs of chromosomes (2n = 6) can easily
find the number of combinations from among
the chromosomal recombination. Possibilities
for a cell to be genetically different from
another can be found by calculating the value
of 2n (n = number of pairs of chromosomes)
which means 2 3 = 8.
Aplyng this formula, where the number
of pairs of chromosomes is 23, it’s
obtained a number of cell combinations of
2 23 = 8.388.608.
Build –up the genetic map for three
hypothetical genes A, B, C with them a, b, c.
One genitor is phenotypically normal, as
being in the phenotypically heterozygote
(AaBbCc). The other type shows mutant
genitors (aabbcc). These three genes are
located on the same chromosome as a result
of crossing-over between phenotype with
normal bodies but heterozygote (AaBbCc),
composed mostly of organisms similar with
the parents bodies, being phenotypically
ABC or abc. So genes that manifest linkage
is placed in the same chromosome. In lineage
appears all sow recombinant organisms by
crossing-over in the following proportions:
- between gene c and b gene, the
recombinant phenotype with Abc and ABC =

- between gene c and b gene, with the
recombinant phenotype Abc and ABC = 8%;
- between gene c and c gene, the recombinant
phenotype with ABC and ABC = 32%;
Place these genes in the linear
chromosome, knowing that between the
closest gene the crossing-over frequency map
is smaller and more distant, and between the
most distant genes it is higher.
Mendel had made a cross between two
varieties of peas which are distinguished by
two pairs of characters: grain smooth peas
and yellow (AABB) and wrinkled pea grain
and green (aabb). In the first hybrid
generation (F1) all plants were beans smooth
and pale yellow, showing phenotypically
dominant characters, although in terms of
genotypic were hybrid (AaBb).
By self from the hybrid plants of the first
generation has been obtain the second
♀ ♂ AB Ab
AB AABB AABb
Ab AABb AAbb
aB AaBB AaBb
ab AaBb Aabb
Based on the calculation of probabilities,
the chance of simultaneous occurrence of two
independent events is equal with the their
separate probability.
In this way G. Mendel predicted that 9 /
16 (3 / 4 x 3 / 4) of grain will be smooth and
yellow, and 3 / 16 (3 / 4 x 1 / 4) will be
smooth and green, 3 / 16 (3 / 4 ¼ x) will be
smooth and green and 1 / 16 (1 / 4 x 1 / 4)
will be wrinkled and green. So, in the F2 the
segregation it is in the report of 9:3:3:1.
CONCLUSIONS:
Due to the interference of different
subject, of the conexion between them, from
the logical point of view because of the
science sistem character, it is required the
effort of each teacher to overtake the strict
bounderies of each discipline, to make a step
to the simple corelation of the knowledge to a
interdisciplinery approach of a task.
As ways of the didactical actions for the
realization mathematics conexions with other
disciplines:
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
generation (F2) which presents the total
number of plants:
- 9 / 16 with two dominating characters
(smooth and yellow beans)
- 3 / 16 with a dominant and one
recessive (smooth and green beans)
- 3 / 16 with a dominant and one
recessive (wrinkled and yellow beans)
- 1 / 16 with two characters recessive
(wrinkled and green beans)
This segregation is explained by the fact
that first generation of hybrids, from parents
who are distinguished by two pairs of
characters, forming four categories of cells,
in which it is a single hereditary factor, from
the initial pair (AB, Ab, aB, ab). Here are the
16 combinations that result from the probable
combining of the cells.
aB ab
AaBB AaBB
AaBb Aabb
aaBB AaBb
aaBb aabb
- the knowledge transfer from one subject
to another (scientific discipline) in order
to facilitate the exploration of an event.
- the use of teaching of some specific
methods of a subject
- other values and examples offered by
other disciplines
- the use of a common language with
other discipline in order to realise the
integration of the knowledge in a large
informational sistem
Each of these methods of corelation and
collision of mathematics with other disciplines
subdue to other logical didactical rulesment to
make from the conexion a better methodology
of teaching.
REFERENCES:
Books
[1] Revus, A. -„Modern mathematics, mathematics
vie”, E.D.P. Bucharest,1970
[2] Marcus, S.-“Interdisciplinarity in contemporary
science ”, E.D.P., Bucharest,1980
 BACK

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

THE EFFECT OF ESSENTIAL OIL OF ROSEMARY

(ROSMARINUS OFFICINALIS) ON TO THE BROILERS
GROWING PERFORMANCE

Lenuţa Fotea, Elena Costăchescu, G. Hoha

Animal Science Faculty, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Iasi Romania
e-mail: fotealenuta@yahoo.com

Abstract
In recent years medicinal plants have been studied from the perspective of their use as growth
promoters and replacement of antibiotics. The aim of the research was to determine the effect of
different levels of oil on growth and development, increase of weight gain and feed conversion to
increase growth, water consumption and sustainability of chicken meat. Were used 250 broiler
chicken Ross 308 distributed in five lots, L1 (0.1%), L2 (0.5%), L3 (1%) L4 (1.5%) and M (0.3%
avilamycin). The experiment during 42 days. The data obtained were statistically processed. For the
average body weight and growth rate the best values were recorded in the lot with antibiotic and in
the lot with 0.5% oil, being higher with 2.43% (L1), 4.97% (L3), and 5.9% (L4), feed conversion in
growth rate was approximately the same for lots M, L1, L3, and L4, the values recorded were
different depending on the level and type of additive used, the best results were recorded in the lot
L2 being higher by about 5% compared with M. The best values for water consumption were
recorded in the lot L2 with 6.39% higher compared to the lot M. The lowest values of mortality
percentage were recorded in the L2. In conclusion, the level of 0.5% essential oil of rosemary can
be considered a possible natural growth promoter for chicken broilers.
Keywords: essential oil, alternatives, antibiotics, natural, broilers

INTRODUCTION antioxidant effect etc.. Medicinal plants were

The last years of research on growth of
bidrs and not only. These have focused on
finding some additives to ensure proper
growth and development while protecting the
body against diseases which may harm the
health and welfare. Medicinal plants were
investigated from the perspective of their use
as biostimulatori growth and replacement of
antibiotics. Medicinal plants used in various
forms and additives (additives botany) acting
respectively at maintaining digestive balance
of existing flora and a functional role related
to increasing specific enzyme secretion and
an important antibacterial role (1, 5). These
issues are related directly to obtain the
growth performance of meat chickens.
Essential oils (volatile oils) were regarded as
true activators of digestive secretions (7), the
principal components of the type contained
timol, cavocrol, engenol and not only. Active
components of essential oils have a strong
antibacterian, antifungal, antiparazitar,
taken in the study as possible natural growth
promoters in broiler chickens and
replacement of antibiotics. Different levels of
essential oil have been proposed to be used in
the basic recipe to determine their effect on
growth performance of chicken meat in
comparison with use of antibiotic (1, 9).
MATERIAL AND METHOD.
There were used 250 day-old chicks of
Ross 308 hybrid, separated in five batches of
50 chickens each. Because of were used five
types of food, depending on the factor tested
antibiotic or essential oils incorporated into a
recipe of basic.This at five lots of 4 was
administered essential oil of rosemary in the
level of 0.1% (L1), 0.5% (L2), 1% (L3) and
1.5% (L4) and a lot was used antibiotic
avilamycin 0.3% (M). Rosemary essential oil
was dissolved in vegetable oil and
incorporated into daily meals. The basic
recipe built made up of specific feed and

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

chicken meat with regard to each period of administered. Ingredients and chemical
growth and was administered at libitum, in composition of the basic recipe are presented
the same way it was done for the water and in table 1.

Table 1
Structure and nutritional composition of standard diets
Feed ingredients UM 0-14 day 15-28 day 29-42 day
Corn % 61.00 65.00 65.00
Soybean meal % 28.00 23.00 23.00
Full-fat soybean % 2.00 4.00 7.00
San flowers % 1 - -
Gluten de porumb % 1.00 1.00 -
Fish meal % 400 3.50 -
Vegetable oil % - 0.50 1.50
L-Lysine % 0.05 0.10 0.05
DL- methionine % 0.20 0.20 0.20
Carbonat de calciu % 0.45 0.45 0.75
Dicalcium phosphate % 1.10 1.00 1.15
Salt % 0.15 0.20 0.30
Vitamin and minerals premix % 1.00 1.00 1.00
Kemzyme VP dry % 0.05 0.05 0.05
Total % 100 100 100
Analysis
kcal /kg 2995 3100 3153
Crude protein % 23 20 18
Crude fiber % 3.25 3.33 3.01
Eter extract % 4.51 4,01 6,01
Ash % 6.12 6.05 6.33
Lysine % 1.36 1.17 1.00
Methionine +Cistine % 1.00 0.90 0.82
Ca % 1.03 0.95 0.91
P % 0.76 0.66 0.61

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Results obtained after the experiment are
presented in table 2. Rosemary oil effect on
growth in weight has established that the best
results were recorded in group L2 (52.1
g/day) and group M (with antibiotic).
Increased weight gain at chickens in the other
groups had values of approx. 51.7 g/day (L3),
50.7 g/day (L1) and 49.5 g/day (L4). It may
be notice that the results obtained from the
batch of chicken with 0.5% essential oil was
the best, being much better than 2.43% with
L1, L3 to L4 and 4.97% to 5.9% compared
with the same group M. To increase
conversion of feed into growth the best
values were recorded at L2 group wich were
better by about 5% compared with group M
to determine statistically significant
differences (p <0.05) compared with the
group. The other lots with the essential oil
the values were higher than the group with
approx. 1% (L3), 1.1% (L4) and 1.7% (L1).
As regards the use of water seen through the
water/food, the best results were obtained in
batch L1 values were lower by 6.39%
compared with group M. Also at all batches
with essential oil of this report were lower
than group M. For the mortality index values
from batches of essential oil were lower at
L1, L2(1%), followed by L3 and L4 (2% ),
and M (3%). The results show the positive
effect on the essential oil of rosemary over
chickens growth and in use of food for
growing them. Best values were recorded in
group L2 (0.5% essential oil), concluding
that at this level it can be used in raising
chickens for meat the other lots were
classified as differences of up to 5%
compared to batch with antiobiotic.

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

Table 2
The effects of different level of rosmarin essential oil on overal performance of broiler chickens
M* L1 L2 L3 L4
Results
0.3% 0.1 % 0.5 % 1% 1.5 %
Initial average weight g 46.8 46.30 46.2 46.2 46.4
Final average weight 42 day g 2232.0 2177.9 2235.0 2188.2 2100
Daily weight gain g/bird/day 52.00 50.7 52.1 51.0 49.5
a b
FCR g feed/g gain 1.81 1.78 1.72 1.80 1.83
Water/feed 2.35 2.22 2.20 2.28 2.27
Mortality % 4% 1% 1% 2% 2%
* antibiotics ab; (p<0.05) the values differ significantly

The varying levels of essential oil used REFERENCES

gives an indication that always a higher
concentration of essential oil can cause at
obtaining the best results depending on the
amount of chemical components contained.
We can see similarities of these results or
better than the antibiotic used after the use of
rosemary essential oil content in the borneol,
camphor, pinen, etc. rozamonic acid. When
using concentrations of 0.5% we see a good
effect of stimulating the digestive enzymes,
this proceeding from the value of good
nutrition to increase growth. Similar results
were obtained by other researchers on the
effect of rosemary on growth performance
and values of food at a level of fat and low
cholesterol (2, 3, 5); use of rosemary
essential oil in combination with other
essential oils have proved a very good effect
on growth performance of meat chickens (4,
5, 7, 9).
CONCLUSIONS
Research undertaken has shown that the
use of essential oil of rosemary has a good
result in good growth performance of meat
chickens and a good use of nutrition in
growth for growth. Using the 0.5% rise to
achieve the best results, values were similar
and better than the antibiotic used. Following
the results reported it can be affirmed that the
use of 0.5% essential oil of rosemary in the
chicken feed may be considered a potential
growth promoter in the growth of meat
chickens.
Journal articles
[1] Boyraz, N., Ozcan M., 2006 – Inhibition of
phytopatohogenic fungi by essential oil, hydrosol,
ground material and extract of summer savory
(Satureja hortensis L.) growing wild in Turkey.
Int. J. Food Microbiol., vol 107 Issue 3, 1 April,
pg. 238-245
[2] Ciftci, M., Güler, T., Dalkiliç, B., Ertas, N.O.,
2005. The effect of anise oil [Pimpinella anisium
L.] on broiler performance. International Journal
of Poultry Science 4 (11) pg. 851-855
[3] Dorman, H.J., Bachmayer, O., Kosar, M.,
Hiltunen, R., 2004 – Antioxidant properties of
aqueous extracts from selected lamiaceae species
grown in Turkey. J. Agric. Food Chem., Feb. 25;
52 (4), pg. 762-770.
[4] Earts, O.N., Güler, T., Ciftici, M., Dalkilic, B.,
2005 – The effect of on essential oil mixed
derived from oregano, clove and nise on broiler
performance. International Journal of Poultry
Science 4 (11) 879-884.
[5] Ghazalah A.A. and A.M. Ali, Rosemary
Leaves as a Dietary Supplement for Growth in
BroilerChickens.International Journal of Poultry
Science 7 (3): 234-239, 2008, ISSN 1682-8356
[6] Hernández F, Madrid J, García V, Orengo J,
Megías MD. Influence of two plant extracts on
broilers performance, digestability, and digestive
organ size. Poultry Sci 2004; 83: 169-74.
[7] Lopez-Bote CJ, Gray JI, Gomaa EA, Flegal C
J. Effect of dietary administration of oil extract
from rosemary and sage on lipid oxidation in
broiler meat. Br Poultry Sci 1998; 39: 235-40
[8] Peňalver, P., Huerta B., Borge C., Astorga R.,
Romero R., Perea A., 2005 – Antimicrobial
activity of five essential oils against animal origin
strains of the Enterobacteriaceae family. APMIS,
113, pg. 1-6.
[9] Zhang, K.Y., Yan, F., Keen, C.A. Waldroup,
P.W. 2005 – Evaluation of Microencapsulated
Essential Oils and Organic Acids in Diets for
Broiler Chickens. International Journal of Poultry
Science 4 (9): 612-619, 2005.

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 BACK

Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

THE EFFECT OF ENERGO – PROTEIC LEVEL AND

ENERGY – AMINOACIDS RELATIONS ABOUT EVOLUTION
OF BODY WEIGHT AT ARBOR ACRES HYBRID

Daniela Alexandrescu1, Monica Marin2,

D. Drăgotoiu2, Elena Pogurschi2
1
Universitatea Valahia din Târgovişte
e-mail: danaalex@yahoo.com
2
U.S.A.M.V. Bucureşti

Abstract
The aim of this paper is to established the influence of energo-proteic level and energy-
aminoacids relations about body weight evolution at Arbor Acres hybrid for advice about
parameters the farmers so to realised the best performances. For growth performances set of the
broilers from experiments, has been recorded the food quantities and the week average weights on
base of are calculated the weight gains and feed coversion efficiency.
Key words: energo-proteic level, energy, aminoacids

INTRODUCTION Were organized four experimental groups

On the Romanian market in the past
fifteen years, many hybrids of chicken meat
such as Shaver, Arbor Acres, Cobb,
Lohmann, Hybro etc competing with
Romanian hybrids, in particular Robro
hybrid. Nutritional and economic optimized
combined feed of meat chickens given the
phase of growth can be achieved only on the
basis of verifiable scientific standards in the
conditions of our farms and nutritional
performance of software that have the genetic
potential of hybrid, nutritional value of raw
materials used in our country and the
microclimate completed in halls growth.
This paper compared and proposed to
establish the influence of protein-energy and
energy-amino reports on developments in
Arbor Acres hybrid body weight in order to
advise farmers parameters that allow them to
achieve the best performance both in
appearance and biological economically.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
The biological material used in the
experiments was the hybrid Arbor Acres, and
the experiment was conducted at IBNA
Baloteşti on 240 day-old chicks.
E1 - E4, each consisting of 60 chickens each,
equal numbers of males and females.
Premises growth were provided with water
and nutritious and have provided
microclimate factors in accordance with the
guidelines for growth.
Experience in technology has been used
for feeding threephases the three types of
feed mixed for each lot: starter recipe in 1-21
days; grower between 22-35 days and
finisher between 36-42 days (Table 1).
Recipes for batch E1 - witness had an energy
content between 3100 and 3150 kcal EM/kg.
and protein level of 20.5% PB in starter, 19%
PB increase in grower and 17.5% PB in
finishing.
Lot E2 received recipes with energy and
protein values greater than the E1 lot -
witness the 3150 kcal EM / kg. during the
starter, EM 3200 kcal / kg. during growth and
EM 3250 kcal / kg. during finishing, and
protein levels by 21%, 19.5% and 18.2% in
the three corresponding periods of growth.
Lot E3 received prescriptions with the
same energy levels but with a high protein
and amino acids increased. Protein level
increased to 22.1% in starter, the 20.4%
growth and 18.1% respectively in finishing
with about 0.5% higher than in group E2.

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

Tabel 1
The experimental scheme
Group No. of Parameters of the recipies Objectives
broiler Starter Grower Finisher
1 – 21 days 22 – 35 days 36 – 42days
E1 60 3100 kcal / 13,0 3150 kcal / 13,2 3100 kcal / 13,5 • Evolution of
Mj Mj Mj body weight
20,5 % PB 19,0 % PB 17,5 % PB • Consumption of
1,20 % Lis. 1,10 % Lis. 1,00 % Lis. combined fodder
0,53% Meth. 0,54 % Meth. 0,53 % Meth. • Specific
E2 60 3150 kcal / 13,2 3200 kcal / 13,4 3250 kcal / 13,6 consumption
Mj Mj Mj • Energy
21,0 % PB 19,5 % PB 18,2 % PB efficiency
1,30 % Lis. 1,20 % Lis. 1,10 % Lis. of combined feed
0,58% Meth. 0,56 % Meth. 0,58 % Meth. use to chickens
E3 60 3150 kcal / 13,2 3200 kcal / 13,4 3250 kcal / 13,6
Mj Mj Mj
22,1 % PB 20,4 % PB 18,9 % PB
1,40 % Lis. 1,30 % Lis. 1,20 % Lis.
0,63% Meth. 0,58 % Meth. 0,62 % Meth.
E4 60 3100 kcal / 13,0 3240 kcal / 13,6 3200 kcal / 13,5
Mj Mj Mj
23,0 % PB 19,99 % PB 18,5 % PB
1,34 % Lis. 1,14 % Lis. 0,94 % Lis.
0,56% Meth. 0,51 % Meth. 0,38 % Meth.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION At 7 days (one week) are slight

1. Evolution of body weight of experimental
chickens
Results on the average weights in weeks
and lots are presented in Table 2 and Figure 1.
One day, weights of chicks were virtually
equal, with an average of 35.4 g/chicken E1 and
35.7g/chicken at E3, Student t test, showing that
there are significant differences between group
E1 - witness and experimental groups.
differences between batches, and 131.9
g/chicken E2, 136.8 g/chicken E3 and 133.8 g
/ chicken E4 vs. 128.9 g ./chicken E1. At 21
days chicken group E1 - witnesses have seen
an average weight of 697.6 g/chicken, those
of E2 lot of 732.2 g/chicken, the group of E3
816.5 g./chicken, E4 and a lot of intermediate
weight, 770.9 g/chicken.

Tabel 2
Evolution of body weight
Groups Parameters Age (days)
1 7 14 21 28 35 42
E1 35,4 128,9 349,1 697,6 1122,8 1648,7 2104,3
X
±sx 0,47 1,71 4,77 12,77 27,97 36,36 45,47
S 2,83 10,25 28,65 76,64 155,74 202,47 249,04
E2 35,7 131,9 374,9 732,2 1130,7 1662,1 2113,0
X
±sx 0,49 1,64 6,33 14,33 26,73 38,09 46,07
S 2,93 9,83 36,91 83,06 146,40 205,14 243,78
E3 35,7 136,8 406,5 816,5 1260,0 1838,5 2400,8
X
±sx 0,75 3,85 10,83 18,54 31,62 32,32 46,58
S 3,18 16,35 44,67 76,45 118,32 118,15 167,95
E4 35,2 133,8 387,8 770,9 1187,4 1709,6 2216
X
±sx 0,46 2,61 8,42 15,57 26,29 38,65 50,46
S 2,73 15,65 49,74 90,78 143,97 200,82 257,29

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

2500

2000

1500
Greutatea E1
( grame ) E2
1000
E3
500 E4

0
1 7 14 21 28 35 42
Vârsta ( zile )

Fig. 1. Graphic representation of the evolution of body weight

At the end of the experiment, 42 days,
chicks recorded average weights of 2104.3
g/chicken E1 witness group the
2113.0g/chicken E2 and 2400.8 g/chicken at
E3. Lot E4 showed an intermediate weight,
2216 g/chicken. There is, throughout the
experiment, that the evolution of the best
record a lot at E3 that both the energy and the
protein is higher, reports that energy and
energy-protein amino acids closer.
The statistical significance of differences
and body weight in chickens experimentation
established by Student t test are presented in
Table 3. At 42 days differences between
batches E1 - E2 witness and insensitive, but
highly significant between groups E1 and E3.
We believe that an increase in protein levels
from 20.5% to 22.1% in the starter period,
from 19.0% to 20.4% during the period of
growth and from 17.5 to 18%, 9% Finishing
with keeping a high energy level led to the
achievement of significantly higher weights
at Arbor Acres hybrid.
The results recorded in the lot on which
the E4 protein level increased from 23% in
starter and kept at E3 in the batch phase of
growth and production shows that there is no
justification for this increase in protein level,
the level of limiting amino acids and lysine
and methionine are level rules. Differences
between batch batch E3 and E4 are very
significant expense E4 batch, respective the
average weights of 2400.8 g/chicken
consignment only E3 and 2216.0 g/chicken
group E4.

Tabel 3
The significance of differences in body weights of experimental chicks, determined by Student t test

Group Body weight at age: Test t Student

1 day 21 days 35days 42 days At 42 days old
E1 35,4 ± 697,6 ± 1648,7 ± 2104,3 ±
(20,5%PB/19,0 0,47 12,77 36,36 45,47
%/17,5%) S
E2 35,7 ± 732,2 ± 1662,1 ± 2113,0 ±
(21,0%PB/19,5 0,49 14,33 38,09 46,07
%/18,2%) NS
E3 35,7 ± 816,5 ± 1838,5 ± 2400,8 ±
FS FS
(22,1%PB/20,4 0,75 18,54 32,32 46,58
FS
%/18,9%)
S
E4 35,2 ± 770,9 ± 1709,6 ± 2216,0 ±
(23%PB/19,99 0,46 15,57 38,65 50,46
%/18,50%)

Note: NS = unsignificant S = significant FS = very significant

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

2. The combined feed consumption average of 83.4g/chicken, and at E3 a lot of

The combined feed to correlate with the
level of energy and protein, the biggest being
the E3 group, and 172.32 g/chicken/day in the
last experimental week (Table 4).
Throughout the experimental period
chicks lot E1 had a consumption of 3636.8
g/chicken, resulting in an average over the
entire experimental period of 86.6 g/chicken
E1 lot of 3503.15g/chicken batch E2 and an
consumer 4162.58 g/ chicken with an
average of 99g/chicken/day.
E4 has a lot average consumption of
3898.04 g/chicken and the period with an
average over the entire experimental period
of 92.8 g/chicken/day.

Tabel 4
The combined feed consumption of chicks experimental batches
Group Consumption Age (weeks)
1 2 3 4 5 6
E1 g/ chicks/day 16,82 50,85 78,36 102,73 129,31 141,47
g/ chicks/week 117,74 355,95 548,52 719,11 905,17 990,29
g/ chiks/cumulat 117,74 473,69 1022,21 1741,32 2646,49 3636,78
E2 g/ chicks/day 16,68 48,59 76,26 92,92 126,34 139,66
g/ chicks/week 116,76 340,13 533,82 650,44 884,38 977,62
g/ chiks/cumulat 116,76 456,89 990,71 1641,15 2525,53 3503,15
E3 g/ chicks/day 17,47 62,51 91,79 97,57 153,02 172,32
g/ chicks/week 122,33 437,58 642,52 682,99 1071,1 1206,28
g/ chiks/cumulat 122,33 559,91 1202,43 1885,42 2956,60 4162,58
E4 g/ chicks/day 16,11 49,50 73,96 97,12 123,21 139,82
g/ chicks/week 112,77 346,50 517,72 679,84 962,47 1078,74
g/ chiks/cumulat 112,77 459,27 976,99 1656,83 2619,30 3898,04

The degree of recovery of food consumption is given for specific increases in weight. In
Table 5, show the specific combination of feed made from the four experimental groups.

Tabel 5
The specific combination of chicken feed from experimental groups (kg / kg growth)
Group Specific Age (weeks)
combination 1 2 3 4 5 6
on:
E1 Week 1,26 1,62 1,57 1,69 1,72 2,17
Cumulative 1,26 1,51 1,54 1,60 1,64 1,76
E2 Week 1,21 1,40 1,49 1,63 1,66 2,17
Cumulative 1,21 1,35 1,42 1,50 1,55 1,69
E3 Week 1,21 1,62 1,56 1,54 1,82 2,14
Cumulative 1,21 1,51 1,54 1,54 1,64 1,76
E4 Week 1,14 1,36 1,35 1,63 1,84 2,13
Cumulative 1,14 1,30 1,33 1,44 1,56 1,78

Cumulative consumption of feed per kg
combined gain has been very close,
respective 1.76 kg.nc/kg. growth in batches
E1 and E3 of 1.69 kg.n.c./kg. gain at E3 and
1.78 kg.n.c./kg. gain in group E4. Energy
efficiency combined to feed the chickens for
meat hybrid Arbor Acres is presented in
Table 6. Data are presented on the weeks and
cumulative in each batch.

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

Tabel 6
Energy efficiency combined feed by chicken meat Arbor Acres
Group Consumption kcal Age (weeks)
EM / g gain 1 2 3 4 5 6
E1 Week 3,90 5,01 4,88 5,33 5,42 6,96
Cumulative 3,90 4,68 4,78 4,99 5,13 5,53
E2 Week 3,82 4,41 4,71 5,22 5,33 7,05
Cumulative 3,82 4,24 4,48 4,75 4,94 5,40
E3 Week 3,81 5,11 4,93 4,92 5,92 6,86
Cumulative 3,81 4,76 4,85 4,88 5,21 5,61
E4 Week 3,55 4,23 4,19 5,29 5,97 6,81
Cumulative 3,55 4,12 4,16 4,57 5,00 5,42

CONCLUSIONS combined feed per kg. gain in group E2 and

¾ Levels of energy, protein and amino-
acids listed above have allowed the
achievement
of weight upper lot by E3 respectively
816.5g/chicken at 21 days compared to
697.6g/chicken E1 witness group. At age of
35 days to register the same batch weights of
1838.5g/chicken versus 1648.7g/chicken E1
witness group. At the end of the experiment,
42 days, the same batch made an average
weight of 2400.8g/chicken versus 2104.3
g/chicken E1 lot - witness. This favorable
development recorded batch of E3, is due to
the high energy level, especially with the
correlation of protein and amino-acid limited,
lysine, methionine + cystine.
¾ Cumulative combined fodder
consumption per kg. gain has been very
close, 1.76 kg
respectively combined feed per kg. gain in
batches E1 and E3 and 1.69 kilograms
1.78 kilograms combined feed per kg. gain in
batch E4. Insensitive remark, however,
consumption is less specific on E4 group by
the age of five weeks, the lot on which the
protein starter is highest, 23% PB.
¾ Under the aspect of energy efficiency
food that highlight the lowest specific
consumption we recorded offspring batch E2
using EM 5.4 kcal/g. gain, close to the E1 and
E3 batches using 5.53 and 5.61 kcal/g. gain.
REFERENCES
Books
[1] Stoica I., Pana C., Stoica Liliana, Drăgotoiu D.,
Marin Monica - Analiza nutreţurilor, Lito – AMC,
USAMV Bucureşti, 1995.
[2] Stoica I. - Nutriţia şi alimentaţia animalelor,
Editura Coral Sanivet, Bucureşti, 1997.
[3] *** Arbor-Acres, Broiler Management
Manual, USA, 2000.

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

RESEARCHES REGARDING HIGHLIGHT OF SOME

POLLUTANTS IN FEEDS

Nicoleta Bortă, Aida Albu, Cecilia Pop, I. M. Pop

“Ion Ionescu de la Brad” University of Agricultural Sciences

and Veterinary Medicine Iaşi, Faculty of Animal Husbandry, Iaşi
e-mail: nicoleta_f_b@yahoo.com

Abstract
The existence of pollutants in feed is a special problem in animal production, particularly in the
light of current approaches to food safety for consumers of food of animal origin. Pollutants,
whatever group they are by high concentrations of soil and in plants or in foods, their toxic effect
may be critical risks that could affect not only products but also animal health. Researches
undertaken have focused on heavy metals, because they tend to be bioaccumulative. For carrying
out the research it were collected feed samples from the two establishments in the area of Iasi, and
as a method for the determination of lead and cadmium was used method by flame for atomic
absorption spectophotometry (AAS) using the flame device GBC - AVANTA. Analysis of data that
resulted in all kinds of feed was demonstrated residues present of Pb and Cd. The highest rate of
accumulation of heavy metals was noticed in full fat soybean for the Pb content and in sunflower
groats for content in Cd. However the results obtained for Cd and Pb are well below standards on
LMA in Ord. ANSVSA no. 18/2007, in force in Romania.
Key-words: feeds, pollutants, lead, cadmium

INTRODUCTION From all the pollutants, heavy metals

Feedingstuffs can be defined as a source
of food of plant, animal, mineral, synthesis
and biosynthesis origin, which is used to
meet animal demand of energy and nutrients,
in order to ensure the vital functions and
performance of livestock production (2).
Plants, the first link of the food chain, are
most affected by harmful substances because
they are directly related to the soil and water
by the substances they use in these
environments, with air by breathing, and they
are taking a lot of the unwanted substances.
Pollution can occur when a substance or
several substances present in the mixture or
in the environment, in quantities or over a
period which makes them dangerous for
humans, animals and plants contribute to the
danger or injury, or persons welfare (OMS
4). Given the global importance that presents
environmental pollution, issue is addressed in
order to evaluate the incidence of
contamination with heavy metals in the feed
of livestock on two farms in the food chain.
present a unique feature that the
bioaccumulation, so they can migrate into the
food chain reaching to the final products
intended for human consumption. Being
aware that “dosis sola facit venenum” (“dose
itself causes poisoning”), this feature of
heavy metals is of particular importance (3).
MATERIAL AND METHOD
For carrying out the research were
collected five samples of 17 feed, from two
farms in the Eastern part of country, a dairy
farm and a chicken farm. Collection and
preparation of feed samples for analysis were
made in compliance with the rules laid down
in standards and animal health rules in force
(STAS 21/2-73; STAS 7842-80; ISO
6497/2001).
From the first farm were collected five
samples of the following feed: corn grain,
wheat grain, full fat soybean, soybean groats
and three types of combined feed
respectively used for starting, growing and
finishing. From the second farm were also

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

collected five samples of the following feed: Sudan grass. To these feed it were set
natural grass, blooming alfalfa, hay alfalfa, physical and chemical properties and
hay natural, grain beer, corn silage, corn nutritional values (Tab. 1 and 2).
grain, wheat bran, groats flower sun and

Table 1
Nutritional value of food used to feed chickens for meat
ME CP Lys CF Ca P
Met + Cys
Feed (kcal/k (g/kg (g/kg (g/kg (g/kg (g/kg
(g/kg DM)
g DM) DM) DM) DM) DM) DM)
Corn grain 3363 90 3.9 2.6 24.6 0.2 3
Wheat grain 3087 110 4.2 3.1 25.6 0.5 4
Full fat soybean 3896 370 11.2 15.6 58 2.5 5.6
Soybean groats 2216 440 13.6 29.3 72 2.3 5.8
Starter feed 3150 230 9 12 30 10.6 6.9
Grower feed 3070 200 7.6 10 34 9.7 6.5
Finisher feed 3150 180 7.1 8.7 38 8.3 6.1
DM = dry matter; ME = metabolizable energy; CP = crude protein; Met + Cys = methionine and cystine; Lys =
lysine; CF = cellulose fiber; Ca = calcium; P = phosphorus.

Table 2
Nutritional value of food used to feed dairy cows
PDIN PDIE Ca P
DM
Feed UFL (g/kg (g/kg (g/kg (g/kg UEL
(g/kg)
DM) DM) DM) DM)
Natural grass 176 0.89 94 89 7.5 4.0 1.05
Blooming alfalfa 190 0.72 109 83 16.7 3.1 1.06
Sudan grass 280 0.90 62 75 4.5 2.5 1.02
Hay alfalfa 850 0.66 110 92 15.4 2.3 1.1
Hay natural 858 0.70 56 67 9.4 3.2 1.1
Grain beer 850 0.95 165 119 2.1 4.8 1.03
Corn silage 300 0.91 53 67 3.5 2.5 1.13
Corn grain 868 1.29 84 126 3.5 0.3 -
Wheat bran 870 0.91 117 98 1.6 12.9 -
Sunflower groats
892 0.80 239 126 3.1 10.1 -
flower sun
DM = dry matter; UFL = fodder unit milk; PDIN = intestinal protein digestion on nitrogen fermentescible; PDIE
= intestinal digestion of protein-based energy fermentescible; Ca = calcium; P = phosphorus; UIDL = unit
loading milk digestion.

To achieve the research we have used the
following tools and equipment specific to
their use such as: analytical balance, drying
stove, oven burning, exicator, the GBC-
AVANTA.
Method for determination of lead and
cadmium was the atomic absorption
spectofotometry (AAS) in flame using a
mixture of acetylene-air to ensure maximum
2250 0C, using the flame-GBC AVANTA.
Thus plant substrates were processed by dry
mineralization according to the following
steps: calcination of samples at 500 0C;
washing ash results with HCl and distilled
water, bringing the ash washed from one
convenient volume, the reading of sample to
the device (calibration curve). Calibration
mean the graphic absorbtion depending on
the concentration and was done for each
metal in five different points thereby to lead
at 0.5 ppm, 1 ppm, 2.5 ppm, 5 ppm and 7.5
ppm and for cadmium at 0.2 ppm, 0.5 ppm, 1
ppm, 1.5 ppm and 2 ppm. Wavelength used
to determine by atomic absorption in
spectofotometry of lead was 217 nm and for
the cadmium 228.8 nm. The results of these
measurements were expressed in mg/kg or
ppm by reference to a moisture content of
feed of 12%.

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION for the identification and quantitative

Following tests carried out to reveal that
in all feed taken into account (natural grass,
blooming alfalfa, hay alfalfa, hay natural,
grain beer, corn silage, corn grain, wheat
bran, sunflower groats and Sudan grass -
farm dairy - and corn grain, wheat grain, full
fat soybean, soybean groats and three types
of feed combined starting, growing and
finishing - farm chicken meat -), were
detected quantities of lead and cadmium, the
results being presented in tab. 4-9
Experts from FAO / WHO shows that,
although the chemical pollution varies from
one area to another, animals and people
exposed to chemical contamination is
universal, hence the concern in all countries
evaluation of the heavy metals in foods of
plant origin and animal and their influence on
production and animal health. In Romania,
the National Sanitary Veterinary and Food
Safety has established maximum levels for
undesirable substances in animal feed by
Order no. 18/2007 (tab. 3) transposing
Directive of the European Parliament and
Council 2002/32/EC on undesirable
substances in animal feed, as last amended by
Commission Directive 2006/77/CE so they
do not represent any danger to public health,
animal health or the environment and may
adversely affect livestock production (4).

Table 3
Maximum permissible levels for lead and cadmium content in feed (ppm), according to Order no.
18/2007 ANSVSA (4)
Maximum level in feed with 12%
Substance Products intended for animal feed
humidity (ppm)
Forage materials except: 10
Lead ƒ green feed 30
Complete feedingstuffs 5
Feed materials of plant origin 1
Feed materials of animal origin 2
Complete fodder for cattle, sheep and
Cadmium 1
goats, except:
ƒ complete feedingstuffs for calves,
0,5
lambs and kids

Heavy metal is a controversial term chain (bioaccumulation). From all these

which is generally used for metals that have a
high density and are generally toxic residues
causing their environmental pollution. Heavy
metals widely accepted are: bismuth, iron,
copper, lead, zinc, tin, nickel, cadmium,
chromium and uranium. Heavy metals are
natural constituents of the earth crust that can
not be broken down or destroyed. They get
into our body in a very small quantity, with
food, water or air. Some heavy metals (eg.
copper, selenium, zinc) are vital in
maintaining the metabolism of the human
body, however in high concentrations they
can be toxic. Negative effect of heavy metals
can result, for example, through consumption
of contaminated drinking water (eg. lead
pipes), high levels in the air surrounding the
issuing sources or assimilation through food
metals our studies are stopped on two of
them, namely lead and cadmium, these
elements are not useful in body but they are
found in varying amounts in both animal
kingdom and in the plants, in quantities
representing a threat for these.
Lead is a gray soft metal, with a low
chemical reactivity, good acid resist. It is used
in large quantity for alloys screens for radiation
absorption, water pipes, plates for radiators, to
obtain matches, pigments, etc (5). Another
major source of pollution contributing to lead
contamination for all levels of the food chain is
the residue and waste resulting from production
processes in industry, agriculture, transport,
maritime and river activities, and from different
laboratories, petrol stations, waste water
treatment etc. Plants can be contaminated with

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

lead from soil, air or water, environments that
can hardly be protected by this metal in view of
the multiple sources listed above. It was
demonstrated that lead is hardly absorbed from
the soil by plant roots even at very high
concentrations in the substrate is difficult
because it is hard soluble and interacts very
strongly with soil particles (3).
The highest average value, in terms of
lead content in the feed from chickens farm,
has been met in full fat soybean, the average
value of 1.09 ppm is 9 times smaller
compared to the maximum permissible (10
ppm). Among the combined feed, starter feed
was the richest in the lead due to the high
share of full fat soybean used in this mixture,
although the average level of 0.92 ppm was
almost 5 times below the permissible
maximum of 5 ppm. The lowest average was
observed in wheat beans (0.18 ppm), about
55 times less than the maximum limit of 10
ppm, and in finishing feed (0.43 ppm) 12
times lower compared to maximum
permissible (5 ppm).

Table 4
Average lead content (ppm) in some raw materials used to produce feed used in the holding of
chicken meat
No. Feed No. stamples X ±sX s V% LMA (ppm)
1 Corn grain 5 0.630 ± 0.023 0.052 8.324 10
2 Wheat grain 5 0.180 ± 0.007 0.016 8.784 10
3 Full fat soybean 5 1.090 ± 0.005 0.012 1.124 10
4 Soybean groats 5 1.060 ± 0.008 0.019 1.1765 10

Table 5
Average lead content (ppm) in combined feed analyzed
No. Feed No. stamples X ±sX s V% LMA (ppm)
1 Starter feed 5 0.920 ± 0.007 0.016 1.719 5
2 Grower feed 5 0.700 ± 0.005 0.012 1.750 5
3 Finisher feed 5 0.430 ± 0.007 0.016 3.677 5

Table 6
Average lead content (ppm) in feed coming from dairy cows (1)
No. LMA
No. Feed X ±sX s V%
stamples (ppm)
1 Natural grass 5 0.600 ± 0.009 0.021 3.536 30
2 Blooming alfalfa 5 0.640 ± 0.008 0.019 2.923 30
3 Sudan grass 5 1.690 ± 0.010 0.023 1.388 30
4 Hay alfalfa 5 0.530 ± 0.008 0.019 3.520 30
5 Hay natural 5 2.530 ± 0.008 0.017 0.685 30
6 Grain beer 5 1.930 ± 0.008 0.019 0.969 10
7 Corn silage 5 1.030 ± 0.009 0.021 2.060 30
8 Corn grain 5 0.950 ± 0.013 0.029 3.069 10
9 Wheat bran 5 0.190 ± 0.008 0.019 9.846 10
10 Sunflower groats flower sun 5 2.460 ± 0.008 0.019 0.760 10

Following the analysis of feed from dairy
farm, the highest average lead content has
been emphasized in natural hay (2.53 ppm),
value less than the maximum allowed (30
ppm) by nearly 12 times. The minimum
average value of Pb content was found in the
composition of wheat bran, found at 0.19
ppm value wich is 52 times lower compared
to 10 ppm (maximum allowed).
Cadmium can be found mainly in the earth
crust being always in combination with zinc.
This metal is found, also in industry, as an
inevitable byproduct of zinc extraction, lead and
copper. Reaches the environment primarily
through the ground they may be included in
fertilizers and pesticides. Although cadmium
seems to be a nonessential there can be trace of
element in animal and human body, being
virtually absent at birth, it accumulates in

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

tissues with age. Compared to lead, cadmium
can be absorbed more easily from the soil, but
more difficult in the atmosphere from leaves
surface deposits. This has been demonstrated in
spinach where lead contamination from the
atmosphere exceeded the value of 85% and the
cadmium was just over 23% (3).
In an experiment conducted by Zhang
Fenqin and col. (2) has been shown that
vetch (Vicia sativa) is more tolerant to the
presence of cadmium in the environment than
beans (Phaseolus aureus). Thus, to avoid the
harmful effects of these pollutants, plants
have developed mechanisms of antioxidative
defense, but these mechanisms have evolved
differently depending on the plant species,
age and environmental conditions.

Table 7
Average cadmium content (ppm) in some raw materials used to produce feed used in the holding of
chicken meat
No. Feed No. stamples X ±s X s V% LMA (ppm)
1 Corn grain 5 0.155 ± 0.002 0.004 2.326 1
2 Wheat grain 5 0.025 ± 0.001 0.001 4.899 1
3 Full fat soybean 5 0.180 ± 0.001 0.002 0.878 1
4 Soybean groats 5 0.180 ± 0.001 0.002 1.242 1

Table 8
Average cadmium content (ppm) in combined feed analyzed
No. Feed No. stamples X ±sX s V% LMA (ppm)
1 Starter feed 5 0.081 ± 0.001 0.003 3.148 1
2 Grower feed 5 0.115 ± 0.001 0.002 1.845 1
3 Finisher feed 5 0.111 ± 0.001 0.002 1.424 1

Following tests carried out on feed from
chickens farm, was shown an higher average
cadmium composition in samples of full fat
soybean, giving them the same level of
contamination as the grist of soybean,
respectively 0.18 ppm, although than 6 times
less than maximum permissible limit (1
ppm). From combined feed, the highest
average value was seen in growing feed
(0.155 ppm), more than 6 times compared
with the maximum permissible limit (1 ppm).
The lowest values were observed, same as
lead in wheat beans (0.025 ppm), a value 40
times lower compared to the maximum
allowed. Regarding the presence of cadmium
in combined feed, the minimum average was
shown at starter feed (0.081 ppm) 12 times
less than the maximum, because the amount
of cadmium in maize was much closer to full
fat soybean value than the situation presented
in the case of lead, where the lowest value
was observed in finishing feed.

Table 9
Average cadmium content (ppm) in feed coming from dairy cows (1)
No. LMA
No. Feed X ±sX s V%
stamples (ppm)
1 Natural grass 5 0.122 ± 0.001 0.002 1.739 1
2 Blooming alfalfa 5 0.054 ± 0.001 0.001 2.268 1
3 Sudan grass 5 0.063 ± 0.001 0.002 2.970 1
4 Hay alfalfa 5 0.024 ± 0.001 0.002 7.795 1
5 Hay natural 5 0.143 ± 0.001 0.002 1.640 1
6 Grain beer 5 0.058 ± 0.001 0.002 3.226 1
7 Corn silage 5 0.026 ± 0.001 0.002 7.195 1
8 Corn grain 5 0.054 ± 0.001 0.002 3.928 1
9 Wheat bran 5 0.020 ± 0.001 0.002 10.607 1
10 Sunflower groats flower sun 5 0.163 ± 0.001 0.002 1.301 1

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Concern analysis of the feed from dairy
farm (tab. 9), the highest value in the
cadmium content was found in the
composition of sunflower groats (0.163
ppm), below the maximum allowed by about
6 times, the lowest value was highlighted
again, same as the lead in wheat bran (0.020
ppm), 50 times less compared to the
maximum permissible (1 ppm).
CONCLUSIONS
Based on the dates obtained and analyzed
on the assessment of content in Cd and Pb in
forage products of plant origin, can detach
the following conclusions:
ƒ The highest average content of Pb were
recorded in full fat soybean feed (1.09
ppm Pb/kg) and natural hay (2.53 ppm
Pb/kg) but these values obtained was by
9 times less and respectively 12 times
less than the maximum allowed;
ƒ The highest average content of Cd were
found in full fat soybean feed, soybean
groats (0.180 ppm Cd/kg) and sunflower
groats (0.163 ppm Cd/kg), values 6
times less the maximum permissible
values for each feed in part;
ƒ The lowest concentrations of Pb were
observed in wheat beans (0.180 ppm
Pb/kg), and wheat bran (0.190 ppm
Pb/kg) values 55 times less and
respectively 52 times lower than the
maximum permitted;
ƒ The lowest concentrations of cadmium
were found in the wheat beans (0.025
ppm Pb/kg), and wheat bran (0.020 ppm
Pb/kg) values 40 times less, respectively
50 times over maximum permitted;
ƒ Even the values were found 5 to 50
times lower compared to the maximum
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
permitted, there is no danger of
poisoning, so the feed can be used in
feed without risk on youth;
ƒ From the results with come with the
conclusion that level the aggression of
pollutant factors in Iaşi area are situated
at low level.
REFERENCES
Journal articles
[1] Albu Aida, Popescu O., Radu-Rusu R.M.,
2008, Lead and cadmium residues in dairy cow
feeds and their toxic potential to animals,
Proceeding of the International Ph.D. Students
Conference, published by University of South
Bohemia in České Budějovice, Faculty of
Agriculture, České Budějovice, Cehia
[2] Fenqin Zhang, Hongxiao Zhang, Guiping
Wang, Langlai Xu, Zhenguo Shen, 2009,
Cadmium-induced accumulation of hydrogen
peroxide in the leaf apoplast of Phaseolus aureus
and Vicia sativa and the roles of different
antioxidant enzymes, Journal of Hazardous
Materials, journal homepage www.elsevier.com
[3] Xiangyang Bi , Xinbin Feng , Yuangen Yang ,
Xiangdong Li , Grace P.Y. Shin , Feili Li, Guangle
Qiu, Guanghui Li, Taoze Liu , Zhiyou Fu, 2009,
Allocation and source attribution of lead and
cadmium in maize (Zea mays L.) impacted by
smelting emissions, Environmental Pollution, 157,
p. 834-839, journal homepage www.elsevier.com
[4] www.ansv.ro Ordin nr. 18 din 1 februarie 2007
- Norme sanitar veterinare şi pentru siguranţa
alimentelor privind substanţele nedorite din hrana
pentru animale
Books
[5] Ifrim S., 2004. Dicţionar de chimie, Edit.
Performantica, Iaşi, 2004
[6] Pop I. M., Halga P., Avarvarei Teona, 2006,
Nutriţia şi alimentaţia animalelor vol. I, II, III,
TipoMoldova, Iaşi
[7] Popescu O., Enache T., 1996, Medicină legală
veterinară vol. II, Editura All, Bucureşti
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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

RESEARCHES CONCERNING THE USAGE OF A FEED

ADDITIVE IN CHICKEN BROILERS FEEDING

Al. Usturoi, I.M. Pop

Faculty of Animal Sciences, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine

„Ion Ionescu de la Brad” Iasi, Romania

Abstract
The main goal of this paper was to establish and reveal the role played by the BABY C4
(acidifier) feed additive in the chicken broilers rearing.
The studied flock included 160 individuals, allocated in 4 groups: a control group -LC and three
experimental groups - E1, E2, E3. A specific percentage of feed additive inclusion has been
established for each group, during a certain technological period, as it follows:
- LC = mixed fodder, standard formulated for each technological period;
- E1 = +0.3% BABY C4 during starter period (1-7 days) and standard feed during the other
periods;
- E2 = +0.3% BABY C4 during starter period (1-7 days), +0.2% during growing period (8-14
days) and standard feed during the finishing period;
- E3 = +0.3% BABY C4 during starter and growing period and standard feed during the
finishing period.
The achieved results revealed that the chickens in the E1 group achieved better body weight
(+35.84g) and a better average daily gain (+1.14g/chick), compared to the hybrid potential and
obviously higher than other groups.
The best results concerning feed consumption have been also achieved by the chickens in the E1
experimental group (81.65g/chick/day-average intake and 1.490kg feed/kg weight gain – feed
conversion ratio), compared to the chickens in the E3 experimental group (87.5g/chick/day-average
intake and 1.679kg feed/kg gain).
Key words: broiler, feeding, acidifier, feed intake, weight gain

INTRODUCTION In addition to the bacterial activity of the

Animal nutrition modern research
underline a change trend in nutrient
management for feed conversion increasing,
thereby an achievement in production increase.
The research of this work aimed to
determine the efficiency of "Baby C4" feed
additive utilization and respectively the effect
of butyric acid, which is the basic ingredient
of the product, on the performance of broiler
chickens hen.
The use of fatty acids with short chain
(such as butyric acid) in the mono-gastric
feed is considered a possible alternative to
the use of growth antibiotic promoters.
At one day old chickens, the levels of
fatty acids in the thin intestine and caecum
are low but record a growing and an
expansion at the age of 15 days [3].
butyric acid, this one appears to have an
important role in the intestinal epithelium
development. The butyrate, which is a bio-
product of microbial fermentation (such as
starch), have an important role in the
development of epithelial cells [2].
Researchers have demonstrated the
effectiveness of butyric acid on the growth of
broiler chicken and the characteristics of
processed carcasses, but they already tested it
also as a food supplement, having in view the
ability of the birds to resist at the changes
imposed by coccidian oocist [1].
MATERIAL AND METHODS
The biological material was represented
by the commercial hybrid hen "Ross 308",
produced by “ROSS BREEDERS” from

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U.K. The “Ross 308” was created for to
produce chest and legs, being characterized
by well-done proportioned carcasses; the
males weighting 2.6 kg at slaughter;
participation of cut parts in carcasses
composition reaching the following values:
chest–18.36%; higher pulp–12.91%, lower
pulp–10.17% [4].
The flock studied was pursued from the
age of 1 day to 35 days of life and was
composed by 160 "Ross-308” broiler
chickens, divided into 4 groups, a control
group (C) and three experimental groups (E1,
E2 and E3). The experimental variables were
Table 1
Experimental protocol
Nr. of
Experimental
chickens Starting
group
per group (1-7 days)
C 40 feed
E1 40 feed+0.3% Baby C4
E2 40 feed+0.3% Baby C4
E3 40 feed+0.3% Baby C4
To could be appreciate the effect of
″Baby C4″ additive upon the realised
performances of “Ross 308” hen commercial
hybrid, the main morph-productive indicators
was establish through the following methods:
o dynamic of weight growth: was
determined by individual chicken
weighting from 4 groups of experience, at
population and then at ages of 7, 14, 21,
28 and 35 days. Weighting was done
using an electronic scale;
o situation of outputs from flock: weekly,
have been recorded death cases and then
reported at chickens number from each
experimental group;
o feed consumption: has been determined
total consumption (g/group), weekly
individual consumption
(g/chicken/period), daily average
consumption (g/chicken/day) and rate of
feed conversion (kg feed/kg growth);
The main experimental data obtained
were statistically processed by concretion:
arithmetic mean ( X ), variance (S2), standard
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
represented by the proportion of additive
absorption in the used feeding stuff and by
administration duration. (table 1):
- E1 group- 0.3% ″Baby C4″-for 7 days
(from the age of 1 day to 7 days);
- E2 group- 0.3% ″BabyC4″-for 7 days
(from the age of 1 day to 7 days);
- 0.2% ″BabyC4″-for 14 days
(from the age of 7 days to 21
days);
- E3 group- 0.3% ″BabyC4″-for 14 days
(from the age of 1 day to 14 days).
Administrated feed
Growing Finalising
(8-15 days) (16-35 days)
feed feed
feed feed
feed+0.2% Baby C4 feed
feed+0.3% Baby C4 feed
deviation (s), standard deviation of the mean
( ± s ), variability coefficient (V %).
x
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Body weight dynamics. At age of one
day, body weights of studied chickens were
close, with limits ranking between 38.03 g-E1
group and 40.65 g-E3 group. The most
relevant results were recorded at the age of
35 days, when the highest body weights were
realized by the chickens from E1
experimental group (1917.8±41.156g);
followed by the chickens from the control
group C with average weights of
1869.8±36.941g, the ones from the E2
experimental group with 1868.1±35.832g and
E3 chickens with the lowest body weight of
1824.1±29.757g.
The studied character was homogeneous
at one day chickens (V%=7.037-9.637) and
less homogeneous at the end of the
experimental period, when the calculated
values for the variation coefficient
(V%=10.318-13.229) showed a medium
variability (table 2).
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

Table 2
Dynamics of weight mass at studied chickens

Control Gro
N X ±s s V% Min. Max.
period up x
C 40 40.43 0.509 3.218 7.960 32.07 46.20
E1 40 38.03 0.470 2.974 7.822 32.22 47.05
1 day
E2 40 39.78 0.606 3.833 9.637 31.56 52.11
E3 40 40.65 0.452 2.860 7.037 35.31 46.14
C 40 148.35 2.326 14.714 9.918 110.10 176.04
E1 38 143.74 2.536 15.636 10.878 110.36 172.55
7 days
E2 40 144.43 2.697 17.056 11.810 110.27 173.60
E3 39 142.51 3.764 23.508 16.495 98.90 173.54
C 39 395.87 6.478 40.453 10.219 286.00 483.00
E1 38 388.47 5.060 31.191 8.029 328.00 448.00
14 days
E2 37 389.73 9.251 56.270 14.438 260.00 480.00
E3 39 373.18 6.407 40.522 10.859 263.00 447.00
C 38 764.26 23.339 143.872 18.825 300.00 1000.0
E1 37 755.89 10.910 66.364 8.498 635.00 880.00
21 days
E2 37 746.27 18.779 114.231 15.307 330.00 934.00
E3 39 731.38 11.386 71.108 13.722 570.00 867.00
C 37 1349.53 23.601 143.561 10.606 1040.00 1695.0
E1 37 1350.59 21.351 131.615 9.753 1055.00 1660.0
28 days
E2 37 1320.57 25.192 153.238 11.604 955.00 1630.0
E3 39 1278.23 20.888 132.107 10.335 1050.00 1550.0
C 37 1869.78 36.941 224.705 12.018 1130.00 2300.0
E1 37 1917.84 41.156 253.702 13.229 1485.00 2930.0
35 days
E2 37 1868.14 35.832 217.957 11.667 1308.00 2246.0
E3 39 1824.08 29.757 188.201 10.318 1443.00 2129.0

Comparing the obtained results at age of
35 days, with the potential hybrid used, was
found that chickens from E1 group had a
higher average weight of 35.8 g, while
specimens from groups C, E2 and E3 were
below standard 12.2-57.9 g
Growth dynamic of weight gain: Based
on body weights of chickens from
experimental groups, the daily average
achieved was calculated, both in control
periods and also for total period.
From the obtained data (table 3) resulted
the fact that, in the first age period (1-7 days)
daily growth average realised by the studied
chickens varied between 14.5 g/chicken at E3
group and 15.4 g/chicken at the control
group, during period 7-14 days the variation
limits were by 32.9 g/chicken at E3 group
and 35.4 g/chicken at the control group, and
within period 14-21 days the lowest daily
growth average was determined at E2 group
(50.9 g/chicken) and the highest at the
control group (52.6 g/chicken).
In the next age stages (21-28 days,
respectively, 28-35 days), the highest daily
average scores were achieved in the
experimental E1 group (84.9 g/chicken and
80.6 g/chicken), and the lowest at
experimental E3 group (78.1 g/chicken and
77.9 g/chicken).
Regarding the daily increase for the
entire experimental period (1-35 days), the
best results were obtained at E1 group, with
53.7 g/head exceeding the values stated in
the managerial guideline of the ″Ross 308″
hybrid (52.6 g/chicken). On the next position
were ranked chickens from the control group
with an average growth of 52.3 g/chicken,
very close from the ones of E1 group were
the ones from E2 group experimental with
52.2 g/chicken and the lowest values were
recorded at E3 experimental group with only
50.9 g/chicken.

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

Table 3
Average daily growth realised by the studied chickens
Age Experimental group
Specification
(days) C E1 E2 E3
Weight at period beginning (g) 40.4 38.0 39.8 40,6
1-7 Weight at period end (g) 148.3 143.7 144.4 142,5
Daily average increase (g/chicken) 15.4 15.1 14.9 14,5
Weight at period beginning (g) 148.3 143.7 144.4 142,5
7-14 Weight at period end (g) 395.9 388.5 389.7 373,2
Daily average increase (g/chicken) 35.3 34.9 35.0 32,9
Weight at period beginning (g) 395.9 388.5 389.7 373,1
14-21 Weight at period end (g) 764.2 755.9 746.3 731,4
Daily average increase (g/chicken) 52.6 52.5 50.9 51,2
Weight at period beginning (g) 764.2 755.9 746.3 731,5
21-28 Weight at period end (g) 1349.5 1350.6 1320.6 1278,3
Daily average increase (g/chicken) 83.6 84.9 82.0 78,1
Weight at period beginning (g) 1349.5 1353.6 1320.6 1278,2
28-35 Weight at period end (g) 1869.8 1917.8 1868.1 1824,1
Daily average increase (g/chicken) 74.3 80.6 78.2 77,9
Daily average growth per all period (g/chicken) 52.3 53.7 52.2 50.9

Feed consumption: Nutrition consumption
realised by the all 4 experimental groups was
established for each week and after that on the
whole period of time (table 4).
For the entire experimental period (1-35
days), best feed consumption were made by
chickens from E1 experimental group, at
which the combined feed contained 0.3%
″Baby C4″ additive, administered only during
the first 7 days of life. For the mentioned
group, the daily average consumption was
81.6 g/chicken/day, while the index of feed
conversion was 1.490 kg feed/kg growth. On
the opposite side were situated the chickens
from the E3 experimental group (0.3% ″Baby
C4″ from age of 1 day till 14 days), with a
daily consumption of 87.5 g/chicken/day and a
conversion index of 1.679 feed kg/kg growth.

Table 4
Fodder consumption at studied chickens
Age Experimental group
Indicators
(days) C E1 E2 E3
Average flock (chickens) 40 39 40 39.5
1-7 Total fodder consumption (g/group) 5969 5432 5869 6039
Daily average consumption (g/chicken/day) 21.3 19.9 20.9 21.8
Average flock (chickens) 39.5 38 38.5 39
7-14 Total fodder consumption (g/group) 12187 11789 11746 12230
Daily average consumption (g/chicken/day) 44.1 44.3 43.6 44.8
Average flock (chickens) 38.5 37.5 37 39
14-21 Total fodder consumption (g/group) 22557 22046 21771 23189
Daily average consumption (g/chicken/day) 83.7 83.9 84.1 84.9
Average flock (chickens) 37.5 37 37 39
21-28 Total fodder consumption (g/group) 32339 31637 31836 34982
Daily average consumption (g/chicken/day) 123.2 122.1 122.9 128.1
Average flock (chickens) 37 37 37 39
28-35 Total fodder consumption (g/group) 41025 39124 40492 44526
Daily average consumption (g/chicken/day) 158.4 151.06 156.34 163.1
Average flock (chickens) 38.5 38.5 38.5 39.5
Total fodder consumption (g/group) 114077 110028 111714 120966
1-35 Daily average consumption (g/chicken/period) 2963.0 2857.9 2901.6 3062.4
Average flock (chickens) 84.66 81.65 82.90 87.50
Total fodder consumption (g/group) 1.584 1.490 1.553 1.679

The situation of flock outputs: During from the flock, both on age periods also on
the experimental period were recorded output the total experimental period up, establishing
the causes which have led them (table 5).

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
Table 5
Situation of flock casualty
Experimental
Specification
group 0-7 7-14
C Chickens - 1
E1 Chickens 2 -
E2 Chickens - 3
E3 Chickens 1 -
Achieved data concerning mortality
showed that in the E3 experimental group a
single casualty has been recorded across the
entire experimental period, during the 1st
week of chickens life and induced by the low
liveability of the individual.
Three casualties occurred in each of the
other experimental groups, existing although
differentiations related to the occurrence
moment. Thus, in the control group, one
casualty occurred in each of the periods
comprised between 7-14, 14-21 and 21-28 days.
At the E1 experimental group, 2 individuals
deceased during the 1st week of chicks life and
another one within the 14-21 days period, while
in the E2 group, the 3 individuals deceased
during the 2nd week of flock life.
Concerning the outputs reasons, there were
not reported infectious diseases casualties.
CONCLUSIONS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
From the obtained data regarding
administration effect of ″Baby C4″ additive
on the commercial hybrid “Ross 308”, have
resulted a number of conclusions which will
be presented as follows:
• structure and quality of combined fodder
were uniform throughout the period of growth,
not to influence the experimental factors;
•at the moment of population with one
day old chickens the average weights were
with 1.35-3.97 g lower than the standard,
where a less good start of them;
•however, at the end of the experimental
period, the chickens from the group that received
0.3% ″Baby C4″ within the first 7 days of life (E1
group) had an average weight of 35.8 g greater
than the used hybrid potential and a higher daily
growth average of 1.14 g/chicken;
•poor results were recorded at the
chickens from the E3 group which received
0.3% ″Baby C4″ for 2 weeks (1-14 days), in
which case, the parameters represented by the
body weight at the end of the experiment and
the daily average growth was with 57.9 g
respectively 1.6 g/chicken inferior to the
performances which is credited the “Ross
308” hybrid;
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Age (days): Total
14-21 21-28 28-35 period
1 1 - 3
1 - - 3
- - - 3
- - - 1
•feed consumption of the studied chickens
were correlated with the evolution of body
weight; so the best results (81.6 g/chicken/day-
average consumption and 1.490 kg feed/kg
growth-specific consumption) were made by the
chickens from experimental E1 group (0.3%
″Baby C4″ administered within 7 days of life)
and less convenient (87.5 g/chicken/day-average
consumption and 1.679 kg feed/kg growth) at the
chickens in the experimental E3 group (0.3%
″Baby C4″during the first 14 days of life);
•regarding the casualties situation, this
was kept in normal limits only at the E3
experimental group (0.3% ″Baby C4″, fed
within the first 14 days of life). However, a
higher mortality degree has been recorded in
the other groups, but not being related to the
existence of infectious-contagious diseases.
Based on the above conclusions we will
made several recommendations, including:
o administration of ″Baby C4″ feed
additive in the broiler chicken feed in
0.3%, proportion but only within the
first 7 days of life;
o population with first quality one day old
chickens and especially with adequate
weight with the hybrid standard, for a
properly run;
o more research upon ″Baby C4″ additive
management in broiler chickens feed, to
determine the effect on their health
status and economic efficiency.
REFERENCES
Journal articles
[1] Leeson, S., Namkung, H., Antongiovanni, M. and
Lee, E.H.: Effect of Butyric Acid on the Performance
and Carcass Yield of Broiler Chickens. Poultry
Science, 2005, no. 84 (2): 134-139.
[2] Pryde, S.E., Duncan, S.H., Hold, G.L., Stewart,
C.S. and Flint, H.J.: The microbiology of butyrate
formation in the human colon. FEMS
Microbiology Letters, 2002, 217: 133-139.
[3] Van der Wielen, P.: Dietary strategies to influence
the gastrointestinal microflora of young animals and
its potential to improve intestinal health. Nutrition and
Health of the Gastrointestinal Tract, 2002, pg. 37-60.
Publ. Wageningen Academic Publishers.
[4] ∗∗∗Ross Broiler Management Manual, Jun 2007.
 BACK

Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

RESEARCH CONCERNING THE INFLUENCE OF

TREATMENT, HARVESTING MOMENT AND MULBERRY
LEVEL FROM WHERE THE LEAVES WERE HARVESTED
IN THE IIIrd AGE SILKWORM PERFORMANCES

B.A. Vlaic, L.Al. Mărghitaş, A. Vlaic, Alexandra Matei

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară,

Facultatea de Zootehnie şi Biotehnologii, Cluj-Napoca, România
e-mail: bvlaic@usamvcluj.ro

Abstract
The influence of some biostimulators used in larvae feed (5% propoli and echinaceaea,
respectively, aqueous solution), the effect of the mulberry leaves harvesting time (morning and
evening), and influence of mulberry level from where the leaves were harvested on the silkworm
performances, (from all mulberry floors - up, middle and base) are presented ion this paper. The
variance analyses performed in IIIrd age larvae weight, show distinct and very significant
differences between the graduations of the analyzed factors (applied treatments, moments of leaves
harvesting and floors from where mulberry leaves were harvested). This suggests the presence of
real differences between the graduations of all three studied factors.
Key words: silkworm, mulberry leaf, propoli, echinaceaea

THE RESEARCH OBJECTIVES The biological material used for the

The influence of some biostimulators
used in larvae feed (5% propoli and
echinaceaea, respectively, aqueous solution),
the effect of the mulberry leaves harvesting
time (morning and evening), and influence
of mulberry level from where the leaves were
harvested on the silkworm performances
(from all mulberry floors - up, middle and
base) as aspects of the interaction genotype x
environment (reaction of the same genotype
- individuals of the same breed and different
feed and environment conditions) are
presented in this paper.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
The experiment was developed within the
Laboratory of Sericulture of the Department
of the Technologies of Apicultural and
Sericulture Products of the Faculty of Animal
Production, USAMV Cluj-Napoca, in 2005.
The 24 experimental silkworm groups
(variants) were feed with mulberry leaves
from the intensive mulberry tree plantation
from USAMV Cluj-Napoca. The plantation
is made up of Ukraine 107 mulberry trees
very well adapted to the pedoclimatic
conditions from Transylvania.
research was constituted from only one silk
worm breed Băneasa 1 (B1), respectively, for
best genetic uniformity, only environmental
conditions being different (feed).
In order to study the influence of the
leaves treatment with biostimulators, the
moment of mulberry leaves harvesting and
floor from where the leaves were harvested, a
three factor experience of 3 x 2 x 4 type
was organized, with 24 experimental variants
with 30 individuals each.
30 larvae of each variant were weighted in
order to record the body weight at IIIrd and IVth
ages, and in the beginning and the end of the
Vth age. The variance analyze programme
AGRO, similar with ANOVA, was used, and
variance analyze and F sample were
determined for each trait. The calculation of the
average values by variant, differences between
them and interactions between two and three
respectively, factors, were determined.
The testing of the significance of the
differences between the average values was
performed by limit differences (DL) and
Duncan test. The results of the Duncan test
and interactions between the analyzed factors
are not presented in this paper.

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The variance analyze performed for the
IIIrd age larvae weight (table 1) indicates that
for graduations between A type factor - type
of the treatment applied to the leaf (not
treated, treated with propoli and treated with
echinaceaea) very significant differences
were recorded. Between the graduation of the
B factor – the moment of the leaf harvesting
(in the morning and in the evening) distinct
significant difference was recorded and
between the graduations of the factor C the
floor from where the mulberry leaves were
harvested (mixed from all floors, superior,
middle and base) very significant differences
were recorded. Concerning the interaction
variations between both factors (TE, ME)
and three analyzed factors (TME) statistically
assured differences were recorded at
significance threshold of p = 0.1 % and p =
5%. The interaction variance between
treatments and moment of harvesting (TM) is
statistically not significant.

Table 1
rd
The variance analyze and F sample for the three factor experience (3 x 2 x 4) concerning the III age
larvae weight
Degree of Average Signification of
Variation source Square sum F sample
freedom square variants
Treatments(T) 0.02434 2 0.01217 9.766 xxx
Moments (M) 0.21257 1 0.01257 10.251 xx
Floors(E) 0.02840 3 0.00947 9.889 xxx
TM 0.00185 2 0.00093 0.755 ns
TE 0.02687 6 0.00448 4.680 xxx
ME 0.00884 3 0.00295 3.080 x
TME 0.01779 6 0.00297 3.099 x
Erorr T 0.07229 58 0.00125 -
Erorr M 0.10665 87 0.00123 -
Erorr E 0.49962 522 0.00096 -
Total 0.83044 719

The influence of the treatment, harvesting
time and floor from where the leaves were
harvested on the IIIrd age larvae weight is
presented in table 2.
Between the groups (variants) feed with
leaves treated with 5% aqueous propoli
solution and those which received untreated
leaves (control) a positive difference (+ 0.02
g) and statistically very significant in
advantage of the leaves treated with 5%
aqueous ropoli solution was recorded, while
between the average values of the variants
feed with echinaceaea treated leaves (5%)
and those feed with untreated leaves
(control), no difference was recorded.
The difference between the average
values of the variants feed with mulberry
leaves harvested in the morning (control) and
those feed with leaves harvested in the
evening, is negative and statistically
significant in advantage of the leaves
harvested in the evening. Results that the
leaves harvested in the morning are much
valuable, having positive effect on IIIrd age
larvae body weight.
Concerning the influence of the floor
from where the leaves were harvested, on the
IIIrd age larvae weight, very significant
differences between the average values of the
experimental variants feed with leaves
harvested from the middle floor and base,
respectively, compared to the control variant
made up of leaves mixture from all floors.
Surprisingly, between the variants feed
with leaves harvested from the upper floor
(considered the most valuable) and control
variants, no significant differences between
averages were recorded.
The average values, differences between
variants, and their significance concerning the
IIIrd age larvae weight are presented in table 3,
considering the three studied experimental
factors. The variant feed with untreated leaves
mixed from all mulberry floors, and harvested
in the morning was considered control
(T1M1E1) and all 23 other experimental
variants were compared to this.

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

Table 2
rd
The influence of the treatment, harvesting moment, and floor from where the leaves were harvested on the III age larvae weight
The DL
Average Relative value ±d significance
Symbol Variant n
value(g) (%) (g) of the 5% 1% 0.,1%
difference
T1 Untreated (Mt) 240 0.22 100.0
T2 Propoli 240 0.24 105.7 +0.02 xxx
0.01 0.01 0.01
T3 Echinaceaea 240 0.22 100.3 0.00 ns
M1 Morning (Mt) 360 0.23 100.0
0.01 0.01 0.01
M2 Evening 360 0.22 96.4 -0.01 ooo
E1 Mixture (Mt) 180 0.22 100.0
E2 Superior 180 0.22 99.3 0.00 ns
0.01 0.01 0.01
E3 Middle 180 0.23 105.6 +0.01 xxx
E4 Base 180 0.23 104.9 +0.01 xxx

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

From this table, results that statistically
assured differences at different significance
thresholds only between variants treated with
leaves treated with propoli, harvested in the
morning from the middle floor, or from the
mulberry base (T2M1E3, T2M1E4) and
control variant (T1M1E1) were recorded on
one hand, and between the variant feed with
propoli treated leaves harvested in the
evening and mixed from all floors (T2M2E2)
and control, on the other hand. Positive and
significant differences (p = 0.1% and p = 1%)
were recorded between variants feed with
leaves treated with echinaceaea, harvested in
the morning (mixed from upper or base floor)
(T3M1E1, T3M1E2, T3M1E4) and control
variant (T1M1E1). Distinct significant
difference was recorded (+0.02 g) between
experimental variant feed with echinaceaea
treated leaves and harvested in the evening
from the mulberry base (T3M2E4) compared
to control variant.
In conclusion, the best effect on the IIIrd
age larvae weight was recorded in
biostimulators treated mulberry leaves
(propoli and echinaceaea), harvested in the
morning, whatever the floor from where the
leavers were harvested.

Table 3
rd
The average values, and differences between variants concerning the III age larvae weight
(n = 30 heads/variant)
Nor. Name of the Average value Relative value ±d Significance
Crt variant (g) (%) (g)
1 T1M1E1(Mt) 0.22 100.0 ns
2 T1M1E2 0.23 104.5 +0.01 ns
3 T1M1E3 0.21 95.4 -0.01 ns
4 T1M1E4 0.23 104.5 +0.01 ns
5 T1M2E1 0.22 100.0 0.00 ns
6 T1M2E2 0.22 100.0 0.00 ns
7 T1M2E3 0.22 100.0 0.00 ns
8 T1M2E4 0.21 95.4 -0.01 ns
9 T2M1E1 0.23 104.5 +0.01 ns
10 T2M1E2 0.22 100.0 +0.00 ns
11 T2M1E3 0.25 113.6 +0.03 xxx
12 T2M1E4 0.25 113.6 +0.03 xxx
13 T2M2E1 0.20 90.9 -0.02 xx
14 T2M2E2 0.22 100.0 0.00 ns
15 T2M2E3 0.23 104.5 +0.01 ns
16 T2M2E4 0.22 100.0 0.00 ns
17 T3M1E1 0.25 113.6 +0.03 xxx
18 T3M1E2 0.25 113.6 +0.03 xxx
19 T3M1E3 0.23 104.5 +0.01 ns
20 T3M1E4 0.24 109.0 +0.02 xx
21 T3M2E1 0.23 104.5 +0.01 ns
22 T3M2E2 0.22 100.0 0.00 ns
23 T3M2E3 0.23 104.5 +0.01 ns
24 T3M2E4 0.24 109.0 +0.02 xx
ns=not significant difference DL(p5%) 0.02
x or o = significant difference DL(p1%) 0.02
xx or oo = distinct significant difference DL(p0.1%) 0.03
xxx or ooo = very significant difference

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CONCLUSIONS
Between groups feed with propoli treated
leaves and control variant very significant
differences were recorded in IIIrd age larvae
weight.
Positive and very significant differences
were also recorded in groups feed with leaves
harvested from the base of the mulberry in
IIIrd age larvae weight too.
Comparing the 23 experimental variants
with control (T1M1E1) the positive effect of
larvae feeding with propoli and echinaceaea
treated leaves harvested in the morning was
recorded. Thus, whatever the floor of the
mulberry three from where the mulberry
three leaves were harvested, the groups feed
with biostimulators treated leaves harvested
in the morning (T2M1E3, T2M1E4,
T3M1E1, T3M1E2, T3M1E4), had
significant differences compared to control in
smaller ages.
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
REFERENCES
Journal article
[2] A Chiriac,: Influenţa alimentaţiei în creşterea
viermilor de mătase. Lucr. St., III, 43-53, SCAS,
1961
Books
[1] M. Benţea,: Caracterizarea hibrizilor dubli şi a
trihibrizilor speciei Bombyx mori, Referat teză de
doctorat, USAMV Cluj-Napoca, 2005.
[3] B.A. Vlaic,: Studiul interacţiunii genotip x
mediu la viermii de mătase ai dudului (bombyx
mori l.) crescuţi în condiţiile geoclimatice din
transilvania, teză de doctorat, USAMV Cluj-
Napoca, 2007
[4] Liviu Al. Mărghitaş,: Creşterea viermilor de
mătase, Ed. Ceres, Bucureşti, 1995
[5] I. Paşca,: Cercetări privind influenţa condiţiilor
de mediu din zona Transilvaniei, asupra unor rase
şi hibrizi româneşti de viermi de mătase ai
dudului, Teză de doctorat, USAMV Cluj-Napoca,
2004
[6] B.A. Vlaic,: Rezultate parţiale ale creşterilor
viermilor de mătase în condiţiile de mediu din
Transilvania, Referat teză de doctorat, USAMV
Cluj-Napoca, 2006
 BACK

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

FERTILIZATION INFLUENCE ON NUTRITIVE AND

ENERGETIC VALUE OF THE FODDER OBTAINED ON AN
AGROSTIS CAPILLARIS L. – FESTUCA RUBRA L. MEADOW
B.V. Avarvarei, Elena-Liliana Chelariu, R. Roşca
University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Iaşi, Romania
e-mail: bogdan_avarvarei@yahoo.com

Abstract:
To concrete the fodders’ nutritive value was established multiple regression equations in which
the independent variables are connected with their content in raw protein, raw cellulose and ash.
For hay, the equations that presents the nutritive value of the fodders expressed in milk nutritive
units (UNL), meat nutritive units (UNC) and digestible raw protein (PDIN and PDIE) on a kg of dry
matter, were calculated after Demarquilly system. The net energy (EN) of the fodders represents the
quantity of energy totally used by animals to maintain the vital functions and for synthesis of
different husbandry products. In 2008, on a meadow from Iaşi area, at control variant were
obtained 0.82 UNL/kg DM and 0.78 UNC/kg DM, and at N64 fertilization these values increased to
0.85 respectively 0.82, and at N128P72 variant the values were 0.85 UNL/kg DM and 0.81 UNC/kg
DM. The quantity of digestible protein at one kilo of DM at control variant was of 72 g in the case
of digestible protein based on the energy from the quota (PDIE) and 53 g in the case of digestible
protein based on the nitrogen from quota (PDIN). At fertilization with nitrogen fertilizers or with
nitrogen on a phosphorous agro-fund, protein increased together with the doses increasing from 78
g PDIE and 62 g PDIN at N64 variant, to 81 g PDIE and 70 g PDIN at N128P72 variant. To calculate
the milk quantities, respectively weight increase, it was taken in consideration that for one litre of
milk with 4 % fat are necessary 0.7 UNL, and for a kg weight increase, around 8 UNC. At control
variant could be obtained 2027 l milk and 169 kg weight increase, and at N64 variant cu the
quantities increased to 3813 l milk and 322 kg weight increase. At fertilization with N128P72 could be
obtained 5186 l milk and 432 kg weight increase, and at the variant with 7 t/ha vinassa + P108 the
obtained milk quantity, increases at 5876 l, and the weight increase to 497 kg. The fodders’ nutritive
value expressed in UNL and UNC increased at the same time with the increasing of the mineral and
organic fertilizers doses. Regarding the energetic value it was observed that both milk net energy
(ENL) and meat net energy (ENC) recorded increases function of kind and dose of the administrated
fertilizers. The number of UNL and UNC recorded at a hectare of permanent meadow was function
of the fertilization level. The level of fertilization also, influenced the milk quantities and weight
increases.
Keywords: Nutritive value, energetic value, fodder, fertilization.

INTRODUCTION concretion of nutrition rates for different

Organic and mineral fertilizers have a
strong influence on fodder quality by
modifications in chemical structure,
consumption and digestibility and also in
plants hysto-anatomic structure, with
implications on nutritive and energetic
values. For each specie, even if chemical
composition is genetic determined could be
recorded variation of it in quite large limits,
function of certain factors. Fodders’ chemical
composition offers us a first clue regarding
its quality, being a start point for a scientific
categories of animals. By fertilization are
induced essential modifications in floral
composition of grassy cover, which will also
influence the quality of fodder. For
fertilization we used nitrogen, phosphorous,
potassium and mixtures of them in different
doses per hectare, cattle manure and also
vinassa. Fertilizers based on nitrogen are
favourable for grasses growth and inhibit the
growing of legumes [1], [3]. Phosphorous
increase the yield and the content in dry
matter [1], [3], [4]. Potassium has an

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important role in plants’ metabolism, in
synthesis of carbon hydrates and
chlorofilium, as well as in increasing plants’
resistance during cold periods (winter) [1],
[2], [5]. Cattle manure enriches soil in micro
and macroelements and also in organic
mattre which influence the meadow
productivity [1], [3], [4], [5]. Vinassa is a
product resulted after evaporation of residual
waters from bakery yeast factories and has
more nitrogen in comparison with cattle
manure (3–3.2 %) [4], [8], [9]. In Romania
was homologated as organic fertilizer in 2003
under the name of “Vinassa Rompak”.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
The study was carried out on an Agrostis
capillaris L – Festuca rubra L. permanent
meadow between 2007 and 2008. The
experiment was set up as a random block
system in four replications, with 11 variants:
V1 – control (unfertilized); V2 – P36; V3 – N64;
V4 - N64P36; V5 – N128P72; V6 - N64P36K40; V7
– N128P72K40; V8 – cattle manure 20 t/ha; V9 –
cattle manure 30 t/ha; V10 – 4 t/ha vinassa +
P36; V11 – 7 t/ha vinassa + P108. Mineral
fertilizers were applied in the both years of
experience, those based on phosphorous and
potassium in autumn and those based on
nitrogen early in spring. Cattle manure was
applied only in the autumn of 2007. Vinassa
was yearly applied, early in spring before
start of vegetation. Harvesting was performed
under the form of hay fields, on each variant,
at grasses earing and at budding and
blossoming of legumes.
To concrete the fodders’ nutritive value
was established multiple regression equations
in which the independent variables are
connected with their content in raw protein,
raw cellulose and ash.
For hay, the equations that presents the
nutritive value of the fodders expressed in
milk nutritive units (UNL), meat nutritive
units (UNC) and digestible raw protein
(PDIN and PDIE) on a kg of dry matter, were
calculated after Demarquilly system [6], [7].
The net energy (EN) of the fodders
represents the quantity of energy totally used
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
by animals to maintain the vital functions and
for synthesis of different husbandry products.
The system used in Romania for net
energy (EN), is based on a mathematical
model for simulation of energetic and proteic
metabolism at ruminants, being different for
dairy and meat productions.
Nutritive value of fodder in UNL and
UNC increased at the same time with the
increasing of mineral and organic fertilizers
administrated.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The number of UNL/kg DM and UNC/kg
DM increased at the same with the increasing
of fertilizers doses (table 1). At control variant
were recorded 0.82 UNL/kg DM and 0.78
UNC/kg DM, at N64 variant the number of
UNL/kg DM increased to 0.85, and UNC/kg
DM up to 0.82, at N128P72 variant were
recorded 0.85 UNL/kg DM and 0.81 UNC/kg
DM.
At fertilization with 20 and 30 t/ha cattle
manure the number of UNL/kg DM was of
0.83, and the UNC/kg DM one was of 0.79.
At fertilization with 4 t/ha vinassa + P36
were recorded values of 0.85 UNL/kg DM
and 0.82 UNC/kg DM, and at variant with 7
t/ha vinassa + P108 the number UNL/kg DM
increased to 0.87, and the one of UNC/kg
DM to 0.84.
At fertilization with 20 and 30 t/ha cattle
manure the number of UNL/kg DM was of
0.83, and the one of UNC/kg DM was of 0.79.
At fertilization with 4 t/ha vinassa + P36
were recorded values of 0.85 UNL/kg DM
and 0.82 UNC/kg DM, and at 7 t/ha vinassa
+ P108 variant the number of UNL/kg SU
increased to 0.87, and the one of UNC/kg
DM up to 0.84.
The quantity of digestible protein at
1 DM kilogramme at control variant was of
72 g in the case of digestible protein based on
the energy from the quota (PDIE) and of 53 g
in the case of digestible protein based on the
nitrogen from quota (PDIN).
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

Table 1
The influence of fertilization on nutritive and energy value of the forage, on the meadows of Agrostis
capillaris L. - Festuca rubra L.
UNL/kg UNC/kg g PDIE/kg g PDIN/kg ENL ENC
Variant
DM DM DM DM (kcal) (kcal)
Control
0.82 0.78 72 53 1270 1211
(unfertilized)
P36 0.82 0.77 72 53 1260 1199
N64 0.85 0.82 78 62 1316 1266
N64P36 0.84 0.80 78 63 1301 1248
N128P72 0.85 0.81 81 70 1315 1264
N64P36K40 0.84 0.80 78 63 1300 1246
N128P72K40 0.85 0.81 82 70 1314 1262
Cattle manure
0.83 0.79 76 60 1279 1221
20 t/ha
Cattle manure
0.83 0.79 77 61 1280 1223
30 t/ha
4 t/ha
0.85 0.82 80 68 1315 1264
vinassa + P36
7 t/ha
0.87 0.84 85 77 1348 1303
vinassa + P108

At fertilization with nitrogen fertilizers or
with nitrogen on a phosphorous agro fund,
digestible protein increased at the same time
with doses’ increasing, from 78 g PDIE and
62 g PDIN at N64 variant, to 81 g PDIE and
70 g PDIN at N128P72 variant.
At fertilization with 20 t/ha cattle manure
were recorded 76 g PDIE and 60 g PDIN,
and at fertilization with 30 t/ha cattle manure
the values increased to 77 g PDIE and 61 g
PDIN.
At 4 t/ha vinassa + P36 fertilization the
values were of 80 g PDIE and 68 g PDIN,
and at 7 t/ha vinassa + P108 the recorded
values were of 85 g PDIE respectively 77 g
PDIN (table 1).
Regarding the energetic value was
noticed that both milk net energy (ENL) and
meat net energy (ENC) recorded increases
function of fertilizers king and administrated
doses.
Fodders’ energetic value increase from
1270 kcal ENL and 1211 kcal ENC at control
variant, to 1316 kcal ENL respectively 1266
kcal ENC at variant fertilized with N64, to
1315 kcal ENL and 1264 kcal ENC at N128P72
variant, to 1280 kcal ENL and 1223 kcal
ENC at 30 t/ha cattle manure variant and at
1348 kcal ENL and 1303 kcal ENC at variant
fertilized with 7 t/ha vinassa + P108.
The number of UNL şi UNC recorded at
1 hectare of permanent meadow was function
of fertilization level (table 2).
Milk quantities and weight increases were
also influenced by the fertilization level. At
control variant could be obtained only 2027 l
milk/ha and 169 kg weight increase, and at
variant N64 milk quantity was 3813 l/ha and
weight increase was 322 kg/ha.
The highest milk quantities and the highest
weight increases per 1 hectare of permanent
meadow were recorded at fertilization with
N128P72 and the values are 5186 l milk and 432
kg weight increase per hectare, an at
fertilization with 7 t/ha vinassa + P108 the
recorded values were of 5879 l milk/ha (table
2) and 497 kg weight increase/ha (table 2).

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

Table 2
The number of UNL, UNC and of animal products at a permanent meadow of
Agrostis capillaris L. - Festuca rubra L.
Milk (4 % fat) Meat weight increase
Variant UNL/ha UNC/ha
l/ha % kg/ha %
Control
1419 2027 100 1349 169 100
(unfertilized)
P36 1829 2613 128 1717 214 126
N64 2669 3813 188 2575 322 190
N64P36 2915 4164 205 2776 347 205
N128P72 3630 5186 256 3459 432 256
N64P36K40 3041 4344 214 2896 362 214
N128P72K40 3842 5489 271 3661 458 271
Cattle manure
2743 3919 193 2615 327 193
20 t/ha
Cattle manure
3096 4423 218 2947 368 218
30 t/ha
4 t/ha
3247 4639 229 3132 392 232
vinassa + P36
7 t/ha
4115 5879 290 3973 497 294
vinassa + P108

CONCLUSIONS rubra L. meadow. Proceedings of 42nd Croatian and

At Agrostis capillaris L. – Festuca rubra
L. meadow the nutritive value expressed in
UNL and UNC increase at the same time with
the increasing of mineral and organic fertilizer
doses.
ENL and ENC values had the same
evolution, being higher at the variants with
increased doses of fertilizer.
Milk quantities and meat weight increase
realised at one hectare, were also influenced by
the level of fertilization, these ones being at
Agrostis capillaris L. – Festuca rubra L.
meadow of 2027 litres of milk and 169 weight
increase at control variant, of 5186 litres of
milk and 432 weight increase at N128P72 and of
5879 litres of milk and 497 weight increase at
variant fertilized with 7 t/ha vinassa + P108.
REFERENCES
Journal articles
[2] Cardaşol V., Oprea Georgeta,: Importanţa
potasiului asupra producţiei şi calităţii furajului de pe
pajişti. International Potash Institute, Basel,
Switzerland, 2002.
[3] Chelariu Elena Liliana, Draghia Lucia, Avarvarei
B.V., Paraschiv Nicoleta Luminiţa, Sandu Tatiana,:
Influence of fertilization on the botanical
composition of Agrostis capillaris L. – Festuca
2nd International Symposium on Agriculture, Opatija,
Croatia, 2007.
[4] Chelariu Elena Liliana,: Research on the
influence of fertilization on structure and
composition of grassy cover of a permanent meadow
in mountain area. Proceedings of 43rd Croatian and
3rd International Symposium on Agriculture, Opatija,
Croatia, 2008.
[5] Fleury Ph., Jeannin B.,: Modes d’action de la
fertilisation organique sur la vegetation des prairies
permanents. Fourrages nr. 139, 1994.
[8] Vîntu V., Ionel A., Samuil C., Iacob T., Trofin
Alina,: Influenţa subprodusului „vinassa” asupra
productivităţii pajiştilor permanente din Podişul
Central Moldovenesc. Cercetări Agronomice în
Moldova vol. 3-4, Iaşi, Romania, 2001.
[9] Vîntu V., Ionel A.,: Posibilităţi de îmbunătăţire a
pajiştilor permanente prin folosirea ca fertilizant a
subprodusului vinassa. Lucrări ştiinţifice, Seria
Agricultură, vol. 46, UŞAMV Iaşi, Romania, 2003.
Books
[1] Avarvarei I., Davidescu Velicica, Mocanu R.,
Goian M., Caramete C., Rusu M.,: Agrochimie.
Editura Sitech, Craiova, Romania, 1997.
[6] Halga P., Pop I.M., Avarvarei Teona, Popa
Viorica,: Nutriţie şi alimentaţie animală. Editura
Alfa, Iaşi, Romania, 2005.
[7] Pop I.M., Halga P., Avarvarei Teona,: Nutriţie şi
alimentaţie animală (vol. I, II, III). Editura
TipoMoldova, Iaşi, Romania, 2006.

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

RESEARCHES REGARDING THE ACTION OF SOME

INFLUENTIAL FACTORS ON THE NUTRITIVE
COMPOSITION OF THE CORN SILAGE

Roxana Miron (Zaharia)1, I.M. Pop1, N. Zaharia1, A.C. Sava2

“Ion Ionescu de la Brad” University of Agricultural Sciences

and Veterinary Medicine Iaşi, Faculty of Animal Sciences
e-mail: burghezu_ro@yahoo.com
2
County livestock association Bacău

Abstract
The pourpose of the research was to show the influence of the ensilage on the chemical
composition of corn silo. The material studied was corn silage from different silos respectively: SA -
silage covered with waterproof foil, has been introduced corn in phase of wax maturity and SN -
uncovered silage (covered with 20 cm of chopped straw) has been introduced corn in similar phase
of maturity. Samples were collected from the surface of the silo (50 cm deep) CS1 and SN1, the
laterally sides of the silo (70 cm from side walls) US2 and CS2, and from the centre of the silo US2
and US3. Following the calculations performed on samples collected from the silo were observed
appreciable differentiations in terms of the DM (CS1 - 328.3 g/kg gross SN1 - 262 g/kg gross) and
Ash (CS1 - 48 g /kg DM, SN1 -90.1 g/kg DM). CS2 and US2 content of samples varied for DM (CS2
- 244 g/kg gross, US2 - 319.8 g/kg gross), CP (CS2 - 72.3 g/kg DM, US2 - 96.3 g/kg DM ) and CF
(CS2 - 254.2 g/kg DM, US2 - 228.9 g/kg DM). Tests on samples US2 and US3 showed a relative
consistency in chemical composition compared with other samples. Chemical composition of
studied silos were influenced by several factors as stage of growth at harvesting, silage technology,
climatic conditions, factors that led to a decrease of quality of the pickled fodder studied.
Key words: corn silage, chemical composition, influential factors;

INTRODUCTION ideal conditions for rapid oxygen depletion at

Corn harvested for silage is an important
feed crop. The crop provides livestock
producers with a high-yielding, relatively
consistent source of forage and the animals
with a highly digestible and palatable feed
[13]. Crop managers are more closely
monitoring crop maturities to ensure
optimum dry matter levels at harvest.
Harvesters adjust chop length, height and
processing to deliver a potentially high
quality feed to the storage structure. A great
challenge to successful silage production
occurs in the silo, an bunker. In a silo,
microbial processes can be modified to
enhance fermentation, through management
practices such as harvest moisture, length of
harvest period, oxygen exposure, and silage
inoculation [10]. Optimum silage
fermentation occurs in an oxygen free
environment. More dense silage provides
the start of fermentation and minimizes the
introduction of oxygen back into the silage
pack during storage and feedout.
Any good forage crop should have high
dry matter yield, high protein content, high
energy content (high digestibility), high
intake potential (low fiber), and optimum dry
matter content at harvest for acceptable
fermentation and storage. With the exception
of high protein level, corn silage exhibits
these characteristics better than other forages.
The production difficulty farmers often
encounter is timing harvest so that the proper
moisture for ensiling is obtained for the
storage. If corn silage is too wet then yield is
often reduced, silo seepage occurs and the
silage is sour tasting resulting in lower intake
by livestock. If corn silage is too dry then
yield is often reduced, heat damage and mold
more easily develops in the silo because

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fermentation is inadequate, and the silage has
lower protein and digestibility. Maturity at
harvest [10; 7; 8; 14] and cutting height at
harvest [3; 4] also affect grain and stover
content and subsequent corn forage quality.
Corn silage is variable in nutrient value due
to hybrid, climatic conditions, maturity upon
harvest and conservation methods [15;17].
MATERIALS AND METHOD
The material used in the experiments was
procured from a farm from Bacău county,
respectively corn silage, consisting of corn
hybrids for silage Monalisa and Florence and
a hybrid for grain PR38V9, hybrids sold by
Pioneer. Maize was sown in early May on
three parcels, of which only two (plots
planted with hybrid PR38V9 and Florence)
were works of fertilization with manure
(45t/ha) and without irrigation. Maize was
harvested between 11.08 - 25. 08.2007. The
harvesting took place at a height of 10-12 cm
from the soil in order to avoid the contact of
the chopped mass with the soil and harvested
mass was chopped at the dimension of 10 -
20 mm, condition in which the cobs were
well fragmented and the beans broken.
Samples of silage were taken from a silo
covered with polyethylene film (CS)(closed
on 16.08.2007 in the composition of which
were introduced hybrids PR38V9 and
Monalisa) and a silo uncovered (US),
(covered with 20 cm chopped straw, which
was introduced corn hybrids in Florence,
Monalisa and PR38V9 and closed on 26.
08.2007). Samples were prepared for analysis
in accordance with the rules in the standard: -
Table 1
Temperature and monthly precipitation amounts from 2007
Temperature
2007 Needed 1971-2000
Month
ºC
May 18,6 15-20 16,1
June 23,2 18-21 19,5
July 25,4 20-23 20,8
August 22,4 19-22 20
The stage of maturity at harvest is a
major factor in determining the nutritive
value and fermentation characteristics of corn
silage [6; 9] therefore, in an attempt to
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
SR ISO 6498/2001 (Fodders. Preparation of
samples for analysis). Analysis of chemical
composition took place in INCDBNA -
Baloteşti. For chemical determinations were
performed using the standards: ISO
6496/2001 feed. Determining the moisture
content and other volatile substances, ISO
5984/2001 feed. Determining the crude ash,
SR 13325/1995 feed. Determining the
nitrogen content and calculation of protein
content, ISO 6492/2001 feed. Determining
the fat content, SR EN ISO 6865/2000 feed.
Determining the gross fiber content filtering
with intermediary method . Determining the
neutral detergent fiber and acid detergent
fiber was performed by gravimetric method
and the starch was carried out by the
polarimetric method according to ISO
6493/2000.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
High temperatures in May, June and July
correlated with reduced amounts of
precipitation fell in these months
characterized agricultural season in 2007, dry
one (tab.1). Slower development of plants in
the first three months of growing season was
caused by environmental conditions (drought
and high temperatures). Rainfall fell in
August and reported normal temperature,
resulted filling grains and green part of plants
(wilting prematurely). The consequence of
environmental conditions has been increasing
medium content in dry plant mass, but also a
decrease in production of green mass per
hectare (23-30 t / ha).
Precipitation
2007 Needed 1971-2000
mm
35,5 60-80 62,7
34,2 100-120 97,6
37,6 90-100 81,8
79,6 40-60 58
optimize nutrient value and achieving high
milk production , ensiling at proper stage of
kernel maturity, wax is often recommended
[1;12].
 Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

Results of chemical composition (over two weeks), type and location of

performed on silage samples are presented in
tab. 2. The average in DM was variable in
silos mass, the covered silo (CS) from 24 -
33% DM, and uncovered silo (US) 26 - 32%
DM depending on the harvest. Filling silos
parcels hybrids, along with weather
conditions have influenced samples content
in DM. Hybrid and DM content at harvest
had highly significant effects on forage
quality characteristics [2].

Table 2
Gross chemical composition of silage samples

Samples of corn silage

Specification
CS 1 US 1 CS 2 US 2 CS 3 US 3
DM x ±s x 328.3±0.83 262±0.61 244.2 ±0.59 319.8±0.55 285.2±0.59 319.4±0.87
(g/kg raw) V% 0.98 0.90 0.93 0.66 0.8 0.86
95.5±0.4
CP x ±s x 73.7± 0.34
9
72.3±0.36 96.3±0.45 83.8±0.34 97±0.26
(g/kg DM)
V% 1.8 1.98 1.92 1.81 1.57 1.04
26.7±0.3
Fat x ±s x 18±0.17
3
28.1±0.21 22.5±0.24 19.6±0.14 22.5±0.2
(g/kg DM)
V% 3.62 4.77 2.84 4.11 2.72 2.52
264.5±0.
CF x ±s x 210.2±0.42
28
254.2±0.34 228.9±0.33 235.7±0.35 229±0.21
(g/kg DM)
V% 0.78 0.41 0.52 0.56 0.57 0.36
523.2±0.
NFE x ±s x 650±0.37
32
583.9±0.4 593.5±0.44 605.9±0.24 595.9±0.46
(g/kg DM)
V% 0.22 0.24 0.26 0.28 0.15 0.3
90.1±0.3
Ash x ±s x 48.1±0.28
1
61.3±0.4 58.8±0.32 55±0.22 55.4±0.22
(g/kg DM)
V% 2.28 1.35 2.51 2.1 1.56 1.52
CS1 and US1 - samples collected at 50 cm from the silo, CS2 and US2 - samples collected at 70 cm
from the side walls; CS3 and US3 - samples collected from middle of the silo;

Recent studies shows that the crude
protein content of corn silage made from
corn harvested after a period of drought, but
with relatively green plant at harvest, little
ear and with 24% DM, the crude protein was
113 g/kg DM and when ear was little, plant
almost dry, with the 46.6% DM crude protein
was 82 g/kg DM. Under heat stress, a silo
made with corn silage hybrids register loss
compared with a normal silage by 33% DM
and 83 g/kg DM crude protein [11].
Average content of crude protein in the
two silos were close (in silo CS: 73.7 ±
0.34g/ kg DM, 72.3 ± 0.36 g/kg DM, 83.8 ±
0.34 g/kg DM; and silo US: 95.5 ± 0.49 g/kg
DM, 96.3 ± 0.45 g/kg DM, 97 ± 0.26 g/kg
DM), ranging is within the limits mentioned
above.
In tab.3 is presents the content of fiber
and starch analyzed silos. The crude
cellulose, neutral detergent fiber and acid
detergent fiber evolved inversely
proportional to the dry mater of silage. With
the increasing amount of dry matter, in silage
decreased the amount of crude fiber. This
development was reported by Johnson et al.,
(1999), the NDF and ADF were lower as the
plant is more advanced phase of growth at
harvest. This is due to increase in the share
ear in whole plant [1; 9; 18].
The nutritional composition of drought
stressed corn silage is strongly dependent on
grain set and development of ears, which can
be reduced significantly when there was a
water deficit at the time of pollination.
Sugars build up in the green parts of plants
with no ears or partly filled ears resulting in
nutrients only partly being translocated to the
ear and converted to starch.

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

Table 3
The fiber and starch content in corn silo

Samples of corn silage

Specification
CS 1 US 1 CS 2 US 2 CS 3 US 3
DM
(g/kg x ±s x 328.3±0.83 262±0.61 244.2 ±0.59 319.8±0.55 285.2±0.59 319.4±0.87
raw) V% 0.98 0.90 0.93 0.66 0.8 0.86
NDF
(g/kg x ±s x 478.5±0,35 566.03±0,45 543.3±0,42 482.8±0,46 528.8±0,38 503.8±0,4
DM) V% 0,28 0,31 0,3 0,37 0,28 0,31
ADF
(g/kg x ±s x 294.2±0,23 319.5±0,42 342.6±0,29 315±0,54 315.6±0,38 305.6±0,4
DM) V% 0,3 0,5 0,32 0,66 0,47 0,51
180,06±0,2
Starch x ±s x 227,8±0,37 170,2±0,44 136±0,23
2
152,2±0,27 176,4±0,32
V% 0,63 1 0,65 0,48 0,67 0,7
CS1 and SN1 - samples collected at 50 cm from the silo, CS2 and US2 - samples collected at 70 cm
from the side walls; CS3 and US3 - samples collected from middle of the silo;

Evolution of the average quantity of
starch in the silo has been directly
proportional to the changing content in dry
matter. Thus, if for 244.2 g/kg gross DM
amount of starch was 136 g/kg DM, increase
the average amount of DM at 328.3 g/kg
resulted a increase of average starch content
with 90 g/kg DM (tab.3), values approaching
with presented by Bal et al., (1997) [1].
In the uncovered silo amount of starch
was recorded between 170 g/kg DM and 180
g/kg DM and DM average value registered
was between 262 g/kg raw and 319.8 g/kg
raw. Increasing the amount of starch with 10
g/kg DM can be caused by type of hybrids
used in silo (in the largest proportion were
introduced corn hybrids for silage), drought
stressed wich has not allowed a normal
development of plant and ear.
Ash found in the two silos had values
between 48.1 and 61.3 g/kg DM, similar to
those presented by Burlacu et al., (2002),
except the sample taken from the silo US 90
g/kg DM which can be due to accumulation
of dirt from the silage [16].
CONCLUSION
Reaseches performed have shown a
variability in the quantity of dry matter (CS1
328.3 g/kg raw US1 262 g/kg raw CS2 244
g/kg raw US2 319.8 g/kg raw CS3 285.2 ±
0.59 g/kg raw US3 319.4 ± 0.87 g/kg gross)
in silos mass, due to the location of maize
crops, by type of hybrid used and long
periods of harvesting.
Although the quantity of NDF and ADF
decreased with increasing amount of dry
matter in silage, their level was relatively
high due to heat stress and drought.
Variability of chemical composition of
corn silo was determined largely by the poor
homogenization of green mass used in silage.
REFERENCES
Journal articles
[1] Bal, M.A., Coors J.G., Shaver R.D. 1997.
Impact of maturity corn for use as silage in the
diets of dairy cows on intake, digestion, and milk
production. J. Dairy Sci. 80:2497–2503.
[2] Cox W. J., Cherney J. H. 2005. Timing Corn
Forage Harvest for Bunker Silos. Agron. J.
97:142–146
[3] Cummins, D.G., Burns R.E. 1969. Yield and
quality of corn silage as influenced by harvest
height. Agron. J. 61:468–470
[4] Curran, B., Posch J. 2001. Agronomic
management of silage for yield and quality—silage
cutting height. Crop Insights 10(2):1–4
[5] Darby, H.M., Lauer J.G. 2002. Harvest date
and hybrid influence on corn forage yield, quality,
and preservation. Agron. J. 95:559–566.
[6] Filya I. 2004. Nutritive value and aerobic
stability of whole crop maize silage harvested at
four stages of maturity. Animal Feed Science and
Technology 116 (2004) 141–150.
[7] Ganoe, K.H., Roth G.W. 1992. Kernel milk
line as a harvest indicator of corn silage in
Pennsylvania. J. Prod. Agric. 5:519–523.

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
[8] Hunt, C.W., Kezar W., Vinande R. 1989.
Yield, chemical composition and ruminal
fermentability of corn whole plant, ear, and stover
as affected by maturity. J. Prod. Agric. 2:357–361.
[9] Johnson, L., Harrison, J.H., Hunt, C., Shinners,
K., Doggett, C.G., Sapienza, D., 1999. Nutritive
value of com silage as affected by maturity and
mechanical processing: a contemporary review. J.
Dairy Sci. 82, pp. 2813–2825.
[10] Lauer. J., 1998 Corn Kernel Milk Stage And
Silage Harvest Moisture. Forage Symposium.
Field Crops 28.5-18. University of Wisconsin.
[11] McCarter, B., Kleinmans J. 2008. Harvesting,
storing and feeding drought affected Maize for
Silage. Pioneer Hi-Bred International.
[12] Moss, B.R., Reeves D.W., Lin J.C., Torbert
H.A., McElhenney W.H., Mask P., Kezar W.,
2001. Yield and quality of three corn hybrids as
affected by broiler litter fertilization and crop
maturity. Anim. Feed Sci.Tec., 94: 43-56.
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[13] Roth, G.W., 2001. Corn silage production and
management. College of Agricultural Science.
Agricultural research and cooperative extension.
[14] Wiersma, D.W.,. Carter, P.R., Albrecht, K.A.,
Coors, J.G. 1993. Kernel milkline stage and corn
forage yield, quality, and dry matter content. J.
Prod. Agric. 6:94–99.
Books
[15] Bittman, S., Kowalenko C.G., 2004 -
Advanced silage corn book. Pacific Fiel Corn
Association, British Columbia.
[16] Burlacu, Gh., Cavache A., Burlacu R., 2002 –
Potenţialul productiv al nutreţurilor şi utilizarea
lor. Editura Ceres, Bucureşti.
[17] Jarrige, R., 1988 – Alimentaţia bovinelor
ovinelor şi caprinelor. INRA, Paris.
[18] Pop, I.M., Halga P., Avarvarei T., 2006 –
Nutriţia şi alimentaţia animalelor. Editura
TipoMoldova, Iaşi.
 BACK

Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

THE NUTRITIONAL EFFECTS OF VEGETAL LECITHIN

OVER THE MILK PRODUCTION, APPARENT
DIGESTIBILITY AND SHEEP RUMINANT PARAMETERS

Carmen Ana Pivoda1, S.H.F. Grigorie2, Dana Jitariu3,

Camelia Zoia Zamfir1, Enciu Ana1
1
Palas Institute of Research-Development for Sheep and Goats Breeding-Constanţa
2
Banat University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Timisoara
3
“Ovidius” University Constanţa

Abstract
By introducing the vegetal lecithin within the fodder ration of the sheep during the lactation
period it has been achieved an increased milk production, a production increase of 39.38% at Palas
Merino sheep, of 24.44% at Palas prolific population of sheep and of 9.96% at Palas milk population.
An increase of the main reproduction indexes and a health improvement at these animals were noticed.
The vegetal lecithin contained within the residue from the soya and sun-flower oil production
administrated within the sheep ration up to a contribution of 7% fat in the dry substance of ingesta has
favourable and proportional effects with the lecithin dose over the apparent digestibility of DM, OM,
CP, EE, NDF and NFE. The increase of fat proportion within the food over 7% from DM of the ration
reduces the ruminant bacteria number. The fat from food has negative effects on the ruminant
protozoa, tending to destroy the specific fauna. It is possible that the lecithin could be a potential
source of YATP in rumen. It is possible that the lecithin could protect the food proteins from the
bacterial lyses of proteins enzymes and achieve the ruminant by-pass of the protein.
Key words: sheep, lecithin, milk production, apparent digestibility

INTRODUCTION determines the increase of polyunsaturated

Feeding the sheep with ration containing
vegetal lecithin from soy and sun flower as
lipid supplement, by making use of the
secondary product resulted from the
manufacture of soy and sun flower sun oil,
determines an increase of milk production, of
reproduction main index and an improvement
in the animals health condition.
The lecithin, a substance which is rich in
phospholipids, plays a very important role
within the body, it enters within the cellular
membranes structure, has a specific role
within the nervous system and the lipids’
metabolism, favouring the fat emulsification
and its efficient exposure to the digestive
juices action.
LOUGH and his collaborators (1992)
mentioned that the phospholipids contained by
the soy lecithin influences the lipids
emulsification, can remains un-degraded in
rumen, influencing the fatty acids absorption
within the small intestine. The lecithin
fatty acids level from the muscles and the
adipose tissue.
SĂLĂGEANU and his collaborators
(1990) by administrating lecithin to the youth
Bubaline reproduction female noticed a 2.6%
increase in weight in comparison with the
control lots, a faster ripening of the sexual
organs, demonstrated by the earlier
appearance of the clinical oestrus.
GURIŢĂ and his collaborators (1998) by
studying the implication of the vegetal
lecithin within the milky secretion noticed an
increase of 32% of the milk quantity and one
of 9.4% of the fat percentage.
MATERIAL AND METHOD OF WORK
The researches were performed at
ICDCOC Palas and USAMV Timişoara. The
animals were individually watched by
recording date with reference to the milk
control production, based on the Romanian
method of the control coefficient (Nica-

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

Dermengi). The method is based on the mixed, to which a quantity of 100 g of

proportion between the daily milk production
and the quantity of a single milking from the
same day. During the nursing the sheep
belonging to the experimental groups and to
the control ones received the same fodder
rations: for sheep a fodder ration of 1.68 DM,
1.62 MNU, 118 g PDIN, 147 g PDIE,
calcium of 14.8 g and phosphorus 7 g, and a
vegetal lecithin was added to this ration,
residue (mucilage) from the soy oil
manufacture, being well endured by the
sheep (the mucilage does not modify the
fodder or the drinking capacity of water).
The introduction of the lecithin within the
fodder ration was performed within a mixture
of concentrate or in drinking water (dilution of
mucilage / fresh sediments with 10-12 litres of
water and then this solution is poured over the
water from the watering trough). The
conservation of mucilage was done within
sodium chloride, having the percentage of 3-
5%, therefore avoiding the fermentation. The
dehydrated sediments are diluted with water
boiled at 80-85oC temperature.
For the analysis of ruminant juice the
ruminant fistula process was performed on
the Ţurcana breed sheep which were
accommodated within an individual cage.
The animals were fed with hay and fodder
vegetal lecithin was added. Postoperatively
was settled a pre experimental period of
accommodation to the ration structure and
the hay and mixed fodder voluntary
consumption was also settled. The following
determinations were performed: apparent
ration digestibility, inter-ruminant
digestibility of barley straws cellulose in
small bags; ruminant parameters before the
fodder and 3 hours from the food provision.
All the measurements were performed by
usual techniques for the microbiology and
animal nutrition laboratories.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
During the nursing the sheep belonging to
the experimental groups and to the witness
ones received the same fodder rations, to
which a vegetal lecithin was added, residue
(mucilage) from the soy oil manufacture. The
vegetal lecithin was provided in the morning
in the drinking water. It was noticed that the
vegetal lecithin does not modify the drinking
capacity of the water and is well tolerated by
the sheep and goats. The milk production of
sheep and goats was determined by the
bimonthly control, following Nica-Dermengi
method (table no. 1 and 2).

Table no. 1
Total average milk production, average merchandise milk production and the nursing period of the
sheep treated with lecithin and of the sheep belonging to the control groups
Total average milk Average production %
Breed or population of sheep / group n production (litres) of milked milk (litres) from
X ± sX V% X ± sX V% C
Palas Merino- Experimental lot 58 117.51±3.1 20.16 48.66±1.8 28.95 39.88
Palas Merino- Control lot 38 84.21±3.4 24.96 38.05±1.1 16.32
Palas prolific population-Experimental lot 46 137.2±4.6 22.74 56.2±2.6 31.37 24.44
Palas prolific population- Control lot 25 110.25±2.1 9.75 42.75±1.6 19.06
Palas milk population- Experimental lot 25 217.3±7.8 17.94 81.6±2.8 17.15 9.96
Palas milk population- Control lot 70 197.6±10.3 43.61 72.8±3.9 44.82

Merino breed sheep from the
experimental group had a total milk
production of 117.5±3.1 litres and an average
production of milked milk of 48.66±1.8
litres; the sheep belonging to the control lot
had a total milk production of 84.21±3.4
litres and an average production of milked
milk of 38.05±1.1 litres; Palas prolific
population belonging to the experimental lot
had a total milk production of 137.2±4.6
litres and an average production of milked
milk of 56.2±2.6 litres; the control lot
obtained a total production of milk
amounting to 110.25±2.1 litres and an

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

average production of milked milk of Food’s apparent digestibility

42.75±1.6 litres; Palas milk population sheep
belonging to the experimental lot obtained a
total milk production of 217.3±7.8 litres and
an average production of milked milk
amounting to 81.6±2.8 litres; the control lot
obtained a total production of 197.6±10.3
litres, having an average milked milk
production amounting to 72.8±3.9 litres.
The average values of the apparent
digestibility usage coefficients (DUC) of the
nutritive substances (NS) within the food are
presented in the table no. 2. By comparing the
values DUC which is apparent from the control
lot (C), from the lot having an amount of 100 g
supplement of lecithin (L100) and respectively
of 200 g lecithin (L200), it was noticed that the
sheep digestibility of dry matter (DM)
increases as against the lecithin dose.

Table no. 2
DUC of NS from the supplemental food with lecithin for the sheep
*
Lot DM SM OM CP EE NDF NFE
M 72.94 69,98 73.27 58.86 52.03 78.09 69.30
76.32± 65,76± 77.46± 62.63± 86.17± 82.98± 71.03±
L100
3.68 7,01 3.35 10.06 1.63 3.93 0.32
79.16± 73,91± 79.72± 67.71± 91.63± 84.76± 69.54±
L200
9.02 11,92 8.74 15.13 3.47 5.78 16.16
*neutral-detergent fiber

It was noticed the sheep apparent
digestibility of mineral salts (DUCDM),
apparent digestibility of organic substances
(DUCOM), apparent digestibility of crude
protein (DUCCP) and apparent digestibility of
gross fat (DUCCF) at control lots (C), at the
group with the supplement of 100 g lecithin
(L100) and respectively 200 g lecithin (L200),
the values being presented in table no. 3.

Table no. 3
Percentage presentation of DUCDM, DUCOM, DUCCP and DUCCF to sheep as against the lecithin
dose
Specification DUCDM DUCOM DUCCP DUCCF
DUC C% 100 100 100 100
DUC L100 104.63 104.80 106.40 106.40
DUC L200 108.33 108.80 115.03 115.03

The apparent digestibility of mineral salts
(DUCDM) decreases to L100, but to L200
increases to 5.61%. The apparent digestibility
of organic substances (DUCOM) increases
proportional to the lecithin, 104.80% to the
group having the supplement of 100 g
lecithin (L100), but mostly to L200 (108.80%).
The apparent digestibility of gross protein
within the food is also influenced by the
lecithin dose, DUCCP increases with 6.40%
to L100 and with 15.03% to L200. The apparent
digestibility of gross fat within the food is
also influenced by the lecithin dose, increases
with 18.34% to L100 and decreases to 15.13%
to L200.
By determining the sheep digestive usage
of fat within the food it was noticed that by
increasing the dose of lecithin from 100 g to
200 g daily the fat digestibility increase takes
place (table no.4).
Generally, the supplement of fat within
the ruminants’ food over 8% from DM of the
ration reduces the cellulose digestibility from
the rumen. The fat levels ensured within the
experiment did not overpass this limit;
moreover the lecithin being more water
soluble, did not affect the digestibility of
cellular walls’ digestibility (NDF). It was
noticed that by the increase of DUCNDF to
sheep the cellulose-lyses is favoured as
against the lecithin dose.

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

Table no. 4
The digestive usage of fat within the sheep food as against the lecithin dose, the fat quantities
voluntarily ingested and the percentage presentation DUCNDF
Specification DUCCF g/day g/100 g DM DUCNDF%
DUC C% 100 1.230 1.19 100
DUC L100 165.61 3.82 ±0.06 3.80 106.26
DUC L200 176.11 6.29 ±0.04 6.82 108.54

The ruminant parameters were
determined. The rumen does not have
enzymatic secretion glands but 50-80% from
the enzymatic processes from the entire
digestive tube takes place in this segment
under the action of ruminal symbionts
enzymes. This dependence and performance,
especially within the cellular walls’ and
nitrogen digestion are mainly due to ruminant
bacteria, which, by the bacteria species’
structure and weight, selectively lead the
ruminant fermentation. The role of protozoan
in the rumen, although is known especially
post- ruminant for the protein quality, within
the rumen it is uncertain; the process against
the rumen’s fauna had contradictory effects
over the productive performance of the
ruminants. Generally, it is admitted the fact
that the ruminant fermentation can be
nutritionally lead, the weight of a nutrient
within the food, favouring the reproduction
of certain species of ruminant bacteria; the
exponential increase of the streptococci to the
soluble glucides supplementation and the
decrease of the cellulose to fat
supplementation are well known but the
lecithin effects were not yet studied.
The comparison of sheep NTG values
and the lecithin supplementation having as
reference the witness ration are presented in
the table no. 5. It was noticed a depression of
NTG, as a matter of fact the reducing to half
of the bacteria number after a 7 days
accommodation with 100g lecithin.
The increase of lecithin dose to 200g
daily determined the increase with 22.22% of
NTG. Comparing these NTG values three
hours from the fodder providing it is noticed
an exponential increase (367.81) to the
supplementation of 100g lecithin. The fact
that to sheep at the value of L200 a reduction
to half takes place (45.98%) of NTG suggests
that at a dose of 100 g, the lecithin has a
stimulative effect over the bacteria and at a
dose of 200 g it has an inhibitive one. These
results can be modified by the differences in
structure of the rations but also by the
species. As against the lecithin dose to sheep,
it was noticed a decrease of the protozoan
number to 54.96% at L100 and to 13.74% at
L200, before the fodder providing, model
which is also maintained after 3 hours from
the fodder providing. This fact proves that, as
concerns the sheep, the depressive effect, as a
matter of fact an effect due to the process of
altering the fauna of the rumen proportional
with the lecithin dose, with the destruction of
Diplodinium type and stimulation of
Dasitricha type.

Table no. 5
Sheep ruminant parameters
Control ration
Specification
Before the fodder providing 3 hours from the fodder
7 7
NTG 4.5 x 10 8.7 x 10
3
Total (nr/mm ) 614062 446875
Protozoan

Entodinium (%) 99.06 96,31

Diplodinium (%) 0.47 2,76
Dasitricha (%) 0.47 0,92
pH 6.9 6.5
Ammoniac (mg/100 ml 20.40 21.76
ruminant fluid)

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

Specification Ration + 100g lecithin sediments

Before the fodder providing 3hours from the fodder
7 8
NTG 2.1 x 10 3.2 x 10
3
Total (nr/mm ) 337500 212500
Protozoan

Entodinium (%) 98.78 96,05

Diplodinium (%) 0 0
Dasitricha (%) 1.21 3,94
pH 7 6.5
Ammoniac 9.45 10.13
(mg/100ml fluid ruminant)

Specification Ration + 200g lecithin sediments

Before the fodder providing 3hours from the fodder
7 7
NTG 5.5 x 10 4 x 10
3
Total (nr/mm ) 84375 90625
Protozoan

Entodinium (%) 97 91,17

Diplodinium (%) 0 0
Dasitricha (%) 3 8,83
pH 7 6.5
Ammoniac 5.51 10.27
(mg/100ml ruminant fluid)

CONCLUSIONS Publishing House- Agricultural Magazines

™ The sheep which received in their
ratio a supplement of vegetal lecithin had a
greater total average milk production (Merino
with 39.38%, Palas prolific population with
24.44%, Palas milk population 9.96%) and a
greater average production of milked milk
(Merino with 27.8%, Palas prolific population
with 31.49%, Palas milk population with
11.1%), in comparison with these productions
from the control lot sheep.
™ The supplementation of small
ruminants’ food with lecithin up to 7% fat
within the dry substance has effects which
are favourable and proportional with the
lecithin dose over the apparent digestibility
of DM, OM, CP, EE, NDF and NFE.
™ The increase of fat proportion in the
food of over 7% from the DM of the ration
reduces the number of ruminant bacteria.
™ The fat from the food has negative
effects over the ruminant protozoan, leading
to the process of altering the fauna.
™ It is possible that the lecithin should
protect the alimentary proteins from the
bacteria proteolitic enzymes and achieve the
ruminant by-pass of the protein.
REFERENCES
Journal articles
[1] Guriţă, E.; Sălăgeanu, Gh.; Liuba, Ghelţu;
Oana, Nica; Rodica, Matei, 1998- Implication of
the vegetal lecithin in the Taurine cows’ milky
secretion, Scientific Works, volume 16, S.C. Agris
Editorial Office, p.301-309.
[4] Jenkins, T.C, Fotouhi, N., 1998- Effects of
lecithin and corn oil on site of digestion, ruminant
fermentation and microbial protein synthesis in
sheep, Journal of Animal. Sci., 68:460-466.
[5] Jenkins, T.C., 2003- Nutrient digestion,
ruminant fermentation and plasma lipids in steers
fed combinations of hydrogenated fat and lecithin,
J. Dairy Sci.,73: 2934-2939
[6] Lough, D.S.; Solomon, M.B.; Rumsey, T.S.;
Elsasser, T.H.; Slyter, L.L.; Kahl, S.; Lynch, G.P.,
1992- Effects of dietary canola seed soy lecithin in
high-forage diets on cholesterol content and fat
acid composition of carcass tissues of growing ram
lambs. J. Anim. Sci. 70: 1153-1156.
[7] Salagean, Gh.; Podar, C.; Sut Gherman
Mariana, 1990- The usage of lecithin as bio
stimulator of growth to animal youth, Annals of
Research Institute for Bovine Corbeanca.
[8] Sălăgeanu, Gh.; Bota, A.; Liuba, Ghelţu; Oana,
Nica; Nicoleta, Lemne; Mariana, Tataomir, 1998-
The process of supplementing the ration of lecithin
for Bubaline-Taurine reproduction youth,
Scientific Works, volume 16, S.C. Agris
Publishing House- Agricultural Magazines
Editorial Office, p. 311-315.
[9] Shain D. H.; Sindt M.H.; Grant, R. J.;
Klopfenstein T.J.; Stok R.A., 1993- Effect of
Soybean Hull: Soy Lecithin: soapstok mixture on
ruminant digestion and performance of growing
beef calves and lactating dairy cattle. J. Anim. Sci.
71:1266-1275.
Books
[2] Jarige, R., 1990- Alimentation des bovins,
ovins et caprins. INRA, Paris.
[3] Jenkins, T. C., -1996- Consultant's Corner:
Lecithin lexicon leson –West Central; Ralston, Iowa.

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

THE INFLUENCE OF PRESTARTER FORAGE QUALITY

ON PERFORMANCES AND ECONOMICAL EFICIENCY OF
GROWING PIGLETS

M. Alda1, D. Drinceanu2, C. Julean2

1
Smithfield Farms, Laboratory for Quality assurance Pădureni
e-mail: laborator.nutritie@smithfieldferme.ro
2
Faculty of Animal Science and Biotechnologies Timişoara

Abstract
In an experiment made on 520 piglets, from 52 sows, were established the performance and
economical indices for two experimental groups: V1 – 259 piglets fed with combined forage with
known parameters, meal type, R.01, which was administered for 10-57 days; V2 – 261 piglet fed
with two types of granulated forage: prestarter forage TS 8001 which was administered for 10-42
days and prestarter forage TS 8063 administered from 43 to 57 day. Piglet from experimental group
V1 fed with combined forage R.01 have registered a greater forage consumption until 32 days of
age, but when the weaning crisis appeared were remediated by forage restriction. Piglet from V2
registered smaller forage consumption of granulated forage and without weaning crisis. On entire
experimental period (1-57 days) piglet from V2 registered a daily weight gain of 177 g/head/day
and piglet from V1 registered a daily weight gain of 165 g/head/day. In the same period at V2 were
registered wastage with 2.62% smaller comparative with V1, but the difference was insignificant.
The forage cost was 83027 ROL/head at V1 and 139163 ROL/head at V2, with 59.66% greater. We
estimate that the granulated forage have better tolerance in piglet digestive system and eliminate
the weaning crisis but the forage cost rises with 60%.
Key words: mash feed, pellet feed, ad libidum feeding, diet feeding, post weaing crisis

INTRODUCTION MATERIAL AND METHODS

Suckling pigs are characterized through a
high growth rate and to capitalize this
property they must be fed with easy
digestible ration with high biological value
(Drinceanu 1994, Luca 2000, Stoica and
Stoica Liliana 2001). After 2 weeks of age
the maternal milk no longer meets the
nutritional requirements of piglets and is
necessary the supllementation of the ration
with combined forages (Pop et all. 2006, Şara
2007, Ştef Lavinia 2008).
In this paper we study the effect in
production of prestarter forage, granular and
structured on phases on each stage of somatic
and physiological development of digestive
tube, comparative with a single prestarter
forage, meal type with comparable physico-
chemical parameters.
The experience was performed on period
26. november. 2003 - 16. january. 2004 on
two experimental groups of hybrids F1
LANDRACE x MARELE ALB:
- Control group – 259 piglet from 26 sows;
- Experimental group – 261 piglets from 26
sows.
In piglet nutrition from control group in
period 10-57 days was used a forage, meal
type called Prestarter forage cod 01.
For the piglets from experimental group
were used two typs of prestarter granular
forage: in period 10-42 days was used
Granular prestarter forage TS 8001 and and
in period 43-57 days was used TS 8063.
The main nutritional parameters of
combined forages used in the experiment are
presented in table 1.

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

Table 1
Main nutritional parameters of combined forages used in the experiment
Specification R 01 Meal TS 8001 granules TS 8063 granules
DM% 87.50 89.97 88.79
ME Kcal/kg 3337 3482 3432
CP% 18.5 18.8 17.84
Lysine% 1.39 1.47 1.35
Methionine + cystine% 0.81 0.90 0.83
Ca% 0.65 0.75 0.67
P% 0.58 0.68 0.58
Crude cellulose 2.59 2.77 2.68

During the experiment were esteblised D) The forages costs in the

the following productive and economic experimental period for the two forage
indices: variants.
A) The evolution of body weight from E) The livestock keeping situation.
birth to 57 days, by individual weighing at
birth, at 21 days (wening), at 42 days and at RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
57 days; To emphasize, the influence of prestarter
B) the evolution of forage forage structure, as weel as the presentation
consumption expressed by the forage form, were compared the indices mentioned
quantitys ingested in period: 10-21 days, above, for the piglets from experimental
22-28 days, 29-42 days and 43-57 days; groups and the results are:
C) The evolution of piglets weight The evolution of piglets body weight
gain in period 1-57 days expressed by in experimental period is presented in
weight gains obtained in period 1-21 days, table 2 and represented graphically in
22-28 days, 29-42 days and 43-57 days; figure 1.

Table 2
The evolution of body weights of piglets in period 1-57 days

Birth 21 days 28 days 42 days 57 days

Diff. Diff. Diff. Diff. Diff.

Control Exper Control Exper Control Exper Control Exper Control Exper
± ± ± ± ±
Kg Kg Kg Kg Kg Kg Kg Kg Kg Kg
Kg Kg Kg Kg Kg

- - - - -
1.57 1.64 0.07 5.61 5.71 0.1 6.30 7.04 0.65 7.62 8.94 1.32 11.01 11.77 0.76
ns* ns ns ns ns

*ns – (p>0.05)

Evolutia comparativa a greutatii

corporale a purceilor Martor
Exper.

14

12

10

8
Kg
6

0
Fatare 21 zile 28 zile 42 zile 57 zile

Figure 1. The evolution of body weight of piglets from experimental groups

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

At birth the piglets from control goup groups was statistically insignificant
(259 piglets) hade a total body weight of (p>0.05).
407 kg, returning a medium body weight The evolution of forage consumption
of 1.57 kg and at experimental group (261 in experimental period is presented in
piglets) hade a total body weight of 427 table 3 and represented graphically in
kg, returning a medium body weight of figure 2.
1.64 kg. The difference from experimental

Table 3
The evolution of forage consumption in period 10-57 days

10 – 21 days 22 – 28 days 29 – 42 days 43 – 57 days 10 – 57 days

Diff. Diff. Diff.

Control Exper Control Exper Control Exper Diff. ± Control Exper Control Exper Diff. ±
± ± ±
Kg Kg Kg Kg Kg Kg Kg Kg Kg Kg Kg Kg
Kg Kg Kg

-
32.8 18.02 +14.6 36.5 26.12 +9.95 579.1 880.8 1440 1282 +158 2088 2207 -119
301.1

Evolutia consumului de furaj comparativa Martor

Lot exp.
2250
2000
1750
1500
1250
Kg
1000
750
500
250
0
10-21 zile 22-28 zile 29-42 zile 43-57 zile 10-57 zile

Figure 2. The evolution of forage consumption at experimental groups

For both experimental groups, piglets piglets performances, in this period the
feeding started at the age of 10 days, as influence of maternal milk was predominant.
follows: At the age of 21 days the medium weight
¾ At control group was administered of piglets from control group was 5.61 kg
forage R.01 meal type, in gutter specially and at experimental group 5.71 kg, the
arranged for the additional feeding of difference of 100 grams was insignificant
suckilng pigs. (p>0.05). In this period the total weight gain
¾ At experimental groups were at piglets from control group was 4.04 kg and
administered the two typs of combined at experimental group 4.07 kg, the difference
forage. For both experimental groups the was insignificant (p>0.05). In this conditions,
forage were administered ad libidum. Was the daily weight gain calculated for control
observed that piglets preferences and forage group was 192.31 g and for experimental
consumption was greater at control group group 193.8 g, teh difference was 1.42 g,
were the forage was meal type. 0.74%.
In period 10-21 days the control group The piglet weaning was made at 28 days
consumed 32.8 kg forage R.01 meal type and by removing the sows from piglets box, and
the experimental group 18.02 kg forage TS at this age the medium body weight of piglets
8001. This consumption is not defining for from control group was 6.30 kg and 7.04 kg

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at experimental group, the difference of 0.74
kg was insignificant (p>0.05).
In period 28-42 days the piglets feeding
from the two experimental groups was made
as follows:
¾ At control group, the feeding was
made ad libidum with meal type forage 01
until 32 days, when at almost 60% from
piglets group were manifested the weaning
crisis (diarehea, tendency of cluster on hot
bed), reason for the interruption of forage
administartion for one day. Starting with the
sixth day after weaning feeding was resumed,
was administered forage 01 but in limited
quantity, calculation 60 g forage/day/piglet in
the first day, 120 g the second day and was
increased progressively up to 240
g/piglet/day and then was reached a ad
libidum feeding, on day time, the last
administration was made at 1600, and the next
feeding was at 700 next morning.
In this conditions in period 29-42 days, the
piglets from control group, have consumed a
quantity of 579.12 kg forage R.01 meal type,
the piglets from experimental group, have
consumed a quantity of 880.86 kg granular
forage (TS 8001) with 301.74 kg more than
control group.
¾ The experimental group was fed ad
libidum in period 29-42 days, with granular
forage TS 8001, and from 43 day until 57 day
with forage TS 8063 and the physico-
chemical parameters are presented in table 1.
Experimental group, in period 29-42 days
have consumed 880.86 kg forage TS 8001,
which at the age of 42 days had 8.94 kg,
comparative with control group who
registered only 7.62 kg. Benefiting of ad
libidum feeding the piglets from
experimental group had registered a total
gain of 1.9 kg comparative with control
group who registerd 1.32 kg, the difference
of 0.58 kg was significant and is due to the
forage surplus consumed in this period.
The daily weight gain, in period 29-42
days, at control group was 94.29 g and at
experimental group was with 41.42 g greater,
i.e. 138.71 g. Expressed in percents, the
experimental group had registered a daily
weight gain with 43.92% comparative with
control group.
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
Calculating now the total gain, from birth
to 42 days, the control group had registered a
total weight gain of 6.05 kg and experimental
group, 7.3 kg, with 20.6% greater at
experimental group comparative with control
group.
Regarding the daily weight gain, in
period 1-42 days, the control group had
registered 144 g/pig/day and experimental
group registered 174 g/pig/day, with 20.8%
greater comparative with control group.
After 42 days the piglets from control
group were fed with forage R.01 meal type
and piglets from experimental group with
forage TS 8063 which nutritional and
physico-chemical parameters were presented.
In this period (43-57 days) the
experimental group consumed 1282 kg
forage TS 8063, which corresponds to 394 g
/pig/period and the control group consumed
1440kg forage R.01 meal type, which
corresponds to 461.53 g /pig/period.
Comparative analysis of consumed forage
quantity for the 2 experimental groups shows
that in this period the forage consumption
difference was +158 kg forage in favour of
control group, but the difference is more
dimmed in period 28-42 days, what was
passed on piglets performances, thus the
medium weight of piglets from experimental
group is 11.77 kg, and from control group
11.01 kg, with 7.34% smaller comparative
with experimental group.
The experimental group had registerd in
this period a total weight gain of 2.835 kg
and control group had registerd in this period
a total weight gain of 3.392 kg, the difference
in favour of control group demonstrates that
after 42 days, when the piglets enzyme
equipment is strenghthening, the additional
forage consumption lead to a better daily
weight gain, recovering the differences
existing at 42 days.
Analyzing this aspect by daily weight
gain it can be shown that experimental group,
in period 42-57 days had registered a daily
weight gain of 0.189 kg/pig/day and control
group had registered a daily weight gain of
0.226 kg/pig/day.
Cumulative analysis from birth to 57 days
shows that the experimental group had
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
registered better performances, the total
weight gain in this period was 10.135 kg with
a daily weight gain of 0.177 kg/pig/day,
while the control group registered a total
weight gain of 9.442 kg and a daily weight
gain of 0.165 kg/pig/day.
Comparative analysis of casulaties in
period 1-57 days shows that experimental
group registered with only 2.62% less
casulaties comparative with control group,
which is insignificant (p>0.05).
From economic point of view we present
the structure of expences registered with
feeding at the experimental groups (control
and experimental group).
I. Expence structure for control
group:
¾ Expence with feeding
2100 kg forage R.01 x 10240 ROL / kg
forage = 21.504.000 ROL
II Expence structure for
experimental group:
¾ Expence with feeding
925 kg forage TS 8001 x 18 000/ kg =
16.650.000 ROL
1190 kg forage TS 8063 x 15.739 ROL / kg =
18.729.410 ROL
92 kg forage 01 x 10 240 = 942.080 ROL
Total feeding expences = 36.321.490 ROL
CONCLUSIONS
Comparative analysis of piglets
performances from experimental groups
allowed the conclusion that the structure of
forage and the presentation way has great
influence, especially in the period after
weaning until 42 days when piglets enzyme
equipment is begining to consolidate.
Made from raw materials with high
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bioavailability, the assurance of a optimal
level of lactose, essential amino acids and the
assurance of a correct ratio between the
energy and amino acids level in forage, the
forages TS 8001 and TS 8063 are easely
accepted by the piglets digestive tube with
not consolidated enzyme equipment, remove
the symptoms of weaning crisis, remove the
restrictive feeding of piglets.
The use of extruded cereals in the
structure of combined forages ensure the
removal of syndrome of soft faeces and
automated will make more visible the
performances of this young animals which, in
a short period must adapt to dry food.
Analyzing the costs level of forages for
the experimental lots, we see that for the
control group the costs are 21.504.000 ROL,
for experimental group are 36.321.490 ROL,
with 14.817.490 ROL more, which means
68.9% more expences with feeding but only
20% greater performance.
REFERENCES
Books
[1] Drinceanu D. – Alimentaţia animalelor, Editura
Euroart Timisoara, 1994
[2] Luca, I. - Nutriţia şi alimentaţia animalelor,
Editura Marineasa, Timisoara, 2000
[3] Pop I. M., Halga P., Avarvarei Teona - Nutriţia
şi alimentaţia animalelor, Vol I, II, III, Tipografia
Moldova, Iasi, 2006
[4] Stoica I., Stoica Liliana – Bazele nutriţiei şi
alimentaţiei animalelor, Editura Coral Sanivet,
Bucureşti, 2001
[5] Şara A. – Alimentaţia raţională a animalelor de
fermă, Editura Risoprint, Cluj-Napoca, 2007
[6] Ştef Lavinia - Nutreţurile combinate în
alimentaţia suinelor şi a păsărilor, Editura Mirton,
Timişoara, 2008
 BACK

Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

IMPROVEMENT OF LAYING HEN PERFORMANCES

BY DIETARY MANNANOLIGOSACCHARIDES
SUPPLEMENTATION

Cristina Gabriela Radu-Rusu, I.M. Pop

University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Iaşi,

Animal Science Faculty, Iaşi
e-mail: cristina.radurusu@gmail.com

Abstract
The goals of the study were to assess the effects of prebiotic mannanoligosaccharides feed
additive on the performance and egg quality of commercial laying hens approaching the end of the
laying period. The trial was setup at the Animal Husbandry Faculty’s Experimental Farm in Iasi,
Romania, during a 4 weeks period. The biological material consisted in 60 hens, 57 week old ISA
Brown. The control group (30 hens) was fed with standard layer mixed feed, meaning a corn-
soybean meal basal diet while the experimental treatment (30 hens) classic feed was supplemented
with 0.1% prebiotic of mannanoligosaccharides kind (treatment A1). Several parameters were
studied: hens living weight and feed intake dynamics, feed conversion ratio, laying intensity, egg
mass production, eggs and eggshell weight, eggshell thickness, shell index, shell breaking strength,
eggs with unconformities. The laying hens in the experimental group, whose fed was supplemented
with prebiotic, gave higher performances, concerning the production parameters (laying intensity:
+2.2%; egg mass production: +1.7%; feed conversion: -2.0%) and the shell quality (weight:
+3.6%; thickness: +3.9%, breaking strength: +5.9%, eggs unconformities: -55.5%).
Key words: laying hens, mannanoligosaccharides, yield performances, egg quality

INTRODUCTION 6], increasing meantime the degree of their

The numeric egg production decreases
while the hens approach the end of their laying
cycle. On the contrary, the weight of the eggs
increases. As laying hens become older, the egg
volume and the yolk proportion increase, and
the albumen proportion and the shell thickness
decrease [11]. These undesirable situations are
related to some factors such as: shell thickness
and shell stiffness, which decrease
proportionally with hens ageing [2; 7].
Some previous researches proved that the
prebiotic product, which contains
mannanoligosaccharides issued from the cell
wall of the Sacharomyces cerevisiae yeast,
could generate beneficial effects, such as fight
against intestinal pathogen germs in birds and
mammals, through the immune response
modulation and through the improvement of
the intestinal mucosa structural integrity [9;
10]. Prebiotics also improve the absorption of
the nutrients, including macro and
microelements, through the intestinal wall [1;
availability, in order to be used for organism’s
maintenance and regeneration, as well as for
production.
The goal of our study was to evaluate the
effects generated by a prebiotic product, which
contains mannanoligosaccharides on the
quantitative and qualitative eggs production,
on the bodyweight and feed intake dynamics
of the laying hens approaching the end of their
laying period.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
The experiment was hosted by the
Experimental Farm of the Animal Husbandry
Faculty in Iasi city, during 28 days.
A flock of 60 laying hens, ISA-Brown
hybrid, aged 57-61 weeks, was used and
accommodated in three levels pyramidal
coops batteries (two hens/ coop).
The fowl were divided in two treatment
groups: control and “A”. The Control group
(C) included 30 hens which received a diet

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

based on a corn-soy meal mixture (table 1).
The “A” group (30 hens), received a 0.1%
Bio-Mos® supplementation of the basal diet.
The lighting program was 16L:8N type.
The temperature into the shelter reached 24-
28°C and the relative air humidity 75%. The
feed was given once a day, while the water
was permanently provided.
The parameters assessed in our study
included: hens live weight, feed intake and
laying intensity dynamics – as productive
features; egg weight, eggshell weight,
eggshell thickness, shell ratio participation in
the whole egg eight, shell index – as eggshell
quality parameters; Haugh index – as eggs’
internal quality property.
Eggs weight was daily assessed through
weighting, using digital technical scales.
The eggs quality parameters were
assessed weekly, on 10 eggs harvested from
each group, randomly selected. Eggshell
weight and thickness were measured after 24
hours of drying at room temperature. A
micrometric device was used to measure the
eggshell thickness. Three fragments of shell
were taken from sharpen and rounded poles
and from the equatorial zone of each egg.
The thickness represents the mean of the
three mentioned shell sections.
Eggshell breaking strength have been
indirectly assessed, using the algebraic
product between eggshell thickness value and
a constant of its density (230), according to
the recommendations found in literature [11].
The calculated value has been expressed in
mg force/cm2 shell.
Haugh index was computed accorded to
the formula which includes height of the
dense albumen (h) and egg’s weight (G):
U.H. = 100log (h-1,7 X G0,37 + 7,57).
Data concerning the entire amount of
eggs produced the amount of broken,
cracked, rough, pale or deformed eggs were
recorded on a daily base.
The experimental values were statistically
processed and then the comparisons between
means were applied, using a single factor
ANOVA algorithm, included within the
MsExcel software package.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Production performances
The achieved results, concerning yield
performances, showed improved values in
experimental group. Thus, the average
amount of eggs produced per period
increased and, as a consequence, the laying
intensity was also improved, while the feed
intake decreased (table 1). The best results
were achieved by the A group (+0,1%
prebiotic), with an egg mass yield of 54.73
g/hen/day, with an average intake of only
2,064 kg feed to obtain 1 kg egg mass.
However, the differences found between
control and experimental group were
statistically insignificant.

Table 1
Effects of prebiotic product usage in laying hens feed supplementation on their production
performances
Exp. period Groups
Studied parameter
(weeks) Control A* (0.1+Prebiotic)
Initial hens’ body weight (kg/hen) - 1.752 1.748
Final hens’ body weight (kg/hen) - 1.709 1.761
Average daily feed intake (g/hen/day) 4 113.21 112.98
Egg production (eggs/day/group) 4 725 741
Laying intensity (mean values)(%) 4 86.31 88.21
Egg-mass (g/hen/day) 53.83 54.73
4
production % (C=100) 100.00 101.67
Feed conversion (kg feed/kg egg mass) 2.103 2.064
4
ratio (FCR) % (C=100) 100.00 98.15
®
* basal diet + 0.1% Bio-MOS (Alltech inc., USA)

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

Egg production quality

The data concerning the quality of the eggs issued from the laying hens belonging to the
three used groups are presented in table 2.

Table 2
Effects of prebiotic product usage in laying hens feed supplementation on egg quality
Exp. period Groups
Studied character
(weeks) Control A* (+0,1% Prebiotic)
Egg weight (grams) 65.09 65.38
4
(%) (C=100) 100 100.44
a b
% shell in whole egg weight 4 9.27 9.57
(%) (C=100) 100 103.18
% albumen in whole egg weight 4 65.76 65.42
(%) (C=100) 100 99.56
% shell in whole egg weight 4 24.97 25.01
(%) (C=100) 100 101.19
Eggshell weight (grams) 4 6.04 6.26
(%) (C=100) 100 103.64
Shell thickness (mm) 4 0.387 0.402
(%) (C=100) 100 103.87
Shell index 4 7.98 8.24
(%) (C=100) 100 104.38
2 a b
Eggshell breaking strength (mg/cm ) 4 89.01 92.63
(%) (C=100) 100 105.94
Haugh index (H.U.) 4 87.71 87.72
(%) (C=100) 100 100.13
®
* basal diet + 0.1% Bio-MOS (Alltech inc., USA)
a,b ab
– significant differences between means on the same row, with different superscripts ( ; P>0.05).

Average egg weight was found, during
the entire period, between 65.09 g and 65.38
g values, the differences between treatments
being insignificant.
Eggshell weight increase of the mean
values of this character was observed in
experimental groups, during weeks 1, 2 and
3, the differences between experimental and
control groups becoming statistically
significant during the 4th week of the
experiment. Eggshell weight was obviously
higher in the experimental treatment,
comparing to the control one (+3.6% in A
group).
Albumen proportion in whole egg was
recorded across the entire experimental
period with average values of 65.75% in
control group and 65.42% in the
experimental group, fed with 0.1% prebiotic
supplementation (A group), while yolk
proportion reached 24.97% (control) and
25.01% (A group). Lower albumen
participation in whole egg formation could be
noticed in experimental group, compared to
the control one, basing on the yolk
participation increasing. Eggshell proportion
reached values of 9.6% in experimental
group (A), compared to 9.3% in control
group, also existing significant statistic
differences between these means.
Shell thickness (mm) have been also
improved in the experimental group,
compared to the control one. Therefore, shell
thickness increased with 3.9% at the eggs
produced by the fowl of whose feed was
0.1% supplemented with prebiotic.
Shell index revealed that eggs weight per
surface unit recorded an evolution slightly
similarly to that of the shell weight.
The Haugh Index presented close values
for all groups (M=87.71 U.H., A=87.82
U.H.); the experimental did not significantly
affect this parameter;
Incidence of the shell morphologic
anomalies
The achieved results revealed that the
proportion of eggs with shell unconformities
from whole eggs yield varied between 5.4%
(A group) and 8.4% (control group) (table 3).

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

Comparing to the control group values,
the proportion of the eggs with
unconformities was 55.6% reduced in the
group fed with 0.1% supplemental prebiotic
(table 3).
The better results obtained for the
eggshell quality parameters could due to the
prebiotic influence on the metabolic activity
of the beneficial bacteria colony within the
layers’ intestine, which positively influenced
mineral absorption rate, especially those of
Ca2+ and Mg2+ [8].

Table 3
Proportion of the eggs with unconformities from whole eggs production
Notice Control A* (+0.1% prebiotic)
Total amount of eggs: 725 741
pcs. 14 10
* intact eggshell
% 1.9 1.3
pcs. 10 7
* cracked eggshell
% 1.4 0.9
pcs. 12 9
* rough eggshell
% 1.7 1.2
pcs. 11 8
* eggs with soft shell or without shell
% 1.5 1.1
pcs. 14 6
* deformed eggshell
% 1.9 0.8
pcs. 61 40
Total eggs with unconformities
% 8.4 5.4
* basal diet + 0.1% Bio-MOS® (Alltech inc., USA)

The benefits generated from the usage of
the mannanoligosaccharide type prebiotic
have been also revealed in other researches
from 2004 [3; 4]. Their results underlined the
positive influence of this feed additive on the
eggs yield (+2%) and on the FCR, as well
(decreasing with 6 p.p.).
Other researches, published in 2005 [5],
showed that mannanoligosaccharides usage in
laying hens feeding produced beneficial
effects on the eggs yield (+2.5%) and FCR (-
1.5%); the casualties have been also reduced,
from 3.2% to 1.6%, while the amount of eggs
with morphologic anomalies decreased from
2.5 to 1.7%, counted on the entire yield basis.
CONCLUSIONS
Production indexes have been influenced
by the usage in laying hens feeding of 0.1%
prebiotic of mannanoligosaccharide kind,
although statistical significance did not
occur. Thus, compared to the control group,
the experimental treatment A (+ 0.1%
prebiotic), gave higher results for egg mass
yield (+1.7%), while the FCR decreased with
1.85%.
Concerning the external eggs quality,
improved results have been acquired in the
group fed with supplemental 0.1% prebiotic.
Shell thickness increased with 2.8%, while
the shell breaking strength was also improved
(+3.6%).
The usage of the mannanoligosaccharide
prebiotic led to the decreasing of the
unconformities eggs amount. Therefore, for
the entire analysed period, the amount of
eggs with intact shell was 5.60% higher in
experimental treatment vs. reference group.
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[1] Chen Y. C., Chen T. C.: Mineral utilization in
Layers as Influenced by Dietary Oligofructose and
Inulin, Intl. J. of Poult. Sci. 2004, 3 (7):442-445.
[2] De Ketelaere B., Govaerts T., Couke P., Dewil
E., Visscher J., Decuyper E., De Baerdemaeker J.:
Measuring the eggshell strength of 6 different
genetic strains of laying hens: techniques and
comparisons, Br. Poult. Sci., 2002, 43:238-244.
[3] Dimovelis P., Christaki E., Tserveni-Goussi A.,
Spais A.B.: Performance of layer hens fed a diet
with mannan-oligosaccharides from
Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Bio-Mos). 'World

- 218 -

Poultry Congress' Book. Istanbul, Turkey, 2004, 1-
4.
[4] Garcia M., Cachaldora P., Tucker L.A.,
Baucells F., Medel P.: Effect of
mannanoligosaccharides supplementation to laying
hen diets, Poultry Science, 2004, 83:397.
[5] Kocher A., Garcia P., Tucker L.A.: Effects of
Bio-Mos for laying hens 20-52 weeks under
commercial conditions, World Poultry Science
Association, 15th European Symposium on
Poultry Nutrition, Balatonfüred, Hungary, 2005,
25-29.
[8] Roberfroid M.B.: Prebiotics and probiotics: are
they functional foods? Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 2000, 71
(Suppl): 162S-168S.
[9] Savage T.F., Zakrzewska E.I., Andreasen J.R.:
The effects of feeding mannanoligosaccharide
supplemented diets to poults on performance and
- 219 -
Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
the morphology of the small intestine. Poultry Sci.,
1997, 76(Suppl. 1):139.
[10] Spring P., Wenk C., Dawson K. A., Newman
K. E.: The effects of dietary
mannanoligosaccharides on cecal parameters and
the concentrations of enteric bacteria in the ceca of
salmonella-challenged broiler chicks, Poult. Sci.,
2000, 79: 205-211.
[11] Yörük M.A., Gül M., Hayirli A., Karaoglu
M.: Laying performance and egg quality of hens
supplemented with sodium bicarbonate during the
late laying period, Intl. J. of Poult. Sci., 2004, 3
(4):272-278.
Books
[6] Pop I.M.: Aditivi furajeri. Ed. TipoMoldova.
Iaşi, 2006.
[7] Pop I.M., Halga P., Avarvarei Teona: Nutriţia
şi alimentaţia animalelor, vol. I, II, III. Ed.
TipoMoldova. Iaşi, 2006.
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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

EVALUATION OF COPPER CONCENTRATION IN SOME

DAIRY COW FEEDING RAW MATERIALS

Aida Albu1, Cecilia Pop1, Felicia Ţârcă2, I.M. Pop1

1
University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine – Iasi
e-mail: albuaida@yahoo.com
2
Sanitary-Veterinary and Food Safety Authority – Iasi

Abstract
Copper is a metal that occurs naturally the environment and an essential nutrient for plant
growth and development; ingested in food by high concentrations, copper is potentially toxic to both
humans and animals.
The aim of this study was to evaluate copper concentration in some raw materials used in
feeding dairy cows during 2006-2007 period.
Fifty-five samples of grass, vetch, alfalfa, Sudan grass, alfalfa hay, grass hay, corn silage, maize,
wheat bran, sunflower meal and brewery dregs were analyzed to evaluate copper concentration in
feeds. Copper concentration was assesed using atomic absorbtion spectrofotometry method in
flame.
Results (expressed in mg/kg related to dry matter) shown that all analyzed samples contained
copper residues in detectable amounts.
For samples harvested in 2006 year, the average concentration of copper ranged from 1.27
mg/kg D.M. in sunflower meal at 3.70 mg/kg D.M. in wheat bran, while samples of feed from 2007
year, values were between 0.30 mg/kg D.M. in brewery dregs and 3.89 mg/kg D.M. in alfalfa.
Values obtained in this research as regards the contents of copper were lower compared with
results of other researches conducted and data from literature.
Key words: minerals, copper, raw materials, dairy cows

INTRODUCTION physiological processes [4]. In plant material,

Some trace elements are essential
nutrients for plant growth and often also for
food and feed quality because the primary
route for their intake by humans and animals
is plants. Because these elements are
considered essential to life, they could be
called "bioessential."
Trace mineral concentrations are affected
by four interdependent factors: 1) the genus,
species or variety of crop, 2) type and
mineral concentration of the soil, 3) stage of
plant maturity, and 4) climatic or seasonal
conditions [2]. Copper is a reddish metal that
occurs naturally in rock, soil, water, sediment
and low levels in the air.
Copper is an essential element for normal
growth and development of plants,
nevertheless, excess or deficiency, can cause
disorders in plant growth and development
by a negative impact on important
copper concentration ranges from 1 ppm to
50 ppm, dry basis [12]. Affinity of plants for
metals is different from a species to another
[6]. Copper is not easily absorbed into plants,
thus the concentration in roots is higher than
the concentration in other parts of plants. In
general, legumes contain greater quantities in
microminerals and macrominerals than
grasses [2].
The aim of this study was to evaluate
copper concentration in some dairy cow
feeding raw materials during 2006-2007
period.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
Various samples of raw materials used in
dairy cow feeding were analyzed during two
years 2006 and 2007. Samples of grass,
vetch, alfalfa, Sudan grass, alfalfa hay, grass
hay, corn silage, maize, wheat bran, sunflower

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

meal and brewery dregs were analyzed to
evaluate copper concentration in raw
materials.
Copper concentration was assesed using
atomic absorbtion spectrofotometry method
in flame.
The harvesting and the preparation of raw
materials samples for analysis were made
according to the legal standard SR ISO
6498:1999 and to the sanitary- veterinary
norms.
The quantitative determination of copper
in raw materials samples was made using an
absorption spectrophotometry method with a
flame burner fed with an air-acetylene
mixture up to 2250°C in a GBC-AVANTA
FAA analyser.
The calibration curve of absorbance
against concentration was obtained, used
standard solutions (Merck), in three points: 1,
2, 4 ppm. The wave-lenght used for
detremination of copper was 324.7 nm. The
results of copper concentration are shown in
mg/kg (ppm) dry matter.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Average concentrations of copper in
samples of raw materials analyzed are
presented in tab. 1 and 2, while in fig.1 are
represented graphically, compared for the
two years (2006-2007), average values
recorded in those samples.

Table 1
Average concentration of copper in raw materials, mg/kg D.M., 2006
No.
Raw materials X ± sx s v%
sample
Maize 5 2.21±0.03 0.06 2.56
Wheat bran 5 3.70±0.04 0.10 2.60
Sunflower meal 5 1.27±0.05 0.10 8.03
Brewery dregs 5 2.17±0.07 0.16 7.44
Alfalfa hay 5 3.16±0.07 0.15 4.75
Grass hay 5 1.84±0.07 0.17 9.12
Corn silage 5 3.33±0.06 0.13 3.90
Vetch 5 2.02±0.05 0.12 5.84
Alfalfa 5 3.16±0.08 0.17 5.32
Sudan grass 5 2.40±0.06 0.14 5.92
Grass 5 2.25±0.07 0.16 6.91
Average 2.47±0.06
TOTAL 55
Min.-Max. 1.27-3.70 0.06-0.17 2.56-9.12

Table 2
Average concentration of copper in raw materials, mg/kg D.M., 2007
No.
Raw materials X ± sx s v%
sample
Maize 5 1.10±0.01 0.03 2.61
Wheat bran 5 3.39±0.01 0.03 0.82
Sunflower meal 5 2.26±0.01 0.02 0.73
Brewery dregs 5 0.30±0.01 0.02 7.62
Alfalfa hay 5 2.61±0.01 0.02 0.81
Grass hay 5 1.86±0.01 0.01 0.73
Corn silage 5 1.85±0.01 0.02 1.22
Vetch 5 2.03±0.01 0.03 1.31
Alfalfa 5 3.89±0.02 0.05 1.16
Sudan grass 5 1.76±0.01 0.02 1.15
Grass 5 2.28±0.02 0.04 1.64
Average 2.13±0.01
TOTAL 55
Min.-Max. 0.30-3.89 0.01-0.05 0.73-7.62

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
Fig. 1 Average concentration of copper in raw materials, mg/kg D.M., 2006-2007
The results shown that all analyzed
samples contained copper in detectable
amounts. In 2006 year, the mean values of
copper concentration ranged from 1.27
mg/kg D.M. in sunflower meal to 3.70 mg/kg
D.M. in wheat bran and from 0.30 mg/kg
D.M. in brewery dregs to 3.89 mg/kg D.M. in
alfalfa, during 2007 year.
Average copper concentrations in alfalfa
(3.16 mg/kg D.M. in 2006 year and 3.89 mg/kg
D.M. in 2007 year) are higher than average
concentrations in Sudan grass (2.40 mg/kg D.M.
in 2006 year and 1.76 mg/kg D.M. in 2007 year)
or grass (2.25 mg/kg D.M. in 2006 year and 2.28
mg/kg D.M. in 2007 year).
Compared to other investigations made in
different countries, in some feed materials,
the copper concentration levels found were
higher:
- in Ireland, the values obtained on the
concentration of copper in different feed
analyzed were: 5.115 mg/kg D.M. in maize
silage, in grass 9.217 mg/kg D.M., and 5.843
mg/kg D.M. in hay [9];
- the average concentration of copper obtained
from the Montana-USA grass, grass+legumes
and legumes hay samples collected over the
past two years were: 5.2 mg/kg D.M. in
grasses, 7.0 mg/kg D.M. in grass+legumes and
8.8 mg/kg D.M. in legumes hay [8];
- in India, the copper content in maize
samples collected from the feed processing
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unit, ranged to7.7 mg/kg D.M. from 18.2
mg/kg D.M. [10];
- in Nigeria, was analyzed different cereals
for the determination of copper content;
values ranged from 7.1 ppm to 11.0 ppm in
white maize and from 6.2 mg/kg D.M. to 9.4
mg/kg D.M. in yellow maize [5].
Different values obtained as regards the
concentration of copper in the feed may be
assigned different types and compositions of
the soil and the presence / absence of specific
factors pollutants.
The copper content of the most common
forage sources indicated some specialized
institutions in various countries is presented,
as an indication, in tab. 3 [7].
The addition of trace minerals and certain
vitamins to in ration of dairy cows was
considered a good nutritional insurance.
Trace minerals are needed by the dairy
animals in very small quantities (parts per
million); for this reason, salt is commonly
used as a carrier for all the trace minerals [1].
Mineral nutrition of animals is extremely
complicated. Many interactions can occur
between trace elements or trace elements and
other nutrients. These interactions can be
very complex. Deficiency or toxicity of Cu
are caused by interrelations that he has with
other mineral elements, depending on their
concentration [11].

Table 3
Common levels of copper in some feed materials (mg/kg DM) [7]
Feed materials Cu
Alfalfa hay 7.3
Barley 3.5-7
Rye 4-6
Sorghum 2.7-10
Straw Barley 1.7-5
Maize silage 7.6
INRA= Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique (France),
DLG= Deutsche Landwirtschafts-Gesellschaft (Germany),
ACV= Afnemers Controle op Veevoeder (The Netherlands),
ADAS= Agricultural Development and Advisory Service (UK),
NRC = National Research Council (USA)
Research investigating the influence of
copper in cattle nutrition in relation to health
and performance, made evidence the influence
of one or more antagonists such as
molybdenum, sulfur, iron, and zinc, which can
induce a copper deficiency in function and
their concentration [12]. For example
molybdenum concentrations below 1 ppm,
have no effect on the requirement of copper,
molybdenum, but if it is in a concentration
above 3 ppm, it can have a strong antagonistic
action on the absorption of copper [3].
Values obtained in this research as
regards the contents of copper were lower
compared with the results of other research
conducted and the literature and indicate a
low level of copper in feed analysis.
CONCLUSIONS
1. In 2006 year, the average concentration of
copper in the feed analyzed ranged from 1.27
mg/kg D.M. in sunflower meal to 3.70 mg/kg
D.M. in wheat bran.
2. In 2007 year, the average concentration of
copper was between the limits of 0.30 mg/kg
D.M. in brewery dregs and 3.89 mg/kg D.M.
in alfalfa.
3. Low levels of copper obtained in this
research justify to continuation monitoring of
the presence of copper in feeds, indicating
the uselfulness of using mineral supplements
for performing animals.
4. The results obtained determine to do other
investigations about the presence of copper in
soil and feed and the levels of its antagonists.
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
Feed materials Cu
Straw Wheat 7
Grass hay 9.0
Sunflower 25
Maize 1.9-3.3
Wheat bran 10-30
Oats 2.8-5
REFERENCES
Journal articles
[1] Barney Harris, Jr.,: Mineral Nutrition of Dairy
Cattle, University of Florida IFAS Extension
(online), (2003).
[2] Berger Larry L.,: Factors affecting the trace
mineral composition of feedstuffs, Salt Institute
(online) (1995).
[3] Berger Larry L.,: Salt and Trace Minerals for
Livestock, Poultry and Other Animals, Salt
Institute (online), (2006).
[4] Inmaculada Yruela,: Copper in plants, Braz. J.
Plant Physiol., (2005), 17 (1):145-156.
[5] IyakaY.A. et al.,: Contents of copper in some
cereal grains commonly available in niger state,
Nigeria. EJEAFChe, (2008) ,7 (11):3316-3320
[6] Mathe-Gaspar Gabriella, Atilla Anton,:
Phytoremediation study: Factors influencing heavy
metal uptake of plants, Acta Biologica
Szegediensis, (2005), 49(1-2): 69-70.
[7] Opinion of the Scientific Committee for
Animal Nutrition on the use of copper in
feedingstuffs - EUROPEAN COMMISSION
HEALTH & CONSUMER PROTECTION
DIRECTORATE-GENERAL, (2003)
[8] Paterson J., Swenson C., Jhonson B.,
Ansotegui R.,: Life cycle trace mineral needs for
reducing stress in beef production, Montana State
University Extention (online), (2007)
[9] Rogers Phil, Murphy John & Kavanagh
Siobhan,: Bovine Mineral-Vitamin Balancers for
Irish Maize Silage, Grange Research Centre,
Dunsany, Co. Meath, Ireland (online), (2001)
[10] Sunder G., Gopinath N.C.S., Sadagopan V.R.,
Raju M.V.L.N.,: Trace minerals in poultry feed
ingredients, Indian Journal of Animal Nutrition,
(2004), 21 (2): 133-136.
Books
[11] Beasley V.,: Veterinary Toxicology (Ed.),
IVIS Books U.S.A. (online), (1999).
[12] McDowell Lee Russell,: Minerals in Animal
and Human Nutrition, Edit. ACADEMIC PRESS,
INC., San Diego, California, USA, (1992), pp.
176-204.
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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

STUDIES ON THE INFLUENCE OF SOME REGULATING

GROWING SUBSTANCES UPON THE QUANTITY AND
QUALITY OF MENTHA PIPERITA PRODUCTION

Constanţa Nicodim1, C. Milică2

1
NaţionalCollege Calistrat Hogaş Tecuci
e-mail: constanta_nicodim@yahoo.com
2
University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine
”Ion Ionescu de la Brad”Iasi

Abstract
Mentha piperita, an important medicinal plant due to its volatile oil content and especially its
main component, menthol, is cultivated at present on small surfaces. Out of the wish to increase the
production of mint we resorted to phyto-regulating growing substances. The biometric
determinations were effectuated in the period on vegetative growth and the inflorescence phase. We
followed the quantitative differences as compared to the blank test, for each more important
vegetative organ and for the entire plant. In 2008, we studied the effect of some bio-regulating
growing substances on mint. We noticed some substances with a benefic role upon the increase of
mint production.
Key words: bio-regulating growing substances, influence on production

INTRODUCTION considerably reduces the possibilities of

Mint (Mentha Piperita) is a natural
remedy known and appreciated for centuries.
It seems it was very popular for Greeks and
Romans. [1] Mint contains a high level of
essential active oil called menthol. [8] Mint is
used successfully in the gastro-intestinal
disorders, [4] maintains the health of liver
and works wonders in case of indigestions
and vomiting states. [2]
Mint was and still is considered by many
researchers and cultivators as a perennial
plant due to the lack of coincidence between
the period of growth of aerial stems and the
subterranean stolons. [2, 3]
Researches confirm that the mint left on
the same place, without any agricultural
work for two years, may give productions of
green mass that always exceed the annual
productions obtained for mint, but this is of
an inferior quality. [5]
The mint maintained for several years
on the same place leads to a unilateral
weakness of soil, excessive weeding,
especially with perennial plants, the
increase of diseases and pests and an annual
loss of at least 80-120 g stolons/ha, what
extension of this culture.
The phyto-regulating growing substances
used in this experiment were from the group
of auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins and
retarding substances. [6,7]
MATERIAL AND METHOD
In 2008, in an experimental field, we
followed the effect of some bio-regulating
growing substances on mint.
The treatment was applied on April 15th
by sprinkling with 1000 l solution/ha [9]
calculated for each variant (parcel has 2x2
m=4 m2 and is repeated for 3 times)
Thus, we used:
- Auxins - indole acetic acid
- Gibberellins - gibberellic acid
- Cytokinins - 6-benzyl adenine
- Retarding substances - cycocel and ethrel
Auxins
They were the first bioactive substances
discovered. In extremely small doses they
affect the growing and development of plants
(formation of vegetative and generative
organs).

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The chromatographic methods
highlighted the presence of Auxins in roots,
stems, seeds and fruits under the form of
complex mixtures of regulating substances
with a stimulating or inhibiting role
depending on the existing quantity.
Natural and synthetic auxins exercise
different physiologic actions followed by a
series of particular reactions of growing,
development and metabolism in plants
(cytological modifications, biophysical
modifications at cellular level, changes in the
cellular metabolism, in the seed germination
and plant growing, formation of buds and
inflorescence fecundation and fruit
formation, falling of fruits and leaves. [6, 7]
In the experiment on mint we used the
most active synthetic auxin.
- A.I.A (indole acetic acid).
Gibberellins
By biological tests, we identified natural
gibberellins in many species of horticultural
plants.
There are a large number of gibberellins,
but the most studied compound and the most
active in the stimulation of different
physiological processes of plants is
gibberellin X or gibberellic acid.
Gibberellins intervene in the process of
cellular division, stimulation of seed
germination, stimulation of growing
processes, defeat of nanism phenomenon,
modification of apical dominance,
stimulation of inflorescence and fruit
growing, modifications in plant metabolism,
intensifies photosynthesis even right after
treatment.[6, 7] In mint treatment we used
the gibberellic acid.
Cytokinins
They are substances that in low
concentration stimulate the cellular division.
Endogenous cytokinins derive from the
degradation of the nucleic acids going
through certain phases.
We synthesized numerous chemical
substances exercising similar properties to
the endogenous ones.
The effects of endogenous and exogenous
cytokinins on plants are explained by their
direct action on the nucleic acids, in the
stimulation of the ribonucleic acid synthesis
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
and as a depressor of genes by inhibiting the
activity of certain enzymes.
Cytokinins stimulate the cellular
divisions and extension, differentiation and
formation of plant organs, the stopping of
aging processes in plants, physiological
modifications. [6,7] In the experiment we
used 6-benzyl adenine.
Retarding substances
They are substances guide the processes
of growing, development and fruit growing
of plants. They play an important role in
reducing the division and cellular elongation
processes from growing stem and offshoot
tissues, and in this way they regulate the
plant height, the length of aerial lateral
ramifications, the rhythm of formation and
elongation being stopped for a while. By
their action particularities, the retarding
substances are clearly different from the
group of growing stimulators, though in most
cases, they stimulate inflorescence and
determine important increases of production.
They are also different from the group of
inhibiting substances because they block
irreversibly the vital metabolic processes of
plants, they do not cause malformations at
the level of different vegetative and
reproductive organs and the viability of the
entire plant is not diminished.
Physiological action of retardants
Modification of anatomic-morphologic
characters of plants, inflorescence,
modification of the rhythm of metabolic
processes. [6,7]
Among retardants, we used in our
experiment:
- Cycocel (chlorcoline chloride)
- Ethrel (acid phosphonic)
The experimental diagram used was the
Latin rectangle of the type 6x3x1, with 6
variants, 3 repetitions and a series. (Table 1)
The following variants resulted:
V1 – blank test (control)
V2 – variant treated with indole acetic acid
(A.I.A.)
V3 – variant treated with gibberellic acid
V4 – variant treated with 6-benzyl adenine
V5 – variant treated with cycocel
V6 – variant treated with ethrel
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

Table 1
Randomized arrangement of variants (to eliminate soil differences)
R III V5 V6 V1 V2 V3 V4

R II V3 V4 V5 V6 V1 V2

RI V1 V2 V3 V4 V5 V6

The calculation of the experimental quantitative differences as compared to the

results was made according to the method of
variance analysis for the plant production.
We calculated the average productions
for each variant (x), variant (s2) and the
standard deviation of difference (sd).
On the basis of these parameters, we
established the significance of the limit
difference (DL) linked with the transgression
probabilities (P 5%, P1% and P 0,1%) and
the freedom degrees of expriment:
‐ GLB – number of repetitions
‐ GLV – number of variants
‐ GLT – total number of parcels
‐ GLE – error
‐ GLE = GLT-(GLB+GLV)
Te biometrical determinations were
effectuated both in the filed and in the lab in
the period of vegetative growing and in the
inflorescence phase. We followed the
blank test, for each important vegetative
organ and the entire plant. The treatments
effectuated in amount of 100 l/ha were
calculated for each variant.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The highest production of fresh leaves
was registered fr the variant treated with
gibberellic acid. Higher values than the blank
test were registered for the variants treated
with A.I.A. and 6-benzyl adenine. Cycocel
and Ethrel inhibited the vegetative growing,
thus obtaining smaller values than the blank
test.
We also notice that for DL 0.3%
production is almost 80% higher than the
blank test. (table 2)

Table 2
Effect of growing substances on the fresh leaf production for Mentha piperita
No Variant Kg/ha % from Difference from Signification
var Substances Concentration blank blank test
. ppm test
1 Blank test - 7830 100.0 -
2 A.I.A. 10 8580 109.6 + 750 +
3 Gibberellic acid 100 9445 120.6 + 1615 +++
4 6-benzyl adenine 5 8925 114.0 + 1095 ++
5 Cycocel 2500 7080 90.4 - 0
50
6 Ethrel 100 7485 95.6 -
45
DL 5% 680 86.8
DL 1% 967 123.5
DL 0,3% 1400 178.8
Sd= 305

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

Fig.1. Effect of growing substances on the fresh leaf production for Mentha piperita

As in the case of leaf production, the and Cycocel and Ethrel inhibited the
plant production is superior as compared to vegetative growing. (tab. 2)
the blank test for the variants treated with For DL 0.1% production increased by
gibberellic acid, A.I.A. and 6-benzyl adenine, almost 50%.

Table 2
Influence of growing substances on the plant production for Mentha piperita
Variant Difference
No % from
Concentration Kg/ha from blank Signification
var. Substances blank test
ppm test
1 Blank test - 14350 100.0 -
2 A.I.A. 10 15690 109.3 +1340 +
3 Gibberellic acid 100 17425 121.4 +3075 +++
4 6-benzyl adenine 5 16250 113.2 +1900 ++
5 Cycocel 2500 12835 89.4 -1515 00
6 Ethrel 100 13575 94.6 -775
DL 5% 1026 71.5
DL 1% 1468 101.6
DL 0,1% 2111 147.1
Sd= 460
No. of blocks = 3
No. of variants = 6
GLT = 18-1=17
GLB = 3-1=2
GLV = 6-1=5
GLE = GLT-(GLB+GLV)=17-(2+5)=10
P 5% (for GLE=10) = 2.23
P1% = 3.17
P 0,1% = 4.59

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 Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

Fig. 2. Influence of growing substances on the plant production for Mentha piperita

For all the parameters analyzed, it is confirmed that the gibberellic acid has the role of
stimulant for growing, followed by 6-benzyl adenine and A.I.A., whereas Ethrel and Cycocel
are inhibitors.

Table 3
Action of growing substances on the components of fresh mass production for Mentha pipierita
Variant Leaves Inflorescence Stems Total plants
No % from % from % from % from
Conc
var Substance Kg/ha blank Kg/ha blank Kg/ha blank Kg/ha blank
ppm
test test test test
1 Blank test - 7830 100.0 905 100.0 5615 100.0 14350 100.0
2 A.I.A. 10 8580 109.6 995 109.9 6115 108.9 15690 109.3
3 Gibberellic acid 100 9445 120.6 1080 119.3 6900 122.9 17425 121.4
4 6-benzyl adenine 5 8925 114.0 1005 111.0 6320 112.8 16250 113.2
5 Cycocel 2500 7080 90.4 845 93.4 4910 87.4 12835 89.4
6 Ethrel 100 7485 95.6 885 97.8 5205 92.7 13575 94.6
Average 8224 952 5844 15020
54.8% 6.3% 38.9% 100%

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Fig. 3 Action of growing substances on the components of fresh mass production for Mentha piperita
CONCLUSIONS
In the case of mint, for all the parameters
analyzed, it is confirmed that the gibberellic
acid stimulates growing, followed by 6-
benzyl adenine and A.I.A., whereas Ethrel
and Cycocel are inhibitors.
REFERENCES
Books
[1] Bujor O; Alexan M, 1994 - Plante medicinale
si aromatice de la A la Z, ediţia a 3- a Edit. Ulpia
Traiana Bucureşti
[2] Constantinescu Gr.; Haţeganu - Buruiană Elena
1986 - Să ne cunoaştem plantele medicinale,
proprietăţile lor terapeutice şi modul de folosire,
Edit. Medicală Bucureşti
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
[3] Enescu N.1991 - Narura - farmacia verde.
Edit. Porto Franco Galaţi
[4] Milică Constantin 2002 – Tratamente naturiste
în bolile aparatului digestiv. Edit. Ion Ionescu de
la Brad Iaşi
[5] Milică C., Elena Bavaru, Robu T. 2005 -
Izvoare de sănătate din flora Medicinală.
Edit.Ovidius Unversity Press Ex Ponto,Constanţa
[6] Milică C. 1969 – Regulatori de creştere în
cultura plantelor; Bucureşti
[7] Milică C., Sabina Stan; Doina Liliana Toma
1983 – Substanţe bioactive în horticultură, Edit.
Ceres, Bucureşti
[8] Mocanu Şt., Răducanu D. 1983 – Plantele
medicinale în terapeutică, Edit. Militară Bucureşti
[9] Muntean, L.S. şi colab. 2007 - Tratat de plante
medicinale cultivate şi spontane, Edit. Risoprint
Cluj-Napoca
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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

RESEARCHES ON THE INFLUENCE OF PEDOCLIMATIC

CONDITIONS FROM TECUCI AREA ON THE BIOMETRIC
AND PHENOLOGICAL PARAMETERS OF CYNARA
SCOLYMUS

Constanţa Nicodim

NaţionalCollege Calistrat Hogaş Tecuci

e-mail: constanta_nicodim@yahoo.com

Abstract
Taking into account the large number of people suffering from hepatobiliary disorders, we
wished to analyze more thoroughly the plants with effect on these disorders. Thus, in this paper
presents we present the biometric determination for the main morphological characteristics of
plants and the results of biochemical determinations effectuated on artichoke, cultivated in the
pedoclimatic conditions of the municipality Tecuci, county Galati, fro three consecutive years:
2006, 2007 and 2008. The biometric determinations were effectuated both in the field and in the lab,
in the period of vegetative growth and in the blooming phase. The content in assimilating pigments
was determined by spectrophotometry with computer rendering by measuring the absorbance, for
wave lengths characteristic to pigments. We noticed that, during vegetation, the content in
carotenoids increases. We also noticed that the ratio between chlorophylls increases due to the
more rapid degradation of chlorophyll b as compared to chlorophyll a and decreases when the
content in chlorophyll b increases.
Key words: pedoclimatic conditions, biometric and biochemical determinations, influence of
pedoclimatic factors

INTRODUCTION hepatic cirrhosis, regeneration of hepatic

Phytotherapy represents the oldest
method to cure diseases that people used
along their multi-millenary history. We
arrived at this method following our wish to
live and survive the continuous attack of
diseases.[2]
The disciples of the naturist medicine,
namely of phytotherapy, were always
numerous and this even in the glamorous
period of the synthesis medicines. Nowadays
too, more than ever, phytotherapy is
preferred because it does not limit to teas and
macerates but comprises a much larger range
of pharmaceutical products, among which we
mention the vegetal oils, syrups, etheric oils,
ointments, creams, tinctures, extracts as well
as the various essences. [4]
The therapeutic actions of the artichoke
are numerous. Moreover, artichoke is used in
the treatment of many hepatobiliary and
stomachic diseases: chronic hepatitis, icterus,
cells injured, allergies on a hepatic basis,
hepatic insufficiency, gallstones, stimulation
of the anti-toxic function of liver, gall
calculosis, gall dyskinesia, gall fluidization
and stimulation of the gall secretion, chronic
cholecystitis, enteritis, cholangitis, vomiting,
constipations, abdominal gripes and
hemorrhoids. [5, 6, 10]
The study was made to use the
pedoclimatic conditions in the culture of
medicinal plants on large areas, so as to
obtain large productions that might allow the
treatment of many sick people.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
The evolution of the climate in the years
under study was registered at Meteorological
Station of Tecuci, and the pedological,
hydrologic and of vegetation was taken over
from the specialized literature. [1]

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The biologic material used is represented
by the artichoke plants cultivated in an
experimental field from Tecuci town.
Artichoke is demanding in terms of light and
temperature since it originates in the
Mediterranean region. [11] In our country, it
has optimal conditions in the areas from the
south and south-west of Romania. It also
behaves well in alluvial plains but it suffers
because of the variation of humidity. It
prefers the fertile permeable soils. [8, 9]
The biometric determinations were
made both in the field and in the lab, in the
period of vegetative growth and the blossom
phase.
To determine the assimilating
pigments, from the harvested plants we
weighed samples of 0.5 g of fresh material
that was crushed in the presence of ground
glass for a better breaking up of tissues,
gradually adding acetone having the role of a
solvent for the assimilating pigments. The
vegetal material crushed was then filtered
until the vegetal remains stay white. The
filtrate obtained is decanted in a calibrated
flask of 50 ml and is brought up to the mark
with acetone.
From the extract obtained we took several
ml that were introduced in glass dish 5 mm
thick. The content in assimilating pigments
was determined by spectrophotometry with
computer rendering by measuring absorbance
for the following wave lengths:
‐ for chlorophyll a - at 431-432 nm in
the blue specter and 662-663 nm in the red
specter
‐ for chlorophyll b – at 453-454 nm
in the blue specter and 616 – 617 nm in the
red specter
‐ for carotenoid pigments at 425 –
426 nm, 447 – 448 nm respectively.
The results were expressed in mg %. [3]
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
From the climatic viewpoint, year 2006,
may be characterized as a normal year, with
average temperatures quite close to the
previous years. They did not register during
summer values higher than 350C or minimum
values in winter less than -200C.
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
The monthly average temperatures of the
summer months ranged between 160C in May
and over 220C in July. We may say it was a
quite cold summer, and they did not register
hot days.
Abundant precipitations were registered
in August (103 mm) and the driest month
was November (0.9 mm). The air humidity
was lower in April and May, the maximum
value being registered in December.
The period of sun shining was maximal
in July (308 ore). In this month plants
benefited from abundant light and warmth.
Year 2007 was a very dry year. With only
63.3 mm the annual average, the plants could
not enjoy sufficient precipitations. In
September they registered the highest values
for this parameter (151 mm), and in July
when plants need much water, the values
were minimal, of only 13.9 mm.
The annual temperature was higher than
in the previous year, with a positive extreme
of almost 400C in July. We may say that in
summer they registered scorching
temperatures.
July registered the most hours of sun
shining, more than 387, whereas in
December the sun shone for only 41 hours.
From the viewpoint of climatic
conditions, we may say that the summer of
2008 is characterized by dryness, modest
precipitations and pretty low average
temperatures.
Thus, in 2008, there were not enough
precipitations, but fortunately they were well
distributed in the months with high demands
of plants for humidity. July was an exception
when the quantity of precipitation was
insufficient.
The average air temperature was
moderate, with a maximum of 22.40C in July
and a minimum of -1.90C in January. The
extreme positive temperature was registered
in August.
Air humidity was pretty low, especially in
August, with only 56%. The other summer
months did not register high levels of
humidity either.
The area soil is the carbonic or brownish
clack earth which is favorable to the culture
of medicinal plants. The dominant wind is
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
the north wind representing 29% from the
annual frequency of winds. The south wind,
with a frequency of 16%, blows more during
summertime, being quite dry. The climate is
temperate continental.
Table 1
Phenological observations
Observations
Sowing
Springing
Temperature
Air humidity
Number of days between sowing and springing
Culture setting up was made by sowing
on April 16th 2006, on April 14th in 2007,
and on April 19th in 2008, when the air
temperature was 9.3 0C, but the next days the
temperature increased to 130C (in 2006), 11.6
0
C (in 2007) and 14.3 0C (in 2008). The
average air humidity was 77% in 2006, 55%
in 2007, 66% in 2008. the precipitations
fallen in the interval 1.04-20.04, was 35.9
mm in 2006, 13.4 mm in 2007 and 40.7 mm
in 2008. (tab. 1)
The beginning of springing is when
plantlets appear with cotyledonal leaves,
usually 17- 20 days after sowing. The
springing is influenced first of all by the soil
temperature and then by humidity necessary
to the seed germination. (tab. 1)
Springing was noticed in our case on
May 7th in 2006, when the average air
temperature registered 11.9°C, on May 6th in
2007 when the average air temperature
registered 14.7°C, and in 2008, on May 12th
when the average air temperature registered
14.4°C. (tab. 1)
After 9 days from springing there appear
the first leaves that are false. The plant height
was at that time of 7 cm. After 20 days from
springing, there appear the first real leaves (2
cm). After 30 days, the first leaves reach 7
cm, and the following ones reach 2.5 cm.
(tab. 3)
After 39 days the plants have 5 leaves (2
cotyledonal, 3 new leaves, 2 of 6 cm, and a
third of 5 cm). (tab. 2)
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In these conditions, the biometric
observations from artichoke showed the
following:
2006 2007 2008
16 April 14 April 19 April
7 May 6 May 12 May
0
11.9 C 14.7°C 14.4°C
69% 64% 70%
21 20 23
After their appearance, leaves develop
like a rich rosette growing to the
characteristic dimensions and harvest may
start. The period of vegetation until the first
harvest is 90 days.
The forming of stems is characterized by
the increasing of length of internodes of the
central axis and starts after the formation of
6-7 stem leaves.
Leaves registered lengths and widths in
2008, given that they enjoyed better climatic
conditions as compared to the previous years.
Thus, adding to these parameters the leaf
weight and the number of leaves on a plant,
we obtain high productions of vegetative
mass per hectare in 2008 as compared to
2006 or 2007. (tab. 4)
It blooms in July and August and the red-
violaceous flowers are arranged on top of
every branch in big globular capitula covered
with thick fleshy scales at the basis.
The harvest of leaves was made 4 times a
year in 2006 and 2007, and 5 times in 2008.
The first harvest was made in the interval
June 15th -20th, the second between July 15th -
20th, the third between August 15th -20th, and
the fourth on September 30th. In 2008 the
fifth harvest was made about November 20th.
The harvest was made manually by
scythe and using protection gloves. After
harvest, the leaves were quickly put into
baskets so as to be dried or processed in fresh
state. The young leaves in the middle of the
shrub were left in vegetation.
 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

The fresh leaf production varied between contain much water, the quantity of leaves is
200-250 q/ha, and after drying 30-40q/ha. big and the period of drying lasts fro 20 days.
By drying in a natural manner we After drying, from 6-8 kg of fresh leaves
obtained raw materials qualitatively we obtained about 1 kg of dried leaves.
adequate, though it is difficult because they

Table 2
Weight of fresh vegetal mass
No. Date Kg/ha % of average Difference Signification
crt from average
th
1 May 15 10,400 109.2 +880 +
th
2 July 15 17,200 180.6 +7680 ++
th
3 September 15 20,000 210.0 +10480 +++
Average/month 9,520 100

From the weighing effectuated, it resulted It results a massive increase of the vegetal
a production of 10,400 kg/ha in May, 17,200 mass in July, August and September, in the
kg/ha in July and 20,000 kg/ha in September. last month registering a double production as
compared to May. (Table 2)

Fig. 1. - Plantlets 20 days after springing

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

Table 3
Phenophases followed for 30 days
Period Date Phenophases observed
3 days after springing 10.05.06 plantlets with two cotyledons measure 6 cm: small stem +
cotyledons 4.5 cm, ridicule 1.3 cm.
9 days after springing 16.05.06 plantlets of 13 cm: stem + cotyledonal leaves 7 cm, and
root of 6 cm.
15 days after springing 22.05.06 plantlets of 19.5 cm, 11 cm – stem + cotyledonal leaves,
and root of 8 cm.
20 days after springing 27.05.06 plantlets of 22.5 cm :13 cm stem + cotyledonal leaves, root
of 9 cm; the next leaves measured 2 cm.
30 days after springing 06.06.06 cotyledonal leaves, the second series of leaves (the first
real ones) already had 7 cm, different from the first ones,
the second series of real leaves had 2.5 cm

Table 4
Biometric observations
2006 2007 2008
Leaf average length (cm) 66.4 65.8 69.2
Leaf average width (cm) 41.3 38.4 46.1
Average weight of a leaf (g) 74.6 71.4 77.3
Average number of leaves on a plant 13 11 15

Fig. 2. – Leaf average length and width

The biochemical observations show that
during vegetation there occurs a decrease of
the content in chlorophyll “a” reaching in
September to a difference of more than 4% as
compared to the beginning of this period. In
exchange, we notice an increase of the
content in chlorophyll “b” so that at the end
of vegetation the increase is about 4% higher
than in May.
In general, even if chlorophyll “b”
increases quantitatively, on the whole, the
total quantity of chlorophyll decreases during
vegetation.
The ratio between the two chlorophylls
also decreases by almost 8%
The value of the ratio
chlorophyll/carotenoids decreases too during
vegetation, but to smaller extent.
As for the carotenoid content, the value of
this parameter increases during vegetation, but
very little reaching an increase of almost 3%
in September compared to May. (Table 5)

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

Table 5
Content in assimilating pigments
No. Pigment mg% mg% in May
crt May July Sept. May July Sept.
1 chlorophyll “a” 15.40 15.12 14.74 100.0 98.2 95.7
2 chlorophyll” b” 4.82 4.32 5.02 100.0 102.1 104.1
3 chlorophyll pigments (a+b) 20.22 20.04 19.76 100.0 99.1 97.7
4 ratio chlorophyll a / chlorophyll b 3.20 3.07 2.94 100.0 95.9 91.8
5 ratio chlorophylls / carotenoids 4.18 4.09 3.97 100.0 97.8 94.9
6 carotenoids 4.84 4.90 4.98 100.0 101.2 102.9

CONCLUSIONS [2] Bujor O., Popescu O, 2003 - Fitoterapie

1. Year 2008 is characterized as being
the most favorable to the culture of medicinal
plants, with high temperatures and
precipitations divided uniformly in the
vegetation period.
2. The total chlorophyll pigment
content (a + b) decreases during vegetation.
3. The total carotenoid content
increases during vegetation.
4. The ratio between chlorophylls
increases due to the more rapid degradation
of chlorophyll b as compared to chlorophyll a
and decreases due to the increase of the
content in chlorophyll b.
5. The ratio between chlorophylls and
carotenoids decreases constantly during
vegetation period.
REFERENCES
Books
[1] Blaga Gh., Filipov F., Rusu I., Udrescu S.,
Vasile D. - Pedologie, Edit. Academic Pres., Cluj-
Napoca, 2005
tradiţională şi modernă, Edit. Fiat Lux Bucureşti
[3] Ciulei I; Istudor Viorica; Palade Magdalena &
colab 1995 - Analiza farmacognostică şi
fitochimică a produselor vegetale, Edit.
Tehnoplast, Bucureşti
[4] Istudor Viorica 2001 - Farmacognozie,
fitochimie, fitoterapie. Edit. Medicală Bucureşti
[5] Milică Constantin 2002 – Tratamente naturiste
în bolile aparatului digestiv. Edit. Ion Ionescu de
la Brad Iaşi
[6] Milică C. 2007 - Tratamente naturiste în
serviciul sănătăţi., Edit. Trinitas Iaşi
[7] Muntean, L. S. şi colab. 2007 - Tratat de plante
medicinale cultivate şi spontane, Edit. Risoprint
Cluj-Napoca
[8] Pârvu C. 2000– Enciclopedia plantelor – mica
enciclopedie, Edit. Tehnică, Bucureşti
[9] Răvăruţ M., E. Turenschi 1973- Botanica,
Editura Didactică şi Pedagogică, Bucureşti.
[10] Robu T., Milica C -Izvoare de sanatate din
flora medicinala.Editurile "Ovidius University
Press", "Ex Ponto", Constanta 2005
[11] Vasilca-Mozoceni A. 2003 –Ghidul plantelor
medicinale, Edit. Polirom Iaşi

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 BACK
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

RESEARCH ON THE WORLD STATE OF TECHNIQUE

THROUGH PATENTS WHICH REFERS TO MOULDBOARD
THAT EQUIP THE PLOUGHS WITH CORPS AND MY
CONTRIBUTION TO THE MODERNIZATION OF THE
MOULDBOARDS

C-tin Aruştei

D.A.D.R. Iaşi

Abstract
From assemblies of parts that form the plow with moldboard, the part of the plow which
consumes most of the energy is the mouldboard (50-60% of the plowing work).
From research through patent in the field of mouldboard for plows, which I have conducted
revealed that in the world today there are 11 inventions most representative. These inventions
generally contain known elements and technical elements of the original to their authors and
inventors that they get the record (and they claim them in the Chapter "Claims") which must
necessarily be part of any deposit submitted to obtain a patent.
From the analysis of the technical attributes presented in the table shows that the global study of
the mouldboard has not enjoyed particular attention. From the library of patents of OSIM Romania if
in the motor field are some hundreds of inventions in the field of mouldboards are only 11.
Remember as a new thing, worthy of recognition, the German patent DE3318159A1, author
Hans Wacker in which the moldboard is made of strips (bands) with the advantage that it reduces
the moldboard area by 50% and a disadvantage that the bands (strips) are unstable during work.
Based on these findings I tried to achieve an improvement of the mouldboards with significant
economic and practical effects.
Key words: mouldboard, invention, claim, strips (bands), the economy.

In conditions when Romania is already
part of a united Europe and when the
economic crisis is increasing its presence,
getting the quality of plowing with a high
granulation share such a way as to achieve
energy savings in the work of plowing and
the subsequent agricultural work, now
represents a goal more than ever.
From assemblies of parts that form the
plow with moldboard, the part of the plow
which consumes most of the energy is the
mouldboard (50-60% of the plowing work).
From research through patent in the field
of mouldboard for plows, which I have
conducted revealed that in the world today
there are 11 inventions most representative,
inventions which are listed below:
1. Plough’s mouldboard
Invention 69871, file 87924, recorded at
OSIM on 6.10.1976, publicated on
30.03.1982,
Inventors: Eng. Petru Stoica and Dr. Doc.
Ladislav Ondrej, Prague-Czechoslovakia.
2. Mouldboard with variable geometry
Date of deposit 15.04.1994, patent no.
117992 B1,
Inventor: Crăciun Vasile, proffesor at
Polytechnic Institute Iaşi, Romania.
3. Plough’s corps
Patent no. Ro 96266, recorded on
6.10.1986, publicated on 17.05.1989,
Inventor: Pentek Ludovic, Salonta village,
Bihor county, proffesor at Enterprise for
Mechanical Parts Exchange -Oradea.
4. Pflug, bestehend aus streich-brett und
Schar
Recorded 11.03.1983
Publicated 13.09.1984
Inventor: Lohff Bernhard
Patent no. 3309278
Bunde5REPUBLIC DEUTSCHLAND,
DEUTSCHES PATENTAMT

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

5. Streifen pflugkoper UNITED STATES PATENT

Recorded 01.07.1983 10. Plugkorper mit streifenstreichbleck
Publicated 03.01.1985 Patent DE3318159A1
Inventor Gassner Benno Recorded 18.05.1983
Patent no. 3323791/3.01.1985 Publicated 22.11.1984
6. Plow Bottom Inventor: Wacker Hans
Patent UNITED STATES PATENT Bundesrepublik Deutschland
OFICE DEUTSHES Patentamt
Patent no. 1642301/13.09.1927 11. Streichblech eines Pfluges
Inventor Glen Forgy Recorded 01.04.1961
Filed Ian. 29.1926 Publicated 10.01.1963
7. Breast of Plough Patent no. 1.142.248
Recorded 19.08.1952 Deutsches Patentamt
Aplication made in Japan on sept. 6. Vertreter Dipl. Ing. A. Boshart und Dipl.
1951 Ig. W. Jackisch
Complete Specification Published
19.01.1955 These inventions generally contain
THE PATENT OFFICE OF LONDON known elements and technical elements of
Inventor: TAKAKITA SHINJIRO S.A. the original to their authors and inventors that
JAPONIA they get the record (and they claim them in
8. Plough’s corps the Chapter "Claims") which must
Recorded 21.10.1996 necessarily be part of any deposit submitted
Publicated 30.07.1998 to obtain a patent.
Patent no. RO 11 34 15 B1 Next we present in table form the state of
Inventor Bocancea Ioan the art world resulting from patent research,
9. Plow mold board of the authors that claim these patents which
Patent no. 3.850.252/26.11.1974 we call the technical attributes that they
Recorded 20.08.1973 claim:
Inventor: James A. Ingalls

TABLE:
No. Technical novelty Attributes
K
1. Reducing the angle γ o o
from 40 to 27 (angle γ is the angle formed by the K1
o o
mouldboard with the share’s wall of 40 which is reduced to 27 ) -Romania
Patent 69.871
2. Adding a sharp rod at the mouldboard’s tail K2
Patent Germany DE 3309278 A1
3. Adding a hooked rod at the mouldboard’s tail K3
Patent Germany DE 3309278 A1
4. Modify the plowshare by adding an active edges under a circle arc form K4
(pressure behavior as a foot bridge reducing resistance submission)
Patent Romania RO 113415 B1
5. Unification of plowshare şi mouldboard in one piece. K5
Patent USA 1642301
6. Splitting the mouldboard in three equal bands with shard tip at the lower part. K6
Patent USA 1642301
7. The three bands with shard tip at the top part of the mouldboard too. K7
Patent USA 1642301
8. Împărţirea cormanei în benzi echidistante de la pieptul cormanei spre coada K8
cormanei.
Splitting the mouldboard in equidistance bands from the mouldboard’s chest to
its tail.
Patent Germany 3323791

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

9. Modification of the mouldboard’s chest by adding a reverse curve. K9

Patent Germany 3323791
10. Replacement of the moldboard’s wing extension with three knives arranged K10
radially.
Proposed by Proff. Dr. Eng.Vâlcu Victor and Drd. Eng. Aruştei Constantin
11. Replacement of the moldboard’s wing extension with three knives arranged K11
parallel.
Proposed by Proff. Dr. Eng.Vâlcu Victor and Drd. Eng. Aruştei Constantin
12. Replacement of the plowshare’s edge by a selfsharpening edge. K12
Proposed by Proff. Drd. Eng. Aruştei Constantin
13. Replacement of the plowshare with a continuously edge with one with saw teeth. K13
Proposed by Proff. Drd. Eng. Aruştei Constantin
14. Replacement of the additional mouldboard with knives for better grind of the soil. K14
Proposed by Proff. Drd. Eng. Aruştei Constantin
15. Jointed mouldboard made of two plates. K15
Patent Romania RO 117992B1
16. The joint between the plates is achieved through a cylindrical joint. K16
Patent Romania RO 117992B1
17. Two devices for adjustment made by cylindrical joints. K17
Patent Romania RO 117992B1
18. Plough’s frame two sectional plates. K18
Patent Romania RO 117992B1
19. Reinforcement rods are replaced with the adjustment device. K19
Patent Romania RO 117992B1
20. The mouldboars is made of rods. K20
Patent Germany 1142248
21. Heads of the rod that formes the mouldboard’s chest enter a shoe attached by K21
screws.
Patent Germany 1142248
22. The ends of the upper part of the rods are finished with rings placed on a pivot K22
bar intercalar with the lower heads rings moldboard’s tail.
Patent Germany 1142248
23. The bar that connects the rods of the two sides of the moldboard has a setting to K23
the top of the moldboard.
Patent Germany 1142248
24. Vârfurile vergelelor cozii cormanei sunt ascuţite. K24
The rod’s tips of the mouldboard’s tail tip are sharp.
Patent Germany 1142248
25. Mouldboard of bands (strips) with little space between them on the back of the K25
mouldboard reinforced with a welded bar.
Patent Germany 1142248
26. Mouldboard made of inarticulately rods the outside being made from one rod K26
with both ends attached to the share and being concentric.
Patent Romania RO 96266
27. The upper part of the mouldboard has some knives. K27
Patent Romania RO 96266
28. The plough’s corps is provided with a wheel to turn the sliding friction into rolling K28
friction.
Patent Romania RO 96266
29. The mouldboard made of bands is reinforced with a bar. K29
Patent Germany 3318159A1
30. The mouldboard of bands made from two pieces (chest and tail). K30
Patent Germany 3318159A1
31. The chest and tail os the moulboard is articulated by an adjustment screw K31
caught between two brackets.
Patent Germany 3318159A1
32. The bands of the half-mouldboars each have reinforcements on the posterior K32
side with superimposed bands.
Patent Germany 3318159A1

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

33. Some demicircular tips arranged parallel to the moldboard bottom to the top of K33
the moldboard to grind the soil.
Patent USA 3850252
34. Knives with triangular section mounted on the moldboard from the bottom to the K34
top part in order to grind soil.
Drd. Eng. Aruştei Constantin
Drd. Eng. Chirilă Constantin
Patent record OSIM A/00008/2007
35. Selfsharpening knives placed on mouldboard from the bottom to the top part K35
(modify the prior deposit).
Drd. Eng. Aruştei Constantin
Drd. Eng. Chirilă Constantin
Patent record OSIM A/00008/2007
36. Processing of the surfaces that come into contact with the ground. K36
Proff. Dr. Eng. Crăciun Vasile
37. Covering the mouldboard’s working areas with different materials to reduce the K37
coefficient of friction.
Proff. Dr. Eng. Crăciun Vasile
38. Using a jet of water that contributes to soil dislocation. K38
Proff. Dr. Eng. Crăciun Vasile
39. Application the electro-osmosis phenomenon. K39
40. Decrease soil adhesion at the working parts by heating them. K40
41. Moldboard’s geometry optimization in order to decrease resistance to K41
advancement.
42. Decresing the plough’s weight. K42
43. Construction of the working parts rotating passive combined. K43
44. Moldboard with variable geometry with spring. K44
45. Moldboard with variable geometry with pneumatic cylinders. K45
46. Moldboard with variable geometry with hydraulic cylinders and servomotor. K46
47. Mouldboard cut in strips or bands, with selfadjustable bands (Japanese experts). K47
48. Moldboard with variable geometry automated hydraulic. K48
49. Moldboard with variable geometry linked to a computer with a program for K49
selfadjusting.
50. Replacing the plough’s pre-corps with long knives. K50
Proposed by Proff. Dr. Eng.Vâlcu Victor

From the analysis of the technical Remember as a new thing, worthy of

attributes presented in the table shows that recognition, the German patent
the global study of the mouldboard has not DE3318159A1, author Hans Wacker in
enjoyed particular attention. From the library which the moldboard is made of strips
of patents of OSIM Romania if in the motor (bands) with the advantage that it reduces the
field are some hundreds of inventions in the moldboard area by 50% and a disadvantage
field of mouldboards are only 11. that the bands (strips) are unstable during
work.

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
My contribution to improving of
mouldboard
Mouldboard of bands (strips), with
selfsharpening knives
(extrapolation analogy)
The paper refers to a plough’s corps
destined for normal plowing, superficial or
deep.
To achieve a share is known a corps for
plough that has the moldboard made of
bands (strips), (German patent DE
3318159A1) which aims to decrease
resistance to the submission of the
corps(bars, moldboard, share) reducing the
active area of the mouldboard and achieving
a high degree of grind soil at the work of
plowing.
This mouldboard presents the
disadvantage that the advancemen of the
degree of the grind soil to work is not enough
and that the bands (strips) which consists of
moldboard are unstable during work.
Problems which are resolved by this
paper are those to increase the degree of
grind soil to show, increased the stability of
the bands (strips) during work, the saving of
fuel at the agricultural work and the
subsequent work.
The plough’s corps consists of a
mouldboard mounted on frame. On the frame
is still mounted the additional mouldboard to
enhance the capsizing of the share in the
previous part execution of the work under the
direction of ploughing the soil, the
mouldboard is provided at the lower part
with a plowshare, at the bottom of the
mouldboard is mounted the plaz and
plowshare which is provided with self-
sharpening blade, and on the mouldboard
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tail’s bands are mounted knives of special
shape by welding or with screws from the
bottom and continuing up to the top.
By applying this paper degree of grind
soil increases, the stability of the bands
(strips) during work increses and the saving
of fuel at the agricultural work and the
subsequent work.
Next we give an example of achieving a
technical solution proposed in connection
with Figure 1 which represents an overview
of the plough’s corps with the section A-A
representing a cross section through the
mouldboard made of bands(strips) and
through the knives and in connection with
Figure 2, view from B and the cross sections
C-C and E-E ,the views D and F, which
represents a special form of selfsharpening
knife, more keenly to the bottom and wide at
the top so that the knife edge due and owing
to the effect of turnover the soil share, the
share is shredded and loose.
The plough consists of a moldboard of
special construction 1 supported by frame 2,
which on is further mounted the additional
mouldboard 3, on the moldboard are
mounted the special form knives 4, at the
posterior of the mouldboard is mounted the
mouldboard’s wing extension 5 and at the
bottom of this is mounted the plaz 6 and the
plowshare 7 on frame 2 whole forming the
plough’s corps-plough assembly.
On the cylinder surface, screw or other
form of mouldboard are mounted the knives
4 by welding or with screws 8 which are
designed to cut and grind the share shattered
almost immediately by the cylinder, screw or
other form of the mouldboard.
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

RESEARCH ON IMPROVING THE PLOWING QUALITY

AND REDUCING THE FUEL CONSUMPTION IN THE
WORK OF PLOWING AND SUBSEQUENT
AGRICULTURAL WORK BY EDITING THE SHAPE BY
MOLDBOARD

C-tin Aruştei

D.A.D.R. Iaşi

Abstract
This work relates to a plough’s corps consisting of a mouldboard mounted on frame on which is
still mounted the additional mouldboard . The semicircular chest of the mouldboard is provided
with a self-sharpening blade on the semicircular side, the moulboard’s tail being composed of
bands (strips). At the bottom of the mouldboard is mounted the plaz and plowshare which is
provided with self-sharpening blade, and on the mouldboard tail’s bands are mounted knives of
special shape by welding or with screws which are designed to cut and grind the share during work.
Is performed simultaneously and the strips strengthening, thus increasing their stability.
By modifying the self-sharpening blade of the mouldboard’s chest and plowshare is found as
the resistance to advancement of mouldboard lowers, resulting fuel economy at the work of plowing
and subsequent agricultural work.
Key words: mouldboard, mouldboard chest, mouldboard tail, bands (strips), plowshare, self-
sharpening.

The paper refers to a plough’s corps destined
for normal plowing, superficial or deep.
To achieve a share is known a corps for
plough that has the moldboard made of bands
(strips), (German patent DE 3318159A1)
which aims to decrease resistance to the
submission of the corps(bars, moldboard,
share) reducing the active area of the
mouldboard and achieving a high degree of
grind soil at the work of plowing.
This mouldboard presents the
disadvantage that the advancemen of the
degree of the grind soil to work is not enough
and that the bands (strips) which consists of
moldboard are unstable during work.
Also be aware that a moldboard in which
the chest is concave (circle arc) in order that
the soil resistance is distributed over a larger
area that the soil resistance to advancement
on cm2 to decline thereby achieving an
economy of fuel in the work of plowing
(German patent 3323791A1)
Problems which are resolved by this
paper are those to increase the degree of
grind soil to show, increased the stability of
the bands (strips) during work, the saving of
fuel at the agricultural work and the
subsequent work, transformation of the
moldboard from a piece with the main role to
overturn the share in a more active part
having the role to topple the share and to cut
and chip it at the agricultural work.
The plough’s corps consists of a
mouldboard mounted on frame on which is
still mounted the additional mouldboard .
The semicircular chest of the mouldboard
is provided with a self-sharpening blade on
the semicircular side, the moulboard’s tail
being composed of bands (strips). At the
bottom of the mouldboard is mounted the
plaz and plowshare which is provided with
self-sharpening blade, and on the
mouldboard tail’s bands are mounted
knives of special shape by welding or with
screws which are designed to cut and grind
the share during work.
Is performed simultaneously and the
strips strengthening, thus increasing their
stability.

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By modifying the self-sharpening blade REFERENCES

of the mouldboard’s chest and plowshare is 1. Plough’s mouldboard
found as the resistance to advancement of Invention 69871, file 87924, recorded at
mouldboard lowers, resulting fuel economy OSIM on 6.10.1976, publicated on
at the work of plowing and subsequent 30.03.1982,
agricultural work. Inventors: Eng. Petru Stoica and Dr. Doc.
Next we give an example of achieving a Ladislav Ondrej, Prague-Czechoslovakia.
technical solution proposed in connection 2. Mouldboard with variable geometry
with Figure 1 which represents an overview Date of deposit 15.04.1994, patent no.
of the plough’s corps with the section A-A 117992 B1,
representing a cross section through the tail, Inventor: Crăciun Vasile, proffesor at
the selfsharpening knives and through the Polytechnic Institute Iaşi, Romania.
demicircular mouldboard’s chest provided on 3. Pflug, bestehend aus streich-brett und
the active (demicircular) with selfsharpening Schar
edges and with section G-G through share Recorded 11.03.1983
with selfsharpening edges , Figure 2 Publicated 13.09.1984
representing the details of the section trough Inventor: Lohff Bernhard
the moldboard, mouldboard knives and chest Patent no. 3309278
and details of section G-G through share, Bunde5REPUBLIC DEUTSCHLAND,
Figure 3 representing from the front of a DEUTSCHES PATENTAMT
knife mounted on the mouldboard with 4. Streifen pflugkoper
details of the cross section C-C through the Recorded 01.07.1983
middle of the knife and E-E through the tip Publicated 03.01.1985
of the knife Figure.4 that represents the Inventor Gassner Benno
lateral view of the knife (view D) and Figure Patent no. 3323791/3.01.1985
5 is the view from the back of the knife 5. Plow Bottom
(which is the mount by welding or by screws Patent UNITED STATES PATENT
on the mouldboard’s surface). OFICE
The plough’s corps consists of Patent no. 1642301/13.09.1927
moldboard 1 mounted on frame 2 which is Inventor Glen Forgy
still mounted the additional mouldboard 3, Filed Ian. 29.1926
on mouldboard in whitch the mouldboard’s 6. Breast of Plough
demicircular chest with selfsharpening Recorded 19.08.1952
edges all over the arched surface and the Aplication made in Japan on sept. 6.
mouldboard’s tail consists of bands (strips) 1951
4, at the bottom of the mouldboard being Complete Specification Published
mounted plaz 5 and share 6 with 19.01.1955
selfsharpening edges will sharpen at the THE PATENT OFFICE OF LONDON
same time with the increasing of wear. Inventor: TAKAKITA SHINJIRO S.A.
On the cylinder, screw or other form of JAPONIA
the mouldboard’s tail, on the frontal part 7. Plow mold board
made of bands (strips) are mounted knives 7 Patent no. 3.850.252/26.11.1974
by welding or by screws, selfsharpening Recorded 20.08.1973
knives and edged of the demicircular Inventor: James A. Ingalls
mouldboard’s chest and of share with the role UNITED STATES PATENT
to cut and grind the soil, which subsequently 8. Plugkorper mit streifenstreichbleck
will be shattered almost immediately, while Patent DE3318159A1
increasing the strength of the mouldboard’s Recorded 18.05.1983
bands and their stability during work. Publicated 22.11.1984
Inventor: Wacker Hans
Bundesrepublik Deutschland
DEUTSHES Patentamt

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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO IMPROVEMENT

IN EGG QUALITY

Y. Nys

INRA, UR83 Recherches Avicoles, France

e-mail : nys@tours.inra.fr

Abstract
The criteria for assessing external and internal quality of eggs include such diverse and
important aspects as safety, nutritional, organoleptic and technological properties of eggs and is
influenced by a broad range of factors such as the physiology, genetics, nutrition and management
of the hens. Genetics are an efficient tool to improve quality but historically egg productivity was
the first priority producing spectacular improvement. Selection for egg quality was used mainly to
avoid any negative shift in eggshell quality or internal defect. However, internal quality has taken
on greater importance for about 10 years and development of molecular genetics is promising for
selecting hens with superior egg quality. Nutrition is important for controlling eggshell quality and
can successfully enrich the egg in some minor components of interest for human nutrition. The
system of production influences the hygienic quality of eggs, This is particularly true in the
alternative systems to cage production. Egg safety can have a very large impact on egg
consumption and is highly dependant on government regulation. A promising area for improvement
is the development of non invasive and rapid physical techniques to measure eggshell and internal
egg quality at the egg packing plant. The sensitivity of this technique can enlarge the number of
downgraded egg but eliminate egg at risk for the consumers and is also providing new tools for
genetic selection. Egg quality has therefore been continuously improved as has the demand for
higher quality eggs from the consumers!
Keywords: egg quality genetic nutrition rearing

INTRODUCTION taste of the product. For some niche markets,

The external and internal quality of eggs is
influenced by a broad range of factors. This is
because egg quality criteria includes such
diverse and important aspects as safety,
nutritional and organoleptic properties or
technological properties for cooking, all of
which must be controlled from farm to fork.
For the poultry breeder, farmers, food, egg
sorting and marketing companies, the main
priorities are to deliver a safe product which is
accepted by the consumers. Therefore, breeders
want hens to deliver a consistent product with
well established characteristics concerning the
appearance of the product, the integrity of the
shell to avoid contamination of the egg, a
particular weight, a specific colour of the
eggshell and yolk and good processing
properties reflecting the “freshness of the egg”.
Along the whole chain the objective is to avoid
any defect in external or internal appearance of
the product or any deviation from the expected
the nutritional value of the egg will be
important when extra value is added because of
the enrichment of egg in specific nutrients such
as fatty acid, vitamins or trace elements. The
first prerequisite for the consumers will be that
no harm should come to them from the egg.
Safety of the product is therefore the first
priority and its importance is only appreciated
when it fails. Outbreaks of disease or
contamination can cause large drops in
consumption with severe economic
consequences. Consequently, numerous rules
and legislation have been settled in most
countries to ensure microbiological egg safety
and the absence of chemical residues in eggs.
In addition, producers face constraints
concerning animal welfare. This is resulting in
changes in egg production system with a ban in
Europe of conventional cage systems in favour
of alternative systems such as furnished cages,
barn of free range. Finally, throughout the

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world, the consumption of table eggs is shifting
to liquid egg products. This tendency towards
egg separation and processing underlines the
importance of the technological quality of eggs
and also offers new opportunities and
challenges for controlling the hygienic quality
of eggs. This review aims to analyse the
factors, genetic, hen nutrition, methods for
measuring egg quality, which have contributed
or will in the near future be of importance to
pursue the improvement in the egg quality.
IMPACT OF GENETIC SELECTION
ON EGG QUALITY
For at least 30 years tremendous efforts
have been made to improve egg production
and egg quality but priorities in breeding
companies have evolved throughout this
period. Initially feed efficiency and increasing
egg number was the prime goal and only
latterly has egg quality traits received more
attention. The changes in priorities in selection
will be illustrated with an example describing
the change in performance and quality traits of
a European brown commercial line. During
the period 1981-1991, the improvement was
mainly in egg production (+30 eggs, +2kg egg
mass) and feed conversion (minus 35g/ kg
egg/year). During the following 10 years
(1991-2001), feed efficiency was further
improved by slightly lowering the hen weight
but mainly by increasing the egg mass. Egg
number was increased because of an earlier
sexual maturity and increased egg production
peak. Hens produced 26 more eggs because of
this and of an improvement in persistency (25
weeks of >90% production in 2001). The
improvement in egg mass (180g/hen/year) and
reduction in feed intake (24g/kg of eggs) was
obtained without changing mean egg weight.
Selection has focused on limiting increases in
egg weight with age, by trying to get a heavier
egg earlier and then limiting egg weight
increases with age. Eggshell quality remained
crucial and in addition, in brown egg laying
hens, the intensity and homogeneity of the
eggshell colour were controlled. Finally, since
1995, because of the increase in the demand
for liquid egg products but also as a
consequence of the demands from certified
production system, including higher quality
products (e.g. “label” appellation) selection
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was implemented on the technological
properties of egg white ( mainly Haugh unit).
Since 2000, the demand of consumers in
Europe for welfare and environmental
standards was reinforced by new regulations.
This has favoured segmentation of the egg
market with more eggs coming from non-cage
systems, (France 26 %, UK 37%, Germany
57%, Sweden 63 % and Netherlands 84 %
(Magdelaine, 2007)). Consequently, selection
for viability in these systems was carried out
and resulted in lower mortality (4-5 % in 2007
in France compared to 8% in 1990). It is well
established that egg quality (egg shell, Haugh
unit) decreases when hens age. Consequently,
to further improve egg mass, it was necessary
to reduce the number of downgraded eggs and,
therefore, to select hens for higher egg quality
at the end of the laying period. Egg shell
quality, egg shell colour for brown eggs and
eggshell appearance such as roughness of the
eggshell, and dark brown spots (which might
be confused by consumers in some countries
with fly faeces) have been considered toward
the end of the laying period (>50 weeks) since
2000. Amongst the internal egg quality
parameters the technological properties of egg
white (Haugh unit) were considered a priority
particularly for certified alternative
productions. The heritability of albumen
height is estimated to be 0.23 and, in egg
quality random tests carried out in Germany
(1997/1999), Haugh unit values increased in
white and brown eggs (Flock et al., 2001).
Currently, selection has produced
improvement of 0.8 Haugh units since 2001.
Finally, an important internal quality
parameter is the percentage of egg yolk.
Selection to increase the number of eggs and
improve feed efficiency might have negatively
affected the egg yolk/white ratio and modified
dry matter content of the egg as increasing
water content is likely to be metabolically
‘cheaper’. However, this does not seem to
have occurred (Flock et al., 2001).
By traditional quantitative genetics, the
progress in laying hen performance and in
some egg quality traits has been clear to see.
In such breeding techniques, a trait was
considered as a black box but in reality it is
under the control of numerous genes.
Knowledge of the chicken genome has
developed extremely quickly, the full genome

sequence of the chicken became available in
2004 (International chicken genome
sequencing, 2004) and large scale EST
resources in 2002 (Boardman et al., 2002).
Tremendous efforts have been made to
develop genetic markers to localise the sources
of statistically significant genetic variability to
specific regions of a chromosome (Abasht et
al., 2006; Albers et al., 2007).
For egg quality, genome scans to identify
loci were based on medium density
microsatellite maps (Vilkki, 2007). The QTL
data base (Abasht et al, 2006; Vilkki, 2007)
revealed 113 QTL for eggshell quality. They
were observed on chromosomes 1, 2, 4, 5, 7
and Z, chromosomes 1 and 2 for egg white
traits and chromosome 8 for fishy taint. The
majority of these quantitative trait loci are for
egg weight and eggshell quality and those
concerning internal quality (Haugh units or
albumen height) remained limited. A notable
example for organoleptic qualities was
described by Vilkki et al. (who demonstrate
that the fishy odour in brown eggs is
associated with a QTL in chromosome
(2007) and more precisely to the mutation of
a single gene, the chicken FMO3 gene
located in the QTL region associated with
this trait. This observation has been used by
breeding company to eliminate fishy taint
from their brown egg lines which can occur
when hens are fed rape seed (canola) meal.
The occurrence of SNP has been recently
explored for candidate genes involved in the
fabric of the physical barrier, the eggshell
and those coding for antimicrobial activity of
the egg white. Significant associations have
been found between SNP in ovalbumin,
ovocleidin 116 and ovocalyxin 32 with
eggshell characteristic such as quasi static
compression and mammillary layer thickness
(Dunn et al., 2006). In candidate gene
involved in the natural defences of the egg
against microbial penetration or growth,
surprising numbers of SNPs which alter the
amino acid sequence have been observed
(Domahidi et al., 2007). It remains to be seen
if the genes coding for antimicrobial proteins
of the eggwhite (protease, antiprotease,
defensins) are associated with salmonella
growth. This is being assessed by an
European consortium on a commercial laying
hen line in which we previously estimated a
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
heritability of 0.16 for the growth of
salmonella in egg white (Sellier et al., 2007).
EFFECT OF NUTRITION AND HEN
HOUSING SYSTEM
Housing systems for laying hens has
evolved in the last 10 years in Europe
because of the prospect of banning the
conventional cage system in favour of
alternative systems (EU council directive
1999/74/EC) but also because the consumer
demand for eggs from alternative system of
production. The introduction of a new
farming system can potentially introduce risk
in comparison to the well established
conventional cage system especially for the
hygienic quality of the egg. However, the
effect of the hen production system on
sensory, nutritional, or hygienic quality of
eggs remains controversial (Fiks-van
Niekerk, 2005; De Reu et al., 2008).
Nutritional management on the other hand
has been relatively stable for the last 15
years, the main modifications being the ban
of animal proteins and that of additives.
Egg composition, nutritional value and
internal properties: In terms of its
composition in major elements, the egg
displays very consistent composition with
regard to its content in total proteins,
essential amino acids, total lipids,
phospholipids, phosphorus, iron, etc., and
only hen age and genetic origin can slightly
modify the level of these components (Nys,
2001; Seuss-Baum, 2007). As the bird ages,
total egg weight increases and with that
increase comes a simultaneous increase in the
weight of egg yolk. Likewise the genetic
origin of the bird as mentioned previously
can on a long term basis slightly modify the
yolk/albumen ratio, although when
comparing current commercial lines, the
variation is small.
In contrast, it has been established for 30
years that the composition of hen diets can
have a large influence on the fatty acid
profile and the concentration of some
vitamins and trace elements. It is possible to
increase by ten fold the polyunsaturated fatty
acid content (PUFA) belonging to the n-3
(ω3) series, by using flax oil or grains and
marine products, and the n-6 (ω6) series by
using soybean, sunflower or carthame oils
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
(Jiang and Sim, 1992). With such
manipulation, the ω3/ω6 ratio can range from
>30 to <2. It is also possible to incorporate
conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) into the egg
yolk but it will have a detrimental effect both
on rate of laying and yolk texture. Increase in
dietary iodine, selenium, E, D and A vitamin
is acknowledged to promote a ten fold
increase in yolk contents. The high anti
oxidant effect of vitamin E is particularly
useful when the yolk has a high
concentration of PUFAs. Hen diets can
induce a similar increase in the egg content
of the water soluble vitamins B2, B12, B1,
biotin, folic acid and pantothenic acid. So the
innovation is not really in the method to
modify the egg composition by hen diets
even if recent literature helps in reaching a
precise composition, but rather in the
demonstration of the potential of such
modifications for human nutrition and of
added value for the enriched eggs (Sparks,
2005; Seuss-Baum, 2007).
It has been concluded that the level of
cholesterol in the yolk (210 mg/egg) is not
strongly genetically determined (Elkin,
2006), although modern hybrid lines tend to
produce eggs with a lower cholesterol
content than observed in traditional breeds.
In terms of dietary manipulation, PUFA rich
oils, cellulose rich fibres, corn kernels, yucca
or garlic meals, etc. have all been tried in
order to decrease the cholesterol content,
with inconsistent effects limited to minus 5-
10% (Nys, 2001; Seuss-Baum, 2007). The
biggest change has been the fact that more
recent epidemiological studies provide
evidence for a revision of the effect of
cholesterol in human health which should
result in better acceptance of eggs in the diet
(see review of Seuss-Baum, 2007). In
addition, human nutritionists might have
come to realise the fact that, in humans the
mean consumption of lipids/day in Europe is
28g, 21g and 2-3g of milk, meat and egg
lipids respectively. The contribution of eggs
is therefore very limited.
Bird housing (cage or free-range) does
not directly modify the egg composition,
although an indirect response is observed
when PUFA and tocopherol rich grass is
available. The main effects of rearing hens on
litter compared with caging is a decrease in
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egg weight (-0.5-1g), in yolk proportion (-0
to 5 %) and inconsistent variation (less than
±3%) in total lipid, protein and dry mater
(Nys 2001). When comparing various
systems of hen production in experimentally
control condition with birds of the same age,
Rossi (2007) also showed no relevant
differences for egg composition. The system
of hen production had no effect on blood and
meat spots. Haugh unit or pH were also not
affected neither was the sensory evaluation of
hard boiled eggs demonstrating no influence
on egg taste. However, the internal
appearance (albumen) of eggs from caged
hens was less favoured in this study.
Ultimately, the management by the producer
had more influence than the rearing system.
Effect of mineral nutrition on eggshell
quality: Shell breakage is of major concern
because it continues to explain the origin of
80-90% of current downgrading and has
significant economic consequences for table
egg production. New egg sorting systems
recording the vibration of the eggshell with
electronic sensors are currently used at the
egg packing station. This method is more
sensitive in detecting hairline cracks, and
consequently results in an increase in the
incidence of down graded eggs, which is
minimal in the early laying period but
increases from 12 to more than 20 % at the
end of the laying period, depending on
programmes of management, nutrition and
the environmental conditions of the hen
during the rearing and laying period.
Eggshell breakage depends on eggshell
solidity and on the insult to eggs after
oviposition, the latter being influenced by the
housing of the hens and egg transportation.
Eggshell mechanical strength is influenced
not only by the amount of material but also
by the fabric of the eggshell ceramic.
Numerous examples in the literature
demonstrate that defects in hen nutrition can
affect the deposition of calcium carbonate in
the uterus but evidence for any influence on
eggshell structure or crystallographic
properties is scarce and to date has only been
demonstrated in the case of a deficiency of
key nutrients in enzymatic systems such as
Cu or Mn (Mabe et al., 2003). Nutritional
factors have, therefore to be optimised to
prevent any additional decreases in eggshell

quality to those induced by hen age or
unfavourable environmental conditions.
Calcium nutrition is a key element for
eggshell quality. One of the crucial periods is
the transition from immature pullet to laying
hen. The levels of calcium have to be
increased 2 weeks before the onset of egg
production to facilitate the development of
the medullary bone and more importantly to
avoid hens producing the first eggs without
the additional supply of dietary calcium,
which would result in a negative calcium
balance and lower eggshell quality, from
which the hens would never recover. Hens
mature earlier nowadays and therefore,
pullets may produce their first eggs before
transfer to the layer house which usually
coincides with the introduction of the layer
diet. It is therefore recommended to
introduce a higher calcium diet (2.5 % or 3.5)
before the onset of egg production (14-16
weeks of age). Any risk of lowered feed
consumption due to excess of calcium can be
alleviated by improving the presentation of
the diets (size of particles, use of crumble).
The hen exports daily 2.2 g calcium and,
therefore, requires at least 4 g calcium. A low
level of dietary calcium (<3%) increases hen
mortality and depresses egg production
(Keshavarz, 1998a, b).. The selection on egg
number is nowadays associated with
production of eggs laid very early in the
morning or even before the light is on.
Consequently, the morning feed intake
cannot contribute to the supply of calcium for
the eggshell the formation of which is
completed 1.5 h before oviposition. The
introduction of midnight feeding can improve
synchronisation of calcium intake and egg
shell formation and therefore egg shell
quality. The daily kinetics of intestinal
calcium absorption is indeed of great
importance because of the lack of
coincidence between the deposition of
calcium for shell formation in the uterus
during the night and the calcium intake
during the day. The specific appetite for
calcium in hens favours the storage of
calcium and food in the crop and
compensates partly for this gap. Presence of
coarse calcium particles allows the
expression of this physiological capacity and,
in addition reinforces the secretion of acid
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
which is stimulated by crop dilatation. This
aspect has been intensively reported in the
literature and numerous data have
demonstrated the value of using large
particles of calcium. The positive effect of
particulate calcium, compared to ground
calcium has been demonstrated in more than
50 % of the studies (>350 assays since 1927)
and the inconsistency of the results can be
explained when looking carefully into the
factors which modify the eggshell response
to particulate calcium (Nys, 2001). Coarse
particles of calcium improve especially
eggshell quality when given to hens towards
the end of the laying period (62 vs. 30% of
the trials), in a hot climate (78 vs. 43 %) or
when hens are fed low to medium levels of
dietary calcium.
Numerous studies have shown that
eggshell quality is lowered by high dietary
levels of available phosphorus the negative
effect being significant when the dietary non
phytate phosphorus is higher than 0.35-0.4 %
(Nys, 2001). The European mineral group of
the WPSA recommended twenty years ago
that available phosphorus should be
incorporated in the diet at a constant level of
0.28 % throughout the laying period. The
relevant question in the current situation of
tremendous increase in cost of inorganic
phosphorus remains how far is it possible to
lower the supplementation of inorganic
phosphorus using phytase (300UP) which is
generally considered to spare 0.8-1g non
phytate phosphorus. In most studies, it seems
necessary to supply 1g non phytate
phosphorus in presence of phytase to avoid
any negative effect on egg production.
Hygienic quality: We have already said
that the housing system has no consistent
effect on egg composition. This is in contrast
with the observation that the hygienic status
of eggs from free range or open housing
systems is generally considered as lower
where the eggs can be in contact with litter.
De Reu et al. (2008) concluded that the
contamination of the eggshell with aerobic
bacteria is higher for nest eggs from non cage
system compared to those of conventional or
furnished cages. In addition, in floor systems,
the hygienic quality of the egg is lowered as
a consequence of the higher percentage of
floor eggs (Ficks van Niekerk, 2005). De Reu
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
et al. (2008) also concluded in their review
that the differences for eggshell
contamination are very limited between the
furnished or conventional cage system for
eggs laid in the nest but prevalence of
contamination increased if eggs are laid in
other parts of the cages (Mallet et al., 2006).
These authors however underlined that in
commercial conditions, the hygienic
difference tend to be lower compared with
experimental situations. It is noteworthy
however that conventional cage systems have
been optimised because of their long use in
contrast to the new furnished cages which are
still under development. That explains the
heterogeneity of the data for furnished cages
on egg contamination in the literature. As
producers become used to the new systems it
is expected that this variation will reduce.
The differences between floor and cage
system results from the tremendous increase
in dust and bacteria in the air in aviary
system compared to cages (up to 100 fold) as
aerobic bacteria in air and on eggshell are
correlated (De Reu et al, 2008). Another
important point is the observation that the
contamination on the eggshell results
predominantly from gram-positive bacteria
and is therefore different from the internal
egg microflora, which is mainly gram-
negative bacteria and less under influence of
the environment of the egg (dust, soil or
faeces, Board and Tranter, 1995). The
relationship between the egg surface
contamination and the main bacterial
pathogen for humans (Salmonella enteritidis)
is not clearly established. In the European
countries were the difference in Salmonella
prevalence is very large (EFSA, 2006) the
importance of the vertical and horizontal
transmission between flocks and hens is not
established neither is it known the influence
of the housing system. In conclusion, the
development of new egg production systems
might, at least in the short term, threaten the
external hygienic quality of eggs but more
information is needed to be able to draw clear
conclusions on the risk for human health.
HANDLING AND PROCESSING OF
EGGS
Uniformity and high quality of eggs is an
important issue for the companies in charge
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of egg packing and marketing. Candling and
visual inspection combined with some
quantitative measures of egg quality (Haugh
units, Dry Matter, presence of blood spots)
on a very limited number of eggs was
traditionally carried out in egg sorting plants
with the risk of false evaluation due to
operator fatigue. However, the total number
of eggs handled and the rate of grading (more
than 120 000 eggs per hours) has seen the
end of visual inspection by humans.
Therefore, the use of automated non invasive
techniques using sensors technology
(acoustic or optic in the near infrared and
fluorescent spectroscopy) has great potential
for detecting egg quality very rapidly in egg
grading machines (Karoui et al., 2005). The
development of such technologies will allow
egg to be sorted at high speed not only on
eggshell integrity and egg weight, as is
possible now, but also on some internal
parameters, such as pH and freshness (Haugh
unit). It will allow sorting of eggs for specific
purposes or eliminating eggs unsafe for
human consumption. Currently, crack
detection of the eggshell is carried out in
commercial conditions using vibration
analysis of the eggshell: The detection of
difference in oscillation responses of the
eggshell after being impacted in four points
allows the detection of 90% of cracked eggs
with only 1 % of false positives (De
Ketelaere et al, 2000). This technique is
sensitive and able to reveal some very small
micro-cracks. The improvement in the ability
to detect cracks might explain why a
relatively high percentage of downgraded
eggs are observed in commercial conditions
despite progress in selection and hen
nutrition for over the last 15 years. Optical
techniques (Karoui et al., 2005; Berardinelli
et al., 2007) are promising to evaluate
albumen quality (pH, haugh units and
viscosity) or to detect blood spots but are not
yet adapted to commercial conditions.
Alternatively, computerised video imaging
can efficiently detect and differentiate
different dirt stains on eggs (Mertens et al.,
2005) but it remains too slow to be integrated
in a grading machine. Optimizations of these
techniques (acoustic, spectral and visual
measurements) are currently being developed
for integration in a platform to detect risky

eggs for human consumption by a European
consortium (see http://www.rescape-
project.eu). Overall grading and sorting eggs
can be a very effective way to improve egg
quality for the consumer. An alternative
approach to improve egg safety is the
decontamination of the whole egg. Egg
washing is carried out in numerous countries
but remain a controversial issue (EFSA,
2005) and is still banned in Europe.
Alternative methods of egg surface
decontamination (microwave, gas plasma
sterilization, packaging technologies, use of
chitosans) are therefore also being evaluated
in the EU project Rescape.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS: The authors
gratefully acknowledge the European
Community (RESCAPE Food CT 2006-
036018) for financial support.
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[3] Berardinelli A., Cevoli C., Fabbri A., Giunchi
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[4] Board, R.G., Tranter, H.S. (1995) Egg science
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[5] Boardman, P. E., Sanz-Ezquerro, J., Overton, I.
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Brown, W. R. A., Wilson, S. A., Hubbard, S. J.
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[12] Elkin, R. G. (2006) Reducing shell egg
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[13] Fiks-van Niekerk Th.G.C.M. (2005) XIth
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Nys, Y. (2006). British Poultry Science, 47: 30-35.
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[24] Nys, Y. (2001). 9th European Congress on the
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[25] Nys, Y. 2001.. 13th European Symposium on
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2001/09/30-10/04, 45-52. WPSA, Belgium Branch.
[26] Rossi M. (2007) CDrom proceeding of the XII
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117-140.
 BACK
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

STUDY OF THE PRODUCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS

OF YOUTH AND LAYING QUAILS IN THE “BALOTEŞTI”
EGGS-MEAT POPULATION

Elena Popescu-Micloşanu, L. Ioniţă

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agronomice şi Medicină Veterinară Bucureşti, Facultatea de Zootehnie

e-mail: elenapopescu50@yahoo.com

Abstract
The research findings on the productive characteristics in the “Baloteşti” eggs-meat quail
population raised and selected at „S. C. Nova Farm S.R.L.” Bucharest, upon an initial number of
2,000 quails, studied individually or on cage, in function of the productive characteristic, indicated
that the average body weight at the age of 42 days was of 205.3 g and the daily average weight gain
in the period of 1-6 weeks of raising was of 4.65 g, the daily average feed consumption and the
specific consumption was of 15.63 g, respectively 3.46 g and the viability was of 90.5 %. In the first
48 weeks of the laying period of the quails raised for reproduction, it was obtained an average
laying percent of 63.03, the daily average feed consumption and the average specific consumption
being of 37.35 g, respectively 68.25. The daily consumption for the 1-6 weeks period of raising the
youth quails was of 46.53 kcal ME and 3.30 g crude protein. In 48 weeks of laying the daily
consumption was of 103.72 kcal ME and 7.32 g crude protein. The performances are superior to
other populations in our country, raised in majority only for eggs, and similar to that exploited in
others countries with tradition in quail raising, being suited to continue the selection in the
direction of obtaining lines specialized for eggs or as broiler mother.
Key words: quail, productive characteristics, youth, laying quails.

INTRODUCTION determinations concern the individual body

Japanese quail raised for eggs - meat
production saw a great development during
recent decades because quail eggs and meat are
well-known on one hand for their qualities
(high and well-balanced nutritive value,
exquisite taste), and on the other hand because
of the recommendations of naturalistic
medicine to consume these dietetic products
with peculiar therapeutically effects [4].
MATERIAL AND METHOD
To establish the productive characteristics
in the youth of a Baloteşti eggs - meat quail
population an experiment was organized
upon an initial number of 2,000 quail chicks
aged of 1 day from 5 series, in 6 weeks of
growth. In the period of 0-3 weeks of growth,
the chicks were raised on floor permanent
laying bad (the 1st phase of growth), while in
the 4-6 weeks of growth (the 2nd phase of
growth), the chicks were raised in special
cages batteries for the youth quails. The
weight, the daily feed consumption on the
cage and the mortality.
To determine the productive
characteristics in the adult quails from a
Baloteşti eggs – meat quail population there
were studied the productive performances in
an initial number of 905 adult quails of the
same 5 series. The study data refer to: the egg
production on the cage, the individual egg
weight, the individual body weight, the feed
consumption on the cage and the mortality
during 48 weeks of egg production, taking
into account that birds were exploited for
reproduction. The utilized sex - ratio in the
reproduction cage was of 1 male to 3
females.
The composition and the nutritive values
of the compound feed used in the experiment
are presented in Tables 1 and 2.
Depending on the determinations and the
nutritive values of the mixed feed it was
calculated the average metabolisable energy

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

and the nutritive substances consumption The dates processing was done with the
(crude protein, methionine and cisthine, Micorsoft Windows Excel 2003 program.
lysine, calcium, phosphorus, crude cellulose,
microelements and vitamins).

Table 1
The structure of the mixed feed used in the experiment (kg)
st nd
The 1 phase of The 2 phase of
Adult quails (over
Specification the youth growth the youth growth 6 weeks)
(0-3 weeks) (4-6 weeks)
Corn 52.85 57.94 53.20
Soybean meal 34.50 28.70 28.00
Sunflower meal - 5.50 5.5
Fish meal 6.90 - -
Lyzyne-HCl - 0.33 0.20
DL-methionine 0.15 0.18 0.20
Calcium carbonate 0.60 1.35 7.8
Dicalcic phosphate 1.40 1.60 1.5
Oil 2.30 3.1 2.8
Vitamin and mineral premix 1.00 1.00 0.50
Salt 0.30 0.30 0.30
Total 100.00 100.00 100.00

Table 2
The nutritive composition of the mixed feed used in the experiment (calculated value)
st nd
The 1 phase of The 2 phase
the youth of the youth Laying quails
Specification
growth (0-3 growth (4-6 (over 6 weeks)
weeks) weeks)
Metabolisable Energy (kcal EM/kg feed) 2946 2990 2777
Crude Protein (%) 24 19.76 19.61
Lysine (%) 1.60 1.28 1.15
Methionine and cisthine (%) 0.94 0,81 0.82
Calcium (%) 0.97 0.96 3.38
Phosphorus (%) 0.79 0.66 0.69
Rough cellulose (%) 2.96 3,87 3.82
Rough fat (%) 5.06 5,91 5.41
Vitamin A (UI/kg feed) 12501 12501 10752
Vitamin D3 (UI/kg feed) 3500 3500 2460
Vitamin E (mg/kg feed) 57,770 58,690 38,310
Vitamin B1 (mg/kg feed) 4,540 4,630 3,706
Vitamin B2 (mg/kg feed) 7,480 7,380 5,940
Vitamin B4 (choline) (mg/kg feed) 1566,000 1423,000 1796,780
Vitamin B6 (mg/kg feed) 3,200 3,200 2,000
Vitamin B12 (mg/kg feed) 2.010 2,010 2,010
Copper (mg/kg feed) 12,150 11,540 12,290
Manganese (mg/kg feed) 92,390 91,08 90,860
Selenium (mg/kg feed) 0,200 0,200 0,180
Zinc (mg/kg feed) 80,130 78,10 79,320
Energo-protein rate (kcal EM/PB %) 123 152 141
Lysine – methionine and cisthine rate 1,730 1,590 1,430
Calcium – phosphorus rate 1,240 1,460 5,390

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS Baloteşti quail population are presented

Experimental research findings on growth below.
and egg production performances of a

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

1. The productive characteristics of the th week of life, when achieved a maximum

youth quails in 1 to 6 weeks period of
growth
From the 8.86 g average body weight in
the first day of age (Table 3) the quail chicks
get 205.3 g after 6 weeks. The average body
weight gain increased by the age until the 5-
of 5.72 g/day. The daily feed consumption
raised by the age from 4.3 g in the 1st week to
26.24 g in the 6-th week. The feed
conversion ratio increased gradual, from the
average of 2.16 after the first 3 weeks of
growth to 4.5 in the next 3 weeks.

Table 3
The productive characteristics in chicks of the Balotesti eggs-meat quail population
Feed consumption Feed
Body weight gain (g) Mor-
Body weight (g/quail) conver-
Age (weeks) tality
X ± sx (g) sion
Daily Weekly Daily Weekly %
ratio
1 day 8,86 ± 0,07 - - - - - 0.5
I 31 ±0,12 3,05 21,37 ± 0.88 4,3 30,10 ± 1.20 1,41 1,6
II 76,5 ± 0,77 6,5 45,5 ± 0.58 9,85 69,00 ± 1.15 1,52 1,6
III 105,54 ± 1,63 4,14 29 ± 0.67 15,5 108,00± 0.88 3,74 0.6
IV 136,45 ± 1,71 4,60 32,23 ± 1,24 17,64 123,5 ± 0,18 3,86 1,2
V 177,92 ± 2,15 5,72 40,10 ± 0,97 20,2 141,4 ± 0,35 3,52 2,8
VI 205,3 ± 2,29 3,90 27,36 ± 0,67 26,24 183,7 ± 0,79 6,71 1,2
Average I-VI week - 4,65 32,59 15,63 109,2 3,46 1,4
1-21 days - 4,56 95,85 9,86 207,1 3,2 4.3
21-42 days - 4,74 99,69 21,41 449,6 4,5 5,2
Total 1-42 days - - 195,54 - 656,7 - 9.5

2. The productive characteristics of the 3. The energy and nutritive substances

adult quails in the 1 to 48 weeks period
of egg production
The egg production of the studied
population (Table 4) increased rapidly, so it
achieved the peak of the egg yield in the
weeks 7-8 of the egg output: 88.5-88.76 %.
The plate has been maintained approximately
8 weeks, after witch it has decreased at 38%
in 48-th week of egg production. The average
egg weight was of 10.77 g at the beginning of
the egg production, has exceed 11 g in 3-th
week, after which it has increased, coming at
the maximum of 14.5 g in the 16-th week of
egg production, unlike fowl, reducing slowly
at of 9.12 g by the end of the analyzed
period. The average body weight has
increased slowly along the age, from 226.50
g at the beginning of the laying, to 274.15 g
in the 48-th week of egg production. The
feed consumption had an upward evolution,
from 28.14 in the 1st week of laying to 41.31
g in the last week of the studied egg
production. The feed conversion per egg was
minimal in the peak of the laying, of 35.85 in
the 7-th week, then increasing slowly to
108.71 in the 48-th week.
consumption of the youth and adult
quails
In the 1st phase of youth growth (Table 5),
the feed consumption per g of weight gain was
of: 6.36 kcal ME, 0.518 g crude protein, 0.035
g lysine, 0.020 g methionine + cisthine, 0.005
g tryptophan, 0.021 g calcium, 0.017 g
phosphorus, 0.109 g rough fat, 27 UI vitamin
A and 7.56 UI vitamin D3. The other
microelements and vitamins consumption are
presented in the Table 5.
In the 2nd phase of youth growth, the
specific consumption per g of weight gain
was bigger: 13.46 kcal ME, 0.889 g crude
protein, 0.057 g lysine, 0.036 g methionine +
cisthine, 0.010 g tryptophan, 0.043 g
calcium, 0.029 g phosphorus, 0.266 g rough
fat, 56.25 UI vitamin A and 15.75 UI vitamin
D3. The other microelements and vitamins
consumption are presented in the Table 5.
In the adult quails from the Baloteşti
population, the energy and nutritive substances
per egg was: 189.53 kcal ME, 13.38 g crude
protein, 0.784 g lysine, 0.546 g methionine +
cisthine, 2.307 g calcium, 0.471 g phosphorus,
3.692 g brute fat, 733.82 UI vitamin A and
167.89 vitamin D3. The leftover of

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

microelement and vitamin consumption are population are similar to those of the Faraon
presented in the table 5. quails populations from Poland [11] and
The productive performances superior to those of the quail populations
characteristics of the Baloteşti quails exploited in Turkey [5].

Table 4
The evolution of the productive performances of the egg production in the Baloteşti quails population
during the weeks 1 - 48 of laying

Daily feed
Week Cumulated Egg weight Body weight Feed
Egg yield Egg output consumption
of egg (g) (g) conver-
X ± sx per capita (g)
exploit production sion
(%) X ± sx X±sX X±sX
ation /capita X±sX (g/egg)

1 4.34 ± 0.64 0.29 ± 0.07 - 10.77 ± 0.22 226.50 ± 1.57 28.14 ± 1.05 648.38
2 38.20 ± 2.41 2.66 ± 0.25 2.95 10.91 ± 0.18 229.34 ± 1.63 28.36 ± 1.31 74.24
3 66.07 ± 2.80 4.63 ± 0.25 7.58 11.11 ± 0.11 230.27 ± 1.55 28.73 ± 1.27 43.48
4 77.94 ± 3.48 5.52 ± 0.42 13.10 11.18 ± 0.10 235.32 ± 1.45 30.63 ± 0.63 39.29
5 83.87 ± 2.75 5.93 ± 0.32 19.03 11.22 ± 0.05 239.52 ± 1.29 31.05 ± 0.50 37.02
6 87.44 ± 2.44 6.17 ± 0.30 25.20 11.27 ± 0.05 240.31 ± 0.93 31.41 ± 0.32 35.92
7 88.50 ± 2.09 6.25 ± 0.19 31.45 11.36 ± 0.10 242.31 ± 0.91 31.73 ± 0.18 35.85
8 88.76 ± 1.95 6.26 ± 0.22 37.71 11.45 ± 0.09 245.19 ± 0.81 32.27 ± 0.18 36.35
9 88.59 ± 1.93 6.25 ± 0.25 43.96 11.52 ± 0.14 246.17 ± 0.95 32.30 ± 0.15 36.46
10 87.78 ± 2.16 6.17 ± 0.26 50.13 11.57 ± 0.18 246.57 ± 0.87 32.50 ± 0.50 37.02
11 87.22 ± 2.40 6.13 ± 0.30 56.26 11.64 ± 0.23 247.05 ± 0.91 33.18 ± 0.64 38.04
12 86.21 ± 2.32 6.05 ± 0.29 62.31 11.72 ± 0.18 248.09 ± 0.95 33.77 ± 0.37 39.17
13 85.04 ± 2.23 5.96 ± 0.27 68.27 12.18 ± 0.27 248.94 ± 1.10 33.81 ± 0.28 39.75
14 83.85 ± 2.20 5.89 ± 0.29 74.16 13.32 ± 0.05 249.88 ± 0.91 34.00 ± 0.18 40.54
15 83.18 ± 2.12 5.83 ± 0.33 79.99 13.55 ± 0.09 250.44 ± 0.94 34.32 ± 0.14 41.25
16 81.61 ± 2.23 5.73 ± 0.29 85.72 14.50 ± 0.14 251.88 ± 0.83 34.41 ± 0.41 42.16
17 79.55 ± 2.36 5.58 ± 0.33 91.30 13.14 ± 0.23 254.06 ± 0.51 34.77 ± 0.32 43.71
18 78.39 ± 2.36 5.48 ± 0.32 96.78 12.68 ± 0.05 254.68 ± 0.42 35.00 ± 0.45 44.64
19 76.59 ± 2.55 5.38 ± 0.34 102.16 12.40 ± 0.05 255.23 ± 0.51 35.14 ± 0.50 45.88
20 74.55 ± 2.81 5.26 ± 0.35 107.42 12.36 ± 0.04 255.81 ± 0.43 35.36 ± 0.36 47.43
21 73.29 ± 2.96 5.19 ± 0.38 112.61 12.31 ± 0.04 256.57 ± 0.58 35.54 ± 0.45 48.49
22 71.84 ± 2.84 5.10 ± 0.33 117.71 12.22 ± 0.05 257.08 ± 0.66 35.81 ± 0.45 49.84
23 70.02 ± 2.46 5.02 ± 0.36 122.73 12.05 ± 0.05 257.50 ± 0.76 35.95 ± 0.41 51.34
24 68.41 ± 2.56 4.91 ± 0.38 127.64 11.95 ± 0.05 258.26 ± 0.95 36.05 ± 0.41 52.69
25 66.75 ± 2.73 4.79 ± 0.41 132.43 11.91 ± 0.10 259.13 ± 0.93 36.27 ± 0.54 54.33
26 64.79 ± 2.63 4.65 ± 0.41 137.08 11.91 ± 0.07 260.25 ± 1.06 36.50 ± 0.50 56.33
27 62.73 ± 2.34 4.51 ± 0.39 141.59 11.85 ± 0.08 260.82 ± 0.98 36.54 ± 0.45 58.25
28 61.03 ± 2.18 4.39 ± 0.37 145.98 11.85 ± 0.05 261.05 ± 0.91 36.73 ± 0.55 60.18
29 59.23 ± 2.16 4.27 ± 0.37 150.25 11.74 ± 0.05 261.93 ± 0.84 36.82 ± 0.54 62.16
30 58.30 ± 2.19 4.08 ± 0.38 154.33 11.67 ± 0.04 263.36 ± 0.86 37.14 ± 0.59 63.70
31 57.62 ± 1.99 4.03 ± 0.37 158.36 11.59 ± 0.07 263.58 ± 0.70 37.41 ± 0.58 64.93
32 56.76 ± 1.87 3.97 ± 0.37 162.33 11.55 ± 0.05 263.00 ± 0.77 37.59 ± 0.50 66.23
33 55.24 ± 1.64 3.87 ± 0.33 166.20 11.42 ± 0.10 264.77 ± 0.70 37.60 ± 0.42 68.07
34 50.88 ± 1.57 3.56 ± 0.27 169.76 11.36 ± 0.09 266.45 ± 0.52 37.72 ± 0.72 74.14
35 49.68 ± 1.98 3.48 ± 0.29 173.24 11.23 ± 0.10 267.91 ± 0.45 38.05 ± 0.95 76.59
36 49.51 ± 2.19 3.46 ± 0.25 176.70 11.12 ± 0.08 267.91 ± 0.34 38.22 ± 0.64 77.19
37 48.00 ± 1.99 3.36 ± 0.42 180.06 11.05 ± 0.12 268.25 ± 0.51 38.41 ± 0.37 80.02
38 46.51 ± 1.87 3.26 ± 0.32 183.32 10.9 ± 0.11 268.74 ± 0.42 38.72 ± 0.28 83.25
39 46.23 ± 2.32 3.23 ± 0.30 186.55 10.6 ± 0.10 269.43 ± 0.54 38.83 ± 0.18 83.99
40 45.12 ± 2.23 3.16 ± 0.19 189.71 10.4 ± 0.07 269.52 ± 0.76 39.00 ± 0.14 86.43
41 44.80 ± 2.20 3.13 ± 0.37 192.84 10.3 ± 0.10 269.80 ± 0.55 39.14 ± 0.41 87.37
42 44.11 ± 2.12 3.08 ± 0.37 195.92 10.1 ± 0.05 270.00 ± 0.75 39.23 ± 0.55 88.93
43 43.00 ± 2.23 3.01 ± 0.33 198.93 10 ± 0.10 271.00 ± 0.65 39.32 ± 0.54 91.44
44 42.24 ± 2.36 2.97 ± 0.27 201.90 9.9 ± 0.11 271.52 ± 0.45 39.53 ± 0.59 ±93.58
45 42.00 ± 2.36 2.94 ± 0.19 204.84 9.67 ± 0.08 272.21 ± 0.56 39.71 ± 0.55 94.54
46 40.50 ± 2.36 2.83 ± 0.37 207.67 9.45 ± 0.10 272.52 ± 0.67 40.00 ± 0.54 98.76
47 40.00 ± 2.55 2.80 ± 0.38 210.47 9.20 ± 0.05 273.23 ± 0.75 41.00 ± 0.59 102.50
48 38.00 ± 2.81 2.66 ± 0.26 213.14 9.12 ± 0.11 274.15 ± 0.55 41.31 ± 0.58 108.71
Average 68.25 ±
1-48 63.03 ± 0.03 4.11 ± 0.19 - 11.42 ± 0.15 257.03 ± 1.81 37.35 ± 0.48
weeks 3.12
Total - - 213.14 - - -

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 Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

Table 5
The energy and nutritive substances consumption in youth and adult quails
st nd
The 1 phase of The 2 phase of The overall youth
the youth growth the youth growth growth period Laying quails
(0-3 weeks) (4-6 weeks) (0-6 weeks)
Specification
Per g Per g Per g
Daily weight Daily weight Daily weight Daily Per egg
gain gain gain
Metabolisable 29.05 6.36 64.02 13.46 46.53 9.91 103.72 189.53
energy (kcal)
Crude protein (g) 2.37 0.518 4.23 0.889 3.30 0.704 7.320 13.383
Lysine (g) 0.158 0.035 0.274 0.057 0.216 0.046 0.420 0.784
Methionine+ 0.092 0.020 0.173 0.036 0.134 0.028 0.290 0.546
cisthine (g)
Calcium (g) 0.096 0.021 0.206 0.043 0.151 0.032 1.260 2.307
Phosphorus (g) 0.078 0.017 0.141 0.029 0.110 0.023 0.257 0.471
Brute cellulose (g) 0.292 0.064 0.829 0.174 0.561 0.119 1.426 2.607
Rough fat (g) 0.499 0.109 1.265 0.266 0.882 0.188 2.020 3.692
Vitamin A (UI) 123.26 27 267.65 56.25 195.46 41.63 401.58 733.82
Vitamin D3 (UI) 34.51 7.56 74.94 15.75 54.73 11.66 91.88 167.89
Vitamin E (mg) 569 124.85 1257 264.11 913 194.48 1423.04 2600.33
Vitamin B1 (mg)* 44,76 98.06 99.13 20.84 71.95 59.45 138.19 252.53
Vitamin B2 (mg)* 73.75 16.15 158 33.21 115.88 24.68 220.37 402.68
Vitamin B4 (mg)* 15440 3382.6 30466 6403.5 22953 4893.05 67109 122630.24
Copper (mg)* 119.79 26.24 247.07 51.93 183.43 39.09 459.41 839.48
Manganese (mg)* 916.3 200.73 1950 409.86 1433.15 305.29 3393.62 6201.20
Selenium (mg)* 1.97 0.43 4.28 0.90 3.13 0.67 6.72 12.29
Zinc (mg)* 790.1 173.1 1672.2 351.45 1231.15 262.28 2962.61 5413.59
5
Note : the values marked with * must be divided by 10 .

CONCLUSIONS was of 257.03 g per capita. The feed

The productive characteristics in youth
of Baloteşti egg –meat quail population in
the 1-6 weeks of growth. The average body
weight at 42 days of age of Baloteşti quail
was of 205.3 g, the average body weight gain
in 1-6 weeks of growth was of 4.65 g and the
feed conversion was of 3.46 kg compound
feed /kg weight gain. In the same period, the
viability was of 91.6 %.
The productive characteristics in the
laying quails of Baloteşti egg –meat
population in the 1-48 weeks of egg
production. The average productive
performances obtained at the analyzed quails
were the following: the average egg
production percent was of 63.03 %, the
average egg production per capita and week
was of 4.11 eggs. The cumulated egg
production was 213.14 eggs /capita. The
mortality percent was of 0.18 %. The average
egg weight in the analyzed period was of
11.42 g. The determined average quail body
weight in the 1-48 weeks of egg production
consumption was of 37.35 g per capita and
day and the feed conversion was of 68.25 g
per egg.
The nutritive substances consumption
in the youth quail. For the 1st phase (weeks
1- 3) of growth the consumption per
capita/day was of : 29.05 kcal ME, 2.37 g
crude protein, 0.158 g lysine, 0.092 g
methionine + cisthine, 0.096 g calcium and
0.078 g phosphorus. For the 2nd phase (weeks
4-6 of growth) the consumption per
capita/day was of: 64.02 kcal ME, 4.23 g
crude protein, 0.274 g lysine, 0.173 g
methionine + cisthine, 0.206 g calcium and
0.141 g phosphorus.
The nutritive substances consumption
of the laying quails in the 1-48 weeks egg
production was: 103.72 kcal ME, 7.32 g
crude protein, 0.420 g lysine, 0.290 g
methionine + cisthine, 2.307 g calcium and
0.471 g phosphorus.
As a general conclusion, it can be stated
that the quails from the studied population

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have productive characteristics higher than
other quail populations in Romania, which
are raised just for egg and similar with the
quails raised in other countries with long
tradition in the quail raising domain. These
quails can be further selected for obtaining
specialized quails only for eggs, as well as
for hybridization on female line for broiler.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
S.C. Nova Farm S.R.L. for its contributions
to the promotion of scientific research in quail
raising.
REFERENCES
Journal articles
[2] Ioniţă, L., Studiu privind evoluţia
performanţelor de producţie la prepeliţele ouătoare
din populaţia mixta de oua-carne „de Baloteşti” in
perioada 1-35 de săptămâni de ouat, The 7th
International Symposium „Prospects for 3rd
Millennium Agriculture”, University of
Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of
Cluj-Napoca, 2008.
[3] Minvielle, F., The future of Japanese quails for
research and production, World’s Poultry Sci. J.,
vol. 60, nr. 4, 2004.
[4] Marin Gh. şi col. - Tehnologia Creşterii
prepeliţelor domestice pentru producţia de ouă şi
carne, Ed. Pământ românesc, Bucureşti, 1990.
[5] Ozbey, O., Erisir, Z., Aysondu, M.H. and
Ozmen, O., The Effect of High Temperatures on
Breeding and Survival of Japanese Quails that are
Bred under different Temperatures, Department of
Zootechnia, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Firat
University, Elazig, Turkey, 2004.
[6] Popescu-Micloşanu, Elena, Ioniţă, L. ş.a.,
Comparative study regarding the productive
characteristics of the youth quails in two
- 259 -
Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
populations, The 35-th International Session of
Scientific Communications the Scientific Papers of
the Faculty of Animal Science, Bucharest, 2006.
[7] Popescu-Micloşanu, Elena, Ioniţă, L., ş.a,
Comparative study regarding the egg production
and the mortality at the Baloteşti and Faraon quails
populations, The 36-th International Session of
Scientific Communications the Scientific Papers of
the Faculty of Animal Science, Bucharest, 2007.
[8] Popescu-Micloşanu, Elena, Creşterea păsărilor
pentru producţia de ouă, Ed. Printech, Bucureşti,
2007.
[9] Popescu-Micloşanu, Elena, Ioniţă, L., ş.a,
Study about the results of slaughtering and the
carcass features at the Baloteşti quails population
of different ages, International Symposium “ The
Oportunities and Perspectives in Animal
Production” , Faculty of Animal Husbandry,
University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary
Medicine “Ion Ionescu de la Brad”, Iaşi, 2008.
[10] Popescu-Micloşanu, Elena, Ioniţă, L., ş.a.,
Comparative study regarding the results obtained
in the incubation of two quails populations for
eggs-meat “Balotesti” and for meat “Faraon, The
37-th International Session of Scientific
Communications the Scientific Papers of the
Faculty of Animal Science, Bucharest, November
2008.
Books
[1] Ioniţă, L., Studiu privind elaborarea unui plan
de selecţie la prepeliţele mixte din populaţia de
ouă carne „de Baloteşti” în direcţia producţiei de
ouă, Lucr. dizertaţie, Progr. Studii Masterat
„Sisteme durabile în producţia animală”, Fac.
Zootehnie, U.S.A.M.V. Bucureşti, 2008.
[11] Tarasewicz, Zofia, Ligogki, M.,
Szczererbinska, Danuta, Majewska, Danuta and
Danczak, Alicjia, Different levels of crude protein
and energy – protein ratio in adult quail diets,
Department of Poultry Breeding, Agricultural
University of Szcezecin, Poland, 2006.
 BACK

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

IMPROVEMENT OF THE MORPHO-PRODUCTIVE

INDEXES AT THE ROSS-308 BROILER BREEDERS,
THROUGH INCREASED PHOTOSTIMULATION

M.G. Usturoi 1, I. Vacaru-Opriş1, I. Ciocan2, R.M. Radu-Rusu1 A. Usturoi1

1
University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine
Animal Science Faculty, 8 Mihail Sadoveanu Alley, 700489, Iasi, Romania
e-mail: umg@univagro-iasi.ro
2
Agricola International Bacău

Abstract
The researches focused on the eggs yield improvement at the „Ross 308” hens breeders, through
the optimisation of the lighting schedule. The groups method, mixed with the periods one, was applied.
Two groups have been established (Lc and Lexp), comprising each 5260 hens and the required
roosters; the fowl have been observed during 20-60 weeks age period. Both groups received the
standard phostostimulation schedule, as specified by the producer. However, the Lexp group received
1 supplemental hour of lightning/week and 10 lux higher lighting intensity. The live weight was found
within the standard curve in both groups and the hens in the experimental group were 0.15-3.60g
heavier than those in the control group. Although the mortality percentage was close between groups
(9.85% in Lc and 9.29% in Lexp), the culling generated by prolapses was 0.59% lower in Lexp. Eggs
yield reached 183.65 pieces in Lexp compared to just 178.25 pieces in Lc, leading thus to an improved
feed conversion ratio, meaning 3.11% better at the experimental group. The main conclusion of the
study states that the usage of an increased photostimulation schedule on the “Ross 308” broiler
breeders provides an appropriate correlation between the sexual maturity onset and the reaching
moment of the optimal live weight, generating thus higher morpho-productive indexes, compared to
those achieved within the classical photostimulation version.
Key words: hens, reproduction, photostimulation, production

INTRODUCTION expression of the genetic potential. It was

The metabolic and endocrine processes of
the fowl are significantly influenced by the
light as a factor whose action is exerted
through lasting time, intensity and through its
alternation with dark periods, as well [3]. Any
exception from the specific lighting schedule
negatively interfere with fowl activity,
especially with the reproductive one,
generating major consequences on the yield
level [5], and mostly on the quality of the
produced eggs [4].
According to the management guide, the
photostimulation of the “Ross-308” breeder
must be setup at 4 weeks prior to laying onset
[7]. The experience of the Romanian
reproduction poultry companies revealed that
it is not indicated to apply any technological
schedule, unless this is adapted to the local
conditions, because it could lead to a partial
also found that the exact moment of the
photostimulation starting is highly
conditioned by the breeders group uniformity
[6].
Besides these, we proposed to investigate
the possibilities to improve the morpho-
produtice performances of the heavy breed
reproduction hens – parents of the “Ross-
308” chicken commercial hybrid, through the
optimization of the lighting schedule applied
to them.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The experiments have been run on 11992
reproduction fowl, parents of the “Ross-308”
chicken commercial hybrid, divided in 2
groups, a control one (Lc) and an
experimental one (Lexp), including each
5260 hens and 526 roosters.

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

Standard lighting schedule was provided
to the control group: passage from 8 hours
light/day (19th week), to 11 hours light/day
(20th week); light lasting period increased
with an hour at each 2 weeks, till 27 weeks,
when the period reached 15 hours/day.
The lighting schedule of the experimental
group reached 9 ore/day during 19th and 20th
weeks, then the lighting period increased
with an hour at each 2 weeks, finally
reaching 16 hours light/day in the 28th week.
The lighting intensity provided to the
experimental group was of 60 lux, compared
to the 50 lux value, provided to the control
group.
The fowl have been accommodated on
permanent litter, in 2 halls of 1200m2 each,
identical as endorsements (circular watering
devices with valve; D.N.C. feeding
equipment; suspended feeders for males
supplemental feeding and nests disposed on
two levels, one nest at 4 females). The
females received feeding room of 8.5
cm/hen, while the males received 18
cm/cock; watering room reached 3.0
cm/individual.
The ratio between genders has been
modified in accordance with the fowl age (10
roosters/100 hens at brooding, then the males
amount gradually decreased, reaching 6
males/100 hens during the 60th week).
Fowl have been studied during a 40
weeks period (since 20 weeks till 60th week,
inclusively) and the dynamics of the main
morpho-productive indexes have been
observed:
• Body weight: individual weighting run
on 250 birds from each group.
• Eggs production: eggs yield and laying
intensity.
• Feed intake: consum mediu (g/cap/zi) şi
indice de conversie a hranei (g n.c./ou)
• Fowl health status: weekly flock
casualties (mortality + culling)
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Weight gain dynamics. A rigorous
selection has been practiced when the two
groups have been established, in relation with
the fowl body development. Therefore, it was
possible to maintain their weight on the
weight curve specific to this poultry category
(tab. 1).

Table 1
Body weight dynamics of the studied hens

Age Standard Lc Lexp.

(wks.) weight (g) X ±s x (g) V% X ±s x (g) V%
20 2155-2300 2185.70±7.77 5.62 2186.92±7.83 5.66
22 2465-2640 2608.21±10.62 6.44 2610.01±9.00 5.45
24 2800-2950 2822.73±11.10 6.22 2824.37±11.84 6.63
26 3070-3220 3063.14±13.35 6.89 3064.48±13.13 6.78
28 3270-3420 3383.55±15.90 7.43 3384.92±15.72 7.34
30 3390-3540 3538.89±18.28 8.15 3539.23±20.68 9.22
32 3420-3570 3565.14±21.23 9.31 3566.32±20.09 8.81
34 3450-3600 3598.52±20.18 8.77 3599.33±21.91 9.52
36 3480-3630 3622.73±22.60 9.74 3623.11±22.35 9.63
38 3510-3660 3657.34±24.90 10.62 3658.87±23.72 10.11
40 3540-3690 3687.00±21.96 9.33 3688.12±24.36 10.34
42 3570-3720 3717.72±23.62 9.99 3718.96±24.31 10.28
44 3600-3750 3742.11±24.15 10.14 3743.34±24.02 10.09
46 3630-3780 3771.31±23.07 9.67 3772.16±25.65 10.75
48 3660-3810 3808.03±23.70 9.82 3809.26±27.92 11.56
50 3690-3840 3832.73±24.64 10.11 3833.37±26.89 11.03
52 3720-3870 3861.09±25.13 10.29 3862.99±27.44 11.23
54 3750-3900 3898.51±25.37 10.28 3898.42±29.08 11.37
56 3780-3930 3917.78±27.41 11.06 3918.87±30.86 12.45
58 3810-3960 3946.61±28.26 11.32 3947.23±31.98 12.81
60 3840-3990 3988.83±29.95 11.87 3989.16±32.50 12.88

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
Thus, at the beginning of the experiment
(fowl of 20 weeks old), the average body
weight of the hens in the control group
reached 2185.70±7.77 g, while those in the
experimental group weighted 2186.92±7.83g.
As fowl turned old, the body weight
increased, reaching levels of
3565.14±21.23g-control group and of
3566.32 ±20.09g-experimental group during
laying peak (32nd week of life). At the end of
the experiment (60th week) the average
weights were of 3988.83±29.95g-control
group and 3989.316±32.50g-experimental
group. The initial uniformity of the fowl
maintained during the entire experiment, the
variation coefficient indicating low and
average variability (5.62-11.87% in control
group, respectively 5.6-12.88% in the
experimental one).
Flock casualties and their reasons. The
observations made on the studied flocks
allowed us to evaluate the way through the
experimental factor, meaning the lighting
schedule, influenced the correlations between
10
8 9,85 9,29
6
4 5,2 5,23
4,65 4,06
2
0
Culling Mortality
Fig. 1 Flock casualties of the studied hens
Eggs yield and laying intensity. The
lighting schedule recommended by the
company producing “Ross-308” adult
breeders should ensure laying onset at the
flock age of 23 weeks [7], but the experience
of the aviculture experts in our country
suggests that the first eggs are laid later, this
moment being related to hens weight.
The data we achieved (tab. 2) indicate
that the fowl in both groups – control and
- 262 -
the fowl somatic development, laying onset
and the physiological answer. It is known
that when the sexual maturity onset is
accelerated through photostimulation [2],
without an optimal body development, the
situation frequently leads to prolapses
occurrence, which imposes the culling of the
sick individuals [1].
Our researches revealed the higher
quality of the lighting schedule applied in the
experimental group, which provided to the
fowl the possibility to achieve an optimal
body weight, required to sustain an intense
laying rhythm. Although the mortality level
was closer in both groups (5.20% in Lc and
5.23% in Lexp) across the entire studied
period (20-60 weeks), the culling level
imposed by prolapses was lower at the hens
in the experimental group (4.06%), compared
with the situation in the control group
(4.65%), leading to just 9.29% casualties in
the experimental group, compared to 9.85%
in the control one (fig. 1).
Lc
Lexp
Total casualties
experimental, began to lay since the 26th
week of life, consequently to their selection
for body weight uniformity. Thus, there have
been eliminated from the groups those best
performers hens, which began to lay earlier.
For this reason, the laying intensity reached
its maximum level just during the 32nd week
of birds life. However, the levels were of
93.0% in control group and 95.88% in the
experimental one. The difference related to
 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

laying intensity dew to the fact that the hens
in the experimental group were not forced to
begin laying through light stimulation.
Therefore, they benefit from enough time to
complete their body development and
especially their reproductive system. Eggs
yield of the studied fowl has been correlated
with the achieved laying intensity, reaching a
level of 178.25 pcs./hen in Lc group and
183.65 pcs./hen in the experimental one.
Both values were higher than the theoretic
potential of the “Ross-308” breeders,
specified at a 175 eggs/hen level.

Table 2
Eggs yield and laying intensity of the studied hens
Lc Lexp.
Theoretic Average Eggs yield Average Eggs yield
Age
laying flock (pcs.) % flock (pcs.) %
(wks.)
curve (%) size Overall Average laying size Overall Average laying
(hens) (pcs.) (pcs.) (hens) (pcs.) (pcs.)
23 4.7 5098 - - - 5089 - - -
24 11.7 5083 - - - 5077 - - -
25 32.9 5070 - - - 5067 - - -
26 52.0 5060 3339 0.66 9.43 5056 4146 0.82 11.71
27 73.3 5032 7497 2.15 21.28 5034 8860 2.58 25.14
28 83.9 5003 14608 5.07 41.71 5011 15083 5.59 43.00
29 86.4 4971 24755 10.05 71.14 4990 26197 10.84 75.00
30 86.3 4941 28756 15.87 83.14 4971 30024 16.88 86.28
31 86.0 4908 31214 22.23 90.85 4949 32663 23.48 94.28
32 84.8 4873 31723 28.74 93.00 4926 33053 30.19 95.85
33 83.6 4850 31476 35.23 92.71 4907 32680 36.85 95.14
34 82.5 4841 31418 41.72 92.71 4903 32654 43.51 95.14
35 81.3 4834 30986 48.13 91.57 4895 32258 50.10 94.14
36 80.3 4831 30821 54.51 91.14 4887 31814 56.61 93.00
37 79.0 4829 30712 60.87 90.85 4886 31514 63.03 92.14
38 78.0 4826 30693 67.23 90.85 4882 31391 69.49 91.85
39 76.7 4823 30626 73.58 90.71 4878 31316 75.91 91.71
40 75.6 4820 29884 79.78 88.57 4876 31255 82.32 91.57
41 74.4 4819 29106 85.82 86.28 4873 30553 88.59 89.56
42 73.1 4818 28715 91.78 85.14 4872 29865 94.72 87.57
43 72.0 4814 28258 97.65 83.85 4872 29524 100.78 86.57
44 70.8 4808 28078 103.49 83.42 4871 29323 106.80 86.00
45 69.6 4806 27442 109.20 81.57 4865 28898 112.74 84.85
46 68.4 4803 27377 114.90 81.43 4860 28868 118.68 84.85
47 67.2 4800 26400 120.40 78.57 4854 28735 124.60 84.57
48 66.0 4797 26287 125.88 78.28 4851 28523 130.48 84.00
49 64.8 4795 26276 131.36 78.28 4848 27863 136.22 82.10
50 63.5 4794 26223 136.83 78.14 4840 27023 141.80 79.76
51 62.4 4792 25604 142.17 76.33 4834 26002 147.17 76.84
52 61.1 4792 24433 147.26 72.84 4830 25182 152.38 74.48
53 59.8 4789 22807 152.02 68.03 4823 24049 157.36 71.23
54 58.7 4788 21275 156.45 63.48 4820 22292 161.98 66.06
55 57.3 4785 20385 160.71 60.85 4811 20604 166.26 61.18
56 56.2 4780 19113 164.70 57.12 4803 19320 170.28 57.46
57 54.9 4777 18050 168.48 53.98 4795 18193 174.07 54.20
58 53.7 4775 17072 172.05 51.07 4785 17196 177.66 51.34
59 52.4 4772 15700 175.34 47.00 4777 16003 181.01 47.86
60 51.2 4767 14108 178.25 42.28 4769 14146 183.65 42.37

Feed intake of the fowl in both groups basing on the average flock sizes, on the total
has been assessed for 3 main laying periods amounts of consumed and on the eggs yield,
and for the overall period (20-60 weeks), as well.

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

Thus, the average daily feed intake was
situated at levels of 164.36/bird/day in the
control group fowl and 166.58g/bird/day at
those in the experimental group, till the
laying peak moment (20-31 weeks), of
181.26 g/bird/day-control group and 180.33
g/bird/day-experimental group, during the
second studied period (32-41 week,
respectively of 189.30g/bird/day in control
group and 189.51 g/bird/day in the
experimental one, during the last period,
meaning between the 42nd and the 60th week
of life.
The average feed intake, for the overall
studied period (20-60 weeks) reached 176.14
g/individual/day in the control group and
177.04g/individual/day at the experimental
one. The feed conversion ratio (g feed/egg),
calculated for the entire experimental period
reached 293.07 in the control group and just
284.22 in the experimental one, as a
consequence of the better eggs yield achieved
by the hens in this group (tab. 3).

Table 3
Feed intake of the studied fowl
Age period/Experimental group
Notice 20-31 weeks 32-41 weeks 42-60 weeks 20-60 weeks
Lc Lexp Lc L1exp Lc L1exp Lc L1exp
Average
flock 5021 5045 4932 4990 4786 4816 4993 5018
size (hens)
Overall feed
intake 69320 70959 62580 62990 120500 121385 252400 254970
(kg/group)
Average
intake 164.36 166.58 181.26 180.33 189.30 189.51 176.14 177.04
(g/hen/day)
Eggs yield
110169 116973 307445 318488 443603 461609 861217 897070
(eggs/group)
Feed
conversion 629.22 603.51 203.55 197.78 271.64 262.96 293.07 284.22
ratio (g/egg)

CONCLUSIONS AND ADVISORY respectively with 8.65 eggs/hen in the

Several conclusions issued from the
researches carried on the breeders of the
“Ross-308” chicken commercial hybrid:
• fowl weight increased concomitantly as
flock turned old, but, in each control
moment, it was found within the
standard weight curve, nearby its upper
limit;
• flock livability has been found within
normal limits, while the 0.56%
difference between the two studied
groups was exclusively charged to the
higher culling proportion, caused by
prolapses at the control group;
• eggs yield has been found as very good,
being higher than the theoretic potential,
with 3.25 eggs/hen in control group,
experimental one;
• feed conversion ratio (g feed/egg) was
positively correlated to the achieved
eggs yield, being 3.11% lower at the
hens in the experimental group,
compared to those in the control group.
Basing on the acquired results, it could
conclude that at least within the conditions of
our country, it is opportune to extend with an
hour the daily lighting schedule of the “Ross-
308” breeders, providing thus the appropriate
somatic development, required to support an
intense laying rhythm. It also imposes the
usage of a 60 lux light intensity since the
very beginning of the photostimulation
schedule, in order to achieve the completion
of the fowl sexual maturing. Another relevant
aspect consist in grouping the reproduction

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fowl as uniformly as possible, considering
the body development, as guaranty of a better
flock livability.
REFERENCES
Journal articles
[1] Bhatti, J.S.: Effect of intermittant lighting on
the performance parents of broilers. XX World´s
Poultry Congress, New Delhi, India, 1996, II: 765-
772.
[2] Classen, H.L.: Effects of increasing
photoperiod length on parents stock productivity
and health. XXI World´s Poultry Congress,
Montréal, Canada, 2000, Aug. 20-24.
[3] Hocking, P.M.: Effects of body weight at
sexual maturity and the degree and age of
restriction during rearing on the ovarian follicular
hierachy of broiler breeder females. Poultry
Science, 1993, no. 6: 2020-2026.
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
[4] Morris, T.R.: Use of intermittent lighting to
save feed and improve egg quality in laying flocks.
British-Poultry-Science, 2002, 31 (1): 101-106.
[5] Ozcan, S. and Yalcin, S.: Effects of restricted
lighting schedules on parents stock performance.
XXI World´s Poultry Congress, Montréal, Canada,
2000, Aug. 20-24.
[6] Usturoi, M.G., R.M. Radu-Rusu, Mihaela
Ivancia and C. Leonte: Lighting schedule
optimation for the stock parents of the „Ross-308”
chicken broiler hybrid. Buletinul Universităţii de
Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară, Seria
Zootehnie şi Biotehnologii. 2007, Vol. 63-64: 118-
124. Editura „Academic Press” Cluj Napoca. ISSN
1843-5262.
Book
[7] *** Parent Stock Management Manual „Ross-
308”.
 BACK
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

ASPECTS CONCERNING THE HISTOLOGICAL

STRUCTURE OF THE BICEPS BRACHIALIS MUSCLES
IN CHICKEN BROILERS

R.M. Radu-Rusu, V. Teuşan, I. Vacaru-Opriş

University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Iaşi,

Animal Science Faculty, Iaşi
e-mail: rprobios@gmail.com

The researches goal was to assess the histological features of the Biceps brachialis muscles
from chicken broilers reared within the intensive system. The biological material comprised 120
broilers, belonging to “COBB-500” (30♀ and 30♂) and “ROSS-308” (30♀ and 30♂), slaughtered
at 42 days old. The muscular samples have been processed through formalin 10% fixation and
paraffin impregnation then by serial sectioning and by HEA coloration. A digital trinocular Motic
DMWB1-223 microscope has been used to study the smears and to run the micrometric
measurements, via the Motic Image Plus ML software. The large and small diameters of the
myocytes have been assessed then the average thickness and the cross-surface area have been
calculated. The ANOVA single factor algorithm was used for statistical analysis. The results
indicated higher values for the myocytes average thickness in ROSS-308 hybrid (32.19µ in males,
30.80µ in females, distinguished significance), respectively thinner texture in the muscles of COBB-
500 chickens (27.90µ at cockerels and 26.51µ in pullets, distinguished significance). These data led
to various values for the cross-section area, comprised between the limits of 547.95-601.59µ2
(Cobb-500), respective of 739.96-801.80µ2 (ROSS-308). The results revealed thinner texture of
these muscles, compared with the results achieved during previous researches, which referred to the
histology of white muscles or of red muscles from the rear limbs, in chicken broilers.
Key words: chicken broiler, Biceps brachialis, histology, structure, myocytes

INTRODUCTION muscles are mainly made of red fibers, which

Scientific literature, mainly the
publications dealing with human nutrition and
customer safety, emphasizes on aspects which
pass over the quantitative side of meat
production in poultry. While most of the data
spread by the companies producing high value
broilers refers to some technological and
economical features of their products
(microclimate, nutrition requirements, weight
gains, FCR, slaughtering efficiency), this
paper brings some partial results from a study
onto the textural quality of the poultry meat
produced by two of the most used hybrids in
Romanian aviculture.
Previous researches [5] stated that the
myocytes having mainly glycolitical
metabolism, usually found in white muscles
(pectorals) are thicker than those with
oxidative preponderant metabolism (red
muscles – limbs) which have higher density.
As compared to chicken broilers, in waterfowl
domestic species (duck and goose), all skeletal
are thicker in wings [7, 8].
Although previous researches recommend
pectoral muscles as high qualitative, mainly
concerning those physical, chemical and
nutritional features (pH value, high protein
content, low energy level) [1, 6, 9, 10], this
researches tried to find what are the
histological – textural features of the wing
muscles (Biceps brachialis), theoretically
knowing that tenderness qualities should be
better in red muscles (especially in wings and
thighs ones) [2, 3, 4].
MATERIALS AND METHODS
A group of 120 broilers, meaning 60
“Cobb 500” chickens (30♀ and 30♂) and 60
“„ROSS-308”” individuals (30♀ and 30♂),
issued from two halls accommodating each
9500 chickens, have been used as biological
material to sample muscular tissue from the
Biceps brachialis muscles. The fowl have
been fed wit a classical corn-soymeal diet
(3012 KCal ME and 24% CP-starter; 3175

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KCal ME and 22.5% CP-grower; 3226KCal
ME and 20% CP - finisher). Muscular samples
have been processed through formalin 10%
fixation, paraffin impregnation at +56°C,
microtome sectioning, mounting on blades,
acid fuchsine and Evans blue coloration,
resulting histological smears. These have been
studied at a photonic microscope (Motic
DMB1-30), endorsed with objective
micrometer, ocular micrometer, micrometric
grid and calibrated for three OBXOC
associations: 10X10; 20X10 and 40X10. The
ocular micrometer served to run the
assessments, while an 8MP digital camera has
been used to take microphotography shots.
The measurements have been back-up through
the usage of the built-in microsope software:
Image Plus 2.0. The studies comprised
cytometric and histometric measurements of
myocytes, whose results have been introduced
in several mathematical relations, in order to
achieve some histological indexes: fibers
mean thickness and cross section areas. The
formulas are listed below:
(1) mean thickness: Dx (µ ) = ( D + d ) / 2 ,
meaning: D=large diameter, d=small
diameter;
(2) ratio between large and small diameter
(shape index): Ratio = D/d
(3) cross section area: S( µ 2 ) = D × d × π / 4 ,
meaning: π = 3.1416.
100 readings and/or computations have
been carried on for each analyzed feature.
The achieved values have been statistically
processed running the ANOVA single factor
algorithm, obtaining the main statistical
estimators and the significance degree
between for the differences between mean.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The acquired data concerning main
histometric features of the Biceps brachialis
muscles (fibers diameters, ratio between
large and small diameters, cross-section
areas) are presented in table 1. Microscopic
imagery from both hybrids and genders is
presented in fig. 1 (magnifications of 100
folds).
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
Thus, in “COBB-500” males, the
myocytes thickness varied between 20.94 and
34.77µ, with an average value of 27.90±0.38µ,
while the variation coefficient reached
13.87%. Although the uniformity was poor,
the fact is quite normal for this kind of
assessments, knowing that, within the
microscopic field, there are plenty of cells
with multiple sizes and shapes. The ratio
between large and small diameter was close to
1.5 (1.44/1), indicating an ellipsoidal shape of
the contractile cells on cross-section. The area
of the myocytes was found within the 331.11 –
914.82µ2 interval, while the calculated average
reached 601.59±17.33µ2 (variation increased =
28.80%, as absolute values geometrically
progressed). In females muscles, histometric
measurements revealed variation limits of
14.43-32.20µ for the average diameter of the
muscular fibers, while the calculated mean
was situated at the 26.51±0.34µ (v=13.26%).
The cellular shape index (ratio between small
and large diameters) had lower average value
than in males, meaning 1.34/1, indicating thus
less ovoid shape. The cross-section surface of
the myocytes reached an average value of
547.95±13.34µ2. The data indicate the
occurrence of the muscular hypertrophy in
males, compared to the female broilers, fact
which is translated through higher carcasses
and meat yield at slaughtering. Statistically,
the differences between genders were found as
high significant ( F̂ >Fα 0.001 at 1;198 FD –
myocytes large diameter), distinguished
significant F̂ >Fα 0.01 at 1;198 FD – myocytes
average diameter and shape index) and just
significant F̂ >Fα 0.05 at 1;198 FD – myocytes
cross-section area) (table 1).
Other researches revealed different values
for the histometric features of the myocytes
within the Biceps brachialis muscles, issued
from different fowl categories. Thus, in
domestic chicken (Gallus bankiva, var.
domesticus), common breed, the average
thickness reached 26.47±0.45µ [7, 11], while
for the wings muscles of the domestic goose
(Anser anser), the fibers were thicker
(31.1±0.45µ) [7].
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

Table 1
Thickness and cross-section area of the myocytes within the Biceps brachialis muscles

Large Small Average Cross

The Statistical diameter DM/Dm
Gender diameter diameter -section area
hybrid estimators ratio
(D x ) (µ)
2
(D) (µ) (d) (µ) (µ )
x 32.73
d
23.07 27.90
c
1.44
c
601.59
b

± sx 0.45 0.40 0.38 0.02 17.33

♂ V% 13.89 17.36 13.72 13.87 28.80
“COBB 500”

Min. 24.78 16.43 20.94 1.15 331.11

Max. 42.19 28.11 34.77 2.00 914.82
x 30.17
a
22.86 26.51
a
1.34
a
547.95
a

± sx 0.39 0.37 0.34 0.02 13.34

♀ V% 13.04 16.01 12.72 13.26 24.35
Min. 15.54 12.43 14.43 0.78 162.65
Max. 37.75 34.24 32.20 2.00 789.99
x 37.39
d
26.98 32.19
c
1.40
c
801.80
b

± sx 0.46 0.42 0.40 0.02 20.76

♂ V% 12.24 15.57 12.27 12.38 25.89
“ROSS 308”

Min. 29.35 19.42 24.87 1.16 469.82

Max. 47.13 33.06 40.10 1.95 1223.99
x 34.83
a
26.77 30.80
a
1.31
a
739.96
a

± sx 0.41 0.39 0.36 0.01 16.49

♀
V% 11.84 14.45 11.67 11.21 22.28
Min. 17.94 14.98 16.46 0.82 211.04
Max. 42.05 39.09 36.12 1.80 997.28
ANOVA test – for each character and hybrid, compared between genders:
ab
significant differences ( F̂ >Fα 0.05 at 1;198 GL);
ac
distinguished significant differences ( F̂ >Fα 0.01 at 1;198 FD);
ad
high significant differences ( F̂ >Fα 0.001 at 1;198 FD)

Studying the smears issued from “ROSS- differences, as they were found in the other
308” broilers, it was found that for males, the studied hybrid, meaning significant degree
average diameter oscillated between the ( F̂ >Fα 0.05 at 1;198 FD – myocytes cross-
24.87µ and 40.10µ limits, while the mean section area), distinguished significant
value was calculated at 32.19±0.40µ (table differences ( F̂ >Fα 0.01 at 1;198 FD – fibers
1). The cells shape on cross section was close average diameters and shape index) and high
to those calculated at the “Cobb-500”
significance, as well ( F̂ >Fα 0.001 at 1;198
hybrids, meaning 1.40/1. The cross surface
FD – myocytes large diameter). The
area was calculated at an average value of
hypertrophied myocytes in „ROSS-308”
801.80±20.76µ2. In females, the average
broilers indicated higher values of the
thickness of the myocytes oscillated between
histometric values, even than those in some
16.46µ and 36.12µ, with a mean calculated
waterfowl species [7].
value was of 30.80±0.36µ. The shape index
The differences between the histometric
also indicated more rounded shape on
features of the myocytes measured at the
section, while the area of the cross sections
samples issued from the two studied hybrids
was found within the 211.04µ2 and 997.28µ2,
have been also analyzed as percentage
with an average value of 739.96±16.49µ2.
differentiations (table 2). It was found that
The variability oscillated between 11.67%
the muscular fibers were hypertrophied in
(av. diameter in females) and 25.89% (cross-
“„ROSS-308”” chickens, compared to the
section area in males). Statistical
“Cobb-500” ones, no matter their gender.
computation revealed the same kind of

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

“COBB – 500” broilers

Sample from males
(100 X, OC 10 X OB 10)

“COBB – 500” broilers

Sample from females
(100 X, OC 10 X OB 10)

“ROSS – 308” broilers

Sample from males
(100 X, OC 10 X OB 10)

“ROSS – 308” broilers

Sample from females
(100 X, OC 10 X OB 10)

st
Fig. 1 –Myocytes and 1 order muscular fascicles within the Biceps brachialis muscle, sampled from
both studied hybrids

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
Table 2
Comparisons between the myocytes histometric features of the Biceps brachialis muscles, sampled
from both studied hybrids
Large
The
Gender diameter
hybrid
(D) (µ)
“COBB-500” 32.73
♂ “ROSS-308” 37.39
± “Ross” vs. “Cobb” (%) +14.24%
“COBB-500” 30.17
♀ “ROSS-308” 34.83
± “Ross” vs. “Cobb” (%) +15.44%
Thus, the average diameter was found
16.18%-16.53% higher, while the cross-surface
area was 33.28%-35.04% increased in “„ROSS-
308”” broilers. The analysis of variance has not
been carried on between the absolute values
achieved by both hybrids, due to the slight
peculiar conditions of microclimate in the
accommodation halls, therefore to certain degree
of different environments, which could affect the
ANOVA test relevance. Moreover, the aspects
related to muscular fibers development must be
further studied alongside with the existing ratio
between connective and pure muscular tissue
within muscles, in order to better estimate
histological features of the skeletal muscles.
Compared to the thickness values of the
contractile cells in other muscles, even white
or red [7, 11], the mean diameter of the
myocytes in Biceps brachialis muscles was
found thinner.
CONCLUSIONS
In both studied hybrids, the myocytes
dimensions (average thickness and cross-
surface area) were higher in males than in
females, statistical significance occurring for
the differences between calculated means.
It was found that “ROSS-308” chickens
had thicker muscular fibers than the “COBB-
500” ones, no matter the studied gender.
Biceps brachialis muscles proved to have
the thinnest myocytes, compared to other
studies which assessed the histometric
features of breast, thighs and shanks muscles
contractile cells.
However, the data concerning myocytes
thickness and overall muscle tenderness must
be considered in relation with the nutritional
value assessments, to be able to achieve an
appropriate picture of meat quality.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to thanks to the
National Council of Scientific Research in
Higher Education for the research funding
- 270 -
Small Average
diameter Cross-section
diameter 2
area (µ )
(d) (µ) (D x ) (µ)
23.07 27.90 601.59
26.98 32.19 801.80
+16.95% +16.53% +33.28%
22.86 26.51 547.95
26.77 30.80 739.96
+17.10% +16.18% +35.04%
given through the Human Resources TD
research grant, 452/2007-2008.
REFERENCES
Journal articles
[2] Berri C.: Variability of sensory and processing
qualities of poultry meat, World’s Poultry Science
Journal, 2000, Vol. 56:209-224.
[3] Berri C., Duclos M.J.: Typologie et ontogenèse
des fibres musculaires chez les oiseaux, INRA
Prod. Anim., 2003, 16 (2): p. 137-143.
[4] Berri C., Wacrenier N., Millet N., Le Bihan-
Duval E.: Effect of selection for improved body
composition on muscle and meat characteristics of
broilers from experimental and commercial lines,
Poultry Science, 2001, 80:833-838.
[5] Picard B., Jure C., Cassar-Malek I., Hocquette
J. F., Lefaucheur L., Berri C., Duclos M.J., Alami-
Durante H., Rescan P.Y.: Typologie et ontogenèse
des fibres musculaires chez différentes espèces
d’intérêt agronomique, INRA Prod. Anim., 2003,
16 (2):117-123.
[6] Radu-Rusu R.M., Boişteanu P.C.: Acţiunea unor
factori asupra metabolismului muscular in-vivo şi
influenţa acestora asupra calităţii finale a cărnii de
pasăre, Revista de Zootehnie, 2007, 1:75-82.
[7] Radu-Rusu R.M., Teuşan V., Voicu P.:
Researches concerning the thickness and the cross-
section area of the miocytes in the domestic
waterfowl’s pectoral muscles, Lucr. Ştiinţ.
U.S.A.M.V. Iaşi, Seria Zootehnie, 2006, 49:156-164.
[8] Radu-Rusu R.M., Teuşan V., Vacaru-Opriş I.:
Comparative researches concerning some histometric
features of the miocytes in somatic musculature of
the domestic chicken and waterfowl (II). Wing and
thigh muscles. Lucr. Stiint. U.S.A.M.V. Iasi, Seria
Zootehnie, 2007, 50:107-114.
[9] Ristic M.: Meat quality of organically produced
broilers, Rev. World Poultry, 2004, 20 (8):30-31.
[10] Suchý P., Jelínek P., Straková E., Hucl J.:
Chemical composition of muscles of hybrid broiler
chickens during prolonged feeding, Czech J.
Anim. Sci., 2002, 47 (12):511–518.
[11] Wattanachant S., Benjakul S., Ledward D.A.:
Microstructure and Thermal Characteristics of
Thai indigenous and broiler chicken muscles,
Poultry Science, 2005, 84:328-336.
Book
[1] Banu C. şi col.: Calitatea şi controlul calităţii
produselor alimentare, Ed. Agir, Bucureşti, 2003.
 BACK

Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

INFLUENCE OF ELEMENTS FOR CLOSING OF THE

HALLS POULTRY PERFORMANCE PRODUCTIVE

C. Leonte, Doina Leonte

Faculty of Animal Sciences, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine

„Ion Ionescu de la Brad” Iasi, Romania

Abstract
Shelters for laying hens must be equipped with heat and a good ventilation system to ensure
dimensional microclimate corespondig.În a paper presented how they influenced the roofs of two
warehouses for the operation of breeding hens breed of heavy interior temperature increase which
resulted in decreased performance productive.Roof hall 7 is the small space of air ventilated, two
plates azbestocement which is a vapor barrier of polyethylene film and a layer of thermo
mineral.This wool layer has been destroyed over time by rodents, leading to loss of
thermal.capacity.
9 Hall has a roof terrace type consists of a support plate of reinforced concrete layer
equalization of cement mortar, a vapor barrier layer of expanded polystyrene thermo surface and a
warm hidroizolatoare.
Between July 17 -18 August 2000, outside temperature varied between 23 and 39 ° C, which has
overcome the technological limits of temperature in the two hale.Increase temperature iîn inside the
two halls was affected differently depending on thermal capacity of roof. Decreased most productive
performance was recorded at Hall 7, where the layer of thermo-mineral wool has been almost
totally destroyed.
Key words: birds, roofs, halls, productive performance, thermal insulation

INTRODUCTION temperatures in the two production halls,

The aim of this study was to identify how
or behaved in certain operating and closing at
the same time to find constructive solutions
for improvement, leading to reduction of heat
loss in winter and reduce the intake of that
summer heat to a positive heat balance in
birds halls.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
The study was conducted within the S.C.
AVICOLA FOCŞANI S.A. the breeding
farm in halls 7 and 9 of which are ground and
are designed to increase the bedding ground
prmanent of breeding hens heavy. halls races
are in the size (100.0 x 12.0) m and a Surface
de 1200m ². The closure taken in the study
were the walls and roofs with small air
spaces ventilated hall at 7 and the compact
type or terrace at hall 9.
During the period of observation were
recorded temperature outside and inside
losses through mortality and egg production.
RESULTS OBTAINED
The closure elements have acted as
factors in the hall and the external
environment and in particular temperature
and humidity, to which was added to the
destructive rodents, destruction first thermo-
layer, which was passed on the negative heat
capacity of the hall roof 7. This situation has
required and still requires finding
constructive solutions to improve the
functionality of the types of roof that is in
use, either by repairing their partial or total
and to be performed with both lower costs for
materials and labor.
To highlight the behavior of the two types
of roofs in the fluctuations in temperature
outside the environment, to follow the
evolution of this parameter of microclimate
in the two halls 7 and 9 during the summer.
Table 1 are presented to the outside

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

temperatures, and temperatures in halls 7 and and losses through mortality and egg
9 during 17 July-18 August 2000, and in production.
Table 2 except the temperature was recorded

Table 1
Evolution of temperature and environmental temperature outside the hall 7 (with roof multistratificat)
and Hall 9 (with compact or roof terrace) between 17.07-18.08. 2000.

Temperature inside the hall (°C)

DATE Temperature outside
Hall 7 Hall 9
17.07.2000 23 25.0 23.7
18 31 28.5 25.6
19 33 32.7 29.9
20 33 32.9 30.5
21 35 34.7 31.9
22 36 35.1 33.6
23 37 35.3 34.4
24 36 35.3 34.0
25 36 34.2 34.0
26 35 33.2 31.5
27 35 33.0 31.4
28 36 34.0 31.8
29 32 31.2 30.3
30 33 32.1 30.9
31.07.2000 33 32.1 30.6
1.08.2000 36 33.9 32.5
2 38 36.1 34.2
3 39 37.1 35.0
4 39 37.0 36.2
5 35 32.8 31.6
6 30 29.8 28.4
7 30 29.8 28.0
8 34 31.5 30.0
9 34 33.0 31.5
10 29 28.4 26.1
11 29 29.3 27.3
12 30 29.3 27.5
13 30 30.4 28.7
14 30 30.5 28.6
15 32 31.0 29.1
16 30 28.9 28.2
17 31 29.3 28.8
18.07.2000 30 28.9 27.9
* Record temperatures have been made at 18.ºº

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

Table 2
Evolution mortalitatete losses and production of eggs at 7 hala hala 9 respectively in the period
17.07-18.08. 2000.
Losses through death (head / day.) Production of eggs (pcs / day.)
DATE
Hall 7 Hall 9 Hall 7 Hall 9
17.07.2000 3 1 3420 3450
18 4 3 3390 3450
19 5 7 3360 3480
20 8 3 3360 3480
21 8 3 3300 3480
22 12 8 3270 3450
23 26 16 3270 3390
24 58-1.27% 20-0.40% 3210-70.5% 3300-71.7%
25 4 2 3150 3270
26 5 3 3150 3270
27 1 4 3030-66.6% 3150-68.4%
28 3 2 3030 3150
29 4 4 3060 3120
30 1 3 3060 3120
31.07.2000 5 2 3060 3120
1.08.2000 7 2 3060 3150
2 8 6 3030 3120
3 33 8 3030 3120
4 90-1.98% 16-0.34% 2940 3060
5 13 9 2820 3030
6 7 2 2610-57.4% 2970-64.6%
7 3 2 2610 2970
8 3 6 2700 3000
9 6 4 2700 3000
10 3 1 2850 3000
11 3 7 2880 3000
12 4 3 2880 2970
13 10 4 2880 2880
14 12 2 2790 2880
15 2 5 2700 2880
16 1 3 2610 2910
17 4 - 2610 2880
18.07.2000 4 1 2670 2910
* The number of hens on average hall 7 - 4550 head
* The number of hens on average hall 9 - 4600 head

Evolution of temperature inside the two halls depending on the temperature outside is
shown in fig. 3, and losses through mortality and egg production in fig. 4 and fig.5.

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

45

40

35

30

25

Temperatura exterioară
20
Temperatura în interiorul halelor (°C) Hala 7
15
Temperatura în interiorul halelor (°C) Hala 9

10

Fig. 3 Evolution of temperature inside the hall 7 and Hall 9 depending on the temperature outside

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
00

00

00
19

21

23

25

27

29

10

12

14

16
2

8
20

20

20
7.

7.

7.
.0

.0

.0
Da t a
17

31

18
Pierderi prin mortalitate (cap/zi.) Hala 7
Pierderi prin mortalitate (cap/zi.) Hala 9

Fig. 4 Evolution of mortality losses in hall 7 and Hall 9 depending on the temperature outside

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

4000

3500

3000

2500
Productia de oua

2000

1500

1000

500

0
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
.0 30

0
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
.0 17
00

08 0

00
1. 200
00
20

20
.2
7.

7.

7.
.0
17

31

18
Dataproductia de oua buc/zi) Hala 7
productia de oua buc/zi) Hala 9

Fig. 5 Evolution of egg production in Hall 7 and Hall 9 depending on the temperature outside

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CONCLUSIONS
1. During the summer when the outside
temperature had high values, used in the
roofs of the halls breeding farm breeds heavy
SC Avicola SA Focsani have behaved
differently depending on their structure.
2. Seven hall after to a long period of use
due to many factors which have acted on
them (humidity, temperature, rodents,
microorganisms) layers some components
were damaged affecting heat capacity of the
roof.
3. On the roof with small air spaces
ventilated, the layer most affected was
thermal insulation plates of mineral wool,
and the roof of the terrace was so degraded
thermal insulation and insulation hydric,
favoring infiltrations in the halls, the
occurrence of condensation on the surface
and internal roof structure and the heat loss
during winter, adversely affecting the heat
balance, and for contributing to increasing
summer heat intake in halls.
4. During the period 23-24 July when the
outside temperature reached 37 ° C in Hall 7
of the roof plate azbestocement recorded a
mortality of 1.27%, while in hall 8 with roof
terrace, there was a percentage of only
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
0.40%. The percentage of lay decreased by
3.9% in hall 7 and 3.3% in hall 9.
5. During August 3-4 when the outside
temperature reached 39 ° C in Hall 7 of the
roof plate azbestocement recorded a mortality
of 1.98%, while in hall 8 with roof terrace,
was unprocent only 0.34%. The percentage
of lay decreased by 9.2% in hall 7 and by
3.8% in hall 9.
REFERENCES
Journal articles
[1] Casandra Elena 1978 - Microclimate,
important factor in increasing egg production. Rev.
for breeding, no. 7.
[5] Stefanescu M. et al. 1980 .- Concerns in order
to save energy in the halls of intensive bird. Rev.
of breeding, No.12.
Books
[2] Leonte C. 2006 - Elements of Construction,
Alfa Publishing House, Iasi.
[3] V. Gligor et al. 1957 - Principles of hygiene in
livestock buildings. Editura Ceres, Bucharest.
[4] Serban Al. Et al. 1981 - Construction livestock,
Didactic and Pedagogic Publishing House
Bucharest.
[6] Usturoi M. G., Paduraru G., 2005. - Growth
Technologies bird, Alfa Publishing House, Iasi.
 BACK
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

RESEARCHES REGARDING THE BREEDING OF BROILER

POULTRY IN DIFFERENT TECHNOLOGICAL
CONDITIONS

D. Simeanu, M.G. Usturoi, Angela Gavrilaş, M. Doliş

Faculty of Animal Sciences, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine

„Ion Ionescu de la Brad” Iasi, Romania
e-mail: dsimeanu@univagro-iasi.ro

Abstract
The experiment was organized on a number of 24,000 broiler chickens of one day old, belonging to
the commercial hybrid “Ross- 308”. They were equally distributed, in two lots: a control lot (LC) and
an experimental lot (LE). The chickens in the control lot were have been housed in an usual plant for
the breeding of hen broilers on permanent bedding, and those in the experimental lot in a plant
destined to the duck broilers, which was adopted in order to facilitate the exit of chickens in the
grassed paddocks. In the first 14 days of life , both the chickens in the control lot, and those from the
experimental lot were bred in plants, on permanent bedding, without access in the exterior paddock.
After this age, the chickens from the experimental lot had access to the exterior paddock, but only
during the day. The density of population, in the plant , was of 12 chickens/m2 in both lots of
experiment. In the case of chickens from the experimental lot, who had access in the exterior paddock,
were ensured a density in the paddock of 6/m2. From the data obtained, we ascertained that the hen
broiler chickens from the LE lot achieved lower body weights with 21.29%, compared with the
chickens from the LC lot; the index of food conversion (IC kg n.c/ kg increase) in the control lot was
more reduced with 12.72% compared to the one in the experimental lot.
Key words: broiler chickens, alternative systems.

MATERIAL AND METHOD The chickens from the control lot were
The experiment was organized within SC housed in a usual plant for the breeding of
AVICOLA Botoşani during the period June- chicken broilers on permanent bedding, and
July 2004, on a number of 24,000 broiler those from the experimental lot in a plant
chickens of one day old, belonging to the destined to the duck broilers, which was
commercial hybrid “Ross- 308”. They were adapted for the purpose proposed.
distributed, equally, in two lots: a control lot
(LC) and an experimental lot (LE) (tab. 1).
Table 1
The experiment organization plan
The experiment lot The control lot- LC The experimental lot –LE
The number of broiler 12,000 12,000
chickens studied
The control group Nr. 1 Nr. 2
Number of chickens 200 200
on a control group
The chickens’ growth 0 – 42 days
period
Prebiotic product NUTRI-SURE DW1 - 1‰
added in the water
The experimented The technology of broiler The technology of broiler chickens breeding
growth factor chickens breeding on on permanent bedding, with access in the
permanent bedding exterior paddock
Monitored indicators:
- the dynamics of weight gain of the studied chickens;
- the food consume;
- the losses of chickens;
- the European efficiency factor (EEF).

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

In the first 14 days of life, both the The food administered to the chickens
chickens from the control lot, and those from from the study was represented by complete
the experimental lot, were bred in plants, on combined fodder (tab. 2), which comprised
permanent bedding, without access in the several groups of fodder (cereals, proteins of
exterior paddock. After this age, the chickens vegetal origin, proteins of animal origin,
in the experimental lot had access to the minerals, premises and synthesis fodder). The
exterior paddock, but only during the day. combined fodder did not comprise bio
The population density, in the plant, was of stimulators with the exception of amino-acids.
12 chickens/m2 in both experiment lots. The combined fodder administered to the
In the case of chickens in the chickens from the experiment presented
experimental lot, which had access to the nutritive characteristics similar with the
exterior paddock, a density of 6 chickens/m2 norms and recommendations of “Ross
was ensured. Breeders” company from Great Britain, for
The poultry equipments from the plants the chicken commercial „Ross-308”.
was of Big. Dutchman type. The combined fodder recipes which were
Since some monitored indicators could not experimented were optimized with the help
be determined on such a high number of birds, of „Brill” program.
as is the dynamics of the weight gain, we The drinking water which was
formed some control groups, one for each administered to the chicken broilers studied
experiment lot (the control group no. 1 and the have a content of 1‰ acidifying NUTRI-
control group no. 2), summing 200 SURE DW1. This prebiotic product is a
chickens/lot. All the chickens from the control mixture of formic, lactic and acetic acid,
groups were individualized. The marked which selectively acts against some bacteria,
chickens who effectively went out during the such as: Campylobacter and Salmonella,
experiment were replaced with other chickens reducing the pH from the stomach and the
from the studied number, the latter having a thin intestine, which determines a good state
body weight close to the group average. of health and a good exploitation of the food.
The chickens breeding occurred until the
fulfilment of 42 days, when they were killed.
Table 2.
Experimented combined fodder
Raw materials (%) Start Growth Finish
(1-10 days) (11-25 days) (26-42 days)
Corn 38.01 37.29 39.56
Soy grit 53.83 9.12 0.43
Full fat soy - 38.74 38.52
Corn Gluten 3.00 6.00 8.00
Barley - 5.00 10.00
Soy oil 0.54 - -
Calcium monophosphate 1.67 1.05 0.86
Calcium carbonate 1.57 1.52 1.51
Premix 0.50 0.50 0.50
Rhodiment- Methionine 0.24 0.20 0.10
L- HCl ADM lysine 0.10 0.21 0.16
Salt 0.20 0.15 0.09
Sodium bicarbonate 0.24 0.22 0.27
L-Threonine ADM 0.10 - -
TOTAL 100.00 100.00 100.00
Nutritive characteristics
EM kcal/kg 3010 3175 3225
Crude Protein % 24.50 22.50 21.00
Lipids % 7.49 9.69 9.08
Crude Fiber % 4.80 4.12 3.96
Ca % 1.05 0.90 0.85
P available % 0.50 0.45 0.42
Lysine % 1.45 1.33 1.14
Methionine + Cystine % 1.09 1.01 0.93
Threonine % 1.11 0.95 0.91

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

RESULTS AND DISCUTIONS
The dynamics of weight gain
The evaluation of the weight gain took
place through the individual weighing of the
whole number of marked chickens, weekly.
In the population, we registered values of
the live weight for the chickens taken in the
study, these being comprised between 40.70-
41.00 g/chicken (tab. 3), with 2.38-3.09%
lower than the standard weight of the Ross-
308 chickens [13]. The homogeneity of
experiment lots was good, the variation
coefficient not exceeding the value of 10%
(8.95% in the LC lot and 9.41 in the LE lot).
There were no significant statistical
differences between the lots.

Table 3.
The dynamics of weight gain
Age (days) Experiment lots n x ±s x (g) V%
LC 200 41.00 ± 0.36 8.95
LE 200 40.70 ± 0.31 9.41
1
Fisher test LC vs. LE: F̂ = 1.58<F0,05 (1; 398) 3.84.
There are no significant statistical differences.
LC 200 133.78 ± 1.82 13.48
LE 200 135.31 ± 1.74 12.53
7
Fisher test LC vs. LE: F̂ = 2.41<F0,05 (1; 398) 3.84.
There are no significant statistical differences
LC 200 357.26 ± 8.02 16.49
LE 200 354.84 ± 7.34 17.53
14
Fisher test LC vs. LE: F̂ = 1.08<F0,05 (1; 398) 3.84.
There are no significant statistical differences.
LC 200 697.82 ± 14.67 16.74
LE 200 636.41 ± 12.53 19.67
21
Fisher test LC vs. LE: F̂ = 22.79>F0,001 (1; 398) 10.83.
The statistical differences are very significant (***).
LC 200 1106.73 ± 22.13 18.48
LE 200 938.50 ± 28.93 24.64
28
Fisher test LC vs. LE: F̂ = 23.41>F0,001 (1; 398) 10.83.
The statistical differences are very significant (***).
LC 200 1609.46 ± 24.15 17.32
LE 200 1289.11 ± 22.83 23.82
35
Fisher test LC vs. LE: F̂ = 26.17>F0,001 (1; 398) 10.83.
The statistical differences are very significant (***).
LC 200 2236.62 ± 22.87 17.59
LE 200 1760.35 ± 19.52 24.21
42
Fisher test Lc vs. LE: F̂ = 28.15>F0,001 (1; 398) 10.83.
The statistical differences are very significant (***).

At the second weighing, when the
chickens reached the age of one week, in the
experimental lot, compared to the control lot,
we obtained a weight increase of 1.14%. The
analyzed lots had an average homogeneity,
the variation coefficient registering a value of
13.48% in the LC lot and 12.53% in the LE
lot. The calculation of the Fisher test did not
indicate significant statistical differences
between the experiment lots.
At the age of 14 days, we did not
determine significant differences between the
two lots, the control and the experimental lot.
The homogeneity of lots was medium since
in both lots we determined higher values than
10% (V%=16.49 in the LC lot and 17.53 in
the LE lot).
In the fourth weighing, appropriate to the
age of chickens of 21 days we emphasized
weight differences between the experiment

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lots; thus, in the LC lot we registered an
average weight 9.64 higher compared to the
constant value in the LE lot (697.82 g in the
LC lot and 636.41 g in the LE lot). The
homogeneity of lots was medium towards
high (V% = 16.74-19.67). The calculation of
the Fisher test for these data emphasized the
fact that there are very significant differences
between the two lots.
At the age of chickens of 28 days (the V
weighing), the experimental lot reached a
medium body weight of 938.50 g, this being
15.20% smaller than the one registered by the
lot (1106.736 g). We can ascertain the fact
that, with the aging of chickens the
differences between the two lots of
experiment is emphasized. The chickens in
the experimental lot, benefiting from more
movement, in different mediums (in the
interior of the plant and in paddocks (have
spent more resources for movement
compared to the chickens in the control lot
who benefited only from the controlled
medium from the plant. The homogeneity of
the control lot was medium (V% = 18.48); at
the same time, in the experimental lot we
registered a high variability (V%= 24.64%).
The Fisher test emphasized very significant
statistical differences between the experiment
lots.
At the age of 35 days (the VI weighing),
the chickens in the LC lot had a medium
value (V% =17.32) for the control and high
lot for the experimental lot (V% = 23.82).
The high variability of the chickens in the LE
lot, bred in the plants, on permanent bedding,
with access on the exterior paddock is due to
the competition for the food from them and
the chickens’ run to find the food. After
Table 4
The food conversion index
Experiment Total increase Medium consume
lots (kg/chicken) (kg/cap)
LC 2.195
LE 1.719
The loss of chickens and their causes
The loss of chickens, during the entire
experimental period, was of 4.54% in the LC
lot and of 8.39% in the experimental lot (tab.
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
testing the variation we determined very
significant statistical differences between the
experiment lots. The variation coefficient
was of 17.59% at the control lot, which
indicates a medium homogeneity of this
character. In the LE lot, the studied character
was non-homogenous given by the very high
value of the variation coefficient, of 24.21%.
By calculating the Fisher test, we emphasized
the fact that, this time as well, there were
very significant differences between the two
experiment lots.
Comparing the medium values of the
weights of the chicken broilers studied with
the standard weights specified in the guide
for breeding the “Ross 308” chickens [1], [9],
[10], [11], [12], [13], we can notice the fact
that we obtained lower weights, in the case of
the control lot and very low in the LE lot.
The differences between the standard and
the studied chickens were signaled, even
since the age of one day of chickens but they
were emphasized after they were 14 days old,
especially in the LE lot, who had access to
the exterior of the plant.
At the age of chickens of 42 days, the
standard value of “Ross-308” chickens was
26.65% higher compared to the average of
chickens in the control lot.
The food consume
At the end of the experimented period,
when the chickens were 42 days old, we
calculated the food conversion index (kg
n.c./kg increase) [2], [4], [8], the calculated
values were of 1.839 in the LC lot and 2.073
in the experimental lot, in percentage, it was
12.72% higher in the LE lot than in the LC
lot (tab. 4).
IC (kg n.c./kg ±% compared
increase) to LC
4.037 1.839 -
3.565 2.073 +12.72
5). If in the LC lot, these losses were situated
under the minimum accepted level for this
category of birds (5%), in the experimental
lot it was much more exceeded.
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
Table 5
The evolution of deaths from the studied chickens
The number at the
Experiment
beginning of the experiment
lots
(chickens)
LC 12,000
LE 12,000
Most losses were especially registered in
the first week of life of chickens, being of
accidental nature. After the age of chickens
of 14 days, we ascertained an increase of the
loss of chickens which formed the LE lot,
compared to the LC lot, due to a significant
number of cases, among which we name: the
intestinal warms, gastroenteritis, pulmonary
disorders, fractures etc.
The lower results obtained by the
chickens from the experimental lot compared
to those in the control lot regarding the
weight gain , the exploitation of the food and
the losses of chickens, we believe is due to a
series of disadvantages among which we
mention:
9 The appearance of intestinal warms
at a great number of chickens from this lot
which determined the significant decrease of
the daily average increase of weight gain, at
the same time with the increase of the
percentage of number losses; moreover, the
treatments applied required supplementary
expenses, which decreased the profit rate, as
it would be shown afterwards. Although
there were not determinations regarding the
microbes of the medium in which the studied
chickens lived, it can be deduced that this
microorganism was promoted from the
exterior of the plant in the interior and vice-
versa, fact responsible not only with the
appearance of intestinal warms, but also of
the frequent disorders of gastrointestinal
nature. In the mentioned context, we propose
in the ulterior researches to also determine
the microbes in the body of birds bred in
different technological conditions together
with the microbial load from the bedding,
from the air, from the plant walls and from
the exterior paddock as well.
9 The quantity of powders (dust)
from the plant, determined in the last week of
life of chickens was of 10.70 mg/m2 of wall
compared to 6.32 mg/ m2 of wall in the
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The number at the end pf Losses
%
the experiment (chickens) (number)
11,455 545 4.54
10,993 1,007 8.39
control lot, where the chickens benefited
from a acclimatized medium, without
significant influences outside the plant. This
state of being determined an increased
incidence of the breathing disorders which
had negative repercussions on the
performances in the chickens breeding.
9 In the interior of the plant, on its
walls, unlike those from the north-east side
we emphasized a higher concentration of
fungi, visible with the naked eye, which was
due , according to our opinion, to the
excessively warm and rainy weather from the
experimental period, which made possible
the increase of the humidity in the interior of
the plant, in some of the days, at values of
over 80%, while in the control lot, the
relative humidity of the air never exceeded
the value of 74%.
9 The chickens in the LE lot were in a
continuous state of nervousness, carrying out
repeated movements of “come and go: from
the plant to the exterior paddock and
backwards, which led to an exaggerated
consume of water, with unwanted
repercussions on the consistence of the
dejections produced, from where we deduced
the weak exploitation of the administered
food;
9 The difference of light intensity
between the interior of the plant and that
outside it generated an emphasis of the stress
state of chickens, which can explain the
agitated movements of chickens from one
side to the other. After these deficiencies, we
also noticed an intensification of the
percentage of feather fall in the last week of
life of chickens, the cannibalism cases being
sporadic;
9 The increased incidence of
fractures. That is exactly why, in the
experiments which will be carried out in the
following period, we propose to bring certain
improvements to the experimental

technologies in the experimental lot and also
the introduction of protected platforms in the
exterior paddock, on which we will distribute
regularly, the necessary equipments for the
forage and pond of chickens so that they can
have the possibility to feed and drink water in
the plant, and in its exterior. As a result, the
movements of chickens will be limited and
their state of agitation will be reduced, with
beneficial effects on the productive
performances;
9 The sanitary-veterinary monitoring
of chickens was very difficult;
9 The production expenses and the
work volume in the chickens from the
experimental lot reached appropriate levels
characteristic to the stress phenomenon. At
the same time, the administration of the
prebiotic product NUTRI SURE DWI was
more efficient in the chickens from the
control lot than those in the experimental lot,
determining a good state of health within the
chickens from this lot and implicitly, a better
exploitation of the food [5].
The European Efficiency Factor
Table 6.
The European efficiency factor
Experiment Age Live weight
lots (days) (kg)
LC 42 2.236
LE 42 1.760
From the data in table 6, we notice that,
in the control lot we achieved a much higher
value for EEF than in the experimental lot,
respectively 276.11 in the LC lot and 185.19
in the LE lot, with 23.92% higher. These
results are explained in the following
manner:
9 The average body weight in the
chickens’ slaughter age, of 42 days was much
higher in the LC lot (2.236 kg) compared to
the LE lot (1.760 kg);
9 The losses in the number of
chickens were significant in the LE lot
(8.39%) and normal in the LC lot (4.54%);
9 The food conversion index (kg
n.c./kg increase) represented 2.073 in the LE
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
At the end of the experimental period,
when the chickens were 42 days old, we
calculated the European efficiency factor
(EEF), with the help of which we appreciated
the efficacy of the broiler chickens within
this experiment,
EEF was determined using as calculation
basis the age where the chickens were killed
(days); the average live weight on each lot
(kg); the constant viability for each lot (%)
and the conversion index (IC kg n.c./kg
increase) [3], [13].
FFE s-a was calculated with the help of
the formula:
viability (%) × weight (kg)
EEF= × 100
age (days) × IC (kg nc/kg increase)
The live average weight of chickens
from the LC lot was of 2.236 kg, and in the
chickens from the experimental lot, of 1.760
kg (tab. 6). Regarding the conversion index
of the food, it reached a level of 1.839 kg
n.c./ increase in the control lot and 2.073 in
the experimental lot.
Mortality IC (kg n.c./kg
EEF
(%) increase)
4.54 1.839 276.11
8.39 2.073 185.19
lot and much less than in the LC lot (1,839)
[6], [7].
CONCLUSIONS
From the data obtained by us, we
ascertained that, in the case of broiler
chickens bred in plants with permanent
bedding and access in the exterior paddock
(the LE lot) they achieved body weight much
lower compared to those which were
ascertained in the chickens bred in closed
plants, on permanent bedding (the LC lot).
Thus, at the age of 42 days, when the
chickens were slaughtered, the medium body
weight was of 1760.35 g in the LE lot and
2236.62 g in the LC lot, being 21.29 higher.
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
The cumulated food consume (g/chicken)
was smaller with 11.69 % in the experimental
lot than in the comparison lot, in conformity
with the evolution of the body weight. The
food conversion index – IC (kg
n.c./kg/increase) in the control lot was more
reduced with 12.72% (IC=1,839) compared
to that of the experimental lot (IC=2,073).
From the data presented, we determined
that the losses in the number of chickens
were higher compared to the standard, in the
case of the experimental lot (8.39%
compared to 5% as the Ross-308 hybrid
standard provides), while in the control lot,
these losses were of 4.54%.
The calculated value for EEF in the
control lot was situated over the threshold
250, while in the experimental lot, this
threshold was not reached, the EEF value
being with 32.92% lower.
REFERENCES
Journal articles
[5] Simeanu D. şi col., 2006 – Efectul productiv al
unui prebiotic asupra performanţelor productive la
puii broiler de găină. Lucrări Ştiinţifice, seria
Medicină Veterinară, vol. 49, USAMV Iaşi,
Editura „Ion Ionescu de la Brad” Iaşi.
[6] Simeanu D., Gavrilaş Angela, 2008 -
Researches concerning the chicken broilers
feeding without the usage of bio-growth promoters
and the experimentation of several brooding
- 284 -
densities. Lucrări Ştiinţifice, seria Medicină
Veterinară, vol. 50, USAMV Iaşi, Editura „Ion
Ionescu de la Brad” Iaşi
[7] Simeanu D., Gavrilaş Angela, 2007 –
Researches concernig the tehnological density
influence on Ross 308 hybrid broilers production
performances. Lucrări Ştiinţifice, seria Medicină
Veterinară, vol. 50, USAMV Iaşi, Editura „Ion
Ionescu de la Brad” Iaşi.
Books
[1] Driha Ana, 2000 – Curs de Tehnologia creşterii
păsărilor. Editura Mirton, Timişoara.
[2] Halga P. şi col., 2005 – Nutriţie şi alimentaţie
animală. Editura Alfa, Iaşi
[3] Hunton P., 1995 – Poultry Production, vol. C9
– World Animal Science. A. Neimann – Sörensen
and D.E. Tribe.
[4] Simeanu D. şi col., 2006 – Prepararea furajelor
şi producerea nutreţurilor combinate. Editura Alfa,
Iaşi.
[8] Stan Gh. şi Simeanu D., 2005 – Alimentaţia
păsărilor. Editura Alfa, Iaşi.
[9] Vacaru-Opriş, I. şi col., 2002 – Tratat de
Avicultură, vol. II. Editura Ceres, Bucureşti.
[10] Vacaru-Opriş, I. şi col., 2005 – Sisteme şi
tehnologii de creştere a puilor de carne. Editura
Ceres, Bucureşti.
[11] Van I., 1998 – Avicultura. Curs Lito.,
Bucureşti.
[12] Van I. şi col., 1999 – Creşterea păsărilor în
gospodăriile populaţiilor. Editura Corvin, Deva.
[13] *** Ross Breeders, Broiler Management
Manual, 2002
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

ACTIVE BEHAVIOR ASSESSMENT AT APIS MELLIFERA

CARPATICA BEE

Valentina Cebotari

Institute of Zoology of the Academy of Sciences of Moldova

Abstract
In order to create, through selection, bee species with high resistance, were done studies about
natural resistance of the bee strain Apis mellifera Carpatica from R. of Moldova to principal
specifical bee diseases on basys of some international standardized tests.
The studies were done at the atested weeding apiaries for reproduction of genitorial material.
Bee colonies were appreciated after the behaviorial characters related to morphoproductive
characteristics of the strain. As a result, were selected bee lines with high resistance to specifical
bee diseases.
Key words: Apis m.carpatica race, natural resistance, lines

INTRODUCTION genetically determined, with different

According to a continuous development
of beekeeping and a good implementation of
the program of conservation and
improvement of the bee race Apis mellifera
Carpatica in R. Moldova, with the object of
realization through selection lines with high
resistance, were done researches on natural
resistance of bees to specific diseases.
Researches which were accomplished on
an international level, have shown that
thorough selection of bee families with a
pronounced hygienic behavior, as a
mechanism of natural resistance to disease, is
not adversely affecting the honey production
or other characteristics of bee families,
required by beekeepers [1]. On the contrary,
bee families testing and selection for this
characteristic attendant with other valuable
features ensure more productive bees, with
an increased natural resistance to disease,
excluding medicine usage, treatment costs
and pollution of apiarian products.
Nowadays, behavioral mechanisms of bee
resistance to some diseases (American and
European foul brood, chalk brood, varrosis,
acarine disease) are identified [5]. These are
different forms of behavior at: hygiene,
disinfestations, autodisinfestation etc. This
character assessment is done by applying of
various standardized tests. Bees can be
selected on this character, given the fact that
the active behavior is a natural mechanism,
heritance degree (depending on bee race).
Thus, an improved selection of bee
populations which includes hygienic
behavior, would bring benefits to apiculture
industry in conditions when would be
realized lines of bees with a pronounced
hygienic behavior.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Hygienic behavior is one of the main
characters of bees, by which can be assessed
their resistance to specific brood diseases,
especially in case American foul brood [4],
chalk brood [3] and even to varrosis.
To assess the hygienic behavior, will be
used 2 specific, standard tests - chilled
brood test [4] and killed by pricking brood
test [17]. Both tests consist of artificial
brood killing on a compact surface
(10X10cm) by one of the methods named
before, in order to establish the speed with
which bees identify and eliminate dead
brood. Bees with a pronounced hygienic
behavior quickly detect, uncap and eliminate
infected brood before disease will increase in
the bee colony.
Preliminary observations indicated that
there is a certain specialization of bees in
such tasks. This character has a heritance h2
= 0. 36. Hygienic behavior can influence also
the infestation with Varroa destructor - h2 =
0. 18 [3], [6]. Rothenbuhler demonstrated
that hygienic behavior is an hereditary

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
characteristic, controlled by 2 genes locus,
but at the same time influenced by many
factors such as: colony power, harvest
conditions, bees age etc.. Thus, to obtain a
reliable data on this character, assessment is
done twice in the same bees colony in
different environmental conditions and at
different time intervals.
After 24 hours of introducing the honey
comb into the brood nest, can be assessed
number of cells in which brood has been
cleaned. The ratio of removed and initially
killed brood from the labeled surface of the
comb, expressed in percentages, represents
resistance to diseases.
Disinfestations behavior is also a
specific form of hygienic behavior and
consists in removal and injuries of acarines
of Varroa from one’s bee body by another
bee. By autodisinfestation behavior, the bee
removes by itself the acarines from its body.
Standard test [3] consists in taking dead
parasites of varrooa Jacobsony from the hive
bottom, which previously was covered with
control paper or provided with an
“antivarroa” bottom. Acarines which fell
down on the hive bottom are collected every
24 hours for a period of 7 days in a special
device and are examined in the laboratory
under a microscope (40 times). Parasites with
lesions in form of mandibles are considered
killed by bees. Traumas on the examined
parasites bodies indicate the mutilation done
by bees while cleaning their bodies.
Disinfestations behavior consists mainly of
the fact that bee with acarines seek other bees
to be disinfected by a specific dance. Bees
also detect acarines in cells with uncapped
brood and disinfest them.
Research done in 2007 at apiary „I.
Sprânceană Schit” at 30 bee colonies,
selected from the progeny group, had the
goal to assess active behavior of
A.m.carpatica bee race. On these bee
colonies with good productivity, were
applied, simultaneously, two tests in order to
establish their hygienic behavior: bees
disinfestations test and killed by pricking
brood test, according to classical methods
described above. Cleaning instinct
assessment of bees from the apiary was done
at the beginning of May.
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During the tests, optimal conditions for
bee colonies development have been
provided. Were assessed with an active
behavior and selected those bee colonies,
which during the tests had a greater speed to
clean dead brood and at the same time had a
greater number of dead acarines, with lesions
like bee mandibles.
To test potential bee colonies for
transmitting active bee behavior in descent from
colonies, selected according to obtained results,
after applying standard tests, were raised every
5 queen daughters, which were planted in
artificial swarms, similar formed by following
indices: colony power, quantity of brood and
food. To bee colonies, during the tests, which
lasted 30 days, were applied same active
(hygienic) behavior assessing tests and provided
optimum development conditions. Were
realized power bee colonies synchronizing with
major forages. During 7 days were counted and
examined under a microscope felt with injuries
acarines. Every 14-16 days were performed
control revisions with registration of following
indices: bee colony power, honey and pasture
production, brood quantity and number of
acarines killed by bees.
Hygienic behavior is influenced a lot by
external factors, that’s why works were done
simultaneous at all colonies from apiary. In
order to obtain reliable data about controlled
family, test was repeated 2 times and the
average per family was taken.
Also were considered morphoproductive
characteristics (honey production, queen
oviposition, tegument color, proboscis
length, cubits index and discoidal
displacement) according to zootechnical rules
about bee colonies inventory and certification
of apiculture materials.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Bee colonies, selected by production
indices, were characterized on average with a
resistance of 70 - 95% at overwinter, honey
production - 25-30 kg / per bee colony, queen
oviposition - 1600 - 1800 eggs per day, brood
quantity - 190 -260 s. c.
By morphometric indices, for bee colonies
selection in study groups were characterized as
following: proboscis length - 6.3 - 6.6 mm,
discoidal displacement – 75-79% positive and
25 -21% neutral, cubits index -52 - 55 %.
 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

Table 1
Assessment of morphoproductiv and behavior characters at bee colonies from the apiary of Hîrtop, Criuleni district (standard test)
Selected acc.
Race indices Test results

Honey production,

Brood quantity, c.
test results

resistance, %
resistance,%
I II

Overwinter

Overwinter
Bee Discoidal

Oviposition,
length, mm
Ser

Proboscis
displacement,

Bothe of
colony

kg

eggs/24
h.

cells from
Nb

Acarines
killed by
hours

Cleaned

them
acarines
Total of

Results
nb % I II

dead

ratio
bees
100
+ neutral
1 1 88 3,3 220 18,6 6,4 1500 80 20 91 6,7 4,8 72 * * **
2 2 78 3,2 260 15,9 6,6 1500 68 29 68 5,5 3,4 62 *
3 4 80 3,1 230 15,8 6,6 1800 80 20 89 5,2 2,5 48
4 5 77 3,1 190 15,9 6,5 1850 85 15 91 4,0 1,5 38 * **
5 7 92 3,5 178 17,2 6,4 1715 75 25 92 6,5 5,7 87 * *
6 8 81 3,1 155 15,9 6,5 1400 85 15 67 7,8 4,2 53
7 9 84 3,0 215 16,8 6,6 2020 87 13 97 4,8 1,5 31 *
8 11 88 3,1 220 16,2 6,7 1980 78 22 88 5,5 2,3 42 *
9 12 68 3,3 260 16,4 6,4 1400 70 30 30 5,6 2,5 45
10 14 79 3,3 240 16,6 6,6 1850 80 20 92 8,2 3,7 45 *
11 15 86 3,1 190 16,3 6,5 1650 80 20 91 7,4 4,4 59 *
12 17 73 3,2 195 15,9 6,9 1400 70 30 65 4,4 2,8 63 *
13 19 79 3,5 225 15,8 6,2 1450 75 25 35 5,2 3,1 65
14 21 85 3,5 240 16,6 6,5 1700 79 21 79 6,8 3,3 48
15 25 92 3,1 190 16,5 6,6 1900 85 15 85 6,6 4,1 62 *
16 29 81 3,0 250 16,6 6,5 1870 78 22 80 3,8 1,5 39 **
17 32 86 3,2 260 15,0 6,6 2000 83 17 86 5,8 2,4 41
18 33 91 3,5 265 17,8 6,2 1980 85 15 91 8,1 6,8 83 * *
19 37 69 3,5 235 16,8 6,9 1400 75 25 30 7,5 5,1 68 *
20 44 72 3,4 240 16,7 6,2 1600 75 25 50 6,6 3,4 52 **
21 45 78 3,1 260 16,9 6,4 1980 77 33 44 4,9 1,2 24
22 48 76 3,3 245 16,6 6,2 1400 71 29 30 6,7 3,3 50
23 49 87 3,1 220 17,6 6,1 1850 85 15 92 5,9 4,8 82 * *
24 53 82 3,2 155 16,3 6,6 1650 83 17 52 4,8 1,2 25
25 56 80 3,5 215 15,9 6,5 1400 78 22 67 5,8 2,2 38 *
26 57 82 3,5 220 15,8 6,2 1450 79 21 35 4,5 3,1 69 * *
27 76 72 3,4 260 16,6 6,4 1700 81 19 90 7,7 5,1 67 * **
28 81 85 3,2 240 16,5 6,4 1900 77 23 64 6,8 2,4 36
29 86 75 3,0 190 16,6 6,5 1870 73 27 91 5,4 3,2 60 *
30 88 93 3,5 245 17,5 6,3 1880 90 10 94 4,5 4,1 91 * *
Note: Test I- Killed by prickling brood test; Test II – Test of acarines disinfestations by bees

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

Test application to establish bee colonies
with a pronounced hygienic behavior
deducted to following results (table 1):
Of the 30 bee colonies under test (test I),
in order to establish the speed with which
bees identify and eliminate dead brood, after
24 hours of test applying, manifested total of
11 families with a pronounced hygienic
behavior – bee colonies number (1, 5, 7, 9,
14, 15, 33, 49, 76, 86, 88) , they had a brood
cleaning process over 90 per cent. The
remaining families of bees tested had a
hygienic behavior with middle intensity and
weak instinct of hygiene (between 20 and
90%).
Of those 30 examinations, test (II) of bees
disinfestations showed that total parasites
number collected from the hive bottom, in a
period of 7 days (average of 2 assessments),
to 13 families of bees (1, 2, 7, 17,19, 25, 33,
37, 49, 57, 76, 86, 88) the ratio between
dead acarines and those killed by bees was
1:3. Such colonies were assessed with an
active behavior comparing to the rest of
colonies which had a lower ratio of bees
disinfestations (1:1-4 colonies and 2:1 – 13
colonies).
Based on results obtained through
application of two tests taken cumulatively,
were selected 5 bee colonies (1,7,33,49,88)
with a pronounced hygienic behavior, so
through the test of brood pricking as well as
the test bee disinfestations. After assessing in
lineage of active bee behavior, experiment
repeated 3 times, it was observed that most of
daughters were at the same level as their
mothers on this character, some of them even
overcome their mothers, so was assessed the
daughter obtained from mother-colony No.
88, from 9 killed acarines, all 9 of them had
injuries as a result that they were killed by
bees (Table. 2).

Table 2
Active behavior assessment at bees in lineage
(Average results for every colony from 2 assessments)
Queen-daughters from bee colonies
Indices
1 7 33 49 88
1. Power of bee colony, bee kg 1,5 1,6 1,5 1,5 1,6
2. Food quantity, honey kg 6,2 6,5 6,4 6,7 6,8
3. Brood quantity, h. c. 120 135 125 130 140
4. Test I 88 89 87 90 93
Cleaned cells from 100, %
Total dead acarines 8,5 8,8 10,4 7,3 9,7
Acarines killed by bees 7,3 6,4 9,1 6,3 9,2
5. Test II
Results ratio, % 86 73 88 86 95

After assessing of active behavior of bees
in lineage, experiment repeated 3 times, was
observed that most of daughters were at the
same level as their mothers on these
characters, even some of them overcame their
mothers, so was assessed daughter obtained
from colony No. 88, from 9 felt acarines all
of 9 had injuries as a result, they were killed
by bees (Table. 2).
Bee colony No. 88 was selected as
"mother-colony" for obtaining queen
daughters to create lines of bee colonies with
high resistance to diseases.
CONCLUSIONS
1. Among 30 bee colonies has been
identified a number of 11 bee colonies (36%)
with a pronounced hygienic behavior
(eliminating over 90% of bee brood) of
which only a total of 5 bee colonies (17%)
have acted simultaneously quick to both tests
for hygienic behavior.

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2. After the disinfestation test were
assessed 13 bee colonies with a pronounced
active behavior(43%)
3. Simultaneous application of both tests
allowed selecting 5 bee colonies with an
active hygienic behavior for testing them in
lineage.
4. In beekeeping practice, we recommend
to beekeepers to test the hygienic behavior of
bee colonies through both methods in order
to reproduce biological materials for
beekeeping.
REFERENCES
Journal Articles
[1]. Abdullah Ibrahim, M.Spivak (2006) The
relationship between hygienic behavior and
supression of mite reproduction as honey bee
(A.mellifera) mechanisms of resistance to Varroa
destructor –Apidologie 37, 31-40;
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
[3]. Harris J.W., Rinderer T. (USDA) 2004 -
Varroa resistance of hybrid ARS Russian honey
bees – American Bee Journal 144: no 10:797-800.
[4]. L. Bekesi, E. Szalaiv - Experiments on
hygienic behavior of honey bees –2003, vol 47, no
1, 5-10 - Journal of Apicultural Science (Hungary
– The Second European Scientific Conference of
Beekeeping);
[5]. Nazzi, F (1992) – Morphometric analysis of
honeybees from an area of racial hybridization in
northeastern Italy, Apidologie 23, 89-96.
[6]. Kerr, W.E (1967) multiple alleles and genetic
load in bees. Journal of apicultural research. 6, 61-
64.
Books
[2]. Drăgănescu C. 1979 - Ameliorarea animalelor,
Editura Ceres, Bucuresti
[7]. Norma zootehnica cu privire la bonitarea
familiilor de albine si certificarea materialului
genitoriu apicol, IZ ASM, Chisinau, 2008;
 BACK

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

THE STUDY REFLECTING THE BODY WEIGHT

OF DIFFERENT BREEDS OF RABBITS

Tatiana Dabija1, Angela Macari2

1
Universitatea Agrară de Stat din Moldova
e-mail: tatianadabija@rambler.ru
2
Institutul de Zootehnie şi Medicină Veterinară

Abstract
For high productivity of each brunch of animal breeding as well in rabbits rearing, it is
necessary a constantly selection of the higher individuals for the next generations, choosing the best
posterity with the high indices for the animals reproduction. The breeding work is impossible for
future without selection. The biologic material was presented by four groups of females of White
New Zeeland, Californian, Chinchila, Albastru Vienez, each group was composed from six animals.
All the groups had the same maintenance conditions and the same experimental period. There were
studied some breading abilities for example: females’ prolfication, kits maintenance, the body
weight dynamics of kits nest from the day of birth to 45 days. The body weight had been determined
by weighting the nest, using the scales with the accuracy class 1, the limits of minimum weighting
0,1 g, maximum 10 kg. As well there was studied the correlation between nest weight at the
parturition, and females prolification. Under de prolification parity the best performances had
White New Zeeland breed with 9,16 kits, Chinchila – 8,33, California – 8,16 and Albastru Vienez
7,66 kits. Kits maintenance is an important index and it is connected to the percent of kits surviving
untie their weaning and the average of this index makes 97,01%, and vary from 100% at Albastru
Vienez to 92,00% at the Chinchila breed. Under the growing dynamic and development study of
rabbits there was established that the better weight gain had the rabbits of Chinchila breed, what
had the average of body weight per one head at the age of 45 days – 764 g, the lowest index had
California breed – 697 g.
Key words: rabbits, prolfication , maintenance, weight gain, nest weight

It is difficult to establish the precisely
number of rabbit’s breeds what are used at
the moment. There are some breeds which
are considered as a variety in some countries.
The rabbis breeds can be classified
under several criterions such as: under main
production, body weight and fur
particularities [8].
Under the main production there can be
classified: meat, fur and mixed breed. Under
body weight there can be classified: middle,
small, huge. First of all rabbits are raised up
for meat production, the index what can be
determined on the alive animal, by their
weighting.
A possibility of meat production
increasing of rabbits it is the management of
the parturitions [3, 4]. At the moment for
rabbits rearing it is possible to apply four
reproduction systems: moderated, intensive
and very intensive. Choosing and observing
of the technology of moderated system or
very intensive will lead to rabbit meat
productivity increasing and to the
profitability of using the spices.
For high productions in each brunch of
animal husbandry as well in brunch of rabbit
rearing it is necessary to do the selection
work permanently of the most productive
animals of the next generations, choosing as
well the animals for breeding with high
indices of productivity. This process it is
necessary to do because of the next selective
breeding.
The rabbits of different breeds have
different body weight [5].
The selection for body weight
development it is an important criterion of
estimation for meat production selection.

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

At the moment of animal population
establishment, it is necessary to study the
percent of fecundity and maintenance during
the period of parturition – slaughtering or
transition to the breeding, for establishment
of the kits number what is necessary for
selection plan which was established for
economic level of productivity [7].
The process of choosing the rabbits
reproduction in advance it is held in three
levels, accordingly to several economic
indices. At the first level the kits are chosen
for reproduction, at their age of 30,35 or 45
days. The animals are chosen by the breed
standard accordingly to their specifically
productive qualities [1].
Accordingly to [2] some of main
indices, what have to be taken into
consideration for body development are:
- the body weight at the date of birth;
- the body weight at the day of
weaning;
- the daily body gain during the
period of parturition weaning.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
The used biologic material was presented
by four groups of females from White New
Zeeland, California, Chinchila, Albastru
Vienez, there were in each group – 6 animals.
There were the same conditions of rearing
and the same length of experimental period.
During the experiments there were studied
some indices such as: females prolificacy, kits
maintenance, the dynamic of weight of kits
nest from their day of birth to 45 days of life.
The nest weight had been determined by
weighting the nest by the scales withy class of
accuracy 1, the limits of weighting. There was
studied the correlation between weight of the
kits nest at the parturition and females
prolification. The experiments were held
accordingly to [9] method.
The statistical work of dates has been
done accordingly to the program Wint Ex,
2000 and using the method of [6].
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
As a result of received dates after the
experiments it is necessary to make some
estimations. Under the prolification parity,
the best performances had breed White New
Zeeland with 9,16 kits, Chinchila breed –
8,33 kits, California – 8,16 kits and Albastru
Vienez – 7,66 kits (table 1).
The kits maintenance it is an important
index and it is connected to the percent of
kits surviving till the weaning and it’s
average was 97,1% and vary from 100% at
the breed of Albastru Vienez to 92,00% at
the breed of California.
There was a strong correlation (r=0,892)
between the females prolification and kits
maintenance during the period of growing
until their weaning.

Table 1
The females prolification and kits maintenance
The nest weight, g
Breed at the
at 7 days at 21 days at 35 days at 45 days
parturition
Neozelandeză 473,3±10,22 854,3±23,20 2591,0±71,86 4105,3±118,23 6350,0±172,58
Californiană 387,6±14,73*** 716,5±28,17*** 2250,0±69,61** 3596,6±109,19** 5575,0±188,19**
Chinchila 417,6±10,61** 843,3±29,60 2266,3±60,30** 3503,1±95,70** 5858,8±172,56
Albastru vienez 397,0±17,92** 702,1±37,75*** 2220,0±67,77** 3498,3±102,61** 5474,3±171,40**

**B ≥ 0,99; ***B ≥ 0,999

The nest weight of kits at the parturition
there was established by the difference of
females before and after parturition. The best
weight of kits nest was registered at the breed of
White New Zeeland – 473,33 g, and the lowest
weight had the breed of Californian – 387,66.
There was established that there is a
strong correlation (r= 0,907) between the
weight of kits nest at the parturition and the
females prolification.
During the experiences there was
studied the dynamic of kits nest weight from

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

their birth to the day of 45 of the life (table Albastru Vienez had this index – 5473,00 g.
2). It is necessary to mention that the most There was established a strong correlation (r=
intensity of growing had the kits of White 0,852) between the kits number in the nest
New Zeeland breed, the kits nest weight at 45 and its weight at 45 days.
days was 6350,00 g, and the breed of

Table 2
The study of body weight dinamic of the rabbits of different breeds
Breed Females prolificity, heads Maintenance, heads % of survaiving
New Zeeland 9,16±0,307 9,00±0,258 98,10
California 8,16±0,307* 8,00±0,258* 97,95
Chinchila 8,33±0,211* 7,66±0,211** 92,00
Albastru vienez 7,66±0,211** 7,66±0,211** 100
The average 8,32 8,08 97,01

*B ≥ 0,95; **B ≥ 0,99

Despite that that ale the animals had the breed of Chinchila and there was registered
same conditions. After the results study, the at 45 days of life a – 764 g of body weight
dinamic of rabbits growing and developman per head, the lowest index had the breed of
there was establised a beter body gain at the California – 697 g.

800
764

750
705,83 713,66
697
700

650

600
the body weight of one head, g

550 Neozelandeză
Californiană
500
456,16 450 457 456
Chinchila
450 Albastru vienez
400

350

300 288 281,83295,83 290

250

200

150
95 101,16 97
91,5
100
51,83 47,5 50,16 51,66
50

at the day of birth at 7 days at 21 days at 35 days at 45 days

1 2 3 4 5

Figura 1. The dinamic of kits growing and development, g

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All studied females can be characterised
having good indices of prolification, what
corresponded to the standard of each breed,
and the received kits had good body gain.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The stiddied females can be
characterised having good productive and
breeding indices what corespund the breed
standard.
2. The prolificity and kits maintenance
vary in dependence of the breed, the highest
prolificity had the breed of white New
Zeeland – 9,16 kits 9,00 alive kits and
Albastru Vienez breed – had thise indices
7,66 and 100 %.
3. The growing gain had the nest of
kits of white New Zeeland breed, and at 45
days it was – 6350,00 g, and the lowest index
had Albastru Vienez breed – 5473,00 g.
4. At the rabbits from studdied groups
at the age of 45 days, had highest body gain
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
at Chinchila breed – 764 g/head, and the
lowest index had California – 697 g/head.
REFERENCES
Journal article
[4] Bud, I. Posibilităţi de sporire a producţiei de
carne la iepure prin dirijarea fătărilor. Agricultorul
român. Cluj-Napica, 2003. p. 2003.
Books
[1] Alexandru, A. Iepurele. Alex-Alex. 2001. p. 29
– 30.
[2] Bura, M. Ghidul crescătorului de iepuri de
casă. Timişoara, 2006. p. 72 - 75
[3] Bud, I. Creşterea şi valorificarea iepurilor,
animalelor de blană şi vânatului. Timişoara, 1998,
180 p.
[5] Bucataru, N., Maciuc, V. Afaceri în creşterea
iepurilor de casă şi animalelor de blană. Chişinău,
2005, 93 p.
[6] Bucataru, N. Genetica, Chişinău, 1993. p. 298.
[7] Van, Ilie. Iepurele de casă. Bucureşti, 2005. p.
63 – 64.
[8] Liviu Şt. Rebreanu Tehnologia creşterii
iepurilor de casă. Timişoara, 1989. p. 57-58.
[9] Ovsânicov, A. Ocnovy opytnogo dela v
životnovostve. Moskva, 1976, p. 143.
 BACK
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

OPTIMIZING THE TECHNOLOGY OF RECONDITIONING

THE REFORMED SHEEP

Camelia Zoia Zamfir1, Daniela Jitariu2, Ana Enciu1,

N. Cutova1, Carmen Ana Pivoda1
1
Palas Institute of Research-Development for Sheep and Goats Breeding-Constanţa
2
“Ovidius” University Constanţa

Abstract
It was supervised the increasing of meat quantity at reformed sheep and also the improving of
its quality; grazing field adult sheep reformed reconditioning was used therefore obtaining total
increases weight variable of 5.76-12.94 kg depending on the breed or population the animals were
belonging to, the carcase weight varied between 20.28 and 28.79 kg, achieving at slaughtering a
butchery productivity of 42.48-47.4%, variable with the breed and population; at the reconditioning
of reformed sheep at permanent stabulation a total benefit of de 5.76-14.65 kg has been obtained,
carcases of about 20.28-29.19 kg, achieving at slaughtering a butchery productivity of 42.91-
47.9%; at the reconditioning of reformed rams at permanent stabulation a total benefit of de de
7.91-16.94 kg, the carcase weight of 29.28-42.50 kg, butchery productivity of 43.53-45.8%; an
obvious improvement of the carcases was noticed, by increasing the ratio of 1st quality meat and
increasing the proportion meat/bones.
Key words: reformed sheep, slaughtering yield, reconditioning, carcass weight, permanent
stabulation

INTRODUCTION The reconditioning on grazing field of

Fattening the reformed sheep (excluded
from the reproduction) intends to increase the
meat production obtained from the adult
sheep (old ones) and to improve the meat
gustative features (Taftă V., 2008).
Reconditioning the reformed sheep ensures
an increase of carcase meat quantity, of about
30% and due to the improvement of the meat
quality ensures the revaluation of the
carcases at prices considered to be favourable
to the sheep breeders.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
The works were performed at ICDCOC
Palas Constanţa, the material used during the
experiences belonging to Palas Merino breed,
Palas milk population, Palas meat population,
Palas prolific population, Ţurcană breed and
Ţigaie breed.
Reconditioning of the reformed sheep
was accomplished on the grazing field during
a period of 60 days and 20 days on sheep
fold, or only 60 days on sheep fold, in
stabulation. Reconditioning the reformed
rams was performed within the permanent
stabulation during a period of 60 days.
the reformed adult sheep, for 60 days, was
accomplished with an average consumption
of about 7.6 kg green mass/head and a
supplement of about 0.3 kg of lucern hay and
0.3 kg concentrated fodder (0.1 kg corn
grains, 0.1 kg sun flower groats) ground and
mixed as a unique blend; the entire ratio
having a nutritive value of 2.19 kg SU, 1.87
UNC, 218 g PDIN and 193 g PBDIE; and 20
days on sheep fold, for the finishing off,
period in which the sheep that have not
received 0.5 kg lucern hay daily, 1 kg of
barley straw, 2.5 kg corn elevator and 0.9 kg
concentrated fodder (0.5 kg corn grains, 0.25
kg barley grains and 0.20 kg groats), with a
daily consumption of 2.82 kg SU, 2.05 UNC,
189 g PDIN and 215 g PDIE.
Reconditioning the reformed sheep
within the permanent stabulation stage during
a period of 60 days was performed with a
daily fodder consumption of 1 kg of lucern
hay, 0.5 kg barley grains, 2.5 kg ensiled corn
and 1.20 kg concentrated fodder (0.5 kg corn
grains, 0.5 kg barley grains and 0.2 kg sun
flower groats), ensuring an individual
consumption of about 3.04 kg SU, 2.5 UNC,
231 g PDIN and 250 g PDIE.

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

Reconditioning the rams reformed Control slaughterings were

within the permanent stabulation stage
during a period of 60 days was performed
with an average fodder consumption of 1 kg
of lucern hay during the entire period of
fattening, 0.5 kg barley straw, 1 kg ensiled
corn and 1.75 kg concentrated fodder (0.5 kg
corn grains, 0.75 kg barley grains and 0.2 kg
sun flower groats), ensuring an individual
consumption of about 2.87 kg SU, 2.56
UNC,194 g PDIN and 236 g PDIE.
accomplished, evaluating the slaughter house
potential and the carcases’ quality, making
use of the customary work methods.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Reconditioning on grazing field of the
reformed mother sheep was accomplished to
the sheep belonging to Palas milk population,
Palas Merino breed, meat population, prolific
population, Ţigaie and Ţurcană (table no. 1).

Table no. 1
Bodyweight, growing potential, carcase weight and slaughtering productivity of reformed mother sheep
and reconditioned on grazing field
Initial average Total increase of Carcase’s weight Potential at
Breed or n weight (kg) weight (kg) (kg) slaughtering %
population
X ± sX V% X ± sX V% X ± sX V% X ± sX V%
Palas milk
20 44.33±3.22 32.99 9.36±1.47 70.24 23.93±2.50 46.72 44.6±2.8 28.08
population
Palas
25 46.24±4.11 44.44 11.88±1.63 68.60 27.23±2.16 39.66 46.9±1.7 18.12
Merino
Palas meat
25 47.87±3.75 39.17 12.94±1.58 61.05 28.79±1.94 33.69 47.4±2.4 25.32
population
Palas
prolific 20 44.65±2.85 28.55 10.25±1.34 58.46 24.64±1.47 26.68 44.9±2.7 26.89
population
Ţigaie 25 41.62±3.47 41.68 5.76±1.02 88.54 20.13±1.07 26.57 42.48±2.7 31.77
Ţurcană 25 40.35±4.12 51.05 6.81±0.98 71.95 20.28±1.03 25.39 43.01±1.4 16.27

The sheep belonging to Palas milk accomplishing a slaughtering productivity of

population registered an initial average
weight of 44.33±3.22 kg, the total increase in
weight was that of 9.36±1.47 kg, the carcase
weight was that of 23.93±2.50 kg,
accomplishing a slaughtering productivity of
44.6±2.8%. The sheep belonging to Palas
Merino breed registered an initial average
weight of 46.24±4.11 kg, the total increase in
weight was that of 11.88±1.63 kg, the carcase
weight was that of 27.23± 2.16 kg,
accomplishing a slaughtering productivity of
46.9±1.7%. The sheep belonging to Palas
meat population registered an initial average
weight of 47.87±3.75 kg, the total increase in
weight was that of 12.94±1.58 kg, the carcase
weight was that of 28.79±1.94 kg,
accomplishing a slaughtering productivity of
47.4±2.4%. The sheep belonging to Palas
prolific population registered an initial
average weight of 44.65±2.85kg, the total
increase in weight was that of 10.25±1.34 kg,
the carcase weight was that of 24.64±1.47 kg,
44.9±2.7%. The sheep belonging to Ţigaie
breed registered an initial average weight of
41.62±3.47 kg, the total increase in weight
was that of 5.76±1.02 kg, the carcase weight
was that of 20.13±1.07 kg, accomplishing a
slaughtering productivity of 42.48±2.7%. The
sheep belonging to Ţurcana breed registered
an initial average weight of 40.35± 4.12 kg,
the total increase in weight was that of
6.81±0.98 kg, the carcase weight was that of
20.28±1.03 kg, accomplishing a slaughtering
productivity of 43.01±1.4%.
Reconditioning of reformed sheep
during the permanent stabulation was
performed on groups of 25 heads, during 60
days, ensuring them shelters of 1.2 m2/sheep
head and fodder front of 0.35 m/head. The
water and the salt were provided in
abundance. The main results obtained are
mentioned within the table no. 2.

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Table no. 2
Bodyweight , growing potential, carcase weight and slaughtering productivity of reformed mother
sheep and reconditioned within the permanent stabulation stage
Initial average Total increase Carcase weight Slaughtering
Breed or weight (kg) in weight (kg) (kg) productivity %
n
population
X ± sX V% X ± sX V% X ± sX V% X ± sX V%
Palas milk 25 43.41±2.91 33.53 10.21±1.22 59.75 24.92±1.45 29.09 46.5±2.7 29.03
population
Palas Merino 25 45.73±3.21 35.09 13.86±1.48 53.39 28.35±2.10 37.04 47.6±1.3 13.66
Palas meat 25 46.33±2.53 23.30 14.65±1.39 61.05 29.19±2.41 41.28 47.9±2.6 27.14
population
Palas prolific 25 42.94±1.85 21.54 11.47±1.30 56.67 24.90±1.67 33.53 45.8±1.8 19.65
population
Ţigaie 25 45.62±2.47 27.07 5.76±1.02 88.54 22.13±1.07 26.57 43.07±2.7 31.34
Ţurcană 25 39.35±3.12 39.64 7.91±0.95 60.05 20.28±0.94 22.51 42.91±1.8 20.97

The sheep belonging to Palas milk
population, reconditioned within the
permanent stabulation stage registered an
initial average weight of 43.41±2.91 kg, the
total increase in weight was that of
10.21±1.22 kg, the carcase weight was that of
24.92±1.45 kg, accomplishing a slaughtering
productivity of 46.5±2.7%. The sheep
belonging to Palas Merino breed registered
an initial average weight of 45.73±3.21 kg,
the total increase in weight was that of
13.86±1.48 kg, the carcase weight was that of
28.35±2.10 kg, accomplishing a slaughtering
productivity of 47.6±1.3%. The sheep
belonging to Palas meat population registered
an initial average weight of 46.33±2.53 kg,
the total increase in weight was that of
14.65±1.39 kg, the carcase weight was that of
29.19±2.41 kg, accomplishing a slaughtering
productivity of 47.9±2.6%. The sheep
belonging to the prolific population
registered an initial average weight of
42.94±1.85 kg, the total increase in weight
was that of 11.47±1.30 kg, the carcase weight
was that of 24.90±1.67 kg, accomplishing a
slaughtering productivity of 45.8±1.8%. The
sheep belonging to Ţigaie breed registered an
initial average weight of 45.62±2.47 kg, the
total increase in weight was that of 5.76±1.02
kg, the carcase weight was that of
22.13±1.07 kg, accomplishing a slaughtering
productivity of 43.07±2.7%. The sheep
belonging to Ţurcana breed registered an
initial average weight of 39.35±3.12 kg, the
total increase in weight was that of 7.91±0.95
kg, the carcase weight was that of
20.28±0.94 kg, accomplishing a slaughtering
productivity of 42.91±1.8%.
The data confirm a greater efficiency in
the case of reconditioning the adult sheep
during the permanent stabultation stage. in
comparison with the reconditioning on the
grazing field, applying to all populations and
breeds of sheep.
Reconditioning the rams reformed
within the permanent stabulation stage was
performed on groups of 10 heads during a
period of 60 days, ensuring them shelters of
1.6 m2/head and fodder front of 0.50
m/head. The water and the salt are
provided in abundance. The main results
obtained are mentioned in table no. 3.

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Table no. 3
Bodyweight. growing potential. carcase weight and slaughtering productivity of reformed and
reconditioned rams and reconditioned within the permanent stabulation stage
Initial average Total increase in Carcase weight (kg) Slaughtering
Breed or weight (kg) weight (kg) productivity %
n
population
X ± sX V% X ± sX V% X ± sX V% X ± sX V%
Palas milk 10 62.27±5.3 27.07 12.56±2.29 57.66 34.27±3.08 97.40 45.8±2.1 14.50
population
Palas 10 67.46±4.2 19.88 16.71±3.26 61.69 40.82±4.12 31.92 48.5±2.7 17.60
Merino
Palas meat 10 69.34±4.8 22.12 16.94±2.57 47.98 42.50±2.77 20.61 49.7±1.6 10.18
population
Palas 10 64.39±3.6 17.97 14.76±1.83 39.21 35.93±2.43 21.39 45.8±1.8 19.65
prolific
population
Ţigaie 10 60.12±2.47 12.99 9.26±1.02 34.83 30.13±1.07 26.57 43.4±2.7 19.67

Ţurcană 10 59.35±3.12 16.62 7.91±0.95 37.97 29.28±0.94 10.15 43.53±1.8 13.13

The rams belonging to Palas milk
population registered an initial average
weight of 62.27±5.3 kg, the total increase in
weight was that of 12.56±2.29 kg, the
carcase weight was that of 34.27±3.08 kg,
accomplishing a slaughtering productivity of
45.8±2.1%. The rams belonging to Palas
Merino breed population registered an
initial average weight of 67.46± 4.2 kg,
the total increase in weight was that of
16.71±3.26 kg, the carcase weight was that
of 40.82±4.12 kg, accomplishing a
slaughtering productivity of 48.5±2.7%. The
rams belonging to Palas meat population
registered an initial average weight of
69.34±4.8 kg, the total increase in weight
was that of 16.94±2.57 kg, the carcase
weight was that of 42.50± 2.77 kg,
accomplishing a slaughtering productivity of
49.7±1.6%. The rams belonging to Palas
prolific population population registered
an initial average weight of 64.39±3.6 kg,
the total increase in weight was that of
14.76±1.83 kg, the carcase weight was that
of 35.93± 2.43 kg, accomplishing a
slaughtering productivity of 45.8±1.8%. The
rams belonging to Ţigaie breed registered
an initial average weight of 60.12±2.47 kg,
the total increase in weight was that of
9.26±1.02 kg, the carcase weight was that of
30.13±1.07 kg, accomplishing a slaughtering
productivity of 43.4±2.7%. The rams
belonging to Ţurcana breed registered an
initial average weight of 59.35±3.12 kg,
the carcase weight was that of 7.91±0.95 kg,
the carcase weight was that of 29.28±0.94
kg, accomplishing a slaughtering
productivity of 43.53±1.8%.
At the commercial trenching of the
carcase and its division on qualities and
commercial areas following a French method
it has been noticed an increase of 1st quality
meat quantity (over 50% from the carcase)
and at the fixing of the tissual composition of
the carcase a greater percentage of meat was
obtained in comparison with the one of the
bones but the quantity of fat increased as well
(related to 1 kg of meat the fat was about
0.24% and of bones about 0.37%)
CONCLUSIONS
1. At the reconditioning on the grazing
field of the reformed adult sheep the
following were obtained:
- total increases in weight of 5.76-12.94 kg,
varying with breed or population;
- carcase weight was altering between 20.28
and 28.79 kg;
- at the sheep slaughtering the productivity
obtained of the slaughter house was that of
42.48-47.4%, varying with breed or
population.
2. At the reconditioning of reformed
sheep during the permanent stabulation stage
the following were obtained:
- total increases in weight of 5.76-14.65 kg;

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- carcase weight was altering between 20.28-
29.19 kg;
- at the sheep slaughtering the productivity of
the slaughter house obtained was that 42.91-
47.9%.
3. At the reconditioning of reformed rams
during the permanent stabulation stage the
following were obtained:
- total increases in weight of 7.91-16.94 kg;
- carcase weight was altering between 29.28-
42.50 kg.;
- at the rams slaughtering the productivity of
the slaughter house was that of 43.53-45.8%.
4. An obvious improvement of the
carcases was noticed by the increase of 1-st
quality meat percentage and also of the
meat/bones proportion.
REFERENCES
Books
[1] Burlacu Gh. and colab., 1998- Guidance for
elaborating the food portions for sheep and goats.
IBNA and SIAT Bucharest Publishing House.
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[2] Daraban. S., 2006- Sheep breeding technology.
Risoprint Cluj-Napoca Publishing House.
[3] Jarrige. R., Ruckebusch. Y., Demarquilly. C.,
Farce M.H. Journet M., 1995- Nutrition des
ruminats domestiques -ingestion et digestion
INRA Paris.
[4] Pascal C-Tin., 2000- Goats breeding. “AXIS“
Foundation Iasi Publishing House.
[5] Padeanu. I., 2000- Sheep and goats
productions. Mirton Timisoara Publishing House.
[6] STOICA. I., 1997- Animals nutrition and
feeding. „Coral - Sanivet” Bucureşti Publishing
House.
[7] Tafta.V., Vintilă. I., Zamfirescu Stela, 1998-
Sheep Production. Improvement and
Reproduction. Ceres Publishing House Bucharest.
[8] Taftă V., 1998- Sheep production
performances evaluation technique. Ceres
Publishing House Bucharest.
[9] Tafta. V., 2008- Sheep and goats
breeding.Ceres Publishing House. Bucharest.
 BACK

Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

RESEARCH REGARDING PRODUCTIVE POTENTIAL

SPECIFIC TO GOATS BRED IN N-E PART OF ROMANIA

C. Pascal1, N. Zaharia1, Mihaela Ivancia1, I. Pădeanu2

1
Faculty of Animal Sciences, University of Agricultural Sciences
and Veterinary Medicine „Ion Ionescu de la Brad” Iasi, Romania
e-mail pascalc@yahoo.com
2
U.S.A.M.V. a Banatului Timişoara

Abstract
The present paper is part of an ampler program which approaches the study of the productive
potential of goats from Romania, with the purpose to elaborate a program for their genetic
improvement. The genetic material taken for study is comprised of a number of 300 adult goats and
370 young goats of different ages. We monitored, through specific laboratory exams and
measurements several indicators regarding the goats, such as: the weight at delivery (2,18-2,30 kg
and the degree of corporal development (42,35 ± 0,425 kg in females and of 46,5 ± 0,353 kg in
males.), traits which characterize the pilose coating (the fine hair with a length of 5,53 ± 0,055 cm
and fineness of 14,65 ± 0,066 µ, and the hair 12,43 ± 0,033 cm and respectively 21,31 ± 0,26 µ).,
the lactogenic potential (over 500g in the interval May-July and similar to this value in the interval
August-September ) the qualitative milk parameters (fat between 3,19% and 4,02%, proteins
between 2,62% and 3,75%, and lactose around the value of 4%); aptitudes regarding the milk
production (the daily average growth rates were of 167,512 ± 1,252g in the case of males and
151,302 ± 2,414g in females). The goats bred and exploited in the private sector from the North-
East part of Romania are characterized through a strong heterogeneity.
Key words: goats, milk, weight, corporal – development

INTRODUCTION The body development and the outer

Considering the more and more attention
paid to this species and taking into account that
the respective populations have never been the
object of scientific research, we carried out a
large study on their main morphological and
productive characteristics. The partial
completion of the researches emphasizes the
tardiness and heterogeneousness specific to the
goats bred in Romania, that is why the
elaboration of a programme of genetic
amelioration of the latter is required.
ABSTRACT
Originating from the hill and mountain zone
of the Carpathians, Carpatina is a natural,
vigorous, resistant race, representing over 80%
of the total number of goats bred in Romania
and being spread in every area of the country.
From a morphological and productive point of
view, the local Carpathian race goats present a
great variability, as a consequence of their large
habitat and of the low level of selection.
appearance of the Carpathian goats are
peculiar to the latish type, and the average
height at withers is 62 cm. The body is
generally narrow, the areas from the upper
line are keen, the musculature is reduced, the
skeleton is very resistant. The horns are
present at both sexes. Its body constitution is
vigorous; its temperament is very lively,
externalized by mobility and agility. The
pilose production consists of two types of
fibres, respectively hair and fluff, which are
distinguished from one another by length and
fineness. The hair does not have textile
qualities, its fineness is between 45-50
microns and its length is up to 14 cm.
The fluff’s length is up to 7 cm and its
fineness ranges between 20-30 microns.
The young goats’ weight at birth ranges
between 1.5-3.9 kg but varies depending on
sex and the kidling type: the weight of the
female young goats from simple kidlings
ranges between 2.5-3.2 kg, and that of the
male young goats between 2.7-3.3 kg; in case

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of multiparous kidlings these values are
diminished with 0.200-0.500 kg. A biological
characteristic of the young goats is a growing
pace which is more reduced during the
suckling period compared to the young ovines.
Thus, when they are 3 months old, the young
goats have a body weight of 28-29% of the
adult’s weight, compared to 40-45% at lambs,
but the growing pace is higher after the
ablactation, reaching 70-72% at age 1. Until
two months of age, when the young goats
reach the weight of 9-11 kg, their development
dynamics depends on the milk production of
the mother, and beyond this age on the regime
and feeding level. In normal feeding and
maintenance conditions, the young goats reach
25 kg on the average at 6 months old. The
weight of the adult goats ranges between 35-
45 kg and can reach over 55 kg. The
polygraphy ranges between 130-160%.
The milk production varies according to
the amelioration degree and the fodder
process, ranging between 135 kg and 290 kg.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
The biological material which represents
the object of the research consisted in 300
adult goats and 370 young goats of various
ages, belongs to the caprine species and is
bred and exploited in the private farms in the
North-eastern part of the country. Since the
objectives were multiple and associated with
activities as diverse as possible, we studied
all types of young goats from the current and
previous year, as well as the adult goats in
order to achieve our goals.
The work methods applied in research
were proper for this kind of research.
Investigations, weighing and body
measurements of mass and conformation for
the adult goats, as well as growing
measurements of the young goats categories
were carried out for the assessment of the
current situation and the estimation of the
weight and of the body development degree.
In order to ascertain the features which
characterize the pilose coating, we assayed
samples from shoulders and thighs, which
served to the ascertainment of the fluff and
hair fibres’ fineness. The fibres’ fineness was
objectively ascertained through microscopy,
after the micrometrical value of the work
device had been preliminarily established.
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The fluff and hair fibres’ length was assessed
by measuring it with the meter rule.
The quantitative control of the milk
production was carried out according to the
official methodology adopted in Romania and
in the European Union and was based on the
control of the evening and morning milking
from the day established for this purpose. The
total amount of milk consumed by the young
goats during the suckling period was
ascertained due to the transformation quotient.
In order to obtain information and data as
decisive as possible during every control we
assayed samples which, subsequently, served
to the ascertainment of the main parameters on
which the milk quality depends, especially
grease protein and lactose.
The evaluation of the aptitudes for the
meat production was based on the extensive
fattening (traditional) of the young goats lots
resulted from the kidling season of the current
year and will continue the following year too.
The resulting data is centralized and
statistically processed, and based on the
productive performances the most valuable
mother goats were identified. They were
marked and mated with valuable he-goats, in
order to get the anticipated genetic effect in
the next generatio
RESULTS AND DISCUSION
The ascertainment of the morphological
peculiarities and of the body development
degree. Through the investigations carried
out, we tried to identify and ascertain the
body development of the goats according to
the age categories to which they belong, as
well as other aspects such as: the
ascertainment of the body conformation,
colour, structure and the quality of the pilose
coating. Knowing the morpho-productive
features of the local goats represents an
essential necessity in the application of the
breeding technologies in the amelioration and
exploitation of this species in conditions of
economic efficiency.
At kidling, the body weight of the young
goats was influenced by their number and by
the mother goats’ age ranged between the
limits of 2.18+0.131 kg and 2.90+0.213 kg
respectively, values that are presented in a
centralized manner in table 1.
 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

All these values range within the limits of
the biological potential of the species and are
similar to the data mentioned in the speciality
literature from Romania by other authors
who studied these aspects [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7].
In the case of the young goats,
determining the corporeal weight at different
ages emphasizes the fact that under the
conditions in which the tardiness degree
characteristic to the local populations is a
high one, we can consider that at the
respective ages the corporeal weight has
similar values to the biological potential of
the local goats (table 2).
In the case of adult goats the body weight
was of 42,35 ± 0,425 kg in females and of
46,5 ± 0,353 kg in males.
The achievement of corporeal
measurements allows drawing some pertinent
conclusions according to which the body
format characteristic to these populations is
pyriform, middle waist (71.55 ± 0.73 cm), the
posterior train more developed, the superior
line follows an antero-posterior trajectory,
because of the fact that at the withers the
average height was of 73.12 ± 0.75 and in the
croup the height was of 73,12 ± 1,22 cm
(table 3).

Table 1
The weight of goats at birth (kg)

Number of Weight att birth

Specification Tip of birth Limits
kidling X ± sx
Uniparous 25 2.53 ± 0.164 1.95 – 2.76
Youth female
Multiparous 25 2.18 ± 0.131 1.9 – 2.44
Uniparous 25 2.90 ± 0.213 2.2 – 3.2
Youth male
Multiparous 25 2.67 ± 0.168 2 – 2.9

Table 2
Body weight of the young goats at different ages (kg)

Age att the weighing date Bodily weight

Limits
(months) X ± sx V%
2 9.544 ± 0.132 5.64 8.32 – 11.54
4 16.547 ± 0.341 7.55 13.48 – 18.43
6 22.348 ± 0.234 9.85 19.55 – 25.14
10 29.554 ± 0.331 8.31 24.86 – 33.19
16 34.345 ± 0. 431 11.14 29.54 – 36.55

Table 3
The main dimensions of the adult goats (cm)
Males Females
Dimensions % from the % from the
X ± sx withers height X ± sx withers height
Withers height 73.23 ± 0.75 100.0 69.87 ± 0.82 100.l0
Crupper height 74.56 ± 0.66 101.8 71.68 ± 1.07 102.5
Body length 75.53 ± 0.98 103.1 72.69 ± 1.14 104.0
Thoracic dept 35.19 ± 0.14 48.0 29.53 ± 0.19 42.2
Breast width 21.44 ± 0.21 29.2 19.34 ± 0.28 27.6
Crupper width 20.11 ± 0.09 27.4 17.52 ± 0.11 25.0
Thoracic perimeter 83.98 ± 1.43 114.6 78.68 ± 1.31 112.6
Tibia perimeter 9.79 ± 0.03 13.3 7.18 ± 0.77 10.2

As regards the pilose coating, where the conditions this production is gathered at the
breeder disposes of a higher number of goats, beginning of spring, before the moulting of
the production of hair and fluff present a real goats. On the analysed samples we
interest as well. Usually, in Romania’s determined that the fluff has a length of 53

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± 0,055 cm and a fineness of 4,65 ± 0,066 µ, particularities determined by the months,

and the hair 12,43 ± 0,033 cm and
respectively 1,31 ± 0,26 µ. The colour of the
pilose coating in the local goats is in the
majority of cases white (72 %), but
individuals with different colours, and many
piebald goats are also frequently encountered
Establishing the zootechnical values based
on the milk production assessment From the
researches carried out, we ascertained that
from the quantitative and qualitative point of
view, the goat milk has a series of
season, age, individuality and other factors.
With the purpose of determining the main
characteristics that the quantity and the quality of
milk depends on, we took in the study a number
of 300 goats found in lactation and structured in
five groups of ages according to the zootechnical
generation to whom it belongs. In accordance
with the objectives established every month of
lactation, we assayed samples, which then were
subject to chemical laboratory tests (table 4).

Table 4
The monthly evolution of the average milk production (ml)

Limits
The month The milking No. X ± sx V%
Min Max
The evening 150 634.64± 22.879 32,15 255 1200
The morning 150 589.45 ± 31,170 25.41 310 855
May
Total day 300 612.25± 31.415 22.45 255 1200
Total month (l) 300 17.43 - - -
The evening 150 680.75 ± 33,714 33.58 300 1050
The morning 150 598.52 ± 28.783 40.22 350 1100
June
Total day 300 630.05 ± 23.541 30,54 300 1100
Total month(l) 300 17.64 - - -
The evening 150 553.64 ± 72.879 43.66 110 840
The morning 150 518.89 ± 59.359 34.32 270 720
July
Total day 300 538.00 ± 47.126 39.17 110 840
Total month (l) 300 15.06 - - -
The evening 150 421.36 ± 34.241 38.12 200 800
The morning 150 475.91 ± 28.457 28.05 300 730
August
Total day 300 448.64 ± 22.390 33.11 200 800
Total month(l) 300 12.56
The evening 150 482.61 ± 28.702 28.52 280 880
The morning 150 471.82 ± 39.873 39.64 300 960
September
Total day 300 477.33 ± 24.128 33.91 280 960
Total month (l) 300 13.36 - - -
The evening 150 402.16 ± 18. 270 22.45 175 630
The morning 150 371.32 ± 27.303 35.14 185 665
October
Total day 300 387.67 ± 15. 813 28.25 175 665
Total month(l) 300 10.82 - - -

The researches carried out emphasized the
fact that, on the lactation intervals taken into
consideration, the daily production of milk
exceeded 500 g in May, June and July and
were situated very close to it in the calendar
interval August-October. This fact denotes the
superior milk potential that the Carpathian race
goats possess, but the rather high values
determined for the variability potential
indicates a strong heterogeneity of the
respective character. The cause of this situation
is firstly represented by the non-sustained
selection for the milk production and secondly,
by the high variability, which also supposes the
consequence of applying different alimentation
and maintenance technique.
On the interval of the same lactation, the
analysis of the same quantity of milk
obtained emphasizes the fact that the highest
production was of 680.75 ± 33,714 g and was
obtained at the evening milking from the day
of the control applied in July.
Analysing the lactation curve we can
determine that its top is placed in the first two

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months after the young goats are weaned , in
August, because of the extremely high heats,
the monthly individual quantity of milk was
16.60% more reduced compared to July and
with 6.37 % compared with September.
Reporting the monthly production to the
individual quantity of milk obtained in the
interval May-October, we can notice that in
May and June we obtained 20.7% and
respectively 20.31% (fig. 2).

17.43 17.64
15.06
16
12.56 13.36

10.82

8
Mai Iunie Iulie August Septembrie Octombrie
May June July August September October

Fig. 1. The Lactation curve in the Carpathian race goat (l)

Fig. 2. The ponderosity of the monthy production from the total individual
quantity obatined from the Carpathian goats (%)

The chemical laboratory tests carried out
in view of establishing the values of the basic
components of milk show the fact that, while
the dry substance is maintained on the
interval of the same lactation around the
value of 12%, the percent of protein and fat
in the milk has an ascendant evolution. Thus,
while the fat contents of milk reaches the
highest values in October (4.02±0.064) the
protein percentage continues to grow
reaching the highest values in the last month
of lactation taken into consideration.
The goat milk presents a high content of
lactalbumin and an advanced dispersion of
the fat globules, which increases its
digestibility a lot
The goat milk is consumed, most of the
times, as such, and only seldom is it processed
in mixture with the cow and sheep milk.
The chemical composition of milk
represents an extremely important quality
indicator since it directly influences the
quality of products derived from the milk
processing. Besides, in countries such as
France, Italy, Spain and Greece, in the
selection of goats the protein contents in milk
represents an extremely important factor.

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

Within the researches carried out, the
chemical composition of milk was
determined with samples assayed from the
collected milk the day when the quantitative
control of the milk production was carried
out. The statistical processing of the data
obtained shows that, in the case of goats bred
and exploited in the North-east part of the
country, the milk contains 86.65 % water and
13.35 % dry substance. The monthly
variation of the basic components
represented by fat, protein and lactose, is
presented in tables 5, 6 and 7, data presented
in table 5 we can determine that the fat
percentage has an inverse evolution as
comparative sense with the average total
quantity. Thus, in the first months of the
lactation, when the milk quantity is the
highest, the fat percentage has average values
of 3.19±0.033, in May it increases gradually
and reaches 4.02±0.064 in October.
Such as the fat contents, the protein
contents has a growing evolution, confirming
thus the positive correlation which is
established between the milk quantity and the
protein level that is contains (1), thing
emphasized in other studies carried out on
other populations by Taftă V [3] and Pascal
C [2, 4, 5]. In May, when the average
individual quantity was of 17.43 l, the protein
contents of milk was of 2.62 %, then it
increased at 3.23 % in August and reaches
the value of 3.75 % in October (table 6).
The lactose or the sugar in milk gives the
sweetish taste of freshly milked milk. Its
sweetening power is about four times smaller
than sucrose. It is secreted by the mammal
gland, and is encountered in nature only in
milk. From the chemical point of view, it is a
disaccharide formed of a molecule of glucose
and one of galactose.
The researches carried out until the
present prove the fact that, unlike the other
appreciated components, the lactose keeps a
constant evolution ciphered around the value
of 4%, not being influenced by the dynamics
of milk production.

Table 5
The monthly dynamic of the fat contents in milk (%)
Limits
The month The milking No. X ± sx V%
Min Max
Evening 150 3.06±0.201 11.42 2.15 3.91
May Morning 150 3.16±0.101 12.31 2.58 4.12
Total day 300 3.19±0.033 15.33 2.15 4.12
Evening 150 3.20±0.102 10.15 3.00 4,45
Morning 150 3.30±0.150 11.54 3.10 4,00
June
Total day 300 3.25±0.033 12.31 3.00 4.45
Evening 150 3.26±0.101 10.28 2.72 3.69
Morning 150 3.26±0.110 10.12 2.90 3.93
July
Total day 300 3.26±0.073 9.94 2.72 3.93
Evening 150 3.98±0.130 15.99 3.03 5.73
August Morning 150 3.82±0.121 15.49 2.74 5.48
Total day 300 3.90±0.088 15.73 2.74 5.73
Evening 150 4.18±0.135 15.81 3.41 6.11
September Morning 150 3.66±0.114 14.91 2.53 5.04
Total day 300 3.93±0.096 16.71 2.53 6.11
Evening 150 4.77±0.151 13.83 3.47 6.21
Morning 150 3.87±0.105 15.22 2.51 5.13
October
Total day 300 4.02±0.064 15.15 2.51 6.21

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

Table 6
The monthly dynamics of the protein content in milk (%)
Limits
The month The milking No. X ± sx V%
Min Max
Evening 150 2.70±0.011 8,54 2.44 3.25
May Morning 150 2.48±0.033 7.18 2.37 3.25
Total day 300 2.62±0.035 7.78 2.37 3.25
Evening 150 2.90±0.074 8.49 2.57 3.82
June Morning 150 2.74±0.088 8.45 2.57 4.75
Total day 300 2.85±0.057 8.58 2.99 5.36
Evening 150 2.80±0.071 8.45 2.47 3.25
July Morning 150 2.84±0.083 8.76 2.39 3.27
Total day 300 2.82±0.053 8.41 2.39 3.27
Evening 150 3.42±0.096 13.76 2.76 4.75
August Morning 150 3.04±0.060 9.71 2.57 3.82
Total day 300 3.23±0.062 13.39 2.57 4.75
Evening 150 3.76±0.097 12.64 2.99 5.36
September Morning 150 3.36±0.051 7.24 2.83 3.74
Total day 300 3.56±0.062 12.00 2.83 5.36
Evening 150 3.94±0.071 12.41 2.97 5.42
Octomber Morning 150 3.55±0.015 8.21 2.77 3.74
Total day 300 3.75±0.026 9.13 2.77 5.42

Table 7
The monthly dynamics of the average percentage of milk lactose (%)
Limits
The month The milking No. X ± sx V%
Min Max
Evening 25 4.05±0.017 5.14 3.07 4.35
May Morning 30 4.18±0.088 6.21 3.56 4.45
Total day 55 4.12±0.047 6.66 3.07 4.45
Evening 30 4.12±0.021 5.21 3.55 4.58
June Morning 25 4.21±0.052 8.54 3,16 5.05
Total day 55 4.18±0.033 7.48 3.16 5.05
Evening 11 4.11±0.051 4.11 3.86 4.39
July Morning 9 4.18±0.068 4.88 3.87 4.50
Total day 20 4.14±0.041 4.44 3.86 4.50
Evening 24 4.02±0.062 7.55 3.07 4.35
August Morning 24 4.10±0.047 5.60 3.56 4.45
Total day 48 4.06±0.039 6.63 3.07 4.45
Evening 24 4.20±0.035 4.11 3.92 4.47
September Morning 23 4.24±0.042 4.73 3.78 4.64
Total day 47 4.22±0.027 4.40 3.78 4.64

Evaluating the aptitudes for the meat
production of local goats. In the last years,
the goat meat has gained a significant
percentage in the world market of animal
products, because of its dietetic properties
and high digestibility. From this point of
view, we create a favourable opportunity for
exploiting the annual surplus of young goats.
In order to evaluate the potential specific
to the meat production, within the researches
carried out we organized series of young
goats that were subject to extensive fattening.
The technology applied in fattening was the
traditional one, based on fatting on the
grassland, and supplementing the daily rate
with a variable addition of concentrates.
The average daily increases were of
167,512 ± 1,252 g in the case of males and
151,302 ± 2,414 g in females (table 8).

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
Table 8
The aptitudes of the Carpathian race for the meat production (kg)
Initial weight Final weight
Specification
(kg) (kg)
Males 15.245 40.313
Females 13.897 36.592
The skeletons obtained, although with a
good conformation, had little resemblance
with the characteristics of races with good
aptitudes for meat.
The totality of values obtained because of
the fatting of young goats can be considered
eloquent as regards the aptitudes of the
Carpathian race for the production of meat
and justifies, from the economic points of
view the capitalization of the surplus of
young goats, but after a previous fattening.
Determining the fattening degree on the
living and slaughtered animal confirms the
adipose deposits in relation with the fattening
level of each individual, with the exception
of the under-skin area in which the adipose
tissue was found in large quantities.
Establishing the physical and tissue
structure of the skeleton shows the tardiness
degree of the race, since, after the carving,
the regions which were included in the II and
III quality category predominated, and the
ratio between bones and meat on the whole
skeleton was of 1/2.78.
The most important aspects that confer
the goat meat the qualities for which it is
appreciated, consist in the lipid and caloric
levels significantly inferior compared with
the meat coming from the rest of the species
of economic interest. The lipid level is about
8 times below that of beef and represents
only a third of that of chicken without skin.
In addition, the cholesterol content of the
goat meat is inferior compared to the rabbit
meat and venison. The caloric level of the
goat meat (122 calories) is similar to the
chicken without skin (120 calories) and twice
smaller than the beef (245 calories).
As regards the vitamin contents, we notice
a significant difference between the significant
level of vitamins from the B group (thiamine –
B1 and riboflavin – B2), and niacin (vot. PP),
their percentage being almost double
compared to that of beef, veal and lamb.
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Fatening Total spore Medium daily
duration (days) (kg) spore (g)
25.068 167.120
150
22.695 151.302
The identification of the most valuable
goats is based on the performances achieved
and established with the occasion of the milk
production assessment. Since the lactation
ended, the researches continue and the final
dates regarding the objective, and the activities
associates to it, will be reported subsequently.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank the National Center of
Programs Management and the National
University Research Council, which gave
financial support to these researches through
the National Program for Researches,
Developing and Innovating, (CNCSIS 734).
CONCLUSION
As a result of the researches carried out, the
most important conclusions which we draw are:
- at birth, the body weight of billy goats is
generally reduced being influenced by the
maintenance state and the fertility of mother
goats;
- in the young goats of different ages, we
can consider that the body weight assessed
has values similar to the biological potential
of local goats;
- based on the data obtained after
evaluating the conformation and carrying out
the body measurements, we can establish that
the adult goat populations bred in the North-
East part of the country present a body
conformation similar to the one typical to
milk animals.
- because of the lack of the major
preoccupations and selection works, and of the
different states of maintenance, the local goat
populations are characterized by a strong
heterogeneity as regards the milk potential.
- the total milk production reaches
maximum values in the first four lactations
after which it gradually decreases.
- the monthly evolution of the milk
production increases progressively until the

fifth lactation then it ceases in the following
two-three lactations; afterwards it
significantly decreases.
- towards the end of lactation, a slow
value increase of the three milk components
occurs, reaching maximum values in the last
two months.
- the goats bred and exploited in the
private sector from the Northeast region of
the country are characterized through a
strong heterogeneity as regards the quantity
and quality of milk.
REFERENCES
Journal articles
[1] Pascal C., Gîlcă I., Simeanu D., Ivancia M.,
Nacu G., Zaharia R., Stancescu L., 2008 -
Researches regarding the fattening of youth goats
from the north-east area population, Buletin
USAMV Cluj Napoca, vol 65 (1-2) print ISSN
1843-5262, electronic ISSN 1843-536X, p 201 –
207.
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
[2] Pascal C., Balteanu A.V., Pop F., Vlaic A.,
Ivancia M., 2008 - αs1-casein alleles frequency in
Carpathian goat. 9 the International Conference on
Goat, Mexic, p 193.
[3] Pascal C., Ivancia Mihaela., Nacu G. 2008 –
The mylk yield aptitudes of the Carpatina goat
breed Reared in Romania. 9the International
Conference on Goat, 31 august – 5 sepember,
Queretaro, Mexic, p 93.
[5] Pascal C. 2006 – Researchers with reference at
the quantitative and qualitative milk production at
indigenous local goats growled and exploited in
the north-estern area of Romania, International
Sympozion IGA, Constanţa.
[6] Pascal C. 2006 – The morphologic and
productive specific parameters of goats North-
Eastern area of Romania. International Sympozion
IGA, Constanţa.
Books
[4] Pascal C. 2007 - Creşterea ovinelor şi
caprinelor. Editura PIM- Iaşi
[7] Taftă V. 2004 - Creşterea caprinelor.
Editura Ceres, Bucureşti.
 BACK

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

CONFORMATION PHENOTYPIC VALUES

IN TZIGAIE BREED FROM S.C.D.P. JUCU

V. Cighi, T. Oroian, S. Dărăban, D. Dronca, V.A. Bâlteanu,

Teodora Crina Carşai

University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine,

Faculty of Animal Science and Biotechnologies, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
email: vasile_cighi@yahoo.com

Abstract
Our study follows the characterization from morpho-productive view of ovine Tzigaie
population existent in Research and Development Station for Meadows Jucu as concerns the main
conformation and constitution features. Were comparatively followed the main conformation and
constitution features in Bucalaie and Ruginie varieties of Tzigaie breed existent in Jucu. The
observations concerning: body weight, height, croup height, trunk length, chest width, croup width,
thorax depth, thorax perimeter, tibia perimeter and body weight at parturition, were done on a
numerical representative force of 100 individuals appertaining in equal parts of the two varieties.
Using the specific methodology were calculated the average values for analyzed features, the
standard deviation and variation coefficients as variability rates and were established also the
differences among average values for studied features of the two varieties. After the study we
observed that in the majority of analyzed situations the Bucalaie variety presented superior values
given to Ruginie one. The differences between the two varieties are ensured statistically at different
signification limits in favor of Bucalaie variety for next characters: height, croup height, trunk
length, thorax perimeter and lambs weight at parturition. The effected research puts into evidence
the good potential of Tzigaie breed and especially of Bucalaie variety as participant in the crossing
programs, especially with meat breeds.
Key words: Tzigaie, Ruginie, Bucalaie, biometry, conformation

INTRODUCTION hilly zones and relatively small forces even

The human society development rhythm
needs introduction in practice of some
modern investigation methods of animal
genetic potential and their improvement.
In this context submits the ovine
populations’ improvement from our country
by orientation of selection works and mating
supervision in tight connection with
exploitation directions.
The Tzigaie breed origin is from Ovis
Vignei-arkar. The domestication center of
this breed was the Caspian Sea zone from
where by Millet merchant means, which have
done trade with the cities from Black Sea and
Danube River arrived also in Romania.
Because of great adaptation capacity,
from lowland zones where initially was bred
in our country, the Tzigaie breed extended in
also in some mountain zones.
The Tzigaie is a typical breed with mixed
production, wool-milk-meat, in general
appreciated for good performance level that
registered for the main production categories,
but especially for the great resistance and
adaptation capacity to very diverse climatic
and technological environment conditions.
These qualities are doe to resistance and
rusticity that characterized this breed.
Inside Tzigaie breed are distinguished
four varieties, which differ by exterior
aspect: chubby, rusty, white and black.
In our study we followed comparatively
the main conformation and constitution
features in Chubby and Rusty varieties inside
ovine force of Tzigaie breed, bred and
exploited in S.C.D.P. Jucu.

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The exterior study of an animal must be
considered as one of the complex element,
which can help us to establish the zoo-
economical aptitudes of each individual, his
biological value in the improvement process
of population that apart.
The knowledge of anatomical basis, the
size, shape, direction and attaching manner of
each region or segment inside unit, constitutes
an important lever in the continuous
improvement of the existent breeds.
The study proposes characterization of
morpho-productive view of ovine population
from Tzigaie breed existent in Jucu Station
by means of main conformation features.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
The biological material submitted for
study is represented by two samples of ovine
mothers, Chubby and Rusty varieties from
Tzigaie breed appertained of Research and
Development Station for Meadows Jucu, Cluj
County. In this unit the ovine force actually
is of 420 heads distributed in approximate
equal proportion between the two varieties:
Chubby and Rusty.
The observations concerning the main
conformation features: body weight, height,
croup height, trunk length, chest width, croup
width, thorax depth, thorax perimeter, where
done on a number of 100 heads, 50 heads of
each variety. The sample size on which were
done the observations was established
congruent with variability level existent in
population for analyzed characters pursuant to it
are representative for appertaining population.
In view to estimation of the body weight
of lambs at birth were done measurements on
100 individuals from each variety.
The obtained data were processed
establishing the average, dispersion indices
and differences between variants analyzed for
main conformation features. The differences’
testing and their statistical interpretation were
done by means of Student test (t).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The results representing the average
values, dispersion indices for analyzed
characters on the two varieties of Tzigaie
breed, as well the differences and signification
among them are presented in Table 1.

Table 1
Average values, differences and their significance for main conformation features in Tzigaie breed
Specification Variety n X ± sx s V% d t Signification
B 50 47,10±0,71 5,05 10,72
Body weight 1,02 1,04 ns
R 50 46,08±0,67 4,80 10,41
B 50 64,67±0,34 2,46 3,80
Whiter height 1,62 3,52 ***
R 50 63,05±0,30 2,17 3,44
B 50 66,24±0,34 2,41 3,63
Croup height 1,09 2,22 *
R 50 65,15±+0,35 2,50 3,83
B 50 67,48±0,61 4,38 6,49
Trunk length 1,92 2,31 *
R 50 65,56±0,56 4,01 6,11
B 50 17,68±0,19 1,38 7,80
Chest width 0,28 1,12 ns
R 50 17,40±0,16 1,17 6,72
B 50 18,04±0,15 1,10 6,09
Croup width 0,03 0,13 ns
R 50 18,01±0,15 1,12 6,21
B 50 28,00±0,25 1,80 6,42
Thorax depth 0,4 1,17 ns
R 50 28,40±0,23 1,63 5,73
Thorax B 50 104,49±0,86 6,12 5,86
4,12 3,61 ***
perimeter R 50 100,37±0,75 5,3 5,28
Tibia B 50 9,30±0,09 0,67 7,20
0,2 1,53 ns
perimeter R 50 0,10±0,09 0,68 7,47
Body weight B 100 3,83±0,05 0,50 13,05
of lambs at 0,15 2,14 *
birth R 100 3,68±0,06 0,58 15,76

B-Chubby R-Rusty

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
From analysis of data refer to body
weight comes out that in Chubby variety is
registered light superiority for this character
given to Rusty variety (47,10 ± 0,71 kg given
to 46,08 ± 0,67 kg).
This character difference in favor to
Chubby variety statistically is insignificant.
The values registered to measured
samples’ level for body weight frame among
the values mentioned in specialty literature for
this character (37-47 kg- Dărăban S. 2006).
The standard deviation and variation
coefficient values denote existence of more
increased variability in population for this
feature, but situated in accepted limits.
The whiter height presents differences
statistically very significant between the two
varieties, being of 1.62 cm in favor of
Chubby variety.
The literature presents for this character
values comprised between 60.1 and 66.7 cm
(Dărăban S. 2006).
The variance coefficient values show the
existence of a good homogeneity for this
character.
The croup height by values of the two
studied varieties are situated on breed values,
which after some authors are of 61.5-67.7 cm
(Tafta V., Mochnacs M., Parvulescu S.).
The difference of 1.09 cm in favor for
Chubby variety is statistically significant one.
From Table 1 results a significant
difference (1.92 cm) between trunk length
averages in the two varieties studied in Jucu,
pointing out a greater variability of this
feature in the Chubby variety ovine.
Comparing the obtained data with those
ones from specialty literature comes out a
light inferiority of the sheep bred in Jucu as
concerns the trunk length (66-72 cm, Tafta
V., şi colab.).
As concerns the chest width and croup
width comes out the existence of some
mathematic differences between the two
varieties, but statistically these one are
insignificant. The variance and standard
deviation coefficient indicate a good level of
homogeneity in population for this character.
The average values of thorax depth in the
two Tzigaie varieties are close. The
difference of 0.4 cm statistically insignificant
is in favor of Rusty variety.
The variability is greater, but in normal
limits in Chubby variety.
The literature presents for this feature
values comprised between 27.5 and 31.2 cm
(Tafta V., şi colab.).
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The difference of 4.12 cm existent
between thorax perimeter averages in the two
varieties of study is very significant.
The variation coefficient presents close
and normal values for the followed feature.
Comparative to specialty literature data (80-
88 cm, Tafta V.), there comes out a superiority
of Jucu population for the thorax perimeter.
The tibia perimeter in the two varieties
does not present significant differences.
The body weight average at birth in the
lambs from the two varieties is situated on
the values presented by specialty literature.
In Chubby variety the body weigh average at
birth of lambs is of 3.83 kg, while in the
Rusty variety is of 3.68 kg. The difference of
0.15 kg between the two analyzed categories
is statistically significant.
We ascertain the existence of an
increased variability level for this character,
greater in Rusty variety (15.76%).
From the analysis done on main
conformation and constitution features in the
two varieties of Tzigaie, Chubby and Rusty
ones, we ascertain that in majority of
analyzed situations the Chubby variety
presents superior values given to Rusty one.
The Chubby variety is characterized by
more vigorous constitution as well by more
accented values for height, body weight,
croup height, trunk length and thorax
perimeter given to Rusty variety.
CONCLUSIONS
1. From the realized study comes out that
Chubby variety of Tzigaie breed presents
superior values for conformation features,
with one exception (thorax depth) given to
Rusty variety.
2. The variability remarked for majority
characters followed at Jucu population level
permits organization of the genetic
improvement activity of the force by
selection work intensification.
3. The high potential of this breed and
especially of Chubby variety indicates it as a
good partner in crossing programs, which
regard especially the meat production.
REFERENCES
Books
[1] Dărăban St.,: Tehnologia Creşterii ovinelor.
Editura Risoprint, Cluj-Napoca, 2006.
[2] Pădeanu I.,: Tehnologia creşterii ovinelor şi
caprinelor. Editura Mirton, Timişoara, 2001.
[3] Taftă V., Mochnacs M., Parvulescu S.,:
Tehnologia creşterii şi exploatării ovinelor. Editura
Ceres, Bucureşti, 1973.
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

RESEARCH ON BODY DEVELOPMENT DYNAMIC

OF CARABASH LAMBS IN SUCKLING PERIOD

Cristina Lazăr, Rodica Pelmuş, Elena Ghiţă

National Research Development Institute for Animal Biology and Nutrition, Baloteşti,
e-mail: secretariat@ibna.ro, cristina_lazar17@yahoo.com

Abstract
Our research conducted in the experimental farm of INCDBNA Baloteşti monitored the
evolution of Carabash lambs body weight from lambing to weaning, with the purpose to determine
the performance of this breed to produce milk lambs, compared to other sheep breeds reared in
Romania. The average live weight of the lambs from simple lambing was 5.40 kg for the male lambs
and 5.08 kg for the female lambs. The average live weight of the lambs from twin lambing was 4.88
kg for the male lambs and 4.65 kg for the female lambs. At the age of one month, the male lambs
from simple lambing weighed in average 15.65 kg, while the male lambs from twin lambing weighed
in average 12.33 kg. At the same age, the female lambs from simple lambing weighed in average
14.51 kg, while the female lambs from twin lambing weighed in average 10.94 kg. At weaning (2
months) the male lambs from simple lambing weighed in average 23.15 kg, while the male lambs
from twin lambing weighed in average 18.031 kg. The female lambs from simple lambing weighed
in average 22.32 kg, while the female lambs from twin lambing weighed in average 17.38 kg. The
average daily weight gain was 296 g for the male lambs from simple lambing and 219 g for male
lambs from twin lambing. Prolificacy of Carabash sheep was 152%. The analysed parameters
recommend this breed mainly for meat production, but also for milk production.
Key words: suckling period, body weight, average daily gain, prolificacy

INTRODUCTION context in which the improvement of the

Suckling lambs are produced in all the
countries where sheep are used for milk
production, but in some countries the income
from meat production exceeds the income
from milk production. The body weight of
the suckling lambs is a compromise between
the necessity to deliver the lamb faster so as
to have more delivered milk, and the
necessity to have quality lamb carcass. The
major objective for the Carabash sheep
population is milk production, with suckling
lambs as by-product. The preference of the
Romanian consumers goes to the meat of
suckling lambs appreciated for their
tenderness and pleasant flavour. The
production of suckling lambs has been
neglected due to the drastic decrease of the
sheep stocks. Romania has an important
tradition in this direction which should be
renewed and revalued. EU requirements and
the sheep stock in Romania imposed
negotiations on product quality – sheep meat,
local sheep breeds is necessary. After the
accession of Romania to the EU its share in
the meat production may increase by 10-
15%, while in the milk production by 20%.
Carabash sheep are one of the options to
consider for immediate and medium term
purposes. – C. Drăgănescu (1998). Research
on Carabash sheep was also done by Ghiţă
Elena (2004) on the aptitude of Carabash
lambs for meat production.
MATERIAL ŞI METHODS
Primary data were obtained by successive
weighing of the newborn lambs, at the age of
one month and at weaning (2 months). The
lambs were weighed in the morning to get the
real weight of the animals. We weighed 111
lambs as follows: 16 males from simple
lambing and 41 males from twin lambing; 17
females from simple lambing and 37 females
from twin lambing. The data were processed
statistically determining the mean, variation,

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standard deviation, mean error and variability
coefficient. The lambs were obtained from 73
ewes. Prolificacy was determined as the ratio of
the born lambs and of the ewes which lambed.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Compared to the literature data on the
average daily gains of growing lambs of local
breeds, the performance of Carabash lambs
was higher. The data of Ghiţă et al. (2002) for
Carabash sheep are obtained under the
conditions of an experimental station, they
correspond to the field data, supporting the
possibility to produce suckling lambs carcasses
with proper weight at the age of one month and
at weaning (two months). The female lambs
from single lambing weighed 5.39 kg at
lambing and 23.37 kg at weaning, while the
female lambs from twin lambing weighed 4.77
kg at lambing and 20.24 kg at weaning; the
male lambs from single lambing weighed 5.8
kg at lambing, while the male lambs from twin
lambing weighed 5.31 kg at lambing.
At other sheep farms from Teleorman
County (1998), such as Mavrodin, the lambs
had an average weight of 5.3 kg at lambing
and 22.5 kg at weaning, at Măldăeni, they
weighed 5.7 kg at lambing and 26.0 kg at
weaning, at Mănăstirea, 5.4 kg at lambing
and 19.2 kg at weaning, while the lambs from
Teleorman (1997) simple lambing weighed
5.59 kg at lambing and 18.3 kg at weaning
and those from twin lambing weighed 5.06
kg at lambing.
In 2004, the same author evaluated the
aptitude of Carabash sheep for meat
production, obtaining the following weights:
at lambing, 5.07 kg for males and 5.22 kg for
females; at one months 13.97 kg for males
and 13.32 kg for females; at 2 months 18.62
kg for males and 18.16 kg for females.
Studies have been conducted on other
sheep breeds from Romania monitoring their
body weight and average weight gain. In
Palas Merino, the lambs weighed at lambing
4.12 kg, males, and 3.75 kg females; the
average daily gain for 0-60 days was 214 g.
The lambs of Palas meat line weighed at
lambing 4.65 kg, males and 4.02 kg, females,
with an average daily weight gain of 239 g.
The Tsigai lambs weighed at lambing 3.87
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kg, males and 3.61 kg, females, with an
average daily weight gain of 239 g. The
Tsurcana lambs weighed at lambing 3.44 kg,
males and 3.07 kg, females, with an average
daily weight gain for 0-60 days of 183 g
Pascal C. (2007). The lambs weighing more
at lambing have higher daily gains during
their growth because their consumption
capacity is 3-5 times higher than that of the
poorly developed lambs.
During the first months of life a positive
correlation was noticed between lamb growth
and the milk production of the ewes (r = 0.8),
the data showing an average milk
consumption of 5-6 litres for 1 kg body
weight in the lambs fed exclusively on milk.
The conversion of the milk into weight gain
is directly related to the growth aptitudes of
the lambs and their sex, therefore. Thus, 1 kg
of gain can be achieved with 3.3 – 5 l milk by
the males and with 4.3 – 6.3 l milk by the
females (Folman et al. 1966 cited by Stoica
1997).
The statistical analysis of the data showed
that the average value of the body weight
from lambs of simple lambing was higher
than that of the lambs from twin lambing
throughout the suckling period. During the
suckling period, the body weight o the lambs
is strongly influenced by the nursing capacity
of the ewes. The average live weight of the
male lambs from simple lambing was 5.40 kg
and 5.08 kg for the female lambs. The male
lambs from twin lambing had in average 4.88
kg at lambing and the females 4.65 kg. At the
age of one month, the male lambs from
simple lambing weighed in average 15.56 kg
and those from twin lambing weighed in
average 12.33 kg. At the same age, the
female lambs from simple lambing weighed
in average 14.51 kg and those from twin
lambing weighed in average 10.94 kg. At
weaning (2 months) the male lambs from
simple lambing weighed in average 23.15 kg
and those from twin lambing weighed in
average 18.031 kg. The female lambs from
simple lambing weighed in average 22.32 kg
and those from twin lambing weighed in
average 17.38 kg. Tables 1 and 2 and Figures
1 and 2 show these values.
 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

Table nr. 1
Body weight evolution of male Carabash lambs during the suckling period
Lamb weight, simple lambing Lamb weight, twin lambing
Age (Kg) (Kg)
X ± sx v% X ± sx v%
Lambing 5.406±0.245 18.141 4.887±0.123 16.227
1 month 15.562±0.623 16.037 12.334±0.393 20.437
2 months (weaning) 23.150±0.748 12.930 18.031±0.457 16.235

The average value of the body weight of the female lambs from simple lambing has been
constantly higher that that of the female lambs from twin lambing.
Table nr. 2
Body weight evolution of female Carabash lambs during the suckling period
Lamb weight, simple lambing Lamb weight, twin lambing
Age (Kg) (Kg)
X ± sx v% X ± sx v%
Lambing 5.082±0.173 14.055 4.655±0.103 13.491
1 month 14.517±0.670 19.053 10.943±1.967 17.97
2 months (weaning) 22.329±0.827 15.288 17.381±0.569 19.92

The weight gain of the male lambs from
simple lambing throughout the suckling period
was 25.96% higher than that of the male lambs
from twin lambing, as shown in Table 3 and
Figure 3. The weight gain of the female lambs
from simple lambing throughout the suckling
period was 26.23% higher than that of the
female lambs from twin lambing, as shown in
Table 4 and Figure 4.
The data show that the average growth
rate was good. The average daily gain of the
makes was higher than that of the females.
The highest average daily weight gain was
obtained by the males from simple lambing,
339 g for the period 0-30 days and 296 g for
the suckling period (0-6- days). The average
daily weight gain of the males from twin
lambing was 248 and 219 g, respectively
(Table 3 and Figure 5).

Table nr. 3
Daily weight gain of Carabash male lambs during the suckling period
Period Weight gain (kg) Average daily gain Weight gain (kg) Average daily gain
(days) Simple lambing (kg) Twin lambing (kg)
Simple lambing Twin lambing
X ± sx v% X ± sx v% X ± sx v% X ± sx v%
0-30 10.156±0.655 25.81 0.339±0.022 25.81 7.446±0.351 30.26 0.248±0.012 30.26
0-60 17.743±0.739 16.67 0.296±0.012 16.67 13.143±0.480 23.412 0.219±0.008 23.412

He average daily weight gain of the
female lambs from simple lambing displayed
the same trend, with higher values than those
of the female lambs from twin lambing, from
lambing to weaning. The average daily gain
during the first month was 315 g in the
female lambs from simple lambing and 210 g
in the female lambs from twin lambing.
Throughout the suckling period (0-60 days)
the average daily gain was 287 g in the
female lambs from simple lambing and 212 g
in the female lambs from twin lambing
(Table 4 and Figure 6).
The calculated prolificacy of the
Carabash sheep was 152%, the higherst
among the sheep breeds in Romania.

Table nr. 4
Daily weight gain of Carabash female lambs during the suckling period
Period Weight gain (kg) Average daily gain Weight gain (kg) Average daily gain
(days) Simple lambing (kg) Twin lambing (kg)
Simple lambing Twin lambing
X ± sx v% X ± sx v% X ± sx v% X ± sx v%
0-30 9.435±0.668 29.21 0.315±0.022 29.21 6.286±0.311 30.13 0.210±0.010 30.13
0-60 17.247±0.927 22.17 0.287±0.015 22.17 12.724±0.552 26.39 0.212±0.009 26.39

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

Body weight of Carabasa male lambs from simple

lambing and twin lambing on suckling period

30

25
Body weight (kg)

20
simple lambing
15
twin lambing
10

0
birth 1 month 2 months

Figure 1

Body weight of Carabasa female lambs from

simple lambing and twin lambing on suckling
period

25
Body weight (kg)

20

15
simple lambing
10 twin lambing

0
birth 1 month 2 months

Figure 2

Daily gain of Carabasa male lambs from simple

lambing and twin lambing on suckling period

20
Body weight (kg)

15

simple lambing
10
twin lambing
5

0
0-30 days 0-60 days
Period (days)

Figure 3

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

Daily gain of Carabasa female lambs from simple

lambing and twin lambing on suckling period

20
Body weight (kg)
15

simple lambing
10
twin lambing
5

0
0-30 days 0-60 days
Period (days)

Figure 4

Average daily gain of Carabasa male lambs from

simple lambing and twin lambing on suckling
period

0.4
Body weight (kg)

0.3
simple lambing
0.2
twin lambing
0.1

0
0-30 days 0-60 days
Period (days)

Figure 5

Average daily gain of Carabasa female lambs from

simple lambing and twin lambing on suckling
period

0.4
Body weight (kg)

0.3
simple lambing
0.2
twin lambing
0.1

0
0-30 days 0-60 days
Period (days)

Figure 6

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
CONCLUSIONS
During the suckling period, the body
weight of the Carabash lambs is strongly
influenced by the nursing capacity of the
ewes and of the lambing weight of the lambs
which has a positive contribution to a clearly
higher weight gain compared to other sheep
breed in Romania.
-The average body weight of the lambs from
simple lambing has been higher than that of
the lambs from twin lambing throughout the
suckling period;
-The average body weight of the male lambs
from simple lambing has been 25.96 %
higher than that of the male lambs from twin
lambing throughout the suckling period;
- The average body weight of the female
lambs from simple lambing has been 26.23
% higher than that of the female lambs from
twin lambing throughout the suckling period;
- The average daily gain during early nursing
(0-30 days) was 12.69 % higher in the male
lambs from simple lambing compared to the
value for the entire suckling period (0-60
days);
- The average daily gain during early nursing
was 11.7 % higher in the male lambs from
twin lambing compared to the value for the
entire suckling period;
- The average daily gain of the female lambs
displayed the same trend, with higher values
for the female lambs from simple lambing
throughout the suckling period. The average
daily gain of the female lambs during early
nursing was 33.33 % higher in the female
lambs from simple lambing than in the
female lambs from twin lambing;
-Throughout the entire suckling period (0-60
days) the average daily gain of the female
lambs from simple lambing was 26/14%
higher than in the female lambs from twin
lambing;
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- The average daily gain of the male lambs
was higher than that of the female lambs.
-The average weight gain was higher during
early nursing period, decreasing in the
second nursing period, both for the male and
for the female lambs;
- The results confirm the remarkable
potential of this breed for the production of
suckling lambs and implicitly for meat
production, due to the clearly higher
prolificacy and due to a good conversion
of the milk production into lamb weigh
gain.
REFERENCES
Journal articles
[1] Drăgănescu C., R. Joiţoiu, (1998), Notă asupra
Ţigăii româneşti cu capul negru. Anale IBNA
XIX: 213-219
[2] Ghiţă Elena, Cureu I., Rebedea Mariana –
Phenotipical characterisation of the productive
traits in Blaack Head Tsigaia Sheep, Lucrările
Ştinţifice Zootehnie Biotehnologii XXXV
Timişoara 203-208
[3] Ghiţă Elena, Cureu I., Rebedea Mariana –
Dinamica dezvoltării corporale şi însuşirile
producţiei de lână la oile Ţigaie cu capul negru de
Teleorman, Sesiunea de Comunicări Ştiinţifice,
Fac. Med. Vet. Spiru Haret, (2002)
[4] Ghiţă Elena, C. Drăgănescu, Mariana Rebedea
(2004) – Cercetări privind aptitudinile pentru
producţia de carne de miel la oile Ţigaie cu capul
negru. Lucrările Simpozionului Ştiinţific al
Programului Agral
Books
[5] Stoica Ioan - Nutriţia şi alimentaţia animalelor
Ed Coral Sanivet Bucureşti, (1997)
[6] Pascal Constantin – Creşterea ovinelor şi
caprinelor, Iaşi, Editura PIM – (2007)
[7] *** Managementul durabil al resurselor
genetice la animalele domestice din România –
raport de ţară, (2003), ISBN 973-0-03426
[8] Vasile N. Taftă – Creşterea şi exploatarea
intensivă a ovinelor, Ed. Ceres, Bucureşti, (1983)
 BACK

Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

COMPARATIVE PRODUCTION PERFORMANCES OF

CERTAIN PIC GENOTYPES IN SWINE COMMERCIAL
FARMING

I. Ladoşi1, M.G. Bereş2, Ileana Bereş2, Daniela Ladoşi3, Paula Muntean1,

C. Lăpuşte1, M. Boc1,
1
Pig Improvement Company (P.I.C.) Romania
e-mail: ioan.ladosi@pic.com
2
Ceregrim – Eurohyb
3
U.S.A.M.V. Cluj Napoca

Abstract
Official statistics referring to the Romanian swine industry performances in 2008 are still far
from the average production figures in the main European countries. This seems to be rather a
paradox considering the large amount on investments made by most of the farms both in technology
and genetic. The present paper is focusing on some production performance of PIC genotypes
during 2008, in several large scale commercial farms. Comparisons are made either between
genotypes in the same farm or as difference to the average Romanian performances reported in
2008. In order to keep maximum objectivity each trait considered was assessed by attaching to it an
estimated economical value.
Key words: pig genotypes, PIC, production results

INTRODUCTION farrowing house and nursery resulted from

Preliminary statistic data available for
2008 [4] reveals that Romania is following
the Global trend in reducing national herd
due to the increased costs of cereals and
protein feed [1], [2]. The main cause of this
decrease is the bankruptcy of those farms
where the cost of production was very high,
from various reasons, one of them being the
genetic level of the breeding stock, combined
with a low health status of the herd. The main
objective of this research work was to
evaluate the production differences of
different PIC pigs’ genotypes and compare
them to the national average performances of
some commercial farms. We gave as well a
financial value estimate of these differences
to underline the need to focus not only on
modern genotypes but also on high quality
management and technologies, these being
instrumental elements to survive on such a
competitive market [3].
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Performances related to reproductive
traits and the percent of mortality in the
monthly reports of the farms we have
studied. Reports were generated by computer
software designed for swine farms
management – Pigtales.
This program, conceived by a specialized
company allows the surveillance of the farm,
linked to reproduction activities and
generating reports and graphs that help the
farmer to have a clear image of the actual
performances versus targeted ones.
The figures on mortality in finishing,
ADG and FCR resulted from own farm
statistics and some further calculations.
The performances were analyzed in 6
farms cumulating 6654 PIC sows –
approximately 6% of the Romanian
commercial herd, bi- or tri-linear hybrids,
data being collected in 2008.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
In the present study we took into
consideration the average number of born
alive and weaned piglets. Also we looked at
the farrowings /sow /year, this parameter
being influenced more by the production

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flow and farm management skills. this trait was not presented by the official
Unfortunately this parameter could not be statistics.
compared to the national average because

Table 1
Reproduction performances in the farms with PIC genetics and average values
Farm Farm Farm Farm Farm Farm
Reproduction results 1 2 3 4 5 6 Average
Farrowing rate (%) 78.99 78.94 81.8 88.8 81.56 85 82.52
Born alive/ sow 10.41 11.40 10.79 11.43 10.43 10.8 10.88
Born alive/ sow/ year 20.74 27.51 24.82 23.59 23.36 25.06 24.18
Weaned / sow 9.24 10.55 10.45 10.64 9.92 9.6 10.07
Weaned/ sow/ year 18.41 25.47 24.04 21.96 22.22 22.27 22.39
Farrows/ /sow /year 1.99 2.41 2.30 2.06 2.24 2.32 2.22

In Table 1 we present reproduction similar. The 7 piglets difference between the

performances of PIC sows in all 6 analysed
farms. If we look at the farrowing rate we
will see significant differences between the
farms but also compared to the average of 82,
5%. It should be noticed that only Farm 4 is
getting closer (88, 8%) to the target of 90%
which would be the optimum farrowing rate
in a good farm. This parameter is influenced
by the management (heat detection and AI).
The nutrition and the environment might
influence however, fecundity as well.
Regarding the born alive/sow/year we can
see there are major differences between
farms despite the fact the genotypes used are
Farm 1 and 2 is mainly due to poor
management of empty days (heat detection,
accurate insemination and timely manner
detection of returns) because the intensity of
sows utilisation in Farm 2 is much higher
then in Farm 1 and also improper farrowing
house technology, feeding and staff skills in
farrowing house.
Same significant differences (7.06)
between the farms can be seen regarding the
number of piglets weaned/sow/year, fact that
suggests major deficiencies of assuring
optimum conditions in the nursery as well.

Graph 1. Farrowing rate in the farms with PIC genetic

90
88
86
84

FR % 82
80
78
76
74
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
FR % and average

Differences in sow efficiency in terms of 1, revealing the fact that there are serious
numbers of farrows/ year, reveals that this deficiencies in farm organization and quality
parameter is 2.41 in Farm 2 vs. 1.99 in Farm control of the work in the Farm 1.

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Table 2
Mortality in farm with PIC genotipes
Farm Farm Farm Farm Farm Farm
Mortality (%) 1 2 3 4 5 6 Average
Pre-weaning mortality % 7.144 6.25 3.51 4.5 6.41 9.6 6.24
Mortality in nursery % 0.915 0.339 2.63 0.606 0.74 1.6 1.14
Mortality in finisher % 0.93 0.547 1.63 0.748 0.77 1.4 1.00
Total mortality % 8.989 7.136 7.77 5.854 7.92 12.6 8.38

Data in table 2 confirm that the
managerial skills and farm environment have
a dramatic influence on the production results
of the analysed farms, considering that
genetic combination in all farms was similar.
This would be the only explanation for the
huge difference of over 100% in total
mortality registered in Farm 4 by comparison
to Farm 6.

Table 3
Comparison between some other parameters related to farms performances in the farms we have
studied vs. national average and their economical value.
RO
Parameters (average) PIC (average) Difference Value RON
Piglets alive/ sow/year 16.90 24.18 7.28 4695.6*
Weaned /sow/year 14.80 22.39 7.59 4895.5*
Total mortality (%) 12.90 8.38 -4.52 23.54**
* additional margin/ pig; ** additional margin/ sow

In Table 3 there are presented essential
parameters for farms profitability that shows
the superiority of PIC genotypes - average
results from farms using PIC genetic - vs. the
national average as it was published at the
end of 2008. As it can be seen the difference
is huge as so the statistical tool were not
further needed. The difference of 7.28 pigs
born alive/ year obtained form PIC sows do
not need further comments. However the
difference of 7.59 for the pigs weaned shows
that in the Romanian farms there are major
challenges related to their capacity to keep
alive the piglets from birth to weaning. Also
the difference in mortality 4.52%, between
the farms with PIC genetics and the national
average shows that the Romanian farms have
a lot to improve and the investments in
genetic, technology and management are
absolutely crucial.
In graph 2 we show the average daily
gain in nursery and finisher in farms with
PIC genetics by comparison to national
average.

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Graph 2. Average Daily Gain in farms with PIC genetics vs. national average daily gain

0.900
0.800
0.700
0.600
0.500
Kg ADG Nursery (kg)
0.400
ADG Finisher (kg)
0.300
0.200
0.100
0.000
National Average in farms Difference
average with PIC
Average Daily gain (kg)

Table 4
Comparison of growing performances of farms with PIC genetic vs. national average and their
economical values
RO
Growing performances (average) PIC (average) Difference Value RON
Average Daily Gain – nursery (kg) 0.380 0.419 0.039 4.97**
Average Daily Gain – finisher (kg) 0.648 0.866 0.218 27.8**
FCR - nursery 2.40 2.01 -0.39 37.5**
FCR – finishing 3.20 2.90 -0.30 28.5**
Weight to slaughter (kg) 100.00 101.34 1.34 3989.5***
Meat */ sow / year (kg) 1465.0 2202.9 737.9
* live weight meat sold ; ** additional margin / pig; *** additional margin / sow

Looking at the numbers Table 4 that b) If we should comment the differences

shows the difference between feeding and
growing efficiency in the farms with PIC
genetic vs. national average we can conclude
the followings:
a) The differences in the nursery are not
very big, this meaning Romanian farmers pay
a better attention to this department, but the
differences in the finisher department are
high at 33.6%. The clear conclusion is that
beside the genetic potential of their animals,
majority of the farms are behind with
technology and nutrition improvements. The
other aspect we can see is that the age to
slaughter (cca. 100 kg) is still over 200 days
in Romania while in majority of EU
countries this value is under 180 days.
in FCR we can see that in farms with PIC
genetics, the FCR is better with 0.3 kg (less
feed consumed for each kg of meat) and this
have a major impact on profitability.
c) The biggest difference between PIC
genetics and national average is coming from
the meat quantity delivered per sow per year.
In 2008 the advantage was at 738 kg of meat
this meaning in this moment an added margin
of 3690 RON/ year/sow. At national level
this difference would mean over 413.000 t of
life meat produced in Romania/ year, and
around 290.000 t of carcass (double of the
quantity delivered to slaughterhouses
between January and September 2008)

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Graph 4. Production results of PIC genetic vs. national average

25.00 Born alive/ sow/year

Weaned/sow /an
20.00
Total mortality (%)
15.00

10.00

5.00

0.00

-5.00
National average PIC genetic Difference

PIC genetic performances compare with Romanian national average

CONCLUSIONS trained to limit or annihilate the differences

Pig industry in Romania is still behind in
terms of results, when related to genetic
potential available in some of the Romanian
farms. This is a major disadvantage for
Romania when compete with farmers from
other European countries.
Comparisons made in this paper also
proofs that there are major deficiencies in
terms of technology and nutrition in all farm
departments.
Last but not least the majority of data
presented shows a lack of skilled workers,
in performance reported by Romanian farms.
REFERENCES
Journal articles
[2] Ladoşi I.: Producţia suină: optimism sau
incertitudine, Revista Ferma, 2009, 19
[3] Ladoşi I: Livestock production – future
challenges and available breeding solutions,
Bulletin USAMV-CN, 65(1-2)/2008 (-) ISSN
1454-2382
Books
[1] ec.europa.eu/eurostat - 2008
[4] www.insse.ro

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 BACK
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

THE REDUCTION OF THE THERMICAL ENERGY

IN THE SWINES SHELTERS

Marcela Sârbu, Ioana Tănăsescu, R. Olar

University of Agricultural Science and Veterinary Medicine Cluj-Napoca

Abstract
In the designing, execution, endowment and exploitation of the farm for the swines growing and
exploitation, it is taked into account first by the technological elements of the production process,
wich impose the geometrical parameters of the structure in ensamble. The technical performance
conditions: strength capacity, stability, ductility, durability, together with the factors wich interfere
in the verification of the satisfaction of the quality requirements, satisfy also the requirements of
hygiene, health, of the animals and of the peoples, and also the environment protection.The
conception of the the swines shelters is made assuring the hygiene of: the air, the water, the
hydrotermical hygiene of the interior environment, shining, ilumination, the accustic protection, the
finishings quality, the proper manures evacuation, once with the exterior environment protection. In
this paper we will analyse the way of assuring of the general and detailing conformation of the
considered space in order to reduce the energetical consumption in the conditions of obtaining of an
admisible minimal thermical confort in the sectors in winter conditions. We present the technical
solutions of the conformations of this structures, to hold the temperature and humidity in the
admited limits for each specie, this means to a level coresponding to the conditions in wich the
health and the productions to not be affected, assuring an acceptable ambiance.
Key words: shelter, thermical confort, energy consumption

INTRODUCTION superstructure and understructure.

The limitation, in the swines shelters, of
the energetical consumption for the space
heating can be realised using a general
conception, designing an optimal volumetric
configuration, refering surfaces and volumes
needed on the animal head, at once time
assuring the building thermical protection
level, the heating and warm water preparing
instalations efficiency, assuring thus the
thermical and physiological confort
conditions.
We design a shelter for swines growing
and exploitation, with a starting effective of
450 sows of the Didactic and Experimental
Station USAMV Cluj-Napoca, placed in the
Cojocna locality, complying the actual rules
at the designing project time.
The building is placed in the Cojocna
village’s exterior having the advantage of the
link with the endowments from the existing
THE MATERIAL AND THE METHOD
The geometrical parameters of the
structure, in his ensemble, and that of the
structural elements have been established
taking into consideration the surfaces on the
animal head, on the sectors, thus: waiting,
reproduction -4 heads, gestation -24 heads,
reproduction reiteration -9 heads, maternity -
8 heads.
Besides this sectors, the building has also
veterinary-sanitary spaces, a laboratory to
prepar the seminal material, a pharmacy and
a cloakroom.
The groundfloor building has the width
12.80m and the length 65.00m (13 bays of 5
meters), beeing divided as in the figure 1.

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

Figure 1. The general view of the designed shelter

Fattaners
Izolator
Sows

12.80
Office

Boars Maternity Creche

Sows
Fattaners

65.00

In the waiting, reproduction and gestation - The area of the plate on ground and the
sectors, have been designed collective docks ceiling:
of 8m2 each, and individual docks for the A1 = A2 = 12.50m · 64.70m = 808.75m2
gestation control. Those two boars have each
a dock of 10m2. - The buiding perimeter:
In the maternity the sows are placed in 15 P = 2 · (12.50m + 64.70m) = 154.40m
individual docks of 2.00x2.40m, in the - The free height:
nursery the piggys are placed in 6 collective H = 2.60m
docks and in the fattening sector the
collective docks has 40 animals each.
- The area of the exterior elements:
windows: 13 · 2 · 4.70m · 0.60m = 73.32m2
The foraging, the water alimentation and
doors: 10 · 1.00m · 2.10m = 21.00m2
the ventilation are automatised, and the
A3 = 73.32m2 + 21.00m2 = 94.32m2
manure disposal is realised in the channels,
with stoppers, provided with a waterproof - The exterior walls area:
insulation. A4 = P · H – A3
The docks coverings, completing the A4 = 154.40m · 2.60m – 94.32m2 = 307.12m2
fenders, are made from concrete. The acces - The building outer cover:
doors and the windows are made from wooden A = 2 · 808.75m2 + 94.32m2 + 307.12m2 =
fir, and some of them will be thermoinsulated. 2018.94m2

THE RESULTS AND THE - The building volume:

DISCUSSIONS V = A1 · H = 808.75m2 · 2.60m = 2102.75m2
In the preliminary design stage is checked b) We calculate the coefficient „G”
the global thermical insulation coefficient „G”. pursuant to table 1, on the base of the R’min
a) We design the geometrical values for buildings designed after 1998:
characteristics of the building:

Table 1.
The values of the resistance specific thermical resistances
no. A R’m
the building element 2 2 γ A·δ / R’min
crt. [m ] [m ·K/W]
1 The plate on ground 808.75 4.50 - 179.72
2 The ceiling 808.75 3.00 0.90 299.54
The exterior windows
3 94.32 0.40 - 235.80
and doors
4 The exterior walls 307.12 1.40 - 219.37
TOTAL 2018.94 934.43

It is considered: a building moderate Pursuant to annex 1 of the code C107-

protected; the high permeability class 2005:
(without sealed elements). n = 1,1 · h-1

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

The global thermical insulation building because the ratio: perimeter/area in

coefficient is: plane and the glassed degree are geometrical
∑Lj ⋅γ j parameters that affect the global thermical
G= + 0.34 · n => G = insulation coefficient.
V
The global thermical insulation level is
0.819 W/m3·K appropiate if we use the corrected specific
It is calculated the ratio between the area thermical resistances „R’mi” used in the civil
and the volume of the building: buildings design.
A 2018.90 -1
The resistance structure of the hall is
= = 0.96 m realised from reinforced concrete columns
V 2101.75
and beams.
As closing vertical elements of the
We check the thermical insulation level
structure can be used masonries
(pursuant to annex 2 of the code C107-2005):
coresponding to european norms, assimilated
GN = 0.89 W/m3·K =>
in Romania (S.R.E.N.).
GN > G (0.89 > 0.819)
We study three constructive variants of
Thereby, the posibility to realise in this exterior walls and the results are presented in
conditions is analysed in the preliminary the tables 2 and 3.
stage of the design, when we can interfere in
the plane and vertical configuration of the

Table 2.
The values of the unidirectional thermical resistance

The unidirectional thermical rezistance

2
[m ·K/W]
variant wall's structure insulated [cm]
not
insulated 5 10 12
-interior plaster
1 -vertical hollows bricks 0.571 1.707 2.840 3.290
-exterior plaster
-interior plaster
2 -BCA 0.889 2.025 3.159 3.609
-exterior plaster
-interior plaster
3 -Porotherm ceramics blocks 1.129 2.265 3.399 3.849
-exterior plaster

Table 3.
The values of the corrected specific thermical resistance
The corrected specific thermical resistance
2
Corection [m ·K/W]
variant
coef. insulated [cm]
not insulated
5 10 12
1 0.650 0.371 1.109 1.846 2.138
2 0.650 0.578 1.316 2.053 2.345
3 0.650 0.734 1.472 2.200 2.500

The corrected specific thermical resistances
of the BCA and Porotherm ceramics blocks
structures, isolated with plystyrene of 5cm
width are closer to the minimal resistance value
recommended by the norms [1,2,3]: Rmin = 1.40
m2·K/W, for civil buildings. We choose this
value because the interior thermical parameters
in the reproduction-gestation-maternity sectors
are closer, as value, to that from the civil
buildings.

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CONCLUSIONS
The improvement of the thermical
protection of the exterior structural and
nonstructural walls can be realised by a
suplimentary thermoinsulating layer on the
structure, for all constructive solutions of them.
The place of this layer is usualy on the
exterior side of the existing walls.
The exterior thermical insulation has the
following advantages:
Figure 2. The walls constructive variants.
- ceramic blocks Porotherm
- thermoinsolation layer
- techno logical protection layer
- M100T layer 3...5cm
- exterior plaster
- ceramic blocks Porotherm
- thermoinsolation layer
- notventilated air layer
- protection plates
- horizontal wood elements
The proposed solution for the structural
exterior walls to the swines shelter is that
with ceramic blocks (Porotherm 25) with a 5
cm extra polystyren insulation, on the
exterior side of the structure, protected by a
thin plaster (5…10mm), reinforced with a
tisue of fiber-glass. The thermoinsulation
layer, from polystyren with dimensions of
1.20m x 0.60m, is fixed on the masonry by
cleaving with a adhesive paste. The cleaving
is realised locally in bands or in points. The
joints will be small, postponed on adjanted
rows. The adhesive must not to reach over
the joints, because can lead subsequently to
cracks in the finishing layer.
The finishing and protection layer is
realised in successive layers. The finishing is
realised with paint in water dispersion. The
dilation joints will be placed in field of
maximum 14.00m2.
Knowing that the solution present small
mechanical strength, especially to dinamic
loads, it must be taked measures to consolidate
the exposed zones, using plasters resistant to
blows, or using tisues resistant to stretch.
To reduce the negative effect of the
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
- realise, in optimal conditions, the correction
of the thermal bridges,
- lead to a favourable structure regarding the
vapour diffusion and thermical stability,
- protect the building structural elements, as
the structure himself by the effects of the
temperature variation.
In the figure 2 we present constructive
variants for walls, used in practice. [1,2]
- ceramic blocks Porotherm
- thermoinsolation layer
- thin protection layer
- exterior plaster
- ceramic blocks Porotherm
- thermoinsolation layer
- wind protection layer
- ventilated air layer
- protection plates
thermical bridges it must be assured the
continuity of the thermoinsulation layer at
windows level, doors level and elevation [5].
It is not recommanded the solution with
BCA walls to the animals shelters because
the interior humidity with values over 80%,
lead to the succesive accumulation of the
vapour mass in the structure.
REFERENCES
Books
[1] *** : Institutul de Proiectare, Cercetare şi
Tehnică de Calcul IPCT SA - Soluţii cadru pentru
reabilitarea termo-higro-energetică a anvelopei
clădirilor de locuit, Ed.Fast-Print, Bucureşti, 2005
[2] *** : IPCT SA – Normativ privind calculul
termotehnic al elementelor de construcţie ale
clădirilor. Ed. Fast-Print, Bucureşti, 2006
[3] *** : IPCT SA – Normativ privind proiectarea
clădirilor de locuinţe NP 057-02. Ed. Fast-Print,
Bucureşti, 2006
[4] *** : Ordinul nr.76 din 15 august 2006 elaborat
de Autoritatea Naţională Sanitar-Veterinară pentru
Siguranţa Alimentelor.
[5] *** : Legea 325 din 2002 – Reabilitarea
termică a fondului construit şi stimularea
economisirii energiei termice.
 BACK
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

THE STUDYS OF GREY STEPPE BREED UNTIL NOW

Şt. Creangă, E.C. Popescu, V. Maciuc

Faculty of Animal Sciences, University of Agricultural Science

and Veterinary Medicine „Ion Ionescu de la Brad” Iasi, Romania
e-mail: creanga62@yahoo.com

Abstract
Research has been conducted in the SCDCB Dancu, Iaşi on 30 Grey Steppe cows to see the milk
production indices per successive lactation, the corporally growth to the adult cows, heritability,
repeatability and, genetic and phenotypic correlations between morph productive main characters.
In the same time we done a bibliographic study on the research made on this race in the past,
and put face to face the grey steppe characters from the past(years 1947-1963) present Grey Steppe
from SCDCB Dancu Iasi.
The primary data was from the OARZ Iasi database and from direct observations done on the
farm. This notes that the duration of total lactation was the same with normal lactation, no more
than 305 days, the quantity of milk was from 1589.64 kg (lactation I) to 2535.43 kg on the fifth
lactation that is the maximum lactation. In studies of past productions the average of milk
production was 1624 kg on the average period of 216.54 lactation days, in the 1947 year in Anton
Paul' farm Ilfov, 2172 kg in the 1959 year, 2310 kg in the 1960 year and 1976 kg in 1963 to GAS
Laza Vaslui, 1244 kg in the 1961 year to G.A.C., May 8 'village Săveni, Fetesti. The corporally
growth has medium value of 122.28 cm for height, and 542.86 kg for weight, with no significant
differences to the Grey Steppe from the past.
Analyzing the coefficient of heritability for main characters we acquired medium value for milk
quantity and fat (h2=0,30÷0,31), which proves a good genetic consolidation of this caws study in the
present.
Key words: Grey Steppe, milk, heritability, correlation

MATERIAL AND METHOD RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The biologic material take in study was
represented by 30 Grey Steppe caws grows in
SCDCB Dancu.
To this caws was followed the milk
production indices, corporally growth
indices, to the adult caws, heritability,
repeatability, and phenotypic correlation.
The primary data was from direct
observation and direct determination on the
farm and from OARZ Iasi data base, after
that it was statistically calculated with a
program made in the bovine growth
technology (SAVC), and the results was
disposed in tables and graphics.
The results of our research were
compared with the result of some Grey
Steppe breed research from the past, to see
the evolution in the last five decades.
Analyzing the obtain results we can see
than the duration of normal lactation is the
same like total lactation, no more than 305
days. The quantity of milk was included
between 1589,64 (I lactation) and 2535,43
Kg in the V lactation, which is the maximum
lactation. The milk quantity decrease starting
with the VI lactation to 1078 Kg, in the VIII
lactation.
In the first lactation was obtain 62,68%
from the maximum lactation, value which
show us the undue of Grey Steppe cattle for
milk production.
The variability of quantitative milk
production was pronounced, the value for
standard deviation was included between
544,10 Kg milk, in the first lactation and
1185,89 Kg in the V lactation, and for
variability coefficients between V%=36,43
and V%=46,77. The pronounce variability to

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

studied caws proves the absence of
amelioration by this basic parameter and the
possibility of genetic amelioration by confined
and multiplication of genotypic values.
Is to mention that was caws that have a
maximum milk production of 4080 Kg per
lactation or 3080Kg.
The observation from the past about Grey
Steppe cattle shows medium milk production
of: 1624Kg in 216,54 days in the year 1947
to the Anton Paul farm, 2172Kg in the year
1959, 2310Kg in 1960 and 1976 Kg in 1963
to the GAS Laza Vaslui, 1244 Kg in the year
1961 to the GAC 8 Mai.

Table1.
The average values and the statistical data of milk production variability on successive lactations to
the Grey Steppe Bred from SCDCB Dancu
Total lactation Normal lactation
Statistical Lactation Lactation Gestation
Specification Milk Fat Fat Milk Fat Fat
parameters length length length
kg % Kg. kg % Kg.
days days days
No 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30

X 259,80 1589,64 4,64 68,94 259,80 1589,64 4,64 68,94 281,89

Lactation ±s x 14,04 112,51 0,09 5,03 11,18 102,82 0,09 4,67 1,07
I
s 74,33 595,35 0,49 26,62 59,19 544,10 0,49 24,74 5,70
V% 28,68 36,69 11,24 39,18 23,74 36,43 11,21 37,48 2,02
Min 90 360 3,40 15,00 90 360 3,40 15,00 269
Max 450 2612 5,30 110,00 305 2612 5,30 107,00 293
No 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27

X 254,26 1699,96 4,65 67,04 254,26 1699,96 4,65 67,04 277,26

±s x
Lactation 14,45 147,15 0,09 5,09 14,45 147,15 0,09 5,09 5,42
II
s 62,29 705,71 0,45 24,42 62,29 705,71 0,45 24,42 25,99
V% 27,25 41,58 9,88 33,43 27,25 41,58 9,88 33,43 9,37
Min 32 198 3,70 10,00 32 198 3,70 10,00 161
Max 369 3565 5,40 111,00 369 3565 5,40 111,00 296
No 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20

X 254,80 2092,80 4,51 93,00 254,80 2092,80 4,51 93,00 284,50

Lactation III ±s x 15,39 215,08 0,12 8,76 15,39 215,08 0,12 8,76 1,35
s 59,61 833,01 0,49 33,95 59,61 833,01 0,49 33,95 5,08
V% 23,39 39,80 10,85 36,50 23,39 39,80 10,85 36,50 1,78
Min 116 434 3,50 22,00 116 434 3,50 22,00 276
Max 345 4080 5,30 144,00 345 4080 5,30 144,00 292
No 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15

X 290,50 2082,10 4,62 91,10 290,50 2082,10 4,62 91,10 278,70

Lactation IV ±s x 22,75 250,46 0,13 9,71 22,75 250,46 0,13 9,71 3,18
s 71,95 792,03 0,41 30,72 71,95 792,03 0,41 30,72 10,06
V% 24,77 38,04 8,94 33,72 24,77 38,04 8,94 33,72 3,61
Min 194 835 4,10 45,00 194 835 4,10 45,00 255
Max 470 3080 5,30 138,00 470 3080 5,30 138,00 292
No 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8

X 285,43 2535,43 4,73 119,92 285,43 2535,43 4,73 119,92 282,00

Lactation ±s x 20,76 448,22 0,21 25,25 20,76 448,22 0,21 25,25 3,20
V
s 54,93 1185,89 0,57 66,82 54,93 1185,89 0,57 66,82 8,48
V% 19,24 46,77 12,06 54,01 19,24 46,77 12,06 54,01 3,00
Min 191 675 3,70 32,00 191 675 3,70 32,00 263
Max 369 4087 5,30 212,00 369 4087 5,30 212,00 287

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

Table 1
No 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5

X 226,75 1411,0 4,95 69,00 226,75 1411,00 4,95 69,00 281,33

Lactation ±s x 21,04 201,67 0,15 9,28 21,04 201,67 0,15 9,28 1,66
VI
S 42,08 403,35 0,31 18,56 42,08 403,35 0,31 18,56 2,88
V% 18,55 28,58 6,28 26,90 18,55 28,58 6,28 26,90 1,01
Min 175 818 4,60 43,00 175 818 4,60 43,00 282
Max 278 1705 5,30 87,00 278 1705 5,30 87,00 287
No 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

X 298 1519,0 4.66 83 298 1519,00 4.66 83 276

Lactation VII ±s x 20,75 270,46 0,13 9,71 20,75 270,46 0,13 9,71 3,18
S 71,95 792,03 0,41 30,72 71,95 792,03 0,41 30,72 10,06
V% 14,77 18,04 3,94 13,72 14,77 18,04 3,94 13,72 3,61
Min 254 835 4,10 45,00 254 835 4,10 45,00 250
Max 350 1980 5,30 138,00 350 1980 5,30 138,00 290
No 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

X 227,77 1078.5 5,28 57,44 227,77 1078.5 5,28 57,44 275

Lactation VIII ±s x 10,75 268,46 0,13 9,71 10,75 268,46 0,13 9,71 3,18
S 71,95 792,03 0,41 30,72 71,95 792,03 0,41 30,72 10,06
V% 9,77 12,04 2,94 10,72 9,77 12,04 2,94 10,72 3,61
Min 194 875 5,19 45,00 194 875 5,19 45,00 254
Max 260 1282 5,30 68,00 260 1282 5,30 68,00 297

Table 2.
The results for same research from the past for milk production to Grey Steppe breed
Statistical Lactation length Milk Fat
Farm / study year No
parameters days kg %

X 216,54 1624 4,62

Ferma „Anton Paul” ±s x 8,30 308,73 0,23

Ilfov 11 s 27,54 93,08 0,07
1947 V% 12,71 19,01 5,12
Min 159 1307 4,2
Max 263 2057 5,1
G.A.S. Laza X 267 2310 4,25
Vaslui 100 Min 170 930
1960 Max 325 3695

Ferma „8 Mai”, Săveni, X 1244 4,05

65 Min 200 664 2,9
raionul Feteşti
Max 360 2280 4,7
G.A.S. Laza X 248 1976 4,2
Vaslui 36 Min 144 955 3
1963 Max 343 3017 5,2

In the table 3 are the medium value and The variability of height is not so
the variability for corporally growth that evidently, the animal group was
show us: homogeneous enough (3,06 and V%=2,51).
The studied caws had a medium height of But the weight had a big variability with s =
122,28 cm and 542, 86 weight, value who 99,38 kg, and V % =18,30.
show us a good corporal massiveness. To this
character are caws that have 770 Kg weight.

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

Table 3.
The statistical parameters of corporally growth to the Grey Steppe Cattle

Wither hight

Brisket hight

Head length
Rump hight

Rump width

Rump width

Rump width
Back hight

Head width
at hip bone
base hight

Horizontal

at hip joint

at ischium

weight -kg
Obliquity

perimeter

perimeter
Pin bone

Thoracic

Thoracic

Thoracic

Thoracic

Corporal
Brisket
Rump
length

length

length

length

length
depth

Total

width

width

Shin
Farm
Specification
/year

UM cm cm cm cm cm cm cm cm cm cm cm cm cm cm cm cm cm cm cm cm cm
No 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30
X 122,28 121,66 125,14 126,00 70,24 51,62 155,10 134,72 191,07 87,21 49,66 48,66 47,00 41,03 49,83 43,76 16,90 21,79 189,00 18,07 542,86
SCDCB
Dancu ± sx 0,57 0,58 0,61 0,58 0,71 0,74 1,90 1,14 4,67 0,97 0,51 0,57 0,64 0,54 0,50 0,42 0,42 0,18 2,18 0,15 18,45
Iaşi / S 3,06 3,14 3,33 3,14 3,87 4,02 10,23 6,16 25,19 5,25 2,79 3,09 3,47 2,93 2,70 2,27 2,27 1,01 11,75 0,82 99,38
present V% 2,51 2,58 2,66 2,49 5,50 7,79 6,59 4,57 13,18 6,02 5,62 6,36 7,39 7,14 5,41 5,20 13,45 4,65 6,22 4,54 18,30
Min 115 116 119 120 63 41 132 121 78 77 44 36 41 35 43 40 13 20 158 17 390
Max 128 129 132 132 79 60 169 148 216 99 59 53 53 47 57 51 22 23 207 20 710
% din talie 100 99,49 102,33 103,41 57,44 42,21 126,84 110,17 156,25 71,31 40,15 40,59 38,43 33,55 40,75 35,78 13,82 17,81 154,56 14,77 -
No 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11
X 132,81 131,09 133,18 132,73 67,46 58,82 - 157,73 - - 49,37 49,81 36,73 38,64 50 44,64 31,09 23,27 179,36 16,64 -
Ferma
„Anton ± sx 0,74 0,58 0,45 0,67 0,5 1,3 - 0,8 - - 0,52 0,58 0,46 0,5 0,82 0,61 0,37 0,38 1,1 0,41 -
Paul”
Ilfov S 2,48 1,39 1,5 2,24 1,67 4,38 - 2,77 - - 1,72 1,92 1,55 1,66 2,73 2,05 1,23 1,29 3,65 1,37 -
1947 V% 1,08 1,46 1,12 1,68 2,4 7,4 - 1,75 - - 3,4 3,85 4,2 4,2 5,46 4,58 3,63 5,42 2,02 8,23 -
Min 128 128 130 130 65 52 - 152 - - 47 47 34 36 45 42 29 21 170 15 -
Max 136 134 136 138 71 66 - 164 - - 53 53 40 42 53 48 33 25 186 19 -
GAC No 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65
„8 Mai”, 129,9 123,1 128,7 126,7 62,3 - 144,4 - - - 52 48,4 36,3 36,2 46,3 40,3 28,2 21,8 174,8 17,18 372
X
Săveni,
Min 120 118 124 120 58 - 133 - - - 48 46 30 30 43 37 23 18 188 16 264
raionul
Max 128 128 136 131 67 - 157 - - - 53 51 41 41 51 48 31 24 152 20 430
Feteşti/
1961 % din talie 100 99,63 103,38 102,2 50,2 - 116,5 - - - 41 39 29,3 29,2 37,3 32,5 22,8 17,1 141,2 14,3 -
No 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36
G.A.S.
Laza X 128 125 130,9 131,3 67,1 61,1 - 153 199,8 - 51,1 46,6 37,5 - 50 40,4 28,2 20,7 174,3 17,7 394
Vaslui Min 115 114 120 122 62 56 - 144 179 - 46 41 32 - 43 37 24 18 153 16 300
1963 Max 138 137 142 142 72 68 - 166 229 - 59 52 42 - 56 51 38 23 188 19 515
% din talie 100 98,2 102,1 102,4 52,3 47,7 - 111,5 155,8 - 39,8 36,3 29,2 - 39 31,5 21,9 16,1 135,9 13,8 -

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

Analyzing the observation from the field medium repeatability R=0,33 – 0,34 and big
and from the bibliography for corporally repeatability for fat percent R=0,73.
growth we can see a positive evolution for
weight with value of: 372 Kg to the GAC 8 Table 4.
2
Mai (year 196), 394 Kg to the GAS Laza The heritability (h ) and the repeatability (CR) for
Vaslui to get to 542 Kg weight in present to main characters to the Grey Steppe breed
the SCDCB Dancu. The same evolution is for Specification h
2
CR
thoracic width, 47 comparing with 36,3 – Gestation length 0,15 0,17
37,5 cm obtained in the past, 189 cm for Normal lactation length 0,27 0,29
thoracic perimeter comparing with 174,3- Milk quantity 0,30 0,33
Percent of fat 0,71 0,73
179,36 cm, 41,03 for brisket width Fat quantity 0,31 0,34
comparing with 36,2 – 38,64 cm obtain in the Whither height 0,37 -
past. Thoracic perimeter 0,33 -
The value for another biometrics measure Corporal weight 0,41 -
had a negative evolution, for example for
height122,28cm comparing with 128 cm For genetics and phenotypic correlations
(Laza 1963), 132cm (Anton Paul 1941). between the different propriety disclosed
Analyzing the heritability for mains different significations (tab. 5).
characters the group of caws take in study From numerous character pairs was
has a medium value for milk and fat quantity, evident the intense and positives genetic and
which proves a good genetic consolidation phenotypic correlations between milk
for the animal group. The same result was for quantity and fat quantity rpg =0,98 – 0,97.
corporally weight and height, the phenotypic The same positive correlations with
selections for this characters being efficient. medium intensity was between quantitative
Is to mention that the fat percent from milk production and the corporally growing
milk had a big hereditary influence (h2=0,71) indices rpg =0,33 – 0,44. The classic
(tab. 4). correlation between quantitatively milk
The repeatability for this characters take production and fat percent was negative
in study proves a good genetic consolidation (-0,21; -0,19). The correlations between
for Grey Steppe breed and the possibility for gestations period and corporaly growing are
amelioration by a phenotypic selection. We small and positive or small and negative.
mark out the milk quantity and fat with

Table 5
The values of phenotypic, genetic and environmental correlations coefficients of Grey Steppe breed

Correlating characters rp±srp rg±srg

Milk quantity and:
Gestation length days 0,18 0,07 0,25 0,04
Lactation length days -0,25 0,03 -0,26 0,05
Fat percent -0,21 0,02 -0,19 0,01
Fat quantity 0,98 0,01 0,97 0,03
Wither hight 0,38 0,06 0,33 0,01
Thoracic perimeter 0,39 0,06 0,32 0,01
Corporal weight -kg 0,44 0,06 0,41 0,01
Gestation length days and:
Lactation length days 0,09 0,08 0,13 0,06
Fat percent 0,07 0,08 0,10 0,07
Fat quantity 0,28 0,07 0,43 0,09
Wither hight -0,11 0,01 -0,13 0,05
Thoracic perimeter -0,10 0,07 -0,30 0,04
Corporal weight -kg -0,08 0,09 -0,11 0,02

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CONCLUSIONS
Analyzing the morphologic and
productizes indices to Grey Steppe caws
from SCDCB Dancu Iasi is obvious the
present genetic value, this one wasn’t
improved comparing with genetic value from
five decades ago, because wasn’t give
attention for the amelioration to this breed,
and was made absorptions crossing with
deferred breeds, after that this cows almost
disappeared.
Following the heritability for principals
characters are evident medium value for milk
and fat quantity (h2=0,3; 0,31) proved a good
genetic consolidations to Grey Steppe breed
and possibility to ameliorate it by phenotypic
selections.
From the interdependence of characters
was obvious the phenotypic and genetic
correlations intense positives between
quantitative milk production and fat quantity
(rpg=0,98; 0,92).The same positives
correlation of medium intensity was between
quantitative milk production and corporally
growing aspects.
The Grey Steppe group from SCDCB
Dancu is a valuable genetic fond who must
be conserved, ameliorated and numeric
developed to avoid the genetic drift and
consanguinity.
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
REFERENCES
Journal articles
[1] Andrei L. 1961 Cercetări asupra producţiei de
lapte a vacilor din rasa Sură de Stepă in raport cu
conditiile de intreţinere la G.A.S. Laza, Vaslui;
Institutul Agronomic „Ion Ionescu de la Brad” Iaşi
1961
[2] Bratu M. 1963 Cercetări asupra exteriorului si
producţiei vacilor din rasa Sura de Stepa din
G.A.S. Laza, Vaslui; Institutul Agronomic „Ion
Ionescu de la Brad” Iaşi
[3] Creangă Şt, Maciuc V., Leonte C. 2008 -
Genetical conservation for Sura de stepa breed
from S.C.D.C.B. Dancu, Iasi count. Lucrări
Ştiinţifice USAMV Iaşi, seria Medicină
Veterinară, vol. 51 (10) ISSN1454-7406
[4] Creangă Şt, Maciuc V. 2008 – „Sura de stepa”
cattle breed in the context of genetic resources
preservation in Romania. Journal Central
European Agriculture. University of Technology
and Sciences in Bydgoszcz, Poland, Abstracts
ISBN 978-83-61314-240
[5] Iordache V. 1961 Cercetări asupra
conformaţiei şi producţiei la taurinele din G.A.C.
„8 Mai” comuna Săveni, Raionul Feteşti.
[6] Romanescu L. 1947 Observaţiuni asupra rasei
Sure de Stepă varietatea moldoveneasca;
Politehnica „GH. ASACHI” Iaşi, Facultatea de
Agronomie
[7] Ujică V., Maciuc V., Crangă Şt., Pîntea M.,
Dănăilă Rodica, Nistor I. 2008 - The genetical
calibre of Sură de stepă breed from S.C.P.C.B.
Dancu, Iaşi. Lucrări ştiinţifice seria zootehnie CD,
vol 51 U.Ş.A.M.V. Iaşi ISSN 1454-7368
 BACK
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

INTRAPOPULATIONAL STRUCTURE OF THE B.N.R.

CATTLE REARED IN THE PRIVATE FARMS FROM THE
NORTH-EASTERN AREA OF ROMANIA

V. Ujică1, Rodica Dănăilă1, V. Maciuc1, I. Nistor2, Şt. Creangă1

1
Faculty of Animal Sciences, University of Agricultural Sciences
and Veterinary Medicine „Ion Ionescu de la Brad” Iasi, Romania
e-mail: rodry_mk@yahoo.com
2
O.A.R.Z. Iaşi

Abstract
The research has been conducted in terms of household and semiintensive operating Black and
White Romanian cows from Moldova region. The primary data came from a database of OARZ:
Iasi, Bacau, Botosani, Suceava, Vaslui and Vrancea, obtained by control of production,
supplemented by direct observations of some personal holdings taken in research.
In the Black and White Romanian cow intrapopulation structure from the specific area 56
genetics groups with more then 10 daughters were indentified. From 56 males used for
reproduction, the bulls with the most numerous daughters were: code. 51,111 with 210 daughters,
code 51,114 with 112 daughters, 51,131 with 110 daughters, 51454 with 101 daughters and 51112
with 95 daughters.
The medium milk production on these genetic structures reveal us some very valuable genetic
families with 6000 kg milk production and over in the first lactation. Similarly, 8 families (14.28%)
achieved in the first lactation 6000 kg milk and 26 families (46.42%) over 5000 kg milk. All these
genetic structures and those presented above show the genetic value of Black and White Romanian
cows from Moldova region.
Key words: cows, Black and White Romanian, intrapopulation structure, genetics groups

MATERIAL AND METHOD The complexity of fallowed facts was

The research has been conducted in terms
of households and semi intensive operating
Black and White Romanian cows from
Moldova area. The cows from this area were
raised and fed in same private farms ho was
differed one by another by food used and
alimentation system, management of
technologic facts, of technical used equipment
and way of products capitalization.
The primary data was come from OARZ
data base: Iasi, Bacau, Botosani, Suceava,
Vaslui and Vrancea obtain by the official
production control, completed with direct
observation from the farms. The data was
processed by specifics method for such
research – average, standard deviation, the
coefficient of variability using the statistical
program for analyzing the variation and co
variation elaborate by Vasile Maciuc in the
year 2002- 2003 to the USAMV Iasi Ro.
imposed using a diversification methodology
and respecting using a diversifications
technology and respecting the methodology
propose by literature.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The study for morph productive character
to Black and White Romanian caws from
Moldavia shows a lactation length by 364,02
days in the first lactation, with limits between
232 and 703 days. The lactation length
decrees to 336,21 days with limits between
247 and 597 days in the sixth lactation. The
variability for total lactation was very
pronounced and the variation coefficient was
V%=20.
Analyzing the period of normal lactation,
the medium value was 299,39 days to the
first lactation and decrease until 292,87 days
to the sixth lactation without significant
differences between lactation.

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The milk production for total lactation
grows in the second and third lactations
(6458,96 kg, 6471,39 kg) more than first
lactation (6014,68 kg) with limits between
2294 and 10520 kg. The same aspect was for
the normal lactation (305 days). In the first
lactation was registered a 5165 kg milk
production, the smallest milk production was
registered in the sixth lactation (4999,65 kg).
The high performance was in the third
lactation 5681,91 kg with limits between
2264 kg and 15664 kg. The variability of
individual milk production is much
emphasized V% > 20. The analyses of
variation to the first normal lactation shows
the existence of some cows with production
between 8000 – 12260 kg (42,44%).
The fat in milk for normal lactation varied
from 4,02% (first lactation) to 4,04% (the third
lactation) with minimum limits to 3,99%
(fourth lactation). The analysis of variation for
protein contents shows that 94,9% from total
cows take in study has fat milk contain
between 3,55% and 5,99%. The quantity of fat
to normal lactation has a maximum to 229,10
kg in the third lactation and minimum value
for this character was registered in the sixth
lactation with 199,18kg.
The protein milk contain for normal
lactation was 3,29 for first and second
lactation, and has a maximum in the third
lactation 3,30% after that decrease in the
fourth, fifth and sixth lactation at 3,26%.
The minimum value registered for protein
milk contain was in the sixth lactation 3,26%.
Studying the variation of protein milk contain we
saw that 95,54 % of caws take in study has a
percent for protein milk contain with limits
between 3,00% and 4,43% with some caws with
a protein milk contain more than average (60%).
The lowest amount of protein in normal
lactation was in sixth lactation (162,68 kg), on
the opposite side, is the amount of protein
obtained in the third lactation, with 187,79 kg.
For BNR population take in study was
analyzed same productive character from first
lactation to genetic groups of half sisters.
Thus was analyzed the length, the milk
quantity, fat quantity, and protein quantity.
In the genetic structure of BNR caws
from this area were identified 56 genetic
groups with more than 10 daughters (paternal
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
half sisters) with average production indices
shows in table 1.
Of the 56 breeding males, bulls with most
daughters were code 51111 with 210
daughters, code 51114 with 112 daughters,
51131daughters 110, 51454 with 101
daughters code 51112 and 95 daughters.
Analyzing the average milk production
on these genetic structure is established the
existence of genetics families very valuable
with performance of 6000 kg milk and over
for the first lactation.
Eight families (14.28%) achieved in the
first lactation 6000 kg milk and 26 families
(46.42%) over 5000 kg milk, Of the 56
genetics families.
In that population was a family from a bull
cod 50856 ho has 15 daughters with a average
to 7170.13kg milk for the first lactation and
another genetic family (cod 99999) with 13
daughters with 9761.77 kg average milk
production. The genetic potential to this BNR
breed from the farms take in study was showed
by the variability amplitude of milk production,
between 2218 kg and 12260 kg milk. It notes in
particular the farm Self Help Iţcani - Suceava,
and other farms from Iasi, Vaslui and Vrancea.
From the genetic family table with more than
10 cows, 36 families (64.28%) have the average
of milk production less than the average of
population (5083.10 Kg milk).
In the same time was 4 families (7.14%)
with a milk production average less than
4000 kg. However, it is notable for superior
performance productive genetic families
from import bulls and their beneficial
influence on improving the productive
performance of the population studied. The
families cod 51111 constructed from210
cows with a average milk production by
5276.62 kg, family cod 51454 constructed by
101 cows with average milk production by
6860.58kg,family cod 51131 constructed
from 110 cows with 5470.05 average milk
production and family cod 50876 with 89
paternal half-sisters and 5083.10 kg average
milk production were pointed out.
All this genetic structure shows the BNR
genetic value and the need of carefully
selection with detainment and multiplication
of valuable genotypes, and removed from
reproduction the cows with small production.
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

Table 1a
Medium value for milk production indices for genetic groups to studied caws from Moldavian area

Genetic Normal lactation, days Milk, kg Fat, kg Protein, kg

groups n X Min Max n X Min Max n X Min Max n X Min Max
13470 44 295,91 255 305 44 4044,61 2365 10192 44 161,11 88,09 452,30 36 137,93 74,83 367,40
14467 20 298,75 263 305 20 3476,85 2362 5392 20 141,24 93,00 208,46 19 111,32 75,85 157,16
14533 18 301,17 268 305 18 5286,00 3636 8213 18 206,43 141,60 326,60 10 188,84 117,70 157,16
15290 56 297,09 262 305 56 4469,82 2471 7838 56 183,96 91,00 310,40 56 148,56 82,00 263,40
16066 20 300,25 260 305 20 4446,85 2950 5733 20 173,87 109,00 229,69 16 149,91 101,83 206,38
16200 35 297,40 245 305 35 4566,57 2874 6124 35 182,03 123,54 256,00 32 152,11 89,00 256,00
17864 14 302,93 288 305 14 3983,36 2717 5484 14 160,86 114,00 220,00 14 130,86 89,00 183,00
18059 43 303,21 284 305 43 4451,53 2773 7318 43 170,75 112,00 244,00 42 129,43 90,00 171,00
18070 38 299,34 261 305 38 4852,32 2982 6457 38 201,83 116,00 261,00 38 157,23 101,00 213,50
18277 56 300,21 267 305 56 4609,61 2534 6290 56 179,85 107,00 244,00 49 149,14 80,00 203,00
18575 21 298,52 254 305 21 4308,10 2918 6683 21 165,93 117,00 237,60 18 134,43 97,00 184,50
18584 43 296,86 255 305 43 4642,16 2226 8798 43 179,65 88,40 343,40 32 132,42 73,10 214,50
18812 21 292,76 257 305 21 4131,19 2320 6650 21 162,70 90,80 268,50 13 132,85 80,80 208,80
18830 20 295,40 266 305 20 6007,85 3592 7671 20 230,43 143,70 318,00 20 196,40 122,70 272,60
18988 37 298,05 248 305 37 4210,35 3031 5293 37 170,62 124,90 217,00 37 138,00 103,60 175,00
19185 24 302,83 266 305 24 4518,83 3203 6007 24 181,75 117,70 270,40 24 148,84 104,70 202,70
19201 40 298,48 268 305 40 5502,10 2661 9756 40 215,15 101,40 396,90 38 174,69 81,70 343,00
19204 29 293,83 248 305 29 5912,90 2762 11615 29 236,37 92,80 472,30 28 208,29 89,20 394,20
19207 49 294,31 254 305 49 4210,53 2836 5373 49 164,59 114,30 313,70 48 144,77 97,60 198,30
19444 57 300,32 267 305 57 4884,61 2874 6817 57 206,84 125,00 304,00 57 159,60 89,00 214,00
19450 13 302,92 285 305 13 4794,77 2874 5968 13 204,54 128,00 267,00 13 158,04 89,00 209,00
19654 17 285,82 245 305 17 3574,82 2295 5802 17 141,89 85,70 228,00 17 118,06 71,50 188,60
19801 22 298,95 256 305 22 5913,84 2984 8729 22 227,16 109,20 324,60 11 236,96 184,50 289,20
19874 19 286,58 248 305 19 4370,84 2604 7528 19 171,05 102,50 293,90 11 137,45 89,10 146,50
50856 15 295,67 249 305 15 7170,13 3087 9881 15 286,71 123,00 406,30 13 255,91 101,00 345,70
50876 22 303,41 288 305 22 4904,05 2547 6559 22 200,23 100,00 279,00 22 159,38 124,00 216,00
50877 24 302,50 288 305 24 5545,21 3924 6847 24 225,29 159,00 271,00 24 180,38 124,00 216,00

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

Table 1b

Genetic Normal lactation, days Milk, kg Fat, kg Protein, kg

groups n X Min Max n X Min Max n X Min Max n X Min Max
50878 89 301,27 259 305 89 5083,10 2773 7318 89 202,29 109,00 311,00 87 162,56 89,00 239,00
50880 22 296,73 260 305 22 5313,27 2486 6464 22 225,53 141,00 282,00 22 170,38 98,30 210,00
50881 27 295,85 263 305 27 5054,96 2953 6318 27 209,67 128,00 263,00 27 162,22 85,00 201,00
50882 16 302,75 285 305 16 5462,50 4371 6375 16 226,50 181,00 263,00 16 178,56 136,00 203,00
50884 13 298,38 256 305 13 5110,85 3314 9881 13 205,24 138,00 406,30 13 165,92 108,00 345,70
50892 29 301,86 261 305 29 4458,21 2797 5779 29 175,93 113,01 244,00 29 144,21 86,83 190,00
51028 13 299,08 271 305 13 6986,08 4706 8462 13 272,58 189,50 325,10 12 234,65 178,90 267,00
51030 49 296,92 250 305 49 6117,53 2975 10192 49 238,83 117,90 396,70 38 219,27 122,70 367,40
51036 13 299,46 249 305 13 6303,92 4060 9149 13 256,25 165,30 396,70 13 208,72 136,30 310,90
51075 20 295,50 274 305 20 3288,90 3335 11615 20 251,30 139,40 472,30 17 223,09 110,10 394,20
51096 14 304,00 298 305 14 5145,71 3333 7446 14 211,40 117,70 305,40 14 174,77 104,70 245,20
51111 210 303,87 266 305 210 5276,62 2716 8101 210 219,65 107,20 346,70 205 170,02 82,80 243,20
51112 95 303,35 244 305 95 4970,14 3118 8101 95 208,63 117,70 335,60 92 161,99 94,00 266,60
51114 112 300,08 232 305 112 4855,62 2612 8101 112 202,33 117,00 326,00 109 158,61 90,70 222,00
51122 85 300,28 264 305 85 5038,51 2947 7104 85 204,99 112,00 297,70 83 162,72 94,00 241,80
51129 88 302,09 261 305 88 5110,20 2990 8371 88 203,85 111,00 396,70 83 165,64 103,70 310,90
51131 110 294,44 243 305 110 5470,05 2218 9756 110 216,50 82,90 396,90 99 186,10 70,30 343,00
51167 82 293,28 263 305 82 5838,13 3344 8729 82 227,88 126,60 396,70 73 196,58 108,10 310,90
51168 39 290,85 254 305 39 6142,54 3649 8371 39 243,04 140,30 396,70 37 205,01 122,70 310,90
51194 53 297,96 266 305 53 5698,60 2756 8371 53 222,23 86,00 396,70 39 196,10 79,90 310,90
51245 19 294,53 252 305 19 4345,58 3014 5950 19 172,26 119,00 228,00 17 147,18 104,00 197,70
51246 54 296,50 257 305 54 4339,44 2835 6542 54 169,93 111,60 297,70 31 149,89 90,50 219,10
51360 30 303,37 266 305 30 4620,77 3118 6117 30 191,40 117,70 270,40 30 154,12 94,00 208,40
51453 42 300,10 257 305 42 6878,60 3350 9040 42 266,40 132,70 396,70 42 222,76 108,10 310,90
51454 101 299,72 261 305 101 6860,58 3592 9671 101 269,86 143,70 391,30 101 223,44 122,70 311,70
51455 38 304,37 298 305 38 4634,03 3118 6891 38 186,23 115,10 279,50 38 152,27 94,00 222,00
51459 16 304,44 296 305 16 4734,06 3203 5952 16 196,05 125,30 262,10 16 161,33 114,70 202,70
51470 83 301,84 257 305 83 4960,73 3118 7104 83 204,23 117,70 297,70 81 160,46 94,00 222,00
99999 13 302,69 275 305 13 9761,77 8545 12260 13 329,58 256,00 390,00 12 284,08 240,00 363,00
Population
3249 299,39 232 305 3249 5165,60 2218 12260 3249 206,97 79,00 472,30 2977 170,53 63,35 394,20
average

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
CONCLUSIONS
Following the study we can conclude the
following:
In the first normal lactation was 5165,60
kg milk production and the smallest was
4999,65 kg in the sixth lactation. The most
good milk production was in the third
lactation with limits between 2264 kg and
15664 kg. The individual milk production
variability is very emphasized V=20%. The
analyses of variation to the first normal
lactation shows the existence of some cows
with production between 8000 – 12260 kg
(42,44%).
Of the 56 breeding males, bulls with most
daughters were code 51111 with 210
daughters, code 51114 with 112 daughters,
51131daughters 110, 51454 with 101
daughters code 51112 and 95 daughters.
Eight families (14.28%) achieved in the
first lactation 6000 kg milk and 26 families
(46.42%) over 5000 kg milk, Of the 56
genetics families.
In that population was a family from a
bull cod 50856 ho has 15 daughters with a
average to 7170.13kg milk for the first
lactation and another genetic family (cod
99999) with 13 daughters with 9761.77 kg
average milk production. The genetic
potential to this BNR breed from the farms
take in study was showed by the variability
- 336 -
amplitude of milk production, between 2218
kg and 12260 kg milk.
Distinguish the high productive
performance for genetic families from
imported bulls and influence of this bulls to
the amelioration of productive performances.
REFERENCES
Journal articles
[6] Ujică V., Nistor I., Pantazi D., Gavrilaş
Angela,: Valoarea genetică şi managementul
creşterii taurinelor de rasa Brună în exploataţiile
private (familiale) din Moldova, Simpozion
stiinţific în zootehnie, Editia a 10-a, Universitatea
Agronomică şi de Medicină Veterinară “Ion
Ionescu de la Brad”, Iaşi, 1999.
Books
[1] Dănăilă Rodica,: Contribuţii la studiul
producţiei de lapte a vacilor exploatate în unele
ferme private din zona de Est a ţării. Teză de
doctorat. Facultatea de Zootehnie, U.S.A.M.V.
Iaşi, 2009.
[2] Maciuc V., Ujică V., Nistor I.,: Ghid practic de
ameliorare genetică a bovinelor pentru lapte,
Editura Alfa, Iaşi, 2003.
[3] Maciuc V.,: Managementul creşterii bovinelor.
Edit. Alfa, Iaşi, 2006.
[4] Ujică V., Maciuc V., Nistor, I.,: Managementul
creşterii vacilor de lapte. Edit. Alfa, Iaşi, 2007.
[5] Ujică V., Maciuc V.,: The genetic evaluation of
exterior character in Romanian cattel population
Black and white (BNR), Interbull meeting,
Uppsala, Sweden, 2000.
.
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

RESEARCHES CONCERNING THE COMPARISON OF

MILK YIELD BETWEEN CATTLE OF SCHWYZ BREED
IMPORTED FROM SWITZERLAND AND BRUNA OF
MARAMURES BREED

I. Gîlcă, Valerica Macovei, M. Doliş, Luminiţa Doliş, D. Robu

Faculty of Animal Sciences, University of Agricultural Science and Veterinary Medicine

„Ion Ionescu de la Brad” Iasi, Romania
e-mail: igilca@univagro-iasi.ro

Abstract
The main aim of this study was to compare the milk performance realized by cattle of Schwyz
breed imported from Switzerland and the indigenous breed Bruna of Maramures. The analysis was
performed into a farm at the first and second lactations. The imported dairy cattle (Schwyz breed)
were compared with contemporaries indigenous breed (Bruna of Maramures) calved in the same
period. Both breeds were kept in the same conditions and with the same feeding. The first lactation
records were analyzed according to the following linear model: Yij =µ + Hi + Cj + eij. The second
lactation records were analyzed according to the following linear model: Yijk =µ + Hi + Cj + Jk +
eijk. The difference in milk production between Schwyz and Bruna of Maramures breeds, at first and
second lactations, were not statistically significant. The Schwyz breed cattle achieved higher fat,
protein and lactose percentage at the first lactation (4.25% and 3.94%, 3.42% and 3.20%,
respectively 4.67% and 4.49%) and at the second lactation (4.29% and 4.02%, 3.42% and 3.21%,
respectively 4.59% and 4.43%). These differences were statistically highly significant (P<0.01).
Key words: milk yield, cattle breed, Schwyz, Bruna of Maramures

INTRODUCTION where:
The import of Schwyz breed in Romania Yij: a milk yield observation
has developed after 1990, the pregnant µ: an overall mean
heifers being imported from Switzerland. The Hi: a herd effect
subject of this work was to compare the milk Cj: a cow effect
yield traits of imported animals of Schwyz eij: a residual error effect, which contains
breed with the Romanian breed – Bruna of effects of factors that we have not
Maramures. considered in the model
Second lactations were evaluated according
MATERIAL AND METHODS to the following model:
The analysis was performed into a private Yijk =µ + Hi + Cj + Jk + eijk
farm in which the imported dairy cows of where:
Schwyz breed were compared with Yijk: a milk yield observation
contemporaries of Bruna of Maramures breed µ: an overall mean
calved in the same period. Both breeds were Hi: a herd effect
kept in the same condition with the same Cj: a cow effect
feeding. Linear models with fixed effects and Jk: a year of calving effect (the
the least square means method were used for environment is always different each
the statistical analysis of milk yield traits data year)
records. First lactation records were analysed eijk: a residual error effect
according to the following model:
Yij = µ + Hi + Cj + eij

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

RESULTS Higher content of proteins in milk was

The comparison with first-calf cows of
the Schwyz and Bruna of Maramures breeds
is given in table 1. Statistically significant
differences (P<0.01) were found only with
the content and production of fat, lactose
content and weight of dairy cows which were
better in the imported breed.
noticed in the Schwyz, however the
difference was not statistically significant.
We noticed a marked increase in yield in the
second lactation (table 2) compared with the
first lactation in both breeds. The Schwyz
dairy cows produced more milk compared
with the Bruna, however the difference was
not statistically significant.

Table 1
Least square means estimation and standard errors for milk yield traits according to breeds – 1 st
lactation (comparison Schwyz and Bruna of Maramures)

Breed Schwyz (n=16) Bruna (n=16)

F value
Trait X ± sx X ± sx
Milk (kg) 3419.61±87.00 3246.09±152.94 1.14-
Fat (g/100g) 4.52±0.06 3.99±0.10 21.36++
Fat (kg) 154.09±3.98 130.47±6.99 10.13++
Protein (g/100g) 3.33±0.04 3.26±0.02 2.70-
Protein (kg) 110.75±2.63 107.81±4.62 0.36-
Lactose (g/100g) 4.74±0.02 4.62±0.04 7.26++
Lactose (kg) 162.33±4.40 150.26±7.73 2.16-
Live weight (kg) 538.89±1.63 517.87±2.87 43.2++
+P<0.05; ++P<0.01

Table 2
Least square means estimation and standard errors for milk yield traits according
to breeds – 2 nd lactation (comparison Schwyz and Bruna of Maramures)

Breed Schwyz (n=14) Bruna (n=14)

F value
Trait X ± sx X ± sx
Milk (kg) 5094.36±239.16 4679.85±127.7 2.74-
Fat (g/100g) 4.16±0.15 4.05±0.01 0.71-
Fat (kg) 211.90±11.81 189.50±6.31 0.89-
Protein (g/100g) 3.40±0.06 3.36±0.0 0.37-
Protein (kg) 172.33±7.85 156.96±4.19 3.49-
Lactose (g/100g) 4.82±0.04 4.99±0.0 13.45++
Lactose (kg) 246.77±12.12 233.21±6.48 1.14-
Live weight (kg) 564.58±1.7 532.22±3.29 17.35++
+P<0.05; ++P<0.01

DISCUSSION of Maramures breed, but these differences, at

The imported animals of Schwyz breed
achieved lower milk production in the
production conditions in Romania than in
Switzerland. The content of proteins in milk
was also lower. On the contrary, the content
of fat in milk of imported animals was higher
than in the Swiss population.
The cattle of Schwyz breed achieved
higher milk production then cattle of Bruna
first and second lactations, were not
statistically significant. The cattle of Schwyz
breed achieved higher fat and lactose
percentage at the first lactation, respectively
only lactose percentage at the second
lactation. These differences were statistically
highly significant (P<0.01). Also, the live
weight at both lactations indicates differences
highly significant for the Schwyz breed.

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The high content of lactose in milk of
Schwyz breed cows can be evaluated
positively, and it can be related to the better
shape of udder compared with the Romanian
breed. The milk yield achieved in the
generation born and raised in the production
conditions of Romania could be important for
further spread of the Schwyz breed in our
country.
REFERENCES
Journal articles
[1] GILCA I., V. UJICA V., CREANGA ST.,
GROEN A., VOS H.:Breeding value estimation of
sires using the modern methods. Univ. Agr. Ia[i.
Lucr. [tiin]ifice, Seria Zootehnie, vol.37,38, p. 90
(1993)
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
[2] GILCA I., UJICA V, VACARU-OPRIS I,
CREANGA ST. Inheritance of somatic cell count
and its genetic relationship with milk yield and
lactose in different parities. Book of the 47th
Annual Meeting of the European Association for
Animal Production, Lillehamer, Norway, p. 61
(1996)
[3] HERMAS, A.S.; YOUNG, C.W.; RUST, J.W.:
Genetic relationship and additive genetic variation
of production and reproductive traits in Guernsey
dairy cattle. J. Dairy Sci., Champaign, 111. 70
(1987)
Books
[4] KREILINGER, J.; ZIERER, E.: Leistungs- und
Qualitatsprüfung in der Rinderzucht in Bayeen
1994. Landeskuratorium de Erzeugerringe fur
tierische Veredelung in Bayern e.V., (1994)
[5] SCHAEFFER L.R., KENNEDY BW. Linear
models and computing strategies in Animal
Breeding. University of Guelph, Ontario (1996)
 BACK
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

INFLUENCE OF THE CALVING SEASON ON THE MILK

YIELD GIVEN BY A FRIESIAN POPULATION, IMPORTED
FROM THE NETHERLANDS

V. Maciuc

Faculty of Animal Sciences, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine

„Ion Ionescu de la Brad” Iasi, Romania
e-mail: vmaciuc@yahoo.fr

Abstract
The individual milk production at cows is influenced by several factors, which taken by their
nature, may be genetic factors and environmental factors. The calving season has an influence on
the milk production per lactation, through ratio structure and nutrition level and by climatic factors,
as well. In this study the research was focused on the influence of the specified factor on the milk
production in Frisian cows from Netherlands exploited in the eastern parts of Romania. The
ascendance of cows was valuable, including mothers who had an average production of 7,923.4 kg
milk, 4.23% fat and 287.97 kilograms pure fat. Paternal grandmother have achieved more superior
yields then maternal mothers with average values of 8960.29 kg milk, 4.37% fat and 371.25
kilograms pure fat. The best milk production from the descendants was registered during winter
season, 7,798.51 ± 204.07 kg of milk per total lactation and 7,379.31 ± 132.79 Kg of milk per
normal lactation, the differences between seasons being statistically significant p> 0.05.
Key words: Frisian, cows, milk production, calving season, influenced

MATERIAL AND METHODS deviation, variability coefficient, Fisher and

The research was done on 340 Dutch
Frisian cows, exploited at Badeana Pharm,
Vaslui county. Due to the valuable
production features and a markedly capacity
of adaptation this breed spread all over the
world and in Romania and Moldova area.
More aspects were analyzed on this
population: ascendance value, productive
performances during the exploitation, the
reproduction main coefficients, body
development and the influence of calving
season on the milk production. The primary
date was taken from the files of The Bureau
of Improving and Reproduction in Animal
Husbandry in Vaslui (O.A.R.Z.). Once
systemized, the data were processed and
interpreted through specific methods
(arithmetic mean, average error, standard
Tukey tests, and others ) using the statistics
program, the analysis of variation and co-
variation (S.A.V.C.) proposed by V. Maciuc
in 2002-2003 at U.S.A.M.V. Iasi Ro.
RESULTS AND DISCUSIONS
The research on Frisian population from
Badeana Farm, Vaslui county shows an
valuable ascendance (Table 1) with mothers
who had an average production of 7,923.4 kg
milk, 4.23 % fat and 287.97 kg pure fat.
Paternal grand-mothers (MT) had better
production than the mothers (MM) having
average values of 8,960.29 kg milk, 4.37 % fat
and 371.25 kg pure fat, and variability of milk
quantity between 7,568 kg and 10,231 kg milk.

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

Table 1
Average value and estimation of variability of production features at Frisian breed population
ascension, Bădeana Farm, Vaslui County

Specification U.M. X ±s x s V% Minimum Maximum

Milk-MT Kg 8,960.29 36.541 539.214 7.134 7,568 10,231
Fat-MT % 4.37 0.01 0.172 3.549 4.44 5.1

Fat-MT Kg 371.25 2.213 38.711 9.427 303 418

Protein -MT Kg 290.7 1.046 18.297 6.294 265 324

Milk-MM Kg 7,923.4 40.537 609.1 8.949 7,103 9,233
Fat-MM % 4.23 0.01 0.183 4.127 4.1 4.93

Fat-MM Kg 287.97 1.554 27.186 9.44 235 381

Protein-MM Kg 251.52 0.699 12.234 4.864 230 286

The descendent has an average 7430.22 kg milk, with variability between

production of 7,178.49 kg milk in Ist normal
lactation which grows in relation with
lactation succession, getting in IV normal
lactation with 7330.62 kg milk. Per total
lactation, the average IVth lactation was
5718 kg and 9880 kg milk. These levels of
production reflect a remarkable genetic
potential for the population in study. The fat
content in milk per the studied lactation was
between 4.45% and 4.57%.

7379.31

7400 7298.34

7300
7185.78

7200

7100 6995.24

7000

6900

6800
Spring Sum m er Fall Winter
Figure 1 Milk production reprezentation depending on calving season

The results about the reproduction
coefficients per the four lactations in our
study show an age of 28.53±0.27 for the first
calving, thus a good precocity of the
imported population, the time in between
calving with values between 360.52 and
388.40 days and the period of relaxation
between 60.39 and 64.63 days. The main
body dimensions show a good development
for the primary cows, the body wait was
636.90 kg and the waist 134.53 cm .
Analyzing the descendent production
level based on calving season factor (Table
2), there has been noticed important statistic

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 Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

differences at Ist normal lactation for p >
0.05 (Figure 1). During winter 7,379.31 Kg
and in fall 7,298.34 Kg (the biggest milk
production). The least production were
recorded during spring and summer
(7,185.78 respectively 6,995.24 Kg milk).
The difference are significant between the
quantity of milk in winter and that in summer
(Table 3) respectively 384.07 for F ≥ 0.05
and p ≥ 0.05. The differences are significant
statistically of 18.37 kg F≥ 0.05 and p ≥ 0.05
between winter and summer season because
the quantity of milk is positively and strongly
correlated with the quantity of fat (Table 4
and Figure 2 ).

Table 2
Average values and estimations of variability of production features at I normal lactation depending on
calving season

Season Specification
U.M. X ±s x s V% Minimum Maximum
Duration of
normal zile 305 0.00 0.00 0.00 305 305
lactation
Milk Kg 7,185.78 106.754 605.835 12.606 4,850 8,991
Spring
Fat % 4.58 0.022 0.189 4.138 4.16 5.12
Fat Kg 321.72 4.925 41.789 12.989 213 406
Protein % 3.48 0.013 0.107 3.065 3.23 3.71
Protein Kg 242.63 3.312 28.1 11.582 164 307
Duration of
normal zile 305 0.00 0.00 0.00 305 305
lactation
Milk Kg 6,995.24 95.19 687.875 12.693 4,168 8,880
Summer
Fat % 4.58 0.018 0.164 3.577 4.16 5.05
Fat Kg 317.38 4.275 39.877 12.565 189 396
Protein % 3.46 0.012 0.109 3.14 3.2 3.77
Protein Kg 241.06 3.68 34.328 14.24 144 353
Duration of
normal zile 305 0.00 0.00 0.00 305 305
lactation
Milk Kg 7,298.34 107.775 708.125 12.491 5295 9,310
Fall
Fat % 4.59 0.019 0.161 3.505 4.2 5.02
Fat Kg 334.96 4.919 41.45 12.574 237 424
Protein % 3.44 0.015 0.128 3.713 3.21 3.74
Protein Kg 243.38 3.525 29.705 12.295 173 318
Duration of
normal zile 305 0.00 0.00 0.00 305 305
lactation
Milk Kg 7,379.31 132.799 1,095.092 14.982 5,162 9,845
Winter
Fat % 4.55 0.026 0.211 4.633 4.16 5.18
Fat Kg 335.75 5.421 44.704 14.208 235 430
Protein % 3.4 0.023 0.19 5.598 3.13 4.46
Protein Kg 235.31 4.478 36.924 15.692 177 328

Notice the differences of 303.1 kg in milk
quantity and fat 17.58 kg between the cows
who calved in fall and those in summer.
Although the differences are not statistically
significant they get close to F ≥ 0.05, p ≥
0.05 and are relevant for the calving season
factor. Hence, we conclude that the calving
season influences the milk production on
lactation, on feed structure, level of forage as
well as climatic factors.
There were no major statistic differences
concerning features such as fat% (Figure 3),
protein%, and protein kg in the four seasons.

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

340 334.96 335.75

335

330
321.72
325
317.38
320

315

310

305
Spring Sum m er Fall Winter
Figure 2 Fat quantity diagrame depending on calving season

4.59 4.59
4.58 4.58
4.58

4.57

4.56
4.55
4.55

4.54

4.53
Spring Sum m er Fall Winter
Figure 3 Fat percentage evolution depending on calving season

Table 3
The significance of milk quantity variation based on the season
Fisher Test: 2,8394 (F) > F 0,05 (3;294) 2,60 * significant F≥ 0,05; F ≥ 0,01; F ≥ 0,001
Tukey Test: p ≥ 0,05 ; p ≥ 0,01
Average
Feature 1 Feature 2 Q1 Q2 W1 W2 Significance Borderline
diff.
Milk-spring Milk-summer 190.54 insignificant
Milk-spring Milk-fall 112.56 insignificant
Milk-spring Milk-winter 193.53 insignificant
Milk-winter Milk-summer 384.07 significant 0.05
Milk-winter Milk-fall 80.97 insignificant
Milk-fall Milk-summer 303.1 3.63 4.4 314.05 483.97 insignificant

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
Table 4
Significance of fat quantity variation based on calving season
Fisher Test: 2.6587 (F) < F 0.05 ( 3 ; 294 ) 2.60 * significant F≥ 0.05; F ≥ 0.01; F ≥ 0.001
Tukey Test: p ≥ 0,05 ; p ≥ 0,01
Average
Feature 1 Feature 2 Q1
diff.
Milk-spring Milk-summer 4.34
Milk-spring Milk-fall 13.24
Milk-spring Milk-winter 14.03
Milk-winter Milk-summer 18.37
Milk-winter Milk-fall 0.79
Milk-fall Milk-summer 17.58 3.63 4.4
In USA in Middle West, Holstein cows
who calved in December produced an
additional 600 kg milk per lactation,
compared to those who calved in July-August
[2, 3], and in Nederland in the primary cows’
case, the difference of production based on
calving season, fall-spring, was 450 kg. The
research made on Romanian Baltata breed, in
western Romania, [4, 5], showed that the
cows that calved in summer season produced
in average with 463 kg less than normal
lactation, comparing to those who calved in
other seasons.
One of the reasons for a less quantity of
milk per lactation for those who calved in
summer, compared with fall-winter, is the
high temperature of the environment [1, 4, 5,
6] which diminishes the cows appetite and
reduces the forage consumption during the
ascendant and plateau of lactation’s curve..
Also, the type of feeding level influence the
milk production both in quality and quantity.
CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions can be drawn
from this study:
The Dutch Frisien population from
Moldova area has a valuable ascendance,
with mother who had an average production
of 7,923.4 kg milk, 4.23 % fat and 287.97 kg
pure fat. Grand-mothers on father’s side
(MT) produced a superior quantity (MM)
with average figures of 8,960.29 kg milk,
4.37 % fat and 371.25 kg pure fat, and a
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Q2 W1 W2 Significance Borderline
insignificant
insignificant
insignificant
significant 0.05
insignificant
17.63 21.37 insignificant
variability in milk quantity between 7,568 kg
and 10,231 kg milk.
The largest quantity was recorded in
winter 7,379.31 Kg and in fall 7,298.34 Kg
and the least in summer and spring (7,185.78
respectively 6,995.24 Kg milk). The
differences are statistically significant of
384.07 Kg for F≥ 0.05 and p ≥ 0.05.
One of the reasons for a less quantity of
milk per lactation for those who calve in
summer, compared with fall-winter, is the
high temperature of the environment which
diminishes the cows appetite and reduces the
forage consumption during the ascendant and
plateau of lactation’s curve.
REFERENCES
Journal articles
[2] Miler P. 1973 – A recent study of age
adjustment. J. Dairy Sci., 56, 7, 952
[3] Miller P., Lentz W. E., Henderson C.R., 1970 –
Joint influence of month and age of calving on
milk yield of Holstein cows in the Northeastern
United States. J. Dairy Sci., 53, 3, 351.
[6] Ujică V., Maciuc V., 2000 – The genetic
evaluation of exterior character in Romanian cattel
population Black and white (BNR), Interbull
meeting, Uppsala, Sweden
Books
[1] Maciuc V. 2006 – Managementul creşterii
bovinelor. Edit. Alfa, Iaşi
[4] Stanciu G., 1999 – Tehnologia creşterii
bovinelor, Edit. Brumar, Timişoara
[5] Ujică Vasile , Maciuc Vasile, Nistor, Ionel
2007 – Managementul creşterii vacilor de lapte.
Edit. Alfa, Iaşi
 BACK

Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

CONTRIBUTIONS ON THE STUDY OF THE CATTLE

HUSBANDRY WITHIN THE CONDITIONS PROVIDED BY
THE MOUNTAIN AREA IN NORTHERN ROMANIA

V. Maciuc, Şt. Creangă, V. Ujică

Faculty of Animal Sciences, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine

„Ion Ionescu de la Brad” Iasi, Romania
e-mail: vmaciuc@yahoo.fr

Abstract
In Romania, approximately 32.7% of the country is classified as LFA (disadvantaged areas).
This territory is represented mainly by the mountain areas. The study was made at the "Timineanca"
Breeders Association from Suceava, which has a total of 508 members and 2386 cattle. The
primary data was taken from the OARZ Suceava and filled with comments from the field. The
purpose was to reveal the features regarding the property areas owned by the members of the
association, herds in COP , the technical equipment of the association members, the level of animal
production and possibilities for making the area. The area of land allocated to members of the
association is 2825.62 hectares represented by: 1211.75 ha grassland and 1623.87 ha hayfield.
Hence, it is clearly seen that the main occupation of the members is animal husbandry. The
minimum land area owned by a member of the association is 0.90 ha respectively 0031% and the
maximum 39.38% ,1.39 ha respectively. Average yield of milk per total lactation for the animals
included in the COP was 4627 kg with 4.3% and 204.1 kg fat and protein, 3.39% and 157.6
kilograms. On normal lactation this production was 3860 kg with 4.2% and 159.6 kg fat and
protein, 3.37% and 128.8 kilograms. The number of cattle included in C.O.P. is only 9.05%
respectively 216. At the association, on total, the average milk per normal lactation was less than
2175 kg and at standard equivalent of 3.5% fat, production is 2548 kg milk.
Key words: mountain areas, members of association, occupation, animal breeding, milk

MATERIAL AND METHOD coefficient, Fisher and Tukey tests, and

The research was made in mountain
areas, on a 2386 cattle from „Timineanca”
Association in Suceava, northen Romania.
According to art. 37 and 50 from European
Council Code (CE) no 1698/2005 and art 1
from Gouvernment Decision no 949/2002:
„Mountain areas include those areas
characterized by very limited posibilities of
using the land and by increasing costs in any
thremmatology work.”
The primary date was taken from the files
of „Timineanca” Association and from The
Bureau of Improvement of Reproduction in
Animal Husbandry (O.A.R.Z.) Suceava and
correlated with the observations on the field.
Once systemized, the data was processed and
intepreted by using specific methods for this
kind of research (arithmetic mean, average
error, standard deviation, variability
others) using the statistics program, the
analysis of variation and co-variation
(S.A.V.C.) proposed by V. Maciuc in 2002-
2003 at U.S.A.M.V. Iasi Ro.
There are some important ways for
improving the milk and meat production
for profit; among these we mention: the
optimization of genetic potential and
productivity of cattle, together with that of
exploitation techonologies in small and
middle family farms and a better
management administration.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The hillside area of Suceava includes
Vatra Dornei and Cîmpulung Moldovenesc
basins which extends to Gura Humorului and
Rădăuţi toward west. This area include a large

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
mountain area with steepy terrains with
valleys, high hills and especially mountains,
ranging from 400 to 1850 m in altitude.
The main occupation of most people from
Bucovinan villages is animal breeding,
especially catles. This development was
facilitated by both natural and socio-
economical characteristics of this area.
The existence of pastures and haylands,
the necesity of using animal products, the local
people skills in animal breeding as well as the
development of lactate industry in centers as
Vatra Dornei and Câmpulung Moldovenesc
are the determinant factors for develpment of
cattle breeding in this area [1, 4, 5, 6].
Now, Suceava is the most numerous in
terms of cattles, over 180,000, out of which
100,000 female. Also, here is 10% of the total
milk product of the whole country, which
shows the importance of this occupation,
respectively the cattle breeding for milk for
the benefit of the families.
The companies that collect and process
the milk are spread all over the county; daily
they collect over 400,000 l of milk. The
producers deliver the milk to the closest
companies which also offer the best price,
payment options and the food for the animals.
Cow breeders selected those animals that
produce 10-12 l daily in average based only
on the main fourage, respectively hay during
colder seasons and pasture in the warm
season. Traditionally, in the mountain areas,
Table 1
Milk quality in European Union referring to the content in somatic cells, total numbers of
germs and butyric spores
Specificity
NCS/ml
NTE/ml
Butyric spores /ml
The association’s goal is to mobilize the
forces and the initiatives of the particular
producers, specialists, companies to help and
develop economic, social and cultural
activities. Thus, the focus is on the improving
the economic situation of the area,
households, through the technical and
scientific progress in the mountain
agriculture, the development of agrarian
almost each family has at least one cow, but
the figure can go up to 20, when the breeders
own larger pastures. In the situation of 1-3
cows (which is mostly the case), 30% from
milk production is for household consumption
and 70% for selling to the processing
companies in the area [1, 2, 3, 6].
There is a network of collecting milk in
every place even before 1990, but the biggest
quantity of milk from the mountain area of
Bucovina is collected by S.C. „Dorna
Lactate”.
In the last years the new processing
technologies, the new players on the milk
processing market as well as the necesity of
aligning the quality of the products to the
european standards reflected in the restriction
for the reception of the milk and also in the
price of that milk.
Quality speaking, cow milk needs to have
a standard fat percentage of 3.5%, proteine
3.2 %, minimal density 1,027, acidity 14-
16°T, and the temperature should not exceed
4°C and the degree of impurification should
fall within the permited limits. Milk acidity is
expressed in pH that shows the contration of
hydrongen ions in milk. The pH- of cow milk
should be within 6.7-6.4. The freezing point
is -0.555oC and the very constanstant
charcteristic of milk [2, 3, 6]. The indicators
refering to the bacterial and biogical level are
shown in table 1.
Present situation Objectives
‹ 400000 ‹ 250000
‹ 100000 ‹ 50000
‹ 1000 ‹ 1000
turism, traditional crafts, diversification of
activities, national and local investment in
order to ensure a good competitivity
compared to that in EU.
The patrimony of „Timineanca”
Association is made up by: the contribution
of the founding members and fees. Now, the
association had 508 members and 2386
cattles (Table 2). The land atributed to the
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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

members of the association is 2825.62 ha of breeding which needs to be capitalized in this

which: 1211.75 ha pasture and 1623.87 ha area, both technologically and genetically.
hayland. Hence, one can see that the main
occupation of the members is animal

Table 2
Total members Timineanca Association and the land in the agricol registry that belong to those

Land
Specification Members Cattles Hayland / Pastures + layland
Pastures / ha
ha
Total 508 2386 1211.75 1613.87 2825.62

In table 3 one can see that the minimal
surface of land owned by a member of the
association is 0.9 ha and respectively 0.031%
and the maximum one is 39.38 ha
respectively 1.39 %. Thus, only in the
association, combining the basic ocupation
with other activities such as agrarian turism
and if subsidezed, the exploits from this area
can be efficient and competitive at UE level.

Table 3
Minimal and maximum of land surface owned by association members
Specification Minimum Maximum
Surface (ha) 0.90 39.38

Out of total of cattle registered at On of the association priorities is to

association only 9.05%, 216 cattle encourage the breeders to register the cattles
respectively appear in the database of at C.O.P.; only this way the number of
Official Control of Productivity (C.O.P.) and animals could be improved as well as the
enjoy grants from the government (Table 4). capitalization of the exploitations.

Table 4
The total number of members and cattled registered at C.O.P.
Specificare Members Cattles
Total 31 216

The average production of milk per total
lactation of the cattled registered at C.O.P.
was 4627 Kg with 4.3 % and 204.1 Kg fat,
protein 3.39 % and 157.6 Kg. Per nomal
lactation this production was 3860 Kg with
4.2 % and 159,6 Kg fat, protein 3.37 % and
128.8 Kg. Like we have already mentioned
this represents only 9,05 %. On association
level, in total, the average production per
normal lactation was much less 2175 Kg, and
the standard equivalent with 3.5 % fat, the
production is 2548 Kg milk. In order to
estimate the milk production per normal
lactation, the method of multiple control was
used, with a control of 60 days. The daily
average production of milk and the average
of animals owned by a breeder in shown in
table 5.

Table 5
Daily average milk production and animal number

Feature X ± sx S V% Min. Max.

Milk Kg/day 8.70 0.159 2.178 25 5.00 12.00
Animals /cattle 1.93 0.104 1.369 74 1 20

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

One can see that the minimum number of breeders own only one cow, this is true for
animals owned by a breeder is one and the 54.37 % of the members, followed by those
maximum is 20, the average 1.94 with an who own two cattles with 19.35%, 3 cattles
extreme variety of 74%. We mention, that most 8.6% and other categories as shown in Table 6.

Table 6
Size of exploitation
No of
1 2. 3 4 5 6 7 8 >10
animals in
cap. cap. cap. cap. cap. cap. cap cap. Cap.
exploitation
% from the
55.37 19.35 8.60 5.36 1.10 2.15 1.10 1.61 5.36
total number

Table 7
Agrarian machines owned by association members
0
N Machines Total number % from total number
1 Tractors 9 1.77
2 Mows 133 26.10
3 Cooling tanker 5 0.98
4 Milkers 72 14.17
5 Electric generator 18 3.54
6 Fodder chopper 10 1.96

The private property in the sphere of
animal breeding existed even before 1989 in
mountain areas, but the conditions and
financial resources were lacking so that the
micro families farms could not develop and
modernize. After revolution, the access to the
technology and information was free, but
limited for the Romanian farmer, who lacked
financial resources. This is the reason that even
at the association level the technology was still
lacking just as shown in Table 7 and Figure 1.
Because this area is mostly pasture and
with cattle, the mowers (26.1%) and milkers
(14.17%) have preponderancy but not enough
for all the members, and under the present
requirements of UE for the quality standards
for the milk products.
Beside new shelters and reconditioning the
old ones, animal breeding by individuals
requires the improving of the comfort and
hygienic conditions and efficient technologies
so that the production could be obtain under
condition of economic quality and efficiency.

0.98
Cooling tankers
1.77
Tractors
1.96
Machines

Fodder chopper
3.54
Electric generator
14.17
Milkers
26.1
Mows

0 5 10 15 20 25 30

% total members

Figure 1 Machines in association

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

Most households have 1-2 cows and only
0.3% have 5 cows per household [2, 3, 5, 6].
Through the small quantities of milk
obtained, these farms cannot assure more
then family consumption. With small
quantities of milk for market or processing,
and many times it does not match the quality
required, the familial micro-farms cannot
assure profit so they are not viable.
It is necessary to be taken into account
and counted the main technical and economic
factors which influence the profit both in
reconsidering the size of the big complex for
breeding and exploitation of the milking
cows and in establishing new familial micro-
farms The combining of milking cow
breeding with the agrarian tourism can
generate profit, which would contribute to
the raising of the living level of rural
population and the possibility to restart the
cycle of production at a superior level. For
this, we present a model of agricultural
exploitation in Suceava area (Table 8 and
Figure 2) profitable from economic point of
view [1].

2.4
b
m 2.9
La f
e
Be 2.9
tr y 4
ul
Activitys

Po s
e 6.5
to
ta
Po ork 12.1
P
d
oo 14.3
W
54.9
ism
ur
to lk
n Mi 0
ria 10 20 30 40 50 60
ra
Ag
Profit rate per activity %

Figure 2 Profit rate per activity

Agricultural area is 15.7 ha of which:
15.2 natural pastures, 0.5 plough land, 1.3 ha
forests. Animals per categories: 15 cattle of
which 11 milking cows, 4 pigs, 14 sheep, 30
poultry (paid labor+transportation+wood).
The production obtained on the natural
pastures is completely used in household, and
its value (913 EURO = paid labor) was
distributed on the spendings with cattle and
ovine.
The profit is an economic indicator
characterized by the value rezulted from the
substraction of the comercial cost (Cc) from
the price of valorification (Pv) and profit is
obtained when the production is valorified in
the exchange process.
Pt = Qm ( Pv – Cc ) where:
Pt – total profit
Qm – production
Thus, the profit is determined by the
amount and the quality of the good in the
total production and the volume of
production spendings.

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

Tabelul 8
Rezultatele economice ale unei gospodării agricole din zona colinar montană a Sucevei
Yearly
total Total spending/year Yearly Profit Profit rate
Specification
income
EURO % EURO % EURO % EURO
Total 6.796,00 100.00 3,887.00 100.00 2,908.00 100.00 74.80
Milk 3,057.00 41.00 1,461.00 37.60 1,596.00 54.90 109.20
Beef 522.00 7.70 438.00 11.30 84.00 2.90 19.30
Pork 640.00 9.40 450.00 11.50 189.00 6.50 42.00
Lamb 245.00 3.60 176.00 4.50 70.00 2.40 39.60
Poultry 212.00 3.10 128.00 3.30 84.00 2.90 66.10
Potatoes 236.00 3.50 120.00 3.10 116.00 4.00 97.10
Wood 1,268.00 22.70 914.00 23.50 353.00 12.10 38.70
Agrarian
616.00 9.00 201.00 5.20 415.00 14.30 206.80
tourism

The profit rate is an indicatior which
characterized the relative value of rentability.
The data in Table 8 and Figure 2 show a
good level of rentability for the agricol
exploatation under analysis, respectively 74.8
Euro in the condition in which it develops
more activities and has the dimension fit for
an agricol exploatation in UE.
CONCLUSION
According to the study several
conclusions could be pointed out
The basic ocupation of the association
members is animal breeding need to be
capitalized in this area, both from the point of
view technological and the genetic potential
of animals.
The average production of milk on
normal lactation for the cattle in C.O.P. was
3860 Kg with 4.2 % and 159.6 Kg fat
respectively 3.37 % and 128.8 Kg proteine,
superioar of the animals not included in
C.O.P. respectively 2.175 Kg of milk.
Most animal breeder won only one cattle,
with a percentage of 55.37 %, followed by
those who own 2 cattle 19.35 %, 3 cattle 8.60
% and others, and more than 4 cattle 16.68%.
Also, being a pasture and mostly with cattle,
the mows (26.1%) and the milkers (14.17 %)
are most among the others machines but still
insufficient for the standards of quality
required by UE for the milk products.
The economic valorification of
production potential of miking cows in the
modern condition of exploitation impose the
corelation with: exploatation conditions,
ecological particularities of explotation,
technological particularities used, animals,
natural and artificial environment in which
they are exploited.
The correlation of milking cows with
agrarian tourism can generate profit, which
contributes to the raising of the living
standard for the rural population and the
possibility of retaking the production cycle at
a superior level.
REFERENCES
Books
[1] Bocănici Mioara 2007 – Contribuţii la studiul
creşterii taurinelor în exploataţiile private din
Bazinul Dornelor şi Câmpulung Moldovenesc.
Teză de doctorat. Facultatea de Zootehnie,
U.S.A.M.V. Iaşi.
[2] Maciuc V., Ujică V., Nistor I., 2003 – Ghid
practic de ameliorare genetică a bovinelor pentru
lapte, Editura Alfa, Iaşi
[3] Maciuc Vasile 2006 – Managementul creşterii
bovinelor. Edit. Alfa, Iaşi
[4] Ujică Vasile, Cotos Fănică, Nistor Ionel 2005 –
Rasa Pinzgau în România. Edit. Alfa, Iaşi
[5] Ujică V., coordonator, Gemene Gh., 2005 –
Creşterea şi exploatarea vacilor de lapte în
microfermele familiale din zona de Nord-Est a
Moldovei. Editura Pan Europe, Iaşi
[6] Ujică Vasile, Maciuc Vasile, Nistor, Ionel 2007
– Managementul creşterii vacilor de lapte. Edit.
Alfa, Iaşi

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 BACK

Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

RESEARCHES REGARDING THE THERMOGRAPHIC

EVALUATION IN CATTLE BREEDING FARMS BY
INTEGRATION OF ENVIRONMENT FACTORS

Ioana Tanasescu, Marcela Sirbu

University for Agricultural Science and Veterinary Medicine,

Faculty of Animal Husbandry and Biotechnology, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
e-mail: ioanatanasescu@usamvcluj.ro

Abstract
The goal of the paper presented is the application of some energetic evaluation methods for the
buildings from animal breeding system using the new legislation norms for the detection of thermal
irregularities of the envelopes elements of the buildings, using the thermo-graphic examination. Our
studies carried out within the research project CEEX 6108 during three years between 2005- 2008,
reveal the potential risk zones of the constructions envelope in cattle breeding farms from
Transylvania, taking into consideration the materials thermal stability and technological process.
The research contains analysis and measurements of micro- climate conditions in dairy cow farms
and a holistic approach of the complex interaction between animal production system, construction,
micro- climate conditions and environment protection mechanism. The diminish of specific energy
consumption in all the sectors of activity, together with energy conservation into the buildings are
key elements in sustainable development of animal breeding sector.
Key words: animal welfare, environmental conditions, thermo graphic examination

INTRODUCTION underlines the necessity of thermal diagnosis

Never during the last decades has been
discussed more about energy and its costs,
energy conservation for new buildings and
thermal rehabilitation for the existent ones
and so it became a generally accepted
necessity for our country. It induces a
supplementary preoccupation at national
level for specialists and local authorities in
the field.
Due to the scientific and technological
development, the modernization of research
methods together with the implementation of
new biotechnological, nanotechnology and
computerized discoveries, the rhythm of the
changes- innovations became unpredictable
(11, 12). The economical and social
development of the contemporary society, the
global changes and crisis together with
ecological disasters demand increased
efforts, energy and world wide programs that
lead to global coordinated actions (4, 5, 10).
Energy depends on the expensive fossil
fuels and their burning contributes to the
global climate changes. E.U. legislation
of the buildings as first step for increasing the
constructions energetic efficiency (8, 13, 14).
Infrared thermography represents one of
the methods used in many important applied
scientific domains as civil engineering,
energy, electronics, medicine, aeronautics,
geology, environment protection,
meteorology and even military techniques (1,
3, 6, 10, 12).
MATERIAL AND METHOD
Monitoring the behavior in time of the
thermal rehabilitation systems of the
buildings in Romania’s climate conditions
consists in complex investigations carried
out by specialists, following main aspects
such as (2, 7, 8 ):
- satisfying the exigencies for hydro-
thermal comfort and energy economy
during exploitation;
- total or partial correction of the
thermal bridges;

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
- reducing the environment pollution by
improving the buildings energy level;
- the appearance of the condensation
and its spreading into the mass of the
closing elements protected with thick
insulating materials with reduced
permeability to vapors;
- ventilation, together with the use of
high tightness joinery.
The work principles of infrared thermo-
graphic apparatus contains the optical
system that center the infrared ray from the
image field into one of the two spectral
band for transmission of the atmosphere
and concentrates it on the detectors system
that explores the environment (9). The
radiation receptor transforms the
electromagnetic signals into correspondent
electrical signals that are reproduced as
images shapes on the monitors that
function with the frame frequency used in
television. The thermo- vision system
provides an image that permits rapid and
precise identification of the spots that
represent potential defects.
In constructions domain, the infrared
thermography is used for nondestructive
analysis of buildings envelopes, in
measurements for investigation and
localization of the hidden cracks inside the
structures, water and moisture infiltrations
or for the analysis of physical- chemical
properties of the construction materials.
Like the civil buildings, the agricultural
and industrial type buildings represent,
from the source of radiation point of view,
an amalgam of information regarding
different materials, surfaces with different
emissivity corresponding to certain
materials, surfaces that represent planes
with variable orientation against the
sighting direction, radiation sources that
correspond to the very temperature of the
material and also reflected radiations (solar
radiations or from other adjacent sources
of radiation).
The temperature registered by the
apparatus represents an instant value of the
envelopes surface. There is always phase
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difference between the temperature of the
interior sides of the exterior elements of
the buildings envelopes and the exterior
air’s temperature. Because of the different
thermal massivity of the envelope’s
components, the information may represent
the temperature of a past situation (the
duration of he phase difference depending
on the properties of the material that builds
up the envelope).
In thermo-technical calculations
medium values of temperature are used
(daily or monthly), these temperatures
can’t be linked to the momentarily
temperatures offered by the surveillance
apparatus. Using infrared thermography
high variations in the thermal properties of
the construction elements are identified
(IR. 1, 2, 3).
Interior scans are more common in
thermographic inspection because warm air
escaping from a building does not always
move through the walls in a straight line.
Heat loss detected in one area of the outside
wall might originate at some other location
on the inside surface of the wall. Also, it is
harder to detect temperature differences on
the outside surface of the building during
windy weather. Because of this difficulty,
interior surveys are generally more accurate
because they benefit from reduced air
movement.
Thermographic scans are also commonly
used with an open door test running. The
method helps exaggerate air leaking through
defects in the building envelope. Such air
leaks appear as black streaks in the infrared
camera's viewfinder (fig.1, 2, 3, IR. 1, 2, 3).
The thermographic images were taken
inside the dairy cow shelter in January 2008
at Experimental Farm-“Sapca Verde” of
University of Agricultural Sciences and
Veterinary Medicine in Cluj-NapocaIn
general, thermography uses specially
designed infrared video or still cameras to
make images (called thermograms) that show
surface heat variations. This technology has a
number of applications. The most accurate
thermographic inspection device is a thermal
imaging camera, which produces a 2-

dimensional thermal picture of an area
showing heat leakage. By visually seeing
heat with the use of an infrared imaging
camera it is possible to avert problems before
they become problems and make the
necessary repairs or changes.
Photo 1. Dairy cow shelter- front
Photo 2. Dairy cow shelter- left side
IR. 1.
The situation of an old construction used
several years, like dairy cow shelters, is far
from the initial state or its designed
characteristics. Moisture that can reach 98%
(in the inside air) due to the metabolic
activities and specific technologies during
the cold season, affects the buildings
materials and can destroy structural integrity,
creating proper conditions for mold and
insect infestations. Mold in particular is a
growing concern for specialists, developers,
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
The thermography was performed using a
FLIR Systems Thermovision infrared
imaging system. A visual record has been
realized of each area surveyed during the
case study.
IR. 2.
Photo 3. Dairy cow shelter- right side
IR. 3.
and farmers because of the growing number
of health-related claims.
REZULTS AND CONCLUSIONS
The thermo-graphic activities goal is to
provide information and to emphasize the
real characteristics of the existent
buildings. Thermal irregularities, air
infiltration proof and the buildings
structure produce different models of
superficial temperature. Certain defects
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
have characteristic shapes in a thermal
image. For evaluation of the thermogrames
it has to be taken into consideration the
characteristics of the model such as:
- uniformity of the apparent radiant
temperature in ratio with the sections
of the similar surfaces of the structures
with no thermal bridges;
- regularity of the cold or warm
sections, for example the windows
railings or at the corners;
- differences measured between the
medium temperature of a surface
belonging to the analyzed structure
and the temperature of the selected
sections, warmer or colder;
Irregularities in the aspect of a
thermogramme often indicate an effect of
the buildings envelope.
The infiltrations of cold air at joints and
intersections produce irregular shapes with
irregular margins and high variations of
temperature.
The lack of insulation produces regular
and well defined shapes unassociated with
the general aspect of the building. The
defect surface has a relatively uniform
variation of temperature.
Moisture produces a diffuse model and
the variations of temperature are not
extreme. For each part of the buildings
envelope where defects were detected must
be realized a short analysis of the type and
extension of each specific defect. The real
distribution of the temperature is evaluated
on the thermogramme.
The infrared measurements give a
qualitative image of the thermal protection
level of different sections of the building
and emphasize the week zones hidden
from usual vision.
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The thermographic evaluation of the
buildings envelopes combined with other
materials analysis can offer an efficient
protocol for energetic evaluation of all
types of constructions from agriculture and
animal breeding sector.
Energy conservation and decreasing of
specific consumption of energy inside the
buildings from all activity sectors are just
two of the key elements for sustainable
development of human society.
REFERENCES
Journal articles
[11] Rev. Univers Ingineresc Nr. 19-24, 2008.
[12] Rev. Ecoterra Nr. 13-15/2007 si 16-18/2008.
Books
[1] Balaras C.A., Infrared Thermography for
Building Diagnosis, Energy and Buildings 34,
Elsevier, 2002.
[2] Radu A., Expertiza si auditul energetic al
cnstructiilor, Ed. Exp. Tehnici, 2006.
[3] Legea Nr. 325/2002 Privind reabilitarea
termica a fondului construit, M.O. 41/31.01.2000.
[4] Persson M.L., Influence of Window size on the
Energy Balance of Low Energy Houses, Elsevier,
2006.
[5] WallM.,Energy Efficient Houses, Elsevier,
2006.
[6] ASTM C. 1046-95/2001, Standard Practice for
In- Situ Measurement of Heat Flow and
Temperature in Building Envelope Compartments.
[7] Atthajariyakul S., Neural Computing Thermal
Comfort Index, Elsevier, 2005.
[8] SREN ISO 13187/2000, Performanta tehnica a
cladirilor. Detectia calitativa a neregularitatilor
termice in anvelopa cladirilor. Metoda
Termografiei in infrarosu.
[9] SREN 22726/ 2002, Ambiante termice.
Aparate si metode de masurare a marimilor fizice.
[10] N.P. 048-2000, Normativ pentru expertizarea
termica si energetica a cladirilor.
[13] Legea 199/2000 privind Utilizarea eficientă
a energiei (rep. M.O. 734/8.10.2002);
[14] Reglementare din 13/04/2004, Publicat in
Monitorul Oficial, Partea I nr. 405 din 06/05/2004.
[15] Legea nr. 372/13 dec. 2005 privind
Performanţa energetică a clădirilor.
 BACK

Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

RESEARCH ON PARAMETERS OF GROWTH AND VALUE

OF FEED INTENDED FOR THE PIC HYBRIDS SLAUGHTER

G. Hoha, B. Păsărin, Lenuţa Fotea, Elena Costăchescu

Faculty of Animal Sciences, University of Agricultural Science and Veterinary Medicine

„Ion Ionescu de la Brad” Iasi, Romania

Abstract
Through this paper, we proposed to establish the production performances of breeder PIC lines
exploited within a top unit in Moldova in swine husbandry - S.C.SUINPROD S.A. ROMAN. In order
to assess the production performances, there have been studied individuals resulted from crossings
between PIC 402 and PIC 408 boars with the Camborough sow, following the standard working
protocol in the unit.
The body weight values, achieved by both piglets groups issued from crossings, indicated a
better performance in the PIC 402 x Camborough descendants, compared with the PIC 408 x
Camborough ones, meaning + 2 % overall the analysed period, being in accordance with the data
presented by the PIC company and by the scientific references as well.
The values concerning the average daily weight gains indicated better results in PIC 402 x
Camborough piglets (611 g), compared to those achieved by PIC 408 x Camborough descendants
(600g), meaning a difference of 1,8%.
Feed conversion ratio (kg feed / kg weight gain) reached, during the entire experimental period,
2.61 kg in PIC 402 x Camborough group and 2.7 kg in PIC 408 x Camborough groups, the values
being comprised within the limits specified by the PIC and other literature specifications.
The achieved results indicated best performance at PIC 402xCamborough descendents, being in
accordance with the scientific references.

Key words: swine, PIC, body weight, weight gain

INTRODUCTION MATERIAL AND METHOD

Efficiency suidae growth depends to the
greatest extent of the genetic value of the pigs
used for breeding, of the most advanced
feeding and maintenance technologies, being
able to highlight the existing genetic potential.
To this end we proposed to determine the
production performances of PIC hybrids,
exploited in an elite unit of Moldova,
respectively S.C. SUINPROD S.A. ROMAN.
Research has been conducted on
individuals resulting from crossbreeding PIC
boars between 402 and PIC 408 with
Camborough sow, according to the protocol
in the unit.
PIC offsprings obtained from crossing the
lines of PIC 402 and 408 with Camborough
sow, were studied comments on productive
performance and they were divided into 2
experimental groups, each groups is
composed of 40 piglets (table 1).

Table 1
Organizing experiences

Group Crossing type Individuals Economical

designation
L1 PIC 402 x Camborough 40 slaughter
L2 PIC 408 x Camborough 40 slaughter

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Analyzing the data presented in tab. 2 it

1. Dynamics of body weight
As a general reference on the evolution of
body weight of the descendants in
experimental groups can be argued that the
issues resulting from experimental research are
close to those recorded in literature (table 2).
could be observed that during experiment
piglets weight in both groups was close,
differences not exceeding 110 g/ groups at
the end of the experiment there have been
differences of 2 kg weight groups.

Table 2
Average body weight in descendants PIC
Average weigh (kg) at the age of:
Group Flock site 1 25 85 120 Slaughter
(Individuals) day day day day (162 day)
L1 40 1,2± 2,8 7,0± 5,9 32± 5,46 60,8± 5,5 99,6± 6,92
L2 40 1,09± 3,3 6,8± 3,8 31,2± 4,9 59,6± 4,8 97,8± 6,37
Fisher test n.s. n.s. n.s. s s

An analysis of the data presented in table weighted was 97.8 kilograms (98.19% ) the
2 shall certify the results of positive difference between groups was 1.8%.
descendants PIC 402 x Camborough (the Between experimental groups were
group L1) to 408 x Camborough PIC (the statistically insignificant differences,
group L2) regardless of the age at which the recorded in the first 3 periods of control and
determination of body weight. statistically significant differences in the last
On the first day of life, the descendants of two periods.
lot L1 recording an average weight of 1.2 Average weight at weaning from the two
kilograms (100%) of the group L2 recorded group was in concordance with the data
an average weight of 1.09 kilograms presented in literature ( weaning weight of
(90.83%) so a difference of about 10%. 6,3-7,5 kg) [1, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11]. Also, the time
At weaning (25 days), the 40 progeny of needed to attain slaughter weight was close
lot L1 recording an average weight of 7 kg to the performance of highly productive
(100%) the piglets in L2 group recorded an hybrids (aged 150-165 days at slaughter) [3,
average weight of 6.8 kilograms 5, 9, 10, 11].
(97.06%),meaning a difference of 3 %.
At the age of 120 days of descendants, 2. Results concerning average daily weight
the difference between the groups, gain (A.V.G.)
maintained the values having a slight The average daily weight gain was
decrease. Thus at the individuals from group observed during distinct periods, from birth
L1 the average body weight was 60.8 until slaughter, the results showing
kilograms (100%) compared with that of L2 ascendant trend of this indicator, irrespective
group of 59.6 kilograms (98.0%). of the experimental group or related to the
Regarding the age at slaughter, this rearing periods. Throughout the experimental
reached 162 days, when descendants of L1 period, average daily gain was different
group achieved an average weight of 99.6 periods and experimental groups (table 3).
kilograms (100%) and those of L2 group
Table 3
Results an average daily gain of progeny
Average daily gain (g) at the age of:
Group Flock site 1–7 8 - 14 15 - 25 A.V.G. during
(Individuals) days days days nursery period
L1 40 183± 2,2 228± 3,6 255± 4,40 241± 6,72
L2 40 179± 1,5 221± 3,9 245± 5,20 237± 7,26
Fisher test n.s. s d.s s

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

From the data presented in table 3, is
observed that during nursery period, average
daily gain had upward trend, in both groups
of piglets, the highest average value (241g)
being registered in L1 group vs. L2, where
the average was 237g. the increased gain in
the second and third period of nursery may
be explained by the additional consumption
of feed (from the age of 8 days) and by the
digestive system development and equipment
of the enzyme piglets. Between groups,
insignificant statistical differences occured
between 1 - 7 days, but the differences
became significant in other periods.
Results achieved on the average daily
gain from the two progeny groups during
growth and fattening periods are presented in
table 4.

Table 4
Results on average daily gain during growing and fattening periods
Average daily gain (g) at the age of:
Group Flock site 25 – 85 85 - 120 120 - 162 A.V.G. during
(Individuals) days days days breeding period
L1 40 417± 6,21 822± 7,18 923± 8,2 718± 5,81
L2 40 406± 5,21 811± 6,11 909± 8,3 705± 6,44
Fisher test s s s s

From the data presented in table 4
following aspects could be drawn:
- In the age of 25-85 days, the highest
average daily gain was observed in the
descendants og L1 group (PIC Camborough
x 402 - 417g), the difference from group L2
(PIC Camborough x 408 - 406 g) being of +
2 .7% (11g);
- Between 85-120 days of age, the average
daily gain was the same, the difference being
of 11 g in favor of group L1;
- Between 120-162 days of age, average daily
gain was best at the L1 descendants (402 x
Camborough PIC), the difference from group
L2 (PIC Camborough x 408) being of +
1.54% (14 g).
Statistical differences had significant degree
throughout the growth and fattening periods.
For the average daily gain from birth until
slaughter, the results fall within the same line
as in the previous presentation, the group L1
registering the highest value of 611 g,
compared to 600 g per L2 group.
Analyzing the values presented in table 4
coul be considered that they it fits to the data
presented in the literature on hybrids of high
productivity [1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7].
3. Results concerning feed conversion
The correlation between growing apped and
feed conversion it is well known, considering
that in animals with high growth rate, the feed
intake is lower. In order to provide better
conditions to the progeny, to be able to achieve
their genetic potential, their feeding has been
done in accordance with the PIC
recommendations for growing and fattening
periods. Throughout the rearing and fattening,
feeding was done ad libitum, feedingstuffs beig
used as flour, recipes respecting company rules
recommended by PIC.
Table 5 and fig. 1 are shown the
quantities of feed consumed by the two
groups of descendants PIC and the specific
made during growth and fattening.

Table 5
Average feed consumption and ratio conversion to the PIC descendants
The age of descendants (days) TOTAL
Specification 1-25 25-85 85-120 120-162 (1 – 162 days) Fisher
L1 L2 L1 L2 L1 L2 L1 L2 L1 L2 Test
Feed (kg) 7 7.1 48 48 75 77 130 132 260 264.1 s
Average gain
(kg) 5.8 5.71 25 24.4 28.8 28.4 38.8 38.2 99.6 97.8 s
F.C.R. (kg) 1.20 1.24 1.92 1.96 2.60 2.71 3.35 3.45 2.61 2.70 s

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
L1 (PIC402xCamborough)
4
3.5
3 2,6 2,71
2.5
Kg
1,92 1,96
2
1.5 1,2 1,24
1
0.5
0
1.-25 25-85
Fig. 1. Feed conversion rate at the PIC progeny
Analyzing the data recorded in table 5 we
can conclude that, during the entire
experimental period, the L1 group progeny
(402 x Camborough PIC) had the lowest
amount of feed consumed (260 kg) compared
with the L2 group (408 x Camborough PIC)
that recorded 264.1 kilograms of feed
consumption, meaning 1.5% higher.
Concerning the feed conversion rate, the
trend was the same, L1 group having a
conversion of 2.61 kg/kg gain and L2 group a
consumption of 2.7kg/kg growth. Data
obtained by both groups are in accordance
with the company PIC Romania and
literature [2, 4, 8, 9, 10, 11].
Statistically significant differences occurred
between groups for all analyzed parameters
(feed intake, weight gain, feed conversion).
CONCLUSIONS
1. Values on body weight, achieved by both
piglets groups indicate a difference between the
PIC 402 x Camborough descendants and PIC
408 x Camborough progeny, meaning around
2% throughout the period, being meanwhile in
accordance with the data presented by PIC
Company and literature;
2. Results concerning the average daily gain
also indicate better performances in PIC 402 x
Camborough (611 g) progeny, compared to the
PIC 408 x Camborough (600g), issuing a
difference of around 11g (1.8%);
3. The feed conversion ratio, calculated
throughout the whole experimental period,
reached 2.61 kg in group PIC 402 x
Camborough and 2.7 kg in group PIC 402 x
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L2 (PIC408xCamborough)
3,35 3,45
2,7
2,61
85-120 120-162 Media
Zile
Camborough, values in accordance with PIC
company and literature specifications;
4. Very well production results
recommend the usage of ring these hybrids,
due to their outstanding growing
performance and to their morpho-productive
type, specialized for meat production.
REFERENCES
Journal articles
[1] Buczynski J.T. şi col., 2003 – A comparasion
of breeding performance of Polish Landrace sows
in purebred and two breed mating, Journal of
Animal Breeding, vol.71, pg. 426 - 452;
[2] Edwards S. şi col., 1992 – Comparasion of the
Duroc and Large White as terminal sire breeds,
Journal of Animal Production, vol. 54, pg. 871 - 877;
[3] Fortina R şi col., 2005 - Performances and
meat quality of two Italian pig breeds fed diets for
commercial hybrids, Meat Science, vol. 71, pg.
713-718;
[4] Freman H.T., 2000 – The genetic improvement
in swine, Journal of Animal Breeding, vol. 68, pg.
1876 – 1881;
[5] Larour Gwenaelle, 2004 – Des differences
entre les cinq types genetiques, Revista Atout
Porc, nr.24, pg. 45-46;
[8] Buletine Informative PIC, colecţia 2003-2007
[9] www.danbred.com
[10] www.france-hybrid.com
[11] www.hypor.com
Books
[6] Marinescu A.S., 2005 – Optimizarea tehnologiei
de exploatare a hibridului de Periş pe stadii de
creştere, Teză de doctorat, UŞAMV Bucureşti;
[7] Teiu St., 2003 – Cercetări privind influenţa
tehnologiei de întreţinere a scroafelor metise
asupra indicilor de reproducţie şi producţie, Teză
de doctorat, U.Ş.A.M.V. Iaşi;
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

STUDY REGARDING MORPHOLOGICAL

AND PRODUCTIVE FEATURES IN HIGH MILK
PRODUCTION BLACK AND WHITE ROMANIAN
COWS FROM S.C.D.C.B. DANCU, IASI

E. Popescu, Mariana Sofronie, L. Dascălu, Elena Ruginosu,

Anca Plăvănescu, Şt. Creangă, M. Pîntea

Staţiunea de Cercetare Dezvoltare pentru Creşterea Bovinelor Dancu, Iaşi

e-mail: scdbdancu@yahoo.com

Abstract
The study was made on 24 Black and White Romanian cows from S.C.D.C.B. Dancu, Iasi in
2008 . The purpose of our research was to monitor the level of milk production and the amelioration
level of the population. The maximum production of milk was registered in the fourth lactation
(7831.5Kg.) and the minimum production was registered in the third lactation (6692,84 Kg)
showing a medium to large variability coefficient.
The corporal growth is good, with a medium value of 139 cm for hight and 617,75 Kg for
weight.
The milk quantity has a medium genetic determinism (h2=0.33) and the qualitative features have
an intense genetic determinism (h2=0,81 – 0,77). For corporal growth the heritability coefficient
has an intermediate value (h2=0,41 – 0,45).
The BNR population from S.C.D.C.B. Dancu Iasi has a good productive performance, these
beeing improved through a continuity of selection activity and a minimization of the environmental
features’ influency, as well.
Key words: amelioration, heritability, variability

The milk yield regarding quantity and
quality varies between bovine breeds
depending on the level of genetic
amelioration, exploitation directives and
environmental conditions, being influenced
by a group of internal (genetic,
physiological) and external factors
(environmental). Through these we mention
specie, physiological type, breed, age,
corporal conformation and development,
constitution, temper, health. Environmental
factors include feeding, water regime and
quality, corporal hygiene, movement,
milking and microclimate features.
In bovine breeding, the milk yield is very
important, as the significant widening of the
specialized dairy breeds within the past
decades and the doubling of the milk
production meanwhile prove it.
The amelioration of bovine milk
production is a complex process, regarding
its quantity and quality, as well. The main
character used for selection criteria is the
milk production for normal lactation. The
total lactation is an informative character,
which regards the milk quantity achieved
within the postpartum-dry period interval per
cow.
The literature in this domain indicates
close values for genetic influence upon milk
production, regardless of breed or
amelioration level. It is appreciated that the
general tendency for the above aspect is
represented by low values for milk
heritability, comparing higher values for
heritability of milk quality.
This research has the purpose to analyze
the morphological and productive features in
a group of Black and White Romanian cows
from SCDCB Dancu and to show the
statistical values of the milk production
variability on successive lactations/normal

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
lactation, the corporal growth indices,
heritability and repeatability coefficients for
quantity and quality production and
phenotypic, genetic and environmental
correlations between different characters.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
The biological material subject for this
research was represented by a group of 24
dairy cows, Black and White Romanian breed,
exploited in SCDCB Dancu-Iassy farm.
The following aspects were analyzed: the
productive performance on four successive
lactations for quantity and quality features,
corporal growth and their genetic parameters
(heritability, repeatability and correlation).
The primary data regarding the milk yield
were taken from the farm records, the
appreciation of the corporal growth was
made using biometrical determinations and
the genetic parameters were calculated with
the REML method.
RESULTS AND DISCUTIONS
Analyzing the productive performance on
four successive lactations at the cows from
the research group, an average milk
production of 6.755,83 Kg, with 4,14% fat
and 3,3% protein for the first normal
lactation has been found, with a variability
value between 5.590 and 8.178 Kg of milk on
an average period of 301,46 days.
The milk production in the second
lactation slightly increased, having an
average value of 7.164,17 Kg and similar
values for qualitative indices with those from
the previous lactation.
The third lactation had a lower milk
production than the previous, an average of
6.692,84 Kg of milk (Table 1).
Estimating the corporal growth it has
been found that that morphological
parameters for studied cows registered the
following average values: wither hight-139
cm., with variation limits between 133-146
cm, rump hight-140,75 cm, with variation
limits between 132-149 cm, the thoracic
perimeter -205,75 cm, with variation limits
between 191- 230 cm and corporal weight-
617,75 kg, with variation limits between 520-
819 kg.
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Our study has indicated an adequate
corporal growth for dairy cow typology of
high productivity, this aspect being observed
from the analyze of calculated indices for:
corporal format (Ifc=119,80 ), skeleton
(Io=13,66) and underbrisket vacuum
(I.v.s.=44,37), (table 2 ).
The values of heritability and
repeatability coefficients regarding the milk
yield (quantitative and qualitative) and
environmental characters have been
calculated for the same group of cows. Thus,
the length of normal lactation and milk
quantity had the following values for
heritability coefficient: 0,29 respectively
0,33 and for repeatability coefficient of
0,22, showing average values of these
indicators.
The characters of qualitative milk
production, fat and protein percents had the
following heritability values: 0,81and 0,77
respectively 0,79 and 0,68 for the
repeatability, which demonstrate that these
characters are strongly consolidated, have a
high genetic influence and are slightly
influenced by environment factors
(environment variance). The characters of
quantitative production for fat and protein
had heritability values of 0,36 and 0,34
respectively 0,33 and 0,27 for repeatability
values, indicating average values of these
parameters.
The external characters showed the
following values for heritability coefficient:
0,48 for the wither hight; 0,39 for total
length; 0,41 for thoracic perimeter and 0,45
for corporal weight, being intense heritable
(table 3).
The appreciation of the correlation
between the analyzed characteres allowed
their evaluation, if they were correlated or if
the correlativity was assumed. The analyzing
of genetic correlation of the characters by
determining them in groups of related
individuals allowed setting the correlation
between cause-effect couples. The correlation
manifestation is considered positive when the
modification of a character attracts the
modification of the other in the same
direction and negative when it attracts the
modification of the other in reverse.
 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

Table 1 The average values and the statistical data of milk production variability on successive lactation for our research dairy cows

Total lactation Normal lactation

Statistical
Specification No Lactation Lactation
parameters
lenght Milk / kg Fat.% Fat./Kg Prot.% Prot.Kg. lenght Milk / kg Fat.% Fat./Kg Prot.% Prot.Kg.
days days

X 382.58 8264.17 4.160 343.000 3.310 273.420 301.46 6755.83 4.140 280.54 3.300 223.920

The first ±s x 18.90 400.80 0.014 16.311 0.012 13.193 2.15 106.64 0.016 4.320 0.013 3.997
24 s 92.61 1963.54 0.067 79.908 0.060 64.633 10.55 522.44 0.076 21.184 0.066 19.580
lactation
V% 24.20 23.76 1.609 23.297 1.803 23.639 3.50 7.71 1.846 7.551 1.983 8.744
Min 270.00 5590.00 4.060 244.000 3.130 181.000 270.00 5590.00 4.030 244.000 3.120 181.000
Max 598.00 13044.00 4.360 541.000 3.410 435.000 305.00 8178.00 4.360 344.000 3.430 280.000

X 379.79 8547.63 4.140 354.170 3.350 383.040 303.42 7164.17 4.140 296.460 3.340 238.170

The second ±s x 14.23 318.92 0.008 13.435 0.012 10.050 0.82 132.66 0.008 5.557 0.011 4.275
24 s 69.72 1562.38 0.038 65.818 0.057 49.236 4.05 649.90 0.037 27.222 0.056 20.942
lactation
V% 18.35 18.27 0.906 18.584 1.711 17.395 1.33 9.07 0.897 9.182 1.684 8.793
Min 292.00 6082.00 4.090 254.000 3.130 206.000 292.00 5620.00 4.080 235.000 3.140 189.000
Max 525.00 13309.00 4.250 556.000 3.410 417.000 305.00 8592.00 4.240 358.000 3.400 283.000

X 347.16 7707.21 4.120 315.420 3.350 258.050 304.68 6692.84 4.110 285.420 3.340 231.530

The third ±s x 15.99 388.80 0.008 16.752 0.009 13.038 0.21 254.21 0.009 11.232 0.010 8.446
19 s 69.73 1694.74 0.035 73.021 0.039 56.832 0.94 1108.10 0.037 48.960 0.042 36.814
lactation
V% 20.08 21.98 0.858 23.150 1.171 22.023 0.31 15.84 0.912 17.153 1.270 15.901
Min 302.00 4391.00 4.030 181.000 3.280 144.00 302.00 5035.00 3.980 181.000 3.280 144.000
Max 533.00 10622.00 4.210 441.000 3.430 355.000 305.00 8739.00 4.160 363.000 3.440 294.000

X 383.50 8916.00 4.160 346.000 3.370 300.000 305.00 7831.50 4.160 326.000 3.370 262.500

The fourth ±s x 77.50 2391.00 0.015 125.000 0.020 79.000 0 1322.50 0.020 56.000 0.025 42.500
3 s 109.60 3381.38 0.021 176.777 0.028 111.723 0 1870.29 0.028 79.196 0.035 60.104
lactation
V% 28.57 37.92 0.511 51.092 0.839 37.241 0 23.38 0.680 24.293 1.051 22.897
Min 306.00 6525.00 4.140 221.000 3.350 221.000 305.00 6509.00 4.140 270.000 3.340 220.000
Max 461.00 11307.00 4.170 471.000 3.390 379.000 305.00 9154.00 4.180 382.000 3.390 305.000

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

Table 2
The statistical parameters of biometrical and corporal indices(cm)

Caracterul No. X ±s x s V% Min Max

hight 24 139.00 0.681 3.336 2.400 133.00 146.00
Back hight 24 139.58 0.725 3.550 2.543 133.00 147.00
Rump hight 24 140.75 0.774 3.791 2.693 132.00 149.00
Pin bone base hight 24 137.75 5.473 26.814 19.466 13.00 153.00
Thoracic depth 24 77.29 0.797 4.796 6.205 63.00 86.00
Brisket hight 24 61.71 1.154 5.653 9.161 53.00 77.00
Obliquity length 24 166.46 1.323 6.481 3.893 153.00 177.00
Horizontal length 24 137.00 1.925 9.432 6.884 125.00 174.00
Total length 24 213.58 1.666 8.161 3.821 196.00 232.00
Rump length 24 53.29 0.456 2.236 4.195 49.00 57.00
Thoracic length 24 89.17 0.827 4.050 4.543 84.00 97.00
Head length 24 52.00 0.276 1.351 2.599 49.00 54.00
Thoracic width 24 47.13 1.143 5.597 11.878 40.00 68.00
Brisket width 24 45.50 0.665 3.257 7.158 38.00 52.00
Rump width at hip bone 24 55.96 0.591 2.896 5.176 50.00 64.00
Rump width at hip joint 24 49.67 0.469 2.297 4.624 46.00 57.00
Rump width at ischium 24 20.38 0.268 1.313 6.442 18.00 23.00
Head width 24 21.71 0.185 0.908 4.182 20.00 24.00
Thoracic perimeter 24 205.75 1.772 8.679 4.218 191.00 230.00
Shin perimeter 24 18.98 0.174 0.853 4.495 17.00 21.00
Corporal weight -kg 24 617.75 13.257 64.944 10.513 520.00 819.00
IFC 24 119.80 1.064 5.212 4.350 109.28 132.33
IM 24 148.04 1.143 5.597 3.781 139.01 157.89
IO 24 13.66 0.123 0.602 4.408 12.68 14.66
IVS 24 44.37 0.738 3.616 8.149 39.42 55.00
IAC 24 36.46 0.490 2.40 6.583 32.73 42.00
IMC 24 37.42 0.203 0.996 2.661 35.92 39.42
IC 24 41.77 0.418 2.047 4.899 37.74 44.90

I.f.c.- corporal format index I.v.s .- underbrisket vacuum index

I.m.- massiveness index I.m.c.- head size index
I.o.- skeleton index I.a.c. – rump sharpness index
I.c.- head index

Table 3
The values coefficients of heritability and repeatability of ours researches dairy cows
Characters Additive Intolot Total Heritability Repeatability
specification variance variance variance
Normal lactation lengh 10.4822 121.2462 110.7639 0.29 0.22
/days
Milk /kg 147504.9400 133025.2920 280530.2330 0.33 0.30
Fat /% 0.0018 0.0041 0.0059 0.81 0.79
Fat /kg 226.0066 234.3872 460.3938 0.36 0.33
Protein /% 0.0030 0.0014 0.0044 0.77 0.68
Protein /kg 215.2156 179.2269 394.4426 0.34 0.27
Withers hight 2.4412 13.4462 11.0050 0.48
cm
Total lengt cm 26.3189 91.5679 65.2491 0.39
Thoracic perimeter 1.9633 77.1885 75.2252 0.41
/cm
Corporal weight / kg 1822.7346 5946.8372 4124.1026 0.45

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The intensity of the relation can be
considered low when the correlation
coefficient has values bellow 0,2, medium for
values between 0,2 and 0,5 and tight for
values over 0,5.
The analyzing of the phenotypic, genetic
and envirnonmental correlations between the
length of the normal lactation and milk
quantity, fat and protein showed positive
values of 0,74 respectively 0,73, the charcters
being tightly correlated and for the fat and
protein percent the values were medium
correlated (0,27, respectively 0,26). It has
been shown from the research that the
correlations between the length of the normal
lactation and the external characters were
negative and of low intensity.
The correlations between the milk
quantity and the fat and protein percent were
negative and for the quantity of fat and
protein, tightly correlated and positive values
were found.
Between the quantity of milk and the
external characters the correlation was
medium and positive. A medium correlation
between the fat quantity and the protein
percent was found and a tight and positive
correlation between the first and the protein
quantity (table 4).
CONCLUSIONS
1.The average values and the variability
estimates for milk production features on
successive lactations / normal lactation,
expressed in EM showed a potential production
of over 8000 kg milk/ cow (in average 8677,47
kg , with variation limits between 7.821,23-
10.222,50 kg );
2.The main analyzed corporal indices
registered average values of 139 cm (133-
146cm) for wither hight, 140,75 cm (132-
149 cm) for rump hight and 617,75 kg
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
(520-819 kg) for corporal weight, the values
being considered superior to the average of
the breed;
3. The heritability and repeatability
coefficients for qualitative production
characters (fat and protein percents ) had the
following values: 0,81 and 0,77 respectively
0,79 and 0,68;
4. The phenotypic, genetic and
environmental correlations between normal
lactation length and the milk quantity, fat and
protein were tightly correlated (0,73; 0,74
respectively 0,73), for the fat and protein
percents the values were medium correlated
(0,27 respectively 0,26) and for the external
characters were negative;
5. The group of cows subject to our
research registered an eumetric corporal
growth correlated to the milk production
type, characters emphasized by thin and
compact constitution, wide head, long and
deep trunk, and straight backline;
6. This morphological type has good
abilities for milk production of over 8000
liters/ normal lactation, the genetic potential
being much higher than the average level of
BNR breed production.
REFERENCES
Books
[1] Negruţiu, E., Petre, A., Pipera, N.,: Genetica şi
ameliorarea animalelor- Editura Didactică şi
Pedagogică, Bucureşti, 1969
[2] Maciuc V.,: Managementul creşterii bovinelor,
Editura Alfa Iaşi, 2006,
[3] Georgescu,Gh. şi col.,: Tratat de creşterea
bovinelor., vol. I (1989), vol II (1988), vol III
(1995), vol. IV (1998), Editura Ceres, Bucureşti,
[4] Grosu H., Pascal A. Oltenacu,: Programe de
ameliorare genetica în zootehnie- Editura Ceres,
Bucureşti, 20
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

Table 4
The values of phenotypic, genetic and environmental correlations coefficients of ours researches dairy cows
The second Phenotypic Genotipic Environmental Overall Intralot Total
The first character
character correlations correlations correlations covariance covariance covariance
Milk - kg 0.73 0.88 0.66 1846.8472 2409.7385 4256.5857
Fat - % 0.27 0.26 0.25 0.2555 0.1859 -0.0696
Fat - kg 0.74 0.83 0.70 63.2145 110.8615 174.0761
Protein-% 0.26 0.19 0.31 0.0206 0.3016 0.2811
Protein- kg 0.73 0.82 0.70 61.1269 99.0538 160.1808
Normal lactation
Calving interval 0.22 0.25 0.27 71.7985 369.6154 441.4139
length
Dry period 0.14 0.18 0.29 26.9476 45.5538 18.6063
Withers hight -0.10 -0.17 -0.16 -6.7735 3.3385 -3.4350
Total length -0.17 -0.11 -0.17 -8.8075 -7.3154 -16.1228
Thoracic perimeter -0.15 -0.18 -0.16 -40.9861 338692 -7.1169
Corporal weight -0.11 -0.12 -0.14 -224.5641 267.6231 -43.0590
Fat - % -0.25 -0.24 -0.22 -9.2707 -2.0334 -11.3040
Fat - kg. 0.97 0.97 0.98 5699.0026 5365.9692 11064.9718
Protein-% -0.24 -0.25 -0.26 -0.6137 -6.5814 -13.7764
Protein - kg. 0.97 0.96 0.99 5461.0906 4803.2000 10264.2906
Milk Calving interval 0.26 0.22 0.29 6942.1799 12246.6923 19188.8722
Kg. Dry period 0.08 0.06 0.10 1850.1987 2513.3538 663.1551
Withers height 0.37 0.35 0.33 322.2492 59.1692 263.0800
Total length 0.24 0.25 0.28 1274.3545 1266.3231 8.0314
Thoracic perimeter 0.28 0.30 0.32 1699.6206 509.7231 1189.8975
Corporal weight 0.46 0.44 0.48 7543.2514 3845.5231 3697.7283
Protein-% 0.40 0.30 0.68 0.3294 0.2958 0.6252
Protein- kg 0.96 0.94 0.99 215.5841 196.3231 411.9072
Fat -Kg.
Calving interval 0.25 0.17 0.69 156.3986 417.0000 573.3986
Dry period 0.07 0.06 0.11 64.1481 87.6436 23.4955
Total length 0.24 0.22 0.26 4.1818 1.9462 6.1279
Withers height Thoracic perimeter 0.48 0.61 0.39 2.4563 10.9308 13.3871
Corporal weight 0.46 0.53 0.42 0.5451 94.1692 93.6242
Thoracic perimeter 0.35 0.44 0.28 1.8282 26.1038 24.2756
Total lengh
Corporal weight 0.43 0.65 0.27 100.9973 318.8295 217.8322
Thoracic perimeter Corporal weight 0.93 0.93 0.94 140.5283 654.2423 513.7140

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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

COMPARATIVE RESEARCHES CONCERNING THE MILK

PRODUCTION TRAITS ON BLACK AND WHITE CATTLE
HERD OF FIRST CALVING, BREEDED IN PRIVATE
FARMS FROM TRANSYLVANIA

E.C. Jurco, G. Onaciu

University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Cluj-Napoca,

Faculty of Animal Husbandry and Biotechnology

Abstract
In this study we will present some comparative elements regarding cow’s milk production in
first lactation breeding and exploited in some private farms from the counties of Alba and Mureş.
The researches for main milk production trait were orientated to analyse the content and quantity of
fat and protein, corresponding to normal and total lactation. According to purpose,a plan for
conducting research work, especially depending on the present evidence in different farms, on the
herd investigated, we wanted to put highlights the production performance of dairy cows breeded in
different farms sizes. The effective included in the research is about 596 head of cows breeded in
two counties from Transylvania: Alba and Mures respectively farms SC Stazoo with 145 heads, SC
Unichim with 68 heads, SC Ambisco with 233 heads, and SC Agrocriş with 150 heads.
Key words: cattle, milk, production

INTRODUCTION type and Romanian Brown breeds, Schwitz

Trends for to increasing quality and
individual performance of the biological
material existing in exploitation is one
motivation of the increase the individual
production with the main effects in to
increase the milk total production. In this
direction, comparative with milk production
level which is obtained at present, the
farmer’s trends are going to improve the
cattle populations, at the same time with
specialization in milk or beef production. In
this orientation is good to mention two
significant aspects with application in
perspective, in sense that after
implementation of technical-material good
conditions for milk production in our farms is
necessary and favorable to expected and
preferred the breeds specialized for milk
production. From these considerations we
have been to reduced significant the different
populations, as Pinzgauer cattle and
Romanian buffalo but with predominate
breeds followed depending on the
agricultural area, Romanian Black and
White, Romanian Yellow Spoted, Simmental
type and several breed, especially Ayrshire
"breeds of butter" and Red Holstein used for
improvement [2]. These several trends and
possibilities of realization, represents
elements to make open wide to more efficient
cattle breeding, including specialization in
the direction of milk or beef production, is
one of the priorities in the current breeding
process for development and modernization.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The research were conducted during 2006
– 2007, on the Romanian black and white
breed, exploited in four private farms. The
effective included in the research is about
596 heads of cows exploited in the two
counties in the Transylvania area: Alba and
Mures respectively SC Stazoo with 145
head, SC Unichim with 68 heads, SC
Ambisco with 233 heads, and SC Agrocriş
with 150 heads. The research has been
perform based on data obtained from official
control of milk production (OCP), and the
sheets designed for this purpose with data
base. In presenting and interpreting the

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
results of research on the main traits of milk
production were taken into account indicators
of milk production as: age of first
insemination, age of first calving, lactation
length, milk production for normal and total
lactation. Data obtained from each farm were
analyzed by one-way ANOVA, and mean
values were compared by Tukey test
(Table 1).
Table 1
Difference and significance of difference for milk production between cattle farms
Farms SC STAZOO SC UNICHIM
***
SC AGROCRIS 1178 30,16
* ***
SC AMBISCO 437,33 770,89
***
SC UNICHIM 1208,22 -
SC STAZOO -
ns – p>0,05; * - p<0,05; ** - p<0,01; *** - p<0,001
Compared average yields of primiparous
cows in these farms, with milk production at
the counties level, Romanian black and white
realized average performance of 3835 kg
milk in Alba and 4371 kg in Mureş county,
compared with 4633 kg milk average on
Romanian country. [1]. For all cow farms
with Romanian Black Spotted breed from
these counties, variability estimated reflects
very heterogeneous populations and very low
a selection level, with not rigorous selection
and multiplication for the most valuable
genotypes and the strong influence of
technological factors regarding to milk
productivity.
CONCLUSIONS
The counties taken in the study are large
cattle milk producers regarding to their
geographical location, production conditions
and traditions. The present and future
conditions of Romanian agriculture involving
privatizing and the increase in the number of
small and medium farms size will be
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RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The research has allowed to establish the
main quantitative and qualitative traits of
milk production, precocity and reproductions,
structured on farms, and the results
prelucrated and statistically analyzated in
averaged for the four farms are shown in
Table 2.
SC AMBISCO SC AGROCRIS
***
740,72 -
-
improvement of the biologic material quality
and genetic amelioration being thus essential
element, similar to all countries with tradition
in cattle breeding. The major and exclusive
problem of breeding technologies resides in
the improvement and perfecting of breeding
and exploitation technologies, of
environmental conditions and makes a
primary reference to the breeder’s
intervention in directing and controlling
healts, microclimate and nutrition levels.
Researches conducted and results obtained
regarding dairy cattle breeding on various-
size farms, show a series of conclusions and
the most important and significant can be
synthesized as follows:
¾ Milk production in the Transylvania area
greatly originates in the private sector
(99% of the total production), with the
average milk production around of 4000
kg/cow.
 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

Table 2
Milk productive performance of the farms performed by the Romanian Black cow of first lactation
Total lactation Normal lactation
Statis-
Farms Length Milk Fat Fat Protein Protein Length Milk Fat Fat Protein Protein
tics
(days) (kg) (kg) (%) (kg) (%) (days) (kg) (kg) (%) (kg) (%)
SC X 321,41 5493,36 213,35 3,90 174,39 3,18 278,24 5159,72 198,77 3,86 163,83 3,18
STAZOO ±sx 7,47 174,45 6,43 0,02 5,42 0,02 2,61 110,03 4,00 0,02 3,40 0,02
SC X 359,76 4718,11 176,04 3,73 149,74 3,11 283,50 3951,50 146,96 3,72 122,42 3,10
UNICHIM ±sx 13,36 250,54 9,54 0,04 9,33 0,03 3,04 122,33 4,86 0,04 4,59 0,03
SC X 314,61 5099,70 200,84 3,95 160,08 3,14 270,46 4722,39 185,27 3,93 148,28 3,14
AMBISCO ±sx 9,64 190,54 7,62 0,03 6,08 0,03 4,27 111,39 4,63 0,03 3,78 0,03
SC X 295,36 4203,88 159,98 3,81 129,32 3,07 264,71 3981,67 151,05 3,80 122,22 3,07
AGROCRIS ±sx 9,61 176,20 6,82 0,03 5,57 0,02 6,33 80,43 3,15 0,03 2,44 0,03

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
¾ Family micro-farms for dairy cattle are
subject to a continuous modelling
evolution throughout their aspects,
according to the following elements:
cattle stocks and their purpose, fodder
sources and possibilities for their
substitution, fodder quantity and quality,
fodder varieties from dairy cattle
specific ration, the practiced
maintenance system, etc. All these
factors are one big influence on the
economic efficiency of family dairy
cattle micro-farms.
¾ Regarding the productive performances,
Romanian black and white populations
in the our counties take the study
researches belonging to private-
individual cows farms, these farms are
continual process of conversion and
genetic amelioration. Genetic
amelioration process takes place slowly,
while technological factors for
exploitation and management are yet
deficient.
¾ For Alba county the milk production on
normal lactation recorded by the cow
included in OCP was 5159 kg milk for
the population breeded in the SC Stazoo
farm, and 3951 kg milk for the black and
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white spotted population of the SC
Unichim farm
¾ For Mures county, milk production
according to normal lactation registered
for OCP cows was 4722 kg for the
population breeded in S.C. Ambisco
farm and 3981 kg for the Romanian
spotted population from S.C. Agrocris
farm
¾ Following these analyses, the
production performances obtained
represent a clear consequence of the
breeding and exploitation technologies
adapted to each farm analysed, namely
the existing technical-economic basis.
REFERENCES
Journal article
[2] Onaciu G. : Efectivele de bovine şi dimensiunea
exploataţiilor în 10 judeţe din Transilvania. Al 5-lea
Simpozion Internaţional Perspective ale Agriculturii
Mileniului III, 5-6 octombrie 2006, Cluj-Napoca,
Buletin USAMV-CN, 62 /2006 (213), ISSN 1454-
2382
Book
[1] Jurco E.C.: Cercetări comparative privind
caracterizarea populaţiilor de taurine pentru lapte
crescute în ferme de diferite dimensiuni din
Transilvania şi posibilităţi de optimizare a
tehnologiei de creştere, Teză de Doctorat, Cluj-
Napoca, 2008
 BACK

Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE KNOWLEDGE OF THE MAIN

PRODUCTIVE INDICES IN
PRIMIPAROUS ROUMANIAN SPOTTED BREED

G. Onaciu, E.C. Jurco

University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Cluj-Napoca,

Faculty of Animal Husbandry and Biotechnology

Abstract
In this study we will present some comparative elements regarding cow’s milk production in first
lactation breeding and exploited in some private farms from the counties of Alba and Cluj. The
researches for main milk production trait were orientated to analyse the content and quantity of fat
and protein, corresponding to normal and total lactation. The entire research herd, 340 heifer cow’s in
first lactation from four farms was analysed and interpreted, thus : 220 head of cow farm, SC
Agrotrust, 30 head from cow farm, S.C. Agrolact, 25 head from cow farm, S.C. Unichim and 65 heads
from cow farm S.C. Crisan. In presenting and interpreting the results of research with regarding to
milk production traits, was used the data obtained from official control of milk production (OCP).
Thus, average milk production is too variable but depending on the farm between 3342 and 5001 kg
milk for normal lactation. Best performances were achieved in SC CRIŞAN cow farm with a herd of 65
head cow milk, where milk production achieved in normal lactation was 5001.36 kg, 3.97% fat and
3.21% protein, corresponding to an average lactation length of 300 days. Age of first calving was
1004.93 days (33 months and 2 days) with a pronounced variability of this precocity cattle trait (V =
16.06%). In conclusion, after finish the research study we can to say, milk production results were
quite good, comparison with Romanian Yellow Spotted standard bred performances.
Key words: farms, cow milk, milk production

INTRODUCTION production, up profits along with increased the

The milk production level from Romania is
very low comparative with EU country with
correspondence in Romanian global milk
production, because decreasing the number of
dairy cows and dairy farms, small production /
head cow milk and other reasons [2]. Desiderate
of actual Romanian animal husbandry is:
“increased quantity and improved significantly
the quality of milk produced”. In the context of
realization animals production and to satisfy the
intern consumption and export availability of
the specific conditions of market economy, in
Romania is necessary to increase the actual
cattle herd number with appropriate structure
and adequate breed with a high genetic value,
adjustable of market economy in present and
future. Increase the genetically potential and
breeds productivity, concomitantly with
optimizing exploitation technology in small and
medium family farm, optimization management
and economic good administration, represents
important ways to increase milk and beef
actual number of effective and improving milk
and beef quality [3].
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The researches were effectuated during
2006 – 2007 years, on the Romanian Yellow
Spotted breed, exploited in four private farms
from Alba and Cluj counties. The farms
taken in the study was a form of organization
the state ownership and transforming farms
units in companies with private capital after
Romanian revolution from 1989. All these
farms have a good technical basis necessary
for materialization of modern technologies of
breading and exploiting cattle and all farm
herds however have received different
conditions, but properly regarding to feeding
and housing. According to the desired
purpose, on the research herd, we wanted to
put focus on the productive performance of
dairy cows in first lactation from farms of
different sizes. All research was effectuated

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
on 340 heads from four farms: 220 heads
cows from SC Agrotrust farm, 30 heads cows
from SC Agrolact farm, 25 head cows from
SC Unichim farm and 65 heads from SC
Crisan farm. Our researches have been based
on data obtained from official control of milk
production (OCP), and the sheets, data base
designed for this purpose. In presenting and
interpreting the research results on the main
traits of milk production were taken into
account indicators of milk production as: age
of first insemination, age of first calving,
lactation length, milk production for normal
and total lactation. Data from research were
processed statistically using the following
parameters: mean (x), standard error of the
mean (± sx), coefficient of variation (V %),
minimum (m), maximum (M).
Table 1
Difference and significance of difference for milk production between cattle farms
Farms Unichim
***
Crişan 1658,48
Agrotrust 577,22
Agrolact 12,72
Unichim -
ns – p>0,05; * - p<0,05; ** - p<0,01; *** - p<0,001
CONCLUSIONS
Researches conducted and results
obtained regarding dairy cattle breeding on
various-size farms, led to a series of
conclusions and the most important and
significant can be synthesized as follows:
9 Comparative analysis of the four
populations of cows in first lactation, Romanian
spotted cows from two counties, reflect the age at
first calving of 33 months, over the normal,
which show defect growth of young cattle on
during investment period, a general characteristic
of cattle breeding for recent years;
9 Quantitative production of milk and
fat is over the mean on Romanian country but
still low compared to EU countries, with
values of milk production for normal lactation
between 3342 kg milk and 5001 kg milk [1] ;
9 The best milk production are obtained
in SC CRIŞAN farm which owns a herd of 65
heads dairy cow, where milk production for
normal lactation was 5001,36 kg. with 3,97%
fat and 3,21% protein, corresponding to an
average lactation length of 300 days;
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RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The main production traits that characterize
the dairy cows herd refer to age of first calving
(in months), service period and the total and
normal lactation. Average values of the main
indices of production are presented in table 2
and refer to the quantity of milk produced for
duration of lactation, the percentage of fat and
protein produced. Related research and the
obtained results of the main traits of milk
production, regardless of origin, the farms
included in the study, in decreasing order of
rank are as follows: SC Crisan, SC Agrotrust
SC Agrolact and SC Unichim.
Agrolact Agrotrust Crişan
*** ***
1645,75 1081,26 -
564,5 -
-
9 These issues reflect the technological
differences between farms in terms of feeding
equipment, maintenance, milking equipment,
etc. but also differences in the genetic effect of
the use of bulls through the induction of
progress in cattle populations.
REFERENCES
Journal article
[2] Onaciu G.: Characterization of the milk
production traits în cows included în oficial
control of production (OCP) în 4 counties from
Transylvania. Al 5-lea Simpozion Internaţional
Perspective ale Agriculturii Mileniului III, Cluj-
Napoca, Buletin USAMV-CN, 62 /2006 (71-74),
ISSN 1454-2382, 2006
Books
[1] Georgescu Gh., Velea C., Mărgineanu Gh.,
Alexoiu A. Monografia rasei Bălţată românească,
Editura. Triton, Bucureşti, 2001
[3] Onaciu G.: Proiectare şi inginerie tehnologică la
bovine. Casa Cărţii de Ştiinţă, Cluj-Napoca, 2006
 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

Table 2
Milk productive performance of the farms performed by the Romanian Yellow Spotted breed of first lactation

Total lactation Normal lactation

Statis-
Lactation Length Milk Fat Fat Protein Protein Length Milk Fat Fat Protein Protein
tics
(days) (kg) (kg) (%) (kg) (%) (days) (kg) (kg) (%) (kg) (%)

SC UNICHIM ROM X 302,84 3434,88 124,94 3,65 111,21 3,11 281,09 3342,88 121,06 3,63 107,21 3,09
±sx 6,94 151,55 5,23 0,06 6,28 0,05 4,07 133,36 4,48 0,06 5,16 0,05

SC AGRO-LACT X 336,70 3724,71 145,97 3,88 146,70 3,22 288,30 3355,60 130,65 3,84 131,75 3,19
±sx 15,47 280,50 12,59 0,06 11,14 0,07 4,13 251,30 11,74 0,07 11,24 0,07

SC AGROTRUST X 330,14 4310,36 164,0 3,85 135,01 3,13 298,31 3920,10 149,06 3,79 123,10 3,14
±sx 17,26 130,15 6,15 0,03 7,60 0,02 4,52 162,70 4,56 0,03 4,56 0,02

SC CRISAN SRL X 341,35 5356,04 214,91 3,99 186,57 3,24 300,50 5001,36 199,32 3,97 172,77 3,21
±sx 10,15 227,69 0,03 9,73 0,02 5,47 1,68 198,31 0,03 8,33 0,02 3,92

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 BACK
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

SEASONAL RELATED CHANGES IN THE MAJOR

NUTRIENTS OF BOVINE MILK (TOTAL PROTEIN,
LACTOSE, CASEIN, TOTAL FAT AND DRY MATTER)
Augusta Lujerdean, Andrea Bunea, Vioara Mireşan
University of Agricultural Science and Veterinary Medicine Cluj-Napoca
e-mail: titilujerdean@yahoo.com

Abstract
The objective of this study was to analyse the chemical composition of cow milk for an entire
year to provide fundamental information for dairy products making and milk cheese yielding. So an
investigation of seasonal changes of major nutrients of dairy milk was performed over 12 months
beginning in January 2007. Samples were collected weekly from bulk milk shipment in a
commercial dairy products company and analyzed for content (%) of total protein, fat, casein,
lactose and dry matter. The parameters determined were of interest both from a nutritive and
technological point of view. The mean protein content was 3,21±0,10%, lactose 4,87±0,08%, the fat
content 3,58±0,07%, casein 2,58±0,10% and dry matter 12,20±0,11%. The relationship of these
parameters to season was assessed. The highest and lowest values were observed during winter and
summer months respectively.
Keywords: cow milk, nutrients, total protein, casein, lactose, fat, dry matter

INTRODUCTION MATERIALS AND METHODS

Many factors influence the composition
of major nutriens (fat, protein, water and
minerals) in milk within species.
Nutrition or diet modifies fat and protein
concentration of milk. Fat content is the most
sensitive to diet changes and in a lesser
degree milk protein. The concentration of
lactose and minerals, the other solid
constituents of milk doesn’t respond
predictably to the diet quality changes. Milk
composition also can be affected by genetics,
level of milk production, stage of lactation,
udder health (clinical and subclinical
mastitis), season, the age of cow,
environmental temperature or light/dark
ratio.
There are other components of milk
affected by these factors too: the amount of
short chain fatty acids, the quantity of
volatile components, the abundance of
tocopherol, the fraction of all nitrogen
compounds.
The main objective of this study was to
find out the effect of seasonal changes on
chemical composition of milk, in this way
collecting informations for dairy products
making and milk cheese yielding.
The provenience of cow milk samples is a
dairy products factory from Miceştii de
Câmpie, Bistriţa county, that is supplied by
the local farmers from the villages of the
county (Sânmihaiu de Câmpie, Lechinţa,
Visaia, Fântiniţa, Sângiorgiu Nou, Vermes
etc).
Dairy company produces fermentated
milk products, yogurt, butter, cheese,
collecting between 12,000 l (in winter) and
20,000 l (in summer) milk.
The research was carried out an entire
year (2007), monthly were collected and
analyzed 30 samples. All samples were
collected directly from homogenized bulk
milk of a tank in the factory and put in the
200 ml sterile plastic containers, stored at
8oC and immediately transported to the
laboratory to be analysed.
Total fat, protein, casein, lactose were
determined as described by Romanian
standards using a milk analyser (Milko Scan
705) and the dry matter was determined
gravimetrically.

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION winter months when the herbage is not

The parameters analysed, number of
samples used for them are summarized in
Table 1. These parameters were the main
components of milk such as total protein,
total fat and lactose as well as other
components of significance from nutritional
and technological point of view as casein and
dry matter.
The average protein content of the cow
milk was 3,27±0,07% for late autumn winter
period (Jan, Febr, March, Nov, Dec) and
3,17±0,10% in the summer (May-Sept). The
total protein percentage between winter
months and summer months has been shown
differences. The mean fat content of milk
samples was 3,62±0,07% (Jan, Febr, March,
Nov, Dec) and 3,52±0,09% during the warm
months (May, June, July, Aug, Sept).
Generally, milk protein is correlated with
milk fat percentage, if one is high, the other
is usually high too, but the total protein does
not fluctuate as much as fat. The seasonal
variation was due to outdoor grazing in
summer and diet based on hay during the
available. Increasing the fiber content in diet
increases milk fat level.
Lactose fluctuation during the year was
observed too: 5,00±0,09% (Jan, Febr, March,
Nov, Dec) and 4,56±0,08% (May → Sept).
The statement made by some authors that
lactose content of milk is relatively constant
is not valuable in our study. The decrease of
lactose during summer is largely due to
increased intake of grass, a reduce de energy
forage. Winter hay intake restores lactose to
normal.
Casein was found 2,65±0,13% in winter
season and 2,50±0,07% during warm months.
The casein content of milk is related to
cheese making. So there is on opportunity for
a cheesemaker to predict the potential cheese
yield as a function of season.
The average content of dry matter in
summer months was 95,74% of that observed
in winter months indicatind that cows tended
to show similar patterns of dry matter the
entire year.

Table 1
Effect of seasonal changes on the composition of main components of milk (average value ± sx)

Component No of Month
(%) samples Jan Febr March April May June
Total
48 3,28±0,04 3,30±0,10 3,23±0,15 3,14±0,05 3,10±0,12 3,16±0,15
protein
Total fat 48 3,74±0,02 3,68±0,05 3,53±0,10 3,40±0,02 3,52±0,12 3,50±0,06
Lactose 48 4,90±0,05 5,12±0,10 4,96±0,10 5,85±0,07 4,60±0,05 4,55±0,10
Casein 36 2,64±0,20 2,61±0,15 2,62±0,10 2,51±0,10 2,48±0,08 2,53±0,05
Dry watter 50 12,53±0,10 12,50±0,08 12,40±0,15 12,29±0,20 12,31±0,05 11,80±0,08

Component No of Month
(%) samples July August Sept Oct Nov Dec
Total
48 3,18±0,07 3,20±0,10 3,23±0,08 3,20±0,20 3,30±0,10 3,27±0,10
protein
Total fat 48 3,56±0,05 3,52±0,12 3,54±0,10 3,52±0,10 3,70±0,08 3,80±0,10
Lactose 48 4,50±0,05 4,50±0,12 4,65±0,10 4,80±0,09 4,90±0,12 5,15±0,10
Casein 36 2,60±0,04 2,30±0,10 2,60±0,12 2,71±0,06 2,68±0,12 2,74±0,08
Dry watter 50 11,70±0,10 12,0±0,12 11,90±0,14 12,2±0,25 12,37±0,05 12,45±0,07

CONCLUSIONS 2. The mean protein content was

1. The major components of cow milk 3,2±0,07% for winter period and 3,17±0,01%
(total protein, fat, lactose and casein) are during summer months
affected by seasonal changes 3. The mean fat percentage of milk
samples was 3,62±0,07% (January, February,
March, November, December) and

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
3,52±0,09% during the warm months (May
→ Sept).
4. Lactose fluctuation during the seasons
of the year was observed too: 5,00±0,09%
(Jan, Febr, March, Nov, Dec) and
4,56±0,08% (May → Sept).
5. The statement made by some authors
that lactose content of milk is relatively
stable is not valuable in our study
6. Casein was found 2,65±0,13% in
winter season and 2,50±0,07% in summer.
7. The results sustain the idea that a
cheesmaker can predict the potential cheese
yield as function of season.
REFERENCES
Journal articles
[2] O’Brien, B., Murphy, J.J., Connolly, J.F.,
Mehra, B., Guinee, T.P. and Stakelum, G. Effect
of altering the daily herbage allowance in wid
lactation on the composition and processing
characteristics of bovine milk. Journal of Dairy
research, 1997, 64, 621-626
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[3] Phelan, J.A., O’Keeffe, A.M., Keogh, M.K.
and Kelly, P.M., Studies of milk composition and
its relationship to some processing criteria. Irish
Journal of Food Science and Technology 1982, 6,
1-11
[4] Barber, D.G., N.R. Gobins, I.J.C. Hannah, D.P.
Poppi and J.P. Cant., An approach to identifying
factors affecting milk protein concentration in
dairy cattle. Australian Journal of Dairy
Technology 2001, 56 (2), 155
Books
[1] Case, R.A., R.L. Bradley and R.R. Williams,
Chemical and physical methods. In: G.H.
Richardson (Editor) Standard method for the
examination of dairy products 15 edn. American
Public Heath Association, Washington DC, 1985,
372-402
[5] Anonymous Official methods of analysis. The
Association of Analytical Chemists, Arlington,
VA, 1980, 212-220
[6] Atherton, H.V. and J.A.Nowlander, Chemistry
and testing of dairy products 4 th Edn. AVI
Publishing Co., West poot, Connecticut, USA,
1977, 421-418
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE STUDY OF GROWTH

AND DEVELOPMENT OF YOUTH EQUINE BREED
MALE SHAGYA IN THE CONDITIONS OFFERED
BY RĂDĂUŢI TROOP

M. Doliş

Faculty of Animal Sciences, University of Agricultural Science and Veterinary Medicine

„Ion Ionescu de la Brad” Iasi, Romania

Abstract
Based on the corporal measures made after birth, 3 months, 6 months, 1, 2 and 3 years, we
observed the main grow values evolution in young horses, males from Shagya race in the conditions
offered by Rădăuţi troop.
In this work we analysed 3 dimensions that are more important: waist, thoracic perimeter and
tibia perimeter.
Regarding waist, the grow speed was of 12,1% in birth-3 months interval, 20,1% in 3 to 6
months interval, 6,4% between 6 months and 1 year, 3,1% in the 1-2 years interval and 1,2% in the
2-3 years interval. The grow intensity had the next values: 18,4% for 3 to 6 months, 6,2% for the 6
months – 1 year interval, 3% in the 1-2 years and 1,2% in 2 to 3 years.
Concerning thoracic perimeter, the relative grow speed was: 9,4% in birth – 3 months interval,
18,3% in 3 to 6 months, 18,8% in 6 months – 1 year, 7,7% in the 1-2 years and 4,8% in the 2-3
years. The grow intensity had the next values: 9% in the birth – 3 months interval, 16,8% in 3-6
months, 17,2% in 6 months – 1 year, 7,4% in 1-2 years, 4,7% in 2-3 years.
The tibia perimeter had a relative grow speed of: 7,9% in birth – 3 months interval, 15,4% in 3-
6 months, 17,6% in 6 moths – 1 year, 5,4% in 1-2 years and 2,3% in 2-3 years. The grow intensity
had the next values: 7,6% in birth - 3 months interval, 14,3% in 3 to 6 months, 16,2% in 6 months to
1 year, 5,2% in 1-2 years and 2,2% in the 2 to 3 years interval.
In conclusion, Rădăuţi troop offers good conditions for the growing of Shagya race.
Key words: troop, Shagya, horses, measurements, size

INTRODUCTION skeleton and the conformation specific to a

Shagya, considered a long period of time
a variety of the Arabian breed, was
recognized as a different breed in 1978, when
W.A.H.O. (World Arab Horse Organization)
elaborated a decision through which it
considered that all the horses bred according
to the methodology from Babolna, Rădăuţi
and Topolcianky as being assimilated to the
pure blood Arabian Sgahya horse. In the
document attesting the origin of Shagya Arab
horse, at the fourth generation of the total of
16 ascendants there cannot be more than 9
Arabian Pure Blood.
Although it has a high percentage of
Arabian blood, the Shagya breed
distinguishes itself from the Arabian pure
Blood through the bigger waist, the stronger
more robust horse [1,8,12,13,16].
Shagya is currently exploited in Hungary,
Czech Republic, Romania, Austria, USA,
Croatia etc.
At the stud farm in Rădăuţi, the strict
specialization on this breed has begun
relatively recently, practically after the
transfer of the Gidran breed from Rădăuţi to
Tuluceşti (1998). For this reason, taking into
account the reduced volume of information
from the speciality literature referring to the
particularities of the Shagya breed, which
most of the times is confounded with the
Arabian Pure Blood breed, we have
considered appropriate the start a study, with
the purpose to know in more details the

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

process of growth and development of the
youth of this breed.
This scientific paper is part of a larger
project that aims the growing and develops
process of young horses.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
The biological material was represented
by a number of 10 males horses from the
equine young horses of Shagya breed, born in
2004 in Rădăuţi stud farm, whose growth
was monitored until the age of 3 years old,
respectively until the qualification tests.
From the many types of measures made in
this direction, in this work we analysed only
the 3 dimensions that are more important
especially in horse selection activities: waist,
thoracic perimeter and tibia perimeter.
In order to monitor the evolution of the
growth process we carried out body
measurements at birth, at 3 months, 6 months,
12 months, 24 months and 36 months.
The data obtained after the body
measurements were processed and
statistically interpreted, using classical
methods (arithmetical method, the standard
mean deviation, the variation analysis etc.)
The growth of the studied body
dimensions was assessed based on the
following growth:
- The growth energy;
- The growth absolute speed (Va);
- The relative growth speed (Vr);
- The growth intensity (Ic);
- The growth coefficient (Cc).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The obtain data for corporally measures
was processed and analysed (tab. 1). After that
was made the growing curve for each
corporally measure (fig. 1) and was calculated
the growing indices (tab. 2), by the literature
recommendation [2, 3, 4, 9, 10, 11].

Table 1
The growth energy

Dimensions Waist Thoracic perimeter Tibia perimeter

(cm) (cm) (cm)
Age
birth 100,2 ± 1,57 98,9 ± 1,82 11,4 ± 1,08
3 months 112,3 ± 2,51 108,2 ± 3,11 12,3 ± 0,14
6 months 135,0 ± 1,52 128,0 ± 2,76 14,2 ± 0,38
12 months 143,6 ± 0,64 152,1 ± 0,85 16,7 ± 0,10
24 months 148,0 ± 1,30 163,8 ± 3,14 17,6 ± 0,35
36 months 149,8 ± 0,96 171,6 ± 1,90 18,0 ± 0,34

180
160
140
120
100
cm

80 waist

60 thoracic perimeter

40 tibia perimeter

20
0
birth 3 months 6 months 12 months 24 months 36 months

Fig. 2. The growing curve

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

Table 2
The growing indices

The growing ind:

Values
Dimensions Age Va Vr Ic Cc
(cm)
(cm) (%) (%) (%)
birth 100,2 - - - 66,89
3 months 112,3 12,1 12,1 11,4 74,97
6 months 135,0 22,7 20,2 18,4 90,12
Waist 12 months 143,6 8,6 6,4 6,2 95,86
24 months 148,0 4,4 3,1 3,0 98,80
36 months 149,8 1,8 1,2 1,2 100
Total growth 49,6 49,5 - -
birth 98,9 - - - 57,63
3 months 108,2 9,3 9,4 9,0 63,05
6 months 128,0 19,8 18,3 16,8 74,59
Thoracic perimeter 12 months 152,1 24,1 18,8 17,2 88,64
24 months 163,8 11,7 7,7 7,4 95,45
36 months 171,6 7,8 4,8 4,7 100
Total growth 72,7 73,5 - -
birth 11,4 - - - 63,33
3 months 12,3 0,9 7,9 7,6 68,33
6 months 14,2 1,9 15,4 14,3 78,89
Tibia perimeter 12 months 16,7 2,5 17,6 16,2 92,78
24 months 17,6 0,9 5,4 5,2 97,78
36 months 18,0 0,4 2,3 2,2 100
Total growth 6,6 57,9 - -

The obtained results show that on birth
the animals waist (fig. 2) had a main value of
100,2 cm, at 3 years the main value reached
149,8 cm, the main grow being of 49,6 cm
(49,55%). In this case, the grow speed was of
12,1% in birth-3 months interval, 20,1% in 3 to
6 months interval, 6,4% between 6 months and
1 year, 3,1% in the 1-2 years interval and 1,2%
in the 2-3 years interval. The grow intensity had
the next values: 18,4% for 3 to 6 months, 6,2%
for the 6 months – 1 year interval, 3% in the 1-2
years and 1,2% in 2 to 3 years.

100
90
80
70 relative growth speed
60
50 growth intensity
%

40
growth cefficient
30
20
10
0
birth 3 months 6 months 12 months 24 months 36 months
Fig. 2. The growing indices - waist

- 377 -
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

The thoracic perimeter (fig. 3) had on
birth a mean value of 98,85 cm. At 3 years
the mean was 171,6 cm, the main grown
being of 72,7 cm (73,5%). The relative grow
speed was: 9,4% in birth – 3 months interval,
18,3% in 3 to 6 months, 18,8% in 6 months – 1
year, 7,7% in the 1-2 years and 4,8% in the 2-3
years. The grow intensity had the next values:
9% in the birth – 3 months interval, 16,8% in 3-
6 months, 17,2% in 6 months – 1 year, 7,4% in
1-2 years, 4,7% in 2-3 years.

100
90
80
70 relative growth speed
60
growth intensity
50
%

40
growth cefficient
30
20
10
0
birth 3 months 6 months 12 months 24 months 36 months
Fig. 3. The growing indices – thoracic perimeter

The tibia perimeter (fig. 4) had a mean
value of 6,58 cm (57,62%), from 11,42 cm
representing the mean value on birth, to 18 –
the mean value reached at 3 years. It had a
relative grow speed of: 7,9% in birth – 3
months interval, 15,4% in 3-6 months, 17,6% in
6 moths – 1 year, 5,4% in 1-2 years and 2,3%
in 2-3 years. The grow intensity had the next
values: 7,6% in birth - 3 months interval, 14,3%
in 3 to 6 months, 16,2% in 6 months to 1 year,
5,2% in 1-2 years and 2,2% in the 2 to 3 years
interval.

100
90
80
70 relative growth speed

60
growth intensity
50
%

40 growth cefficient
30
20
10
0
birth 3 months 6 months 12 months 24 months 36 months
Fig. 4. The growing indices – tibia perimeter

- 378 -

The presented data in this paper are
compatible with the ones in the speciality
literature [5,6,7,11,14,15], indicating that
Rădăuţi horse herd offers good conditions for
the growing of Shagya race.
CONCLUSIONS
Based on the researches carried out on the
equine young horses of Shagya breed bred in
Rădăuţi stud farm, we draw the following
conclusions:
- each body region has a growth potential
and a characteristic rhythms genetically
determined, but in strong interdependence
with the other regions, so that when
becoming adult, the horse acquires the
general harmony and the body format
specific to the race;
- the growth process knew a maximum
intensity in the first year of life, especially
until the age of 6 (lactation period), after
which the intensity diminished substantially;
- generally, the growth coefficients
registered had values appropriate to the breed
standards, the presented data in this paper are
compatible with the ones in the speciality
literature.
REFERENCES
Journal articles
[1] Antal I.J., Internationale Shagya-Araber
Gesellschaft e.v. Pure Bred Shagya-Arab Society
International, Revista Calul magazin, nr. 4, 2007.
[7] Gharahveysi S., Kashan N.E., Gerami A.,
Torshizi R.V., Estimation of genetic parameters on
conformation traits of the Iranian Arab horses
population, Pakistan Journal of Biological
Sciences;11 (2), 2008.
- 379 -
Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
[12] Lupu N., Arabul, Revista Calul magazin, nr.
3, 2007.
[13] Lupu N., Shagya Arab şi Gidranul, Revista
Calul magazin, nr. 4, 2007.
Books
[2] Cucu G.I., Maciuc V., Maciuc D.,
Cercetarea ştiinţifică şi elemente de tehnică
experimentală în zootehnie, Editura Alfa, Iaşi,
2004.
[3] Furtunescu A., Zootehnie generală şi genetică,
Editura Didactică şi Pedagogică, Bucureşti, 1971.
[4] Doliş M., Gavrilaş A., Tehnologia creşterii
animalelor, Editura Alfa, Iaşi, 2006.
[5] Georgescu G., Ujică V., Lungulescu G., Marcu
N., Tehnologia creşterii cabalinelor şi echitaţie,
Editura Didactică şi Pedagogică, Bucureşti, 1982.
[6] Georgescu G., Petrache E., Tehnologia creşterii
cabalinelor şi echitaţie, Editura Ceres, Bucureşti,
1990.
[8] Gordon Watson M., Lyon R., Montgomery S.,
Cai – ghid complet (traducere), Editura Aquila,93,
2001.
[9] Mărginean G., Georgescu G., Maftei M.,
Îndrumător de lucrări practice pentru exploatarea
cabalinelor, Editura AgroTehnica, Bucureşti, 2005.
[10]. Moldoveanu G., Radu A., Temişan V.,
Aprecierea valorii productive a animalelor după
exterior, Editura Agrosilvică, Bucureşti, 1961.
[11]. Negruţiu E., Petre A., Pipernea N., Genetica
şi ameliorarea animalelor, Editura Didactică şi
Pedagogică, Bucureşti, 1969.
[14] Suciu T., Moldoveanu G., Gligor V.,
Georgescu G., Oţel V., Balaş, N., Zootehnia
României, Vol. IV (cabaline), Editura Academiei,
Bucureşti, 1975.
[15] Velea C., Tîrnoveanu I., Marcu N., Bud I.,
Creşterea cabalinelor, Editura Dacia, Cluj-Napoca,
1980.
[16] Waren J.E., Horse Breeding and Management
(World Animal Science Series), Elsevier Health
Sciences, 1992.
 BACK

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE STUDY OF GROWTH AND

DEVELOPMENT OF YOUTH EQUINE BREED FEMALE
SHAGYA IN THE CONDITIONS OFFERED BY RĂDĂUŢI
TROOP

M. Doliş, Luminiţa Doliş, D. Simeanu, M. Burlică

Faculty of Animal Sciences, University of Agricultural Science and Veterinary Medicine

„Ion Ionescu de la Brad” Iasi, Romania

Abstract
Based on the corporal measures made after birth, 3 months, 6 months, 1, 2 and 3 years, we
observed the main grow values evolution in young horses, females from Shagya race in the
conditions offered by Rădăuţi troop.
In this work we analysed 3 dimensions that are more important: waist, thoracic perimeter and
tibia perimeter.
Regarding waist, the grow speed was of 14,1% in birth-3 years interval, 16% in 3 to 6 months
interval, 6,1% between 6 months and 1 year, 7,6% in the 1-2 years interval and 1,4% in the 2-3
years interval. The grow intensity had the next values: 14,9% for 3 to 6 months, 5,9% for the 6
months–1 year interval, 7,3% in the 1-2 years and 1,4% in 2 to 3 years.
Concerning thoracic perimeter, the relative grow speed was: 12,8% in birth – 3 months
interval, 16,7% in 3 to 6 months, 20,9% in 6 months–1 year, 3,6% in the 1-2 years and 6,8% in the
2-3 years. The grow intensity had the next values: 12,1% in the birth–3 months interval, 15,4% in 3-
6 months, 18,9% in 6 months–1 year, 3,6% in 1-2 years, 5,4% in 2-3 years.
The tibia perimeter had a relative grow speed of: 8,8 in birth–3 months interval, 24,3% in 3-6
months, 7,5% in 6 moths–1 year, 3,9% in 1-2 years and 3,6% in 2-3 years. The grow intensity had
the next values: 8,4% in birth-3 months interval, 21,7% in 3 to 6 months, 7,2% in 6 months to 1
year, 3,8% in 1-2 years and 3,5% in the 2 to 3 years interval.
In conclusion, Rădăuţi troop offers good conditions for the growing of Shagya race.
Key words: troop, Shagya, horses, measurements, size

INTRODUCTION 16 ascendants there cannot be more than 9

This scientific paper is part of a larger
project that aims the growing and develops
process of young horses.
Shagya is currently exploited in Hungary,
Czech Republic, Romania, Austria, USA,
Croatia etc.
Shagya, considered a long period of time
a variety of the Arabian breed, was
recognized as a different breed in 1978, when
W.A.H.O. (World Arab Horse Organization)
elaborated a decision through which it
considered that all the horses bred according
to the methodology from Babolna, Rădăuţi
and Topolcianky as being assimilated to the
pure blood Arabian Sgahya horse. In the
document attesting the origin of Shagya Arab
horse, at the fourth generation of the total of
Arabian Pure Blood.
Although it has a high percentage of
Arabian blood, the Shagya breed
distinguishes itself from the Arabian pure
Blood through the bigger waist, the stronger
skeleton and the conformation specific to a
more robust horse [1,8,12,13,16].
At the stud farm in Rădăuţi, the strict
specialization on this breed has begun
relatively recently, practically after the
transfer of the Gidran breed from Rădăuţi to
Tuluceşti (1998). For this reason, taking into
account the reduced volume of information
from the speciality literature referring to the
particularities of the Shagya breed, which
most of the times is confounded with the
Arabian Pure Blood breed, we have

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

considered appropriate the start a study, with
the purpose to know in more details the
process of growth and development of the
youth of this breed.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
The biological material was represented
by a number of 10 females horses from the
equine young horses of Shagya breed , born
in 2004 in Rădăuţi stud farm, whose growth
was monitored until the age of 3 years old,
respectively until the qualification tests.
From the many types of measures made
in this direction, in this work we analysed
only the 3 dimensions that are more
important especially in horse selection
activities: waist, thoracic perimeter and tibia
perimeter.
In order to monitor the evolution of the
growth process we carried out body
measurements at birth, at 3 months, 6
months, 12 months, 24 months and 36
months.
The data obtained after the body
measurements were processed and
statistically interpreted, using classical
methods (arithmetical method, the standard
mean deviation, the variation analysis etc.)
The growth of the studied body
dimensions was assessed based on the
following growth:
- The growth energy;
- The growth absolute speed (Va);
- The relative growth speed (Vr);
- The growth intensity (Ic);
- The growth coefficient (Cc).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The obtain data for corporally measures
was processed and analysed (tab. 1). After
that was made the growing curve for each
corporally measure (fig. 1) and was
calculated the growing indices (tab. 2; fig. 2),
by the literature recommendation
[2,3,4,9,10,11].

Table 1
The growth energy

Dimensions Waist Thoracic perimeter Tibia perimeter

(cm) (cm) (cm)
Age
birth 97,3 ± 2,37 98,2 ± 1,30 11,2 ± 0,18
3 months 111,0 ± 2,55 110,8 ± 2,88 12,2 ± 0,16
6 months 128,8 ± 1,03 129,3 ± 2,11 15,1 ± 0,48
12 months 136,6 ± 1,14 156,3 ± 1,99 16,3 ± 0,18
24 months 147,0 ± 1,24 162,0 ± 2,72 16,9 ± 0,24
36 months 149,0 ± 1,30 171,0 ± 2,23 17,5 ± 0,21

The obtained results show that on birth
the animals waist had a main value of 97,3
cm, at 3 years the main value reached 149
cm, the main grow being of 51,7 cm
(53,13%).
In this case, the grow speed was of 14,1%
in birth-3 years interval, 16% in 3 to 6 months
interval, 6,1% between 6 months and 1 year,
7,6% in the 1-2 years interval and 1,4% in the
2-3 years interval.
The grow intensity had the next values:
14,9% for 3 to 6 months, 5,9% for the 6
months–1 year interval, 7,3% in the 1-2 years
and 1,4% in 2 to 3 years.
The thoracic perimeter had on birth a
mean value of 98,2 cm. At 3 years the mean
was 170 cm, the main grown being of 71,8
cm (73,11%).
The relative grow speed was: 12,8% in
birth – 3 months interval, 16,7% in 3 to 6
months, 20,9% in 6 months–1 year, 3,6% in the
1-2 years and 6,8% in the 2-3 years.
The grow intensity had the next values:
12,1% in the birth–3 months interval, 15,4% in
3-6 months, 18,9% in 6 months–1 year, 3,6% in
1-2 years, 5,4% in 2-3 years.

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

180

160

140

120

100
cm

80 waist

60 thoracic perimeter
tibia perimeter
40

20

0
birth 3 months 6 months 12 months 24 months 36 months

Fig. 1. The growing curve

Table 2
The growing indices

The growing ind:

Values
Dimensions Age Va Vr Ic Cc
(cm)
(cm) (%) (%) (%)
birth 97,3 - - - 65,30
3 months 111,0 13,7 14,1 13,2 74,50
6 months 128,8 17,8 16,0 14,9 86,44
Waist 12 months 136,6 7,8 6,1 5,9 91,68
24 months 147,0 10,4 7,6 7,3 98,66
36 months 149,0 2,0 1,4 1,4 100
Total growth 51,7 53,1 - -
birth 98,2 - - - 57,43
3 months 110,8 12,6 12,8 12,1 64,80
6 months 129,3 18,5 16,7 15,4 75,61
Thoracic perimeter 12 months 156,3 27,0 20,9 18,9 91,40
24 months 162,0 5,7 3,6 3,6 94,74
36 months 171,0 9,0 5,6 5,4 100
Total growth 72,8 74,1 - -
birth 11,20 - - - 64,00
3 months 12,18 0,98 8,8 8,4 69,60
6 months 15,14 2,96 24,3 21,7 86,51
Tibia perimeter 12 months 16,27 1,13 7,5 7,2 92,97
24 months 16,90 0,63 3,9 3,8 96,57
36 months 17,50 0,60 3,6 3,5 100
Total growth 6,30 56,3 - -

The tibia perimeter had a mean value of
6,3 cm (56,25%), from 11,2 cm representing
the mean value on birth, to 17,5 – the mean
value reached at 3 years. It had a relative
grow speed of: : 8,8 in birth–3 months interval,
24,3% in 3-6 months, 7,5% in 6 moths–1 year,
3,9% in 1-2 years and 3,6% in 2-3 years.
The grow intensity had the next values:
8,4% in birth-3 months interval, 21,7% in 3 to 6
months, 7,2% in 6 months to 1 year, 3,8% in 1-
2 years and 3,5% in the 2 to 3 years interval.

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

w aist
100
90
80
70 re la t iv e gro wt h s pe e d
60
50
%

gro wt h int e ns it y
40
30 gro wt h c e f f ic ie nt
20
10
0
birth 3 6 12 24 36
m onths m onths m onths m onths m onths

100 thoracic perim eter

90
80
70 re la t iv e gro wt h s pe e d
60
50
%

gro wt h int e ns it y
40
30 gro wt h c e f f ic ie nt
20
10
0
birth 3 6 12 24 36
m onths m onths m onths m onths m onths

100 tibia perim eter

90
80
70 re la t iv e gro wt h s pe e d
60
50
%

gro wt h int e ns it y
40
30 gro wt h c e f f ic ie nt
20
10
0
birth 3 6 12 24 36
m onths m onths m onths m onths m onths

Fig. 2. The growing indices

- 383 -
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
The presented data in this paper are
compatible with the ones in the speciality
literature [5,6,7,11,14,15], indicating that
Rădăuţi horse herd offers good conditions for
the growing of Shagya race.
CONCLUSIONS
Based on the researches carried out on the
equine young horses of Shagya breed bred in
Rădăuţi stud farm, we draw the following
conclusions:
- each body region has a growth potential
and a characteristic rhythms genetically
determined, but in strong interdependence
with the other regions, so that when
becoming adult, the horse acquires the
general harmony and the body format
specific to the race;
- the growth process knew a maximum
intensity in the first year of life, especially
until the age of 6 (lactation period), after
which the intensity diminished substantially;
- generally, the growth coefficients
registered had values appropriate to the breed
standards, but we notice small deviations,
such as the fact that the growth speed,
respectively the growth intensity, which,
according to the data from the specialized
literature, registered rather smaller values
than the period of 3-6 months.
REFERENCES
Journal articles
[1] Antal I.J., Internationale Shagya-Araber
Gesellschaft e.v. Pure Bred Shagya-Arab Society
International, Revista Calul magazin, nr. 4, 2007.
[7] Gharahveysi S., Kashan N.E., Gerami A.,
Torshizi R.V., Estimation of genetic parameters on
conformation traits of the Iranian Arab horses
- 384 -
population, Pakistan Journal of Biological
Sciences;11 (2), 2008.
[12] Lupu N., Arabul, Revista Calul magazin, nr.
3, 2007.
[13] Lupu N., Shagya Arab şi Gidranul, Revista
Calul magazin, nr. 4, 2007.
Books
[2] Cucu G.I., Maciuc V., Maciuc D.,
Cercetarea ştiinţifică şi elemente de tehnică
experimentală în zootehnie, Editura Alfa, Iaşi,
2004.
[3] Furtunescu A., Zootehnie generală şi genetică,
Editura Didactică şi Pedagogică, Bucureşti, 1971.
[4] Doliş M., Gavrilaş A., Tehnologia creşterii
animalelor, Editura Alfa, Iaşi, 2006.
[5] Georgescu G., Ujică V., Lungulescu G., Marcu
N., Tehnologia creşterii cabalinelor şi echitaţie,
Editura Didactică şi Pedagogică, Bucureşti, 1982.
[6] Georgescu G., Petrache E., Tehnologia creşterii
cabalinelor şi echitaţie, Editura Ceres, Bucureşti,
1990.
[8] Gordon Watson M., Lyon R., Montgomery S.,
Cai – ghid complet (traducere), Editura Aquila,93,
2001.
[9] Mărginean G., Georgescu G., Maftei M.,
Îndrumător de lucrări practice pentru exploatarea
cabalinelor, Editura AgroTehnica, Bucureşti, 2005.
[10]. Moldoveanu G., Radu A., Temişan V.,
Aprecierea valorii productive a animalelor după
exterior, Editura Agrosilvică, Bucureşti, 1961.
[11]. Negruţiu E., Petre A., Pipernea N., Genetica
şi ameliorarea animalelor, Editura Didactică şi
Pedagogică, Bucureşti, 1969.
[14] Suciu T., Moldoveanu G., Gligor V.,
Georgescu G., Oţel V., Balaş, N., Zootehnia
României, Vol. IV (cabaline), Editura Academiei,
Bucureşti, 1975.
[15] Velea C., Tîrnoveanu I., Marcu N., Bud I.,
Creşterea cabalinelor, Editura Dacia, Cluj-Napoca,
1980.
[16] Waren J.E., Horse Breeding and Management
(World Animal Science Series), Elsevier Health
Sciences, 1992.
 BACK

Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

THE PRODUCTION OF CALVES FOR FATTENING

AN ALTERNATIVE FOR MILK QUOTA!

M. Roman

SEMTEST BVN Târgu Mureş

web: www.semtest-bvn.ro, e-mail: roman@semtest-bvn.ro

Abstracts
The maintenance of cattle population is conditioned by an opening production market. The milk
quote that rules as a numerical increasing limitative factor can have the beef production as
alternative solution. This paper presents both technological alternatives for fattening calves and
genetic combinations between breeding and imported breeds.
Key words: milk quote, beef calves, fattening, genetic combinations

The national cattle population is around considering the feeding resources,

1.5 mil. heads, ranked 7th out of the 27th
UE-members countries. This production
potential ought to be more efficiently
assessed and carried out.
The milk quota of 3.3 mil. To, with the
estimated growth, taking into account an
average production of 4000 kg, can be
fulfilled within around 800000 cows.
What strategy do we need for the
remainder of cow population?
The alternative solution for the milk
production is the beef production. The main
source for fattening is the male calves, which
accounts for 65-70% of the beef production,
the remainder being produced by the young
female calves and cows.
The present breed structure represents
65% dual-purpose breeds – Bălţată, Brună,
Pinzgau and 35% milk breed – Friză type
cows. This allows us to encourage the
introduction of fattening calves technology,
pedoclimatic conditions and manpower
available.
The fattening calves production is carried
out trough two technological alternatives:
− In dairy farms – that breed dairy or dual-
purpose cows – part of the cows
population is inseminated by dual-
purpose or beef breed and the obtained
progeny are used for fattening.
− Suckling cows technology (nursing
cows, beef cows, cow and calf operation
or other names), in which no milking is
required, the calves are kept along with
their mothers, the milk production being
harvested trough suckling.
Basically any cattle breed (dairy, dual-
purpose or beef breed) can be utilized for the
production of fattening calves, assuming that
the breeding and fattening technology are
fulfilled to the breed's needs – Table 1.

Table 1. Production alternatives for fattening calves

Mother breed Father breed Type of carcass

Milk breed Milk breed White beef

Dual -purpose – beef Beef – 150 kg

b d
Dual-purpose breed Dual-purpose breed Heavy carcass ~ 350 kg

Beef breed Heavy carcass ~ 350 kg

Beef breed Beef breed Heavy carcass ~ 350 kg

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 Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

The structural cattle population analysis
as breeding technology, among UE-25
members (without Romania and Bulgaria),
shows that in 5 countries – France, United
Kingdom, Ireland, Portugal, Spain – there are
6.35 mil. cows for milk production and 9.17
mil. cows for beef, which represents 144% in
favor of fattening. In 20 countries there are
16.6 mil. cows for milk production versus 2.8
mil. beef cows, which account for 17% of the
total population for suckling cows.
Each country utilizes the existing breed
structure, adapted to the local pedoclimatical
conditions. The introduction of another breed
along with its new technology – is accepted
as change and progress, but only with caution
and to be based on measurable scientifically
and technically analysis.
Synthesizing the results of slaughtering
dual-purpose and milk breeds revels that it
can be obtained heavy carcasses with good
commercial standing – Table 2.

Table 2. Slaughtering results – Bayer, 2005

Slaughterhouses, Animals Age, Carcass

Breed
number number months
Weight, kg Net gain, g Commercial
Fleckvieh 37 255046 18,9 385 667 3,64
Brună 29 17473 19,8 375 627 2,74
Pinzgau 17 50 21,1 368 587 3,02
Holstein 35 3396 20,7 352 562 2,05

Similarly, having the same breed in our beef breed, shows that the daily average gain
country, under normal breeding conditions, the can be similar among races but with some
slaughtering results should be comparable. differences concerning the carcasses
Applying this analysis to beef progeny efficiency and commercial stand – Table 3.
performance test, within dual-purpose and
Table 3.
Performance results for progeny testing program – Germany, 2005
Slaughtering Carcass
Breed
Age Weight, kg SMZ Efficiency, % Weight, kg Commercial stand
Fleckvieh 510 644 1228 57,0 370 3,09
Fleckvieh beef 510 665 1287 58,0 378 3,38
Brună 450 566 1299 56,2 303 2,38
Angus 480 602 1254 58,1 341 3,60
Limousine 510 606 1298 63,0 376 4,30
Hereford 510 664 1443 57,0 364 2,83
Pinzgauer 450 592 1252 55,4 318 2,75

Results show that under normal housing
and feeding conditions, each breed outcomes
according to its genetic potential.
The alternative to switching from milk
production to cow and calf operation is based
on keeping the cow together with her calf,
efficient use of the pasture, no-milking, and
the entire milk production to be harvested by
sucking calves.
Scientific researches shows that in this
system is important to have an average-size
breed cows as the most favorable solution for the
extensive maintenance of the pasture under the
conditions of valuable carcasses production. This
technology implies exigence, testing programs in
which is important both the calf's weight at
weaning – 200 days, and the mother's nursing
ability (calves production mother breed).

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

In our country, E. Silvaş, M. Roman, C. Fleckvieh and as paternal breed Charolaise,

Podar and collaborators (1977) carried out Piemontaise, Romagnola, Chianina,
researches concerning cow and calf Marchigiana, and in another research Angus.
production having as maternal breed Bălţată-

Table 4. Dynamics of calf's bodyweight at 6 and 18 months

Bodyweight, kg SMZ, g
Group of hybrids
6 months 18 months 4-18
Romagnola x BR 182 478 834
Piemontaise x BR 205 489 810
Marchigiana x BR 161 395 696
Chianina x BR 177 441 775
Charolaise x BR 219 483 801
BR x BR 191 474 798

This technology appears simple but no the final economical results are negative thus
simplistic, cause each time period has its in need of subvention.
technological importance and significance for The testing results of the calves breed
each cattle category, young calves and under this technology are shown as bellow, in
fattening animals. 342 farms in Niederösterreich – Table 5.
This is an alternative to milk quota, but
Table 5
Animals 200 days 365 days
Breed Sex
number
Bodyweight SMZ Bodyweight SMZ
Angus M 107 266,8 1164 389,5 975
F 180 252,6 1096 366,8 919
Blonda d'Aq M 81 268,4 1092 451,4 1105
F 90 243,6 997 394,8 966
Charolaise M 191 276,1 1165 452,9 1121
F 200 261,6 1104 387,3 944
Fleckvieh M 596 290,7 1232 472,9 1175
F 1300 263,2 1105 398,1 976
Galloway M 205,2 864 328,6 811
F 198,5 835 290,7 714
Limousine M 266,5 1112 429,0 1055
F 247,0 1034 359,7 878
Murbonder M 269,6 1143 429,1 1063
F 248,2 1047 370,5 914
Pinzgau M 263,0 1097 462,0 1142
F 248,5 1051 402,4 994
Blondvieh M 264,5 1127 371,5 911
F 226,6 954 328,1 804

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It is noticeable the maintenance of some − Average daily gain increases by 5-8%.

local breed, that under less favorable
conditions for other breeds, realizes
acceptable gain and production growth.
Concerning the use of BB – Blue
Belgique – as paternal breed, we have the
Hungarian based results. It revels that for
pure breed the calving is made trough
cezarian, due to mother and calf's
anatomically characteristics. For the cross-
breed F1 females, the percentage for difficult
calvings is similar to the ones for the
maternal breeds.
The cross-breeding results for BB and
Hungarian breeds such as Holstein Frisian,
Lincoln Red, Hungarian Grey, Fleckvieh,
shows that:
− Slaughtering efficiency increases by 6,5-
14,0%.
− Meat percentage increases by 20-27%.
− F1 females have a higher efficiency
during fattening.
We caution about the cross-breeding with
BB, taking into account the smaller size of
the cows from the Romanian farms, and the
use of an intensive breeding program for
achieving results in fattening.
A summary for the results of the cross-
breeding program in beef production is
shown by the swiss researchers in the Tachete
rouge magazine, 1995.

Calving Carcass Calves destination

Father breed Net gain
process value
Intensive Extensive
Fleckvieh xx xx/xxx xx/xxx xxx x
Blonda d'Aq x/xx xxx xxx xxx -
Limousine xx xx/xxx xx/xxx xxx xx
Charolaise xx xxx xxx xxx x
Angus xxx xx xx/xxx xx xxx
Brună xx xx x/xx xx xx

The above data allows us to choose the Rinderzuch, Ausgabe, 1/2007.

optimal solution based on the calves use for a [5] xxx2005: Rinderporduktion in Deutschland,
certain fattening process (extensive or 2005.
[6] xxx2006: Die Österreichische Rinderzuch,
intensive).
2006
Book
REFERENCES [2] Roman M.,: Producerea de viţei destinaţi
Journal articles îngrăşării, Ameliorare şi Reproducţie, 5/2005, Ed.
[1] Podar C., şi colab.,: Lucrări ştiinţifice. Volum Publivent, 2005.
omagial, 1947-1997, Ed. Transilvania, 1997. [3] Silvaş E., şi colab.,: Lucrări ştiinţifice, Ed.
[4] Zottl E.,: Leistungsprüfung für Fleischrinder, Tehnică Agricolă, Bucureşti, 1989.
Fachzeitschrift der Niederöstereichischen

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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

RESEARCH ON THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THE

DEER MEAT PRESERVED BY FREEZING

P.C. Boişteanu, Roxana Lazăr, Ancuţa Elena Coşuleanu,

Alina Narcisa Postolache

University of Agricultural Science and Veterinary Medicine

„Ion Ionescu de la Brad” Iasi, Romania
e-mail: paulb@univagro-iasi.ro

Abstract
The effectuated researches are part of a study program of hunting species that includes
haematological and biochemical profile establishmen tin consideration of estimating physiological
profile, as well as the analysis of nutritive value of obtained meat from these.
In the present work are analyzed dates about nourishment values of cervide meat harvested in
N-E Romania .
Interest has risen for hunting sportive activity and for unanimously esteems of culinary
preparation results of cervide meat, needs scientific argumentation in consideration of
characterization of growing performances on meat quality.
There has been analyzed with help of Food-Check meat evidence harvested from muscular
regions in consideration of chemical determination and the appreciation of its nutritive values.
Meat quality appreciation has been made throw establishment of organoleptic properties on
fresh meat as well as on preserved meat throw congealment and chemical determination was made
only on preserved meat.
The analysis of studied chemical parameters distinguishes a convenient rapport of chemical
components that locates cervide meat in the category of primary meat domain utilizable most
favourable for man nourishment.
Key words: stag, chemical composition of meat, Longissimus dorsi

INTRODUCTION MATERIAL AND METHOD

Meat quality appreciation is a process
that includes the analyse of physic –
chemical and organoleptic parameters,
establishing the nutritional, biological, food
and culinary value [3].
There were processed samples for
determination of protein, collagen, fat, water
and pH, knowning that the nutritional value is
given by the expression of these parameters and
the sensory characteristics are based on
relationships in which they are found [1].
The evidence of biochemical characteristics
of meat from deer, differentiated by gender,
allows its classification among the meat quality,
fact which it places into consumer preferences
as a refined meat [2].
As biological material have been used 7
individuals, 4 males and 3 females, the
common red deer (Cervus elaphus L.),
harvested in N-E Romania.
Processing of samples was done using
Food – Check Analyzer, on the muscle
regions, for determination of chemical
composition and appreciation of their
nutrition value.
Meat quality appreciation was made by
establishing the organoleptic properties of
warm meat, also at the one preserved by
freezing; chemical tests were performed only
on preserved meat.
In terms of chemical composition there
have been followed: the contents of protein,
fat, collagen, water and the pH value.

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Automatic Food – Check Analyzer

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION These examinations included the

The nutritional value of meat is reflected
by the high content of protein - which contain
in physiological proportion all the necessary
amino acids of the body.
The content in minerals, especially
microelements, vitamins and biostimulants
increase the nutritional and organic value of
meat.
In correlation with high nutritional value
of meat is its digestibility, reflected by the
structure of muscle tissue and its chemical
composition.
determination of protein, fat, collagen, water
and pH values; is known that the digestibility
of sarcoplasmatic protein is higher than the
one of the stroma (collagen, elastin).
One element that decreases the amount of
game meat digestibility is the quantity of
blood retained in the capillaries of muscle
and the amount of intramuscular fat.
The values of protein content at males
(Tab.1) are between 21.5, at gastrocnemian
muscle and 22.1, at dorsal longissimus
muscle.

Table 1
The chemical composition of red deer carcass
Specification pH Fat Water Proteins Collagen
External intercostals
5,72 2,1 75,8 21,8 20,2
muscles
Semitendinos muscle 5,79 2,3 75,6 21,8 20,8
Inter-transversal long
5,75 3,2 75,0 21,6 20,0
muscle
Gastrocnemian muscle 6,09 3,5 74,6 21,5 19,9
Longissimus dorsi muscle 6,1 2,9 74,2 22,1 19,1

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

The determined values of the proteins are
superior to those cited by the literature for
domestic ruminants.
The values for fat ranged from 2.1 in
external intercostals muscles to 3.5 in
gastrocnemian.
The fat content reflects differences
between the morph structure of venison meat
and the one of domestic ruminants, in which
the average of fat percent is 11.58% (with
differences due to the fattening, age and
gender).
Determination of collagen content
showed a lower level in dorsal longissimus
muscle, respectively 19.1%, the highest value
of 20.8% was recorded at semitendinos
muscle.
In accordance with the values of present
parameters, the percentage of water was also
determinated, it varied between 74.2% in the
Longissimus dorsi muscle and 75.8% in
external intercostals muscles.
As in the case of the determinations
effectuated on the same muscles, harvested
from domestic animals, the nutritional value,
rank in terms of chemical component showed
that the nutritive value is higher in dorsal
longissimus muscle.
The value of pH was between 5.75 at
long inter-transversal muscle and 6.1 to
dorsal longissimus muscle, which it
represents the properly entered in the
parameters cited by literature.
The tests carried out on meat provided
from females are presented in Table 2.

Table 2
The chemical composition of roe carcass
Specification pH Fat Water Proteins Collagen
External intercostals
6,8 4,1 73,9 21,3 19,3
muscles
Semitendinos muscle 6,09 2,6 75,4 21,7 20,1
Inter-transversal long
6,10 2,8 75,1 21,6 20,0
muscle
Gastrocnemian muscle 6,04 2,6 75,2 22,0 19,7
Longissimus dorsi muscle 6,8 3,9 74,4 22,1 19,1

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80
Intercostals
external muscles
70
Semitendinosus
60 muscle

50 Long
intertranversal
muscle
40 Gastrocnemian
muscle
30
Longissimus dorsi
20 muscle

10

0
pH Fat Water Proteins Collagen

It was notified that the differences
between chemical composition, determined
between gender performance, reflected by
growth performance and probably the period
of males collection was realized (the rut
period), fact that influence the behaviour and
the nutritional level.
Analysis that included the chemical
composition of internal organs did not show
differences related to sex and not reveal
differences from the literature.(Table 3).

Table 3
The chemical composition of internal organs at true deer
Specification pH Fat Water Proteins Collagen
Liver 6,40 5,4 73,2 21,0 19,1
Heart 6,28 5,8 72,7 21,0 19,4
Kidney 6,7 8,0 70,9 20,5 18,8

80
70
60
Liver
50
Heart
40
Kidney
30
20
10
0
pH Fat Water Proteins Collagen

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CONCLUSIONS
1. This study highlights that the
characteristics of chemical composition of
red deer meat is similar to the one from
domestic ruminants in poor condition of
fattening.
2. The ratio between analised parameters
reflects the higher value from the point of
view of nutrition, biological and food of meat
from deer, the meat being found in the
current preferences of consumers (fat /
collagen reduced).
3.It should be considered during the
harvesting period of studied specimens, since
the male are in the matching period, fact
which is reflected in lower organoleptic
properties of meat from males, fact
demonstrated by the different results in
chemical composition of meat from both
genders. We believe that the ratio of
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
chemical constituents is more favorable in
females caused by a higher percentage of fat
with beneficial consequences on the energy
value and culinary qualities.
REFERENCES
Book article
1. Anderson, B.A., Clements, M.L., Dickey, L.E.,
Exler, J. And Hoke, I.M., Composition of Foods:
Lamb, Veal, and Game Products; Raw, Processed,
Prepared. USDA Agricultural Handbook, 1989
Journal articles
2.Hoffman L.C., Eva Wiklund, Game and venison
– meat for the modern consumer Meat Science 74:
197–208, 2006
3. Lydia C. Medeiros, Busboon , J.R., Field A.R.,
Janet C. Miller, Betty Holmes, Nutritional Content
of Game Meat, Departments of Family and
Consumer Sciences and Animal
Sciences,Cooperative Extension Service, College
of Agriculture, University of Wyoming, 2002
 BACK
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

PROCEDURE FOR ASSESSMENT OF THE LEAN MEAT

PERCENTAGE AS A CONSEQUENCE OF THE NEW EU
REFERENCE DISSECTION METHOD IN PIG CARCASS
CLASSIFICATION

G. Movileanu

Valahia University

Abstract
Pig carcass grading based on instrumental classification has as a purpose the stimulation of the
producers in producing pigs of the desired quality. Council Regulation EC Nr. 3220/84 says: the
classification should be linked to the muscular tissue percentage obtained from the dissection, as much
as possible using a knife, on all striated muscular tissues from the carcass. The reference method
involved is laborious. In 1990/1991, a test was done by CE with the purpose of finding a much simple
dissection method. The results of this test were described by Cook and Yates (1992). A general
agreement was reached; the dissection would be made only on the four main parts, which represent
75% from the total of the striated muscles. The striated muscles are known as the muscles from the
skeleton which have a transversal structure in the microscope light. In consequence, once the
numerator changed according with the denominator, this leads to a radical change of the lean meat
percentage. However, the introduction of a scaling factor allows an average EU level of about 55%
muscular tissue.
Key words: pig carcass, grading, dissection, lean meat, EU refference

INTRODUCTION average EU level of about 55% muscular

Pig carcass grading based on instrumental
classification has as a purpose the stimulation
of the producers in producing pigs of the
desired quality. Council Regulation EC Nr.
3220/84 says: the classification should be
linked to the muscular tissue percentage
obtained from the dissection, as much as
possible using a knife, on all striated muscular
tissues from the carcass. The reference method
involved is laborious. In 1990/1991, a test was
done by CE with the purpose of finding a
much simple dissection method. The results of
this test were described by Cook and Yates
(1992). A general agreement was reached; the
dissection would be made only on the four
main parts, which represent 75% from the total
of the striated muscles. The striated muscles
are known as the muscles from the skeleton
which have a transversal structure in the
microscope light. In consequence, once the
numerator changed according with the
denominator, this leads to a radical change of
the lean meat percentage. However, the
introduction of a scaling factor allows an
tissue.
The reference method has as a purpose
the comparability and the reproducibility;
especially when muscles from only some of
the joints are dissected, definitions of the
jointing procedure are important and should
be clear. It is necessary that the definition of
the carcass, the jointing and tissue separation
to be well-documented, in order to be used as
a guide for the new EU reference method.
Assessment of the muscular tissue
percentage
The numerator for calculation of the
muscle tissue percentage consists of the total
weight of the muscle tissue from leg, loin,
belly and tenderloin. Total muscle weight of
these joints is defined as the difference
between total weight of these joints before
dissection and total weight of fat, skin and
bones after dissection. In this way the
differences in weight, before and after the
dissection, which are due to the cutting and
evaporation losses, are included in the
numerator. On the tenderloin the dissection is

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not done, its total weight is considered as a
muscle tissue. In general the fasciae and
tendons are left on the muscles, as it will be
discussed later on.
The denominator for calculation of the
muscular tissue percentage is defined as
∑ ( J − SSF
Y = C × 100 ×
in which:
Y = muscular tissue percentage
C = 1.3 (a constant scaling factor)
J = weight of joint before dissection
SSF = weight of skin with subcutaneous fat
IF = weight of intermuscular fat
B = weight of bones
T = weight of tenderloin
4
= sum of weight of the joints ham, shoulder and loin including back fat and belly
∑
12
∑ = sum of weight of all 12 joints
In Figure 1 are given the various joints of the new EU reference method
MATERIAL AND METHOD
Selection of the carcass
The left side of the carcass is used for
dissection of the muscular tissue. Apart from
the selection of carcasses from a statistical
point of view, only those carcasses which
have been splitted well (including the right
splitting of the head and sternum) should be
used, along the backbone as well as the belly.
If the carcass is not splitted correctly, the
next carcass with the desired characteristics
should be selected (breed/ hybrid and/or sex,
weight, back fat thickness, muscle tissue
percentage.) In some slaughter-houses the
whole head is cut, but still connected though
the skin and hanging on a semi carcass until
weighting at 45 minutes post-mortem. In
such cases, regarding the selection of
carcasses, the head should be weighted and
divided by two in order to obtain the right
carcass weight. Nevertheless the head should
be splitted for the brain to be removed.
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
being the sum of all the joints whether or not
to be dissected.
The calculation formula of the muscular
tissue percentage is as follows (an example
of the calculation is given in Appendix I):
− IF − B ) + T
12
∑ J
Preparation of the carcass
Before dissection the carcass must be
prepared in order to meet the requirements
of Council Regulation (EEC) Nr. 3220/84
and Regulation (EC) Nr. 3513/93, in which
the carcass is defined as: “slaughtered
animal, bled and eviscerated, whole or
divided down the midline, without tongue,
bristles, hooves and genital organs and
without flare fat, kidneys and diaphragm.”
The parts that do not belong to the carcass
should be the first removed, and also the
urogenital tissue or remnants of the diaphragm
(especially diaphragma pars lumbalis).
As a difference from the Council
Regulation, the tail, in the sense of the EU
reference method, does not belong to the
carcass. It should be removed between the
6th and the 7th coccygeal vertebra. This also
applies to the removal of the spinal cord and
the brain before dissection. The cold carcass
side weight is recorded before starting
dissection as a check for weighing mistakes
during dissection.
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

1 Leg
2 Loin
3 Neck
4 Head + cheek
5 Front shank + front foot
6 Hind shank + hind foot
7 Tenderloin
8 Shoulder
9 Jawl
10 Belly
11 Ventral part of belly
12 Two ventral part of belly

Figure 1

The jointing of the carcass according to the EU Reference method; the main joints to be
dissected are indicated as areas within the thick lines. (Figure 1)

Photo 1. The carcass divided into various joints according to the Eu Reference method.

Dissection dissection of muscle by muscle. All weights,

Only the four main parts are fully except side weight, should be recorded at
dissected; this means the complete tissue least to the nearest 10 gram or better to the
separation of ham, loin, shoulder and belly nearest 5 or 1 gram, if possible.
into muscle, bone and fat. Fat is divided into
subcutaneous fat including skin and
intemusculat fat. The latter remains after

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS reference method for dissection in UE

In making the National Test of
dissection, 145 carcasses from 14 farms
representative for the pig population in
Romania, were dissected. The dissection was
made in a separate room in ALDIS
slaughter-house, at 24-28 hours from the
slaughtering, in perfect refrigerating
conditions ( temperature under 10 degrees).
The cutting was made by the same
experimentated butcher, according to the
(Wakstra and Merkus, 1996). The losses of
weight during the dissection were extremley
small, around 0.38% for the leg, 0.49% for
the loin, 0.44% for the shoulder and 0.84%
for the belly.
The dissection of the four main parts of
the carcasses were done by 10 butchers. The
dissection was watched during the entire
time by specialists from the Danish Meat
Research Institute.

The results were the following:

The perimenters of dissection sample
Sex % lean meat hot thickness thickness thickness thickness
dissection weight bacon tenderloin bacon bacon
carcass FOM FOM OGP OGP
(kg) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)

Females 57.71 79.87 17.39 53.69 15.98 53.57

Average 72 72 72 72 72 72
N 5.537 7.368 8.106 8.106 5.346 10.508
Standard
Deviations
Males 54.91 79.92 52.89 52.89 17.09 50.53
Average 73 73 73 73 73 73
N 4.696 8.195 8.103 8.103 4.493 9.032
Standard
Deviation
Total 56.30 79.90 18.01 53.29 16.54 52.04
Average 145 145 145 145 145 145
N 5.303 7.768 4.707 8.086 4.949 9.877
Standard
Deviation

The differenced between the old and the new referance can be see in table 2.
Table nr.2
Standard
Character Average Minimum Maximum
Deviation
Weight hot carcass, kg 79.9 7.77 58.6 100.7
Weight cold semi-carcass, kg 39.3 3.87 28.5 50.4
Lean meat dissection, % (“old” referince) 54.36 5.53 37.23 65.51
Lean meat dissection , % ( referince from 2006) 56.30 5.30 38.61 66.89
X1 FOM, mm 18.0 4.71 10 32
X2 FOM, mm 53.3 8.09 37 74
X1 OGP, mm 16.5 4.95 9.4 30.8
X2 OGP, mm 52.0 9.88 32.1 82.2

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The distribution of lean meat obtained at the national test of dissection can be seen in
figure nr.3

Distributia % carne macra disectie

25

20
Frencventa

15

10

0
35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70

% carne macra disectie

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The information offered by the two equipments used at the National Test of dissection is
the following:

Fat-O-Meat’er ( FOM )
N = 145
R2 = 0.78288
RMSE = 2.48840

Y = 60.26989 - 0.81506 * X1 + 0.20097 * X2

RMSEP = 2.51938
Y = the estimated lean meat percentage
X1 = the thickness of the bacon including the skin, in milimeters, measured at 7 cm from the
median line, between the 3rd and 4th last rib
X2 = the thickness of the tenderloin in milimeters, measured at 7 cm, form the median line,
between the 3rd and the 4th last rib

OptiGrade-Pro
N = 145
R2 = 0.79425
RMSE = 2.42238

Y = 61.21920 - 0.77665* X1 + 0.15239 * X2

RMSEP = 2.45933
Y = the estimated lean meat percentage
X1 = the thickness of the bacon including the skin, in milimeters, measured at 7 cm from the
median line, between the 3rd and 4th last rib
X2 = the thickness of the tenderloin in milimeters, measured at 7 cm, form the median line,
between the 3rd and the 4th last rib

CONCLUSIONS gradare a carcaselor de porcine in Comunitate.

• The purpose of the standardization
is to creat a comparabile base, equable, for
the prices paid by the slaughter-houses to the
pig producers. For example, a producer,
sends two lots of contemporany pigs to two
slaughter-houses. In a slaughter-house the
Fat-o-meat’er eequipment is being used for
the classification of the carcasses, and in the
other the OpiGrade-Pro. It is necessary, for
the given lots, the estimative lean meat
proportions and also the distribution in the
quality classes should be similar.
• In Romania: 1 unite % lean meat
corresponds to aproximative 5.4 RON/carcass.
REFERENCES
Journal articles
[1] Cook, G.L. si C.M. Yates. Raport catre
Comisia Comunitatilor Europene pentru
Cercetare privind armonizarea metodelor de
Sept. (1992) (in presa).
[2] Regulamentul Consiliului EC Nr. 3220/84
pentru evaluarea grilei comunitare de gradare a
carcaselor de porcine. (1984) Noiembrie., 3 pp.
[3] Regulamentul Consiliului EC Nr. 3513/93
care modifica Regulamentul EC Nr. 3220/84
(1993) 3 pp.
Books
[7] Laba Marian, Comisia de Clasificare a
Carcaselor
[4] NOMINA ANATOMICA VETERINARIA.
Editia a III-ea. Comitetul International pentru
nomenclatura anatomica veterinara. Ithaca, New
York (1983) 209 pp.
[5] Scheper, J. si W. Scholz. DLG-Schnittfuhrung
für die Zerlegung der Schlachtkörper von Rind,
Kalb, Schwein and Schaf. Arbeitsunterlagen DLG
(1985) 31 pp.
[6] Gelu MOVILEANU Clasificarea si inspectia
carcaselor de porcine, bovine si ovine conform
normelor U.E, Bucuresti, Ed.Ceres,2008.

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

HIGHLIGHT OF BUFFALO MILK CHOLESTEROL

THROUGH THIN-LAYER CHROMATOGRAPHY

Aurelia Pece, Vioara Mireşan, Camelia Răducu,

C. Coroian, D. Cocan, R. Constantinescu

University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine,

Faculty of Animal Science and Biotechnologies Cluj-Napoca
e-mail: aureliapece@yahoo.com

Abstract
The highlight of buffalo milk cholesterol was conducted by means of thin-layer chromatography
and the migration of mobile phases along an absorbent layer. Free and esterised cholesterol
extraction was conducted according to the method of Folch et. al., performing small alterations
regarding solvent volume or the volume of samples under analysis. Many reactives underwent
testing, as the initial iodine visualising was not appropriate. The quantitative identification was
conducted by comparing the Rfs of free and esterised cholesterol from analysed samples with
existing standards. Spots were highlighted using a photodensimeter.
Key words: cholesterol, milk, buffalo, CSS

MATERIALS AND METHODS distilled water and cholesterol is extracted

2.5 ml of milk were extracted with 48 ml
solution chloroform/methanol/water (2:1:1,
v/v/v) through intermittent stirring for 30
minutes in a separation funnel. The superior
layer (methanol and water) was separated
through siphonage, while the middle and
inferior layers (proteins and chloroform
containing free and esterised cholesterol) was
vacuum-filtered through a Büchner funnel.
The chloroform layer was filtered again
through anhydrous sodium sulfate, while
Na2SO4 is washed 3 times with 5 ml of
chloroform each. Fatty extracts combined
vacuum-evaporated using a rotaevaporator at
50ºC, while the residue was recovered with 1
ml chloroform, in a 2 ml vial with a raylon
lid and kept at 18ºC before analysis. Over the
residue obtained, 1 ml of metoxide methanol
solution (0.5M) will be added alongside 1 ml
methanol and 1 ml toluene and heated at
70ºC for an hour. After cooling, we add 1 ml
with 2x8 ethyl ether in a separation funnel.
Ether cholesterol extracts are filtered on
anhydrous sodium sulfate and dry-
evaporated.
The cholesterol can be removed from diet
products by mixing homogenized milk with
β-cyclodextrine, a procedure that removes
93-93% of the cholesterol (Jensen R.G.,
2002; Lee D.K. şi col. 1999; Sieber R.,
1994).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Visualising fats was made through iodine
vapour exposure in a chromatographic
chamber covered with a glass lid. Free and
esterised cholesterol, as well as triglycerides
appear as brown spots (iodine complexes
with the double links of the compounds
under analysis).

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

Figure 1.1 Sepration through thin-layer chromatography of neuter fats in buffalo milk after sodium
metoxide separation

The Rfs for neuter lipid standards are obtained through developing by means of a mixture
of petroleum ether (pf 40-60ºC), ethyl ether and acetic acid in different proportions.

1.0

0.8 Esterified cholesterol

0.82
0.6
0.76 Fat acids esterids

0.4
Free acids fat
0.43 0.43
0.2
Free cholesterol

0.0

Buffalo milk fat - mobile phase A

Figure 1.2 Variability of buffalo milk fats through the employment of mobile phase A

Several mobile phases were analysed in acids. In figures 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5 and 1.6, the
order to obtain a satisfactory separation, Rfs for neuter fat standards are presented,
especially for free cholesterol and free fatty employing petroleum ether, ethyl ether and
acids. This issue emerged as acetic acid as mobile phase.
transesterification with sodium metoxide was
used, which is not efficient for free fatty

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0.8
0.68
0.6 0.61
Esterified cholesterol

0.4 Fat acids esterids

0.2 Free acids fat

0.11 0.11
Free cholesterol
0.0

Buffalo milk fat - mobile phase B

Figure 1.3 Variability of buffalo milk fats through the employment of mobile phase B

The semi-quantitative analysis was Free cholesterol spots in analysed samples

conducted through the visual comparison of can be observed after 10 minutes, but they
spot intensity for free cholesterol in analysed are still clearly visible even three hours after
samples and the standard of different iodine vapour exposure.
concentrations applied on the same board.

0.77 Esterified cholesterol

0.67
0.25
Fat acids esterids

0.23
Free acids fat

Free cholesterol

0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5

Buffalo milk fat - mobile phase C

Figure 1.4 Variability of buffalo milk fats through the employment of mobile phase C

As iodine visualisation is not satisfactory,
another reactive was employed for
visualisation and densiometry. As such, spots
were visualised with a copper
sulphate/phosphoric acid mixture (3 g copper
sulfate and 100 ml phosphoric acid 10% v/v)
and heated to 110ºC for 20 minutes. Spot
scan was conducted by means of a
photodensiometer Camag TLC Scanner 3 to
λ = 366 nm, every hour.

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Esterified cholesterol
0.32

Fat acids esterids

0.32

Free acids fat

0.72

Free cholesterol
0.80

0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

Buffalo milk fat - mobile phase D

Figure 1.5 Variability of buffalo milk fats through the employment of mobile phase D

Esterified cholesterol

Fat acids esterids

0.82 0.76 0.37 0.37

Free acids fat

Free cholesterol

0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5

Buffalo milk fat - mobile phase E

Figure 1.6 Variability of buffalo milk fats through the employment of mobile phase E

CONCLUSIONS
The determination of buffalo milk cholesterol
through thin layer chromatography coupled
with densitometry is a method that presents a
high degree of sensitivity and accuracy. In
the case of cholesterol determination through
this method, several mobile phases have been
employed in order to obtain a satisfactory
separation, especially for free cholesterol and
free fatty acids. Mobile phase C was selected,
which provides a satisfactory separation of
the two spots (Rf FFA=0,25 and Rf
CL=0,23). Another advantage in the
employment of the mobile phase (C) is the
separation of neuter fats as narrow bands.
REFERENCES
Journal articles
[1]. Folch, J., M. Less, G.H. Sloan-Stanley,: A
simple method for the isolation and purification of
total lipids from animal tissues, J. Biol. Chem.,
226, 497-507, 1957.
[2]. Jensen, R.G.,: Fatty acids in milk and dairy
products, in Fatty Acids in Food and their Health
Implications, New York, 109-123, 2000.
[3]. Jensen, R.G.,: The compoyition of Bovine
Milk Lipids, J. Dairy Sci., 85, 295-350, 2002.
[4]. Jensen, R.G., R.M. Clark,: Lipid compoyition
and properties, in Fundamentals of Dairy
Chemistry, 3rd ed. N. Wong, ed. Van Nostrand
Reinhold Company, New York, 171-213, 1988.
[5]. Lee, D.K., J.Aha, H.S., Kwak,: Cholesterol
removal from homogeniyed milk with β-
cyclodextrin, J.Dairy Sci., 82, 2327-2330, 1999.
[6]. Sieber, R.,: Cholesterol removal from animal
food can it be justified? Lebensmitt. Wissenschaft
Technol., 26, 375-387, 1994.

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

STUDY CONCERNING THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION

OF MEAT IN YOUNG TSIGAI SHEEP, RUSTY VARIETY

S. Dărăban1, C. Coroian1, A. Pop1, Vioara Mireşan1, V. Miclea1,

V. Cighi1, S. Voia2, I. Pădeanu2
1
U.S.A.M.V. Cluj-Napoca
e-mail: ovineusamv@yahoo.com
2
U.S.A.M.V.B. Timişoara

Abstract
In last four years, Romania occupies the first place within the European countries concerning
the number of exploited sheep heads, destined to slaughtering. Over 97 % of the volume of this
export is represented by the Turcana young sheep, and difference of 3 % is represented by Tsigai
young sheep. The emphasizing of the chemical composition of the meat from Tsigai young sheep
Rusty variety fattened both on pasture and shelter is the aim of our paper. The determination of the
chemical composition of the meat allows a deep analyze of its quality traits, making possible the
evolutive characterization of the breed and the correlation between the breed and functional
parameters of the used fattening system. The work methodology involved analyze of the chemical
composition of the meat harvested from cutlet (Longissimus dorsi, LD) and muscle (Biceps femoris,
BF), according to Weende pattern: water content, water, crude protein, crude fat, ash and non
nitrogen extractives. The results obtained for the young sheep fattened on pasture in group
exclusively fattened with green mass emphasize in L.D. a water content of 74.55 ± 0.19 %, dry
matter of 25.46 ± 0.20 %, and group that received combined forage have water percent of 73.38 ±
0.21 % and dry matter a share of 26.62 ± 0.21 %; in B.F. water was between 74.81 – 74.57 %, and
dry matter of 25.19 – 25.43 %. In group made up of young individuals fattened in shelters, the water
content of L.D. is 62.44 ± 1.46 %, and dry matter of 37.56 ± 0.95 %; in B.F. water shares 66.88 ±
1.06 % and dry matter 33.12 ± 0.85 %. As general conclusion, we can afirm that the applied
fattening technology significantly influences the chemical composition of the meat, and this imposes
its correlation witrh the qualitative preferences of the consumers.
Kay words: cutlet, muscle, chemical composition, meat

INTRODUCTION being registered in Mongolia with about

The sheep meat represents an aside
category inside world meat production,
because as concerns its qualities is
considered meat with especial organoleptic
and nutritive features. Besides physical and
psycho-sensorial qualities the chemical
composition recommends it in human
alimentation because of high content in
lysine and PUFA fatty acids, from which we
mention CLA and LA [2]. The ruminants,
among farm animal species, provide by the
milk and meat 90% from CLA quantity from
human food [1]. However, even these
features make it special, the ovine meat
consumption is different from a country to
another one, the greatest one on world level
65.20 kg/inhabitant head, in Europe the
greatest consumption being registered in
Island with 29.80 kg, and in our country that
is traditionally in breeding and among the
first four European countries producing ovine
meat, the consumption is about of 2.90 kg of
meat/inhabitant head [4].
From these reasons we approached such a
theme that is part of an ample study
concerning the ovine meat quality, to have
data for the market help and to contribute for
stimulation of this product consumption
especially as concerns the culinary point of
view and also the dietary-alimentary one.

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MATERIAL AND METHOD
The biological material submitted for
experiments was represented by ovine youth
of Tzigaie breed, Rusty variety, as native
breed characterized by a good adaptability to
hill, and plateau zones, having a medium
body development and being framed in the
mixed morpho-productive type of semi-fine
wool-milk-meat. The ovine youth derived
from the force bred inside the former
Research and Development Station for
Meadows Jucu, Cluj County, in present being
ovine sector inside Didactic Station of
UASVM Cluj-Napoca.
The experimental design comprised two
lots of ovine male youth fattened on pasture
and a lot fattened in stalling, the young rams
from the three experimental lots being half-
brothers after father.
In the case of fattening on pasture were
formed two lots, each of 10 heads, one of
them being fed exclusively with green crop
on pasture (lot P), and the other one (lot
Table 1.
The scheme of maintenance manner of the two experimental lots
Duration
Phase Lot
days
P yes
accommodation 20
P+C
P yes
breeding-fattening 100
P+C
P yes
Finishing 30
P+C
In case of fattening in stalling (shelter
section type with grate floor) was formed a
single animal lot of 10 heads, these ones
having the age comprised among 60 and 65
days and a body weight in fattening
beginning moment of 15.14 ± 0.45 kg, and in
final after 100 fattening days was registered a
body weight of 39.20 ± 0.75 kg. The
experimental period comprised three phases:
accommodation phase of 15 days when the
fodder without restriction was done with an
unique mixture with 16% protein level;
breeding-fattening phase of 65 days in which
the protein level of unique fodder was of
15%; finishing phase of 20 days in which the
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
P+C) gets beside green crop also reduced
quantities of concentrated fodder with
different energetic and protein levels
depending on fattening phase. The youth age
in moment of experience beginning from the
two experimental lots varied between 90 and
95 days with a body weight comprised
between 21.62 ± 0.39 kg in case of lot P, and
21.82 ± 0.33 kg in case of lot P+C, and in the
end of the 150 fattening days the lot P
registered a body weight of 35.49 ± 0.11 kg,
and the lot P+C a body weight of 39.44 ±
0.14 kg, in final the differences between the
two lots being very significant (***
p<0,001). The lots’ maintenance was done on
a pasture appertaining to subtype Festuca
rupicola-Agrostis capillaris, with an average
productivity about 14940 kg green crop/ha,
according the next experimental scheme
(table 1). The concentrated fodder
administration was done in the evening after
animal arriving from pasture and the
watering was done three times per day.
Maintenance
Supplement of combined fodder
pasture
P.B.D. % g/head/day
- -
yes 16,00 100
- -
yes 16,00 150
- -
yes 14,00 200
protein level of unique fodder was of 13 %.
The unique fodder was formed of combined
fodder, hill hay and alfalfa hay in case of
accommodation phase; combined fodder and
hill hay in case of breeding-fattening phase;
combined fodder, corn meal and hill hay in
case of finishing phase. The feeding was
done in two rations, one in the morning about
730 hour, and the second one about 1600
hours, but can be considered without
restriction because the feeding vessels never
were empty, the refusals being eliminated
and weighted in each morning. The water
was provided without restriction by watering
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

installation with constant level existent in dry matter was gravimetrically determined by
each compartment. using of drying stove, the crude fat by
In the end of the two fattening systems Soxhlet method, and crude protein by
were chosen 5 heads of young fattened rams Kjeldahl method. The samples submitted for
from each experimental lot, which were analysis were collected from chop region
representative as concerns the body (muscle Longissimus dorsi - LD) and leg of
conformation point of view, the breed mutton region (muscle Biceps femoris - BF).
standard, but also of body weight to express The crude obtained data were
the average of each lot, these ones being statistically processed with help of
submitted for slaughtering and appreciation WINSTATISTIC program.
of meat production quantitative and
qualitative features. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The meat chemical composition was After the analyses effected on collected
determined basis on Weende scheme, samples from the two regions in ovine youth
establishing the proportion of water, of dry fattened on pasture were obtained the next
matter (SU), of crude protein (PB), of crude values of elements, which define the meat
fat (GB), of crude ash (CB) and no- chemical composition, presented in table 2.
nitrogenous extractive substances (SEN). The
Table 2.
Chemical composition of meat in ovine youth of Tzigaie breed fattened on pasture - %
Chemical Difference
Region
composition
Lot n X ± sx V% d
significance
P 5 74,55 ± 0,19 0,59
Water - % 1,17 **
P+C 5 73,38 ± 0,21 0,64
P 5 25,46 ± 0,20 1,75
S.U. -% - 1,16 **
P+C 5 26,62 ± 0,21 1,78
P 5 17,28 ± 0,04 0,60
P.B. - % - 0,88 ***
Chop P+C 5 18,16 ± 0,02 0,28
LD P 5 1,04 ± 0,01 3,04
S.E.N. - % - 0,08 ns
P+C 5 1,12 ± 0,01 2,46
P 5 8,32 ± 0,05 1,49
G.B. - % 0,22 ns
P+C 5 8,10 ± 0,21 5,84
P 5 1,07 ± 0,01 1,41
Ash - % 0,01 ns
P+C 5 1,06 ± 0,08 1,70
P 5 74,81 ± 0,16 0,50
Water - % 0,24 **
P+C 5 74,57 ± 0,16 0,48
P 5 25,19 ± 0,16 1,48
S.U. -% - 0,24 **
P+C 5 25,43 ± 0,17 1,42
P 5 17,25 ± 0,05 0,68
Leg of P.B. - % - 0,99 ***
P+C 5 18,04 ± 0,05 0,65
mutton
BF
P 5 1,05 ± 0,02 4,69
S.E.N. - % - 0,09 ns
P+C 5 1,14 ± 0,01 10,00
P 5 7,04 ± 0,01 0,41
G.B. - % 0,25 *
P+C 5 6,79 ± 0,07 2,37
P 5 1,05 ± 0,01 4,69
Ash - % 0,04 **
P+C 5 1,01 ± 0,03 0,82
ns = p > 0,050; * = p < 0,050; ** = p < 0,010; *** = p < 0,001

Analyzing the chemical composition as
concerns the water and dry matter content in
chop and leg of mutton comes out that the values
are approximately equal in case of both
experimental lots. There is observed that both in
leg of mutton case and also in the chop one the
differences as concern the content of crude
protein between lot P and lot P+C are very
significant, which allows us to affirm that pasture
supplementation with a reduced quantity of

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combined fodder determines to accumulate in The chemical composition of meat from

meat a greater protein quantity, and the chop region and from leg of mutton one in
difference between fat quantities from the two the lot fattened in stalling is presented in
analyzed lots is statistically uninsured in the chop table 3.
case and significant in the BF muscle case.

Table 3.
Chemical composition of meat in ovine youth of Tzigaie breed fattened in stalling - %
Chemical
Region
composition X ± sx V%
Water - % 62,44 ± 1,46 5,23
S.U. -% 37,56 ± 0,95 5,66
Chop P.B. - % 21,33 ± 0,68 7,13
LD S.E.N. - % 1,31 ± 0,08 13,66
G.B. - % 11,51 ± 0,45 8,74
Ash - % 3,41 ± 0,09 5,90
Water - % 66,88 ± 1,06 3,54
S.U. -% 33,12 ± 0,85 5,74
Leg of mutton P.B. - % 18,97 ± 0,92 10,84
BF S.E.N. - % 1,98 ± 0,04 4,52
G.B. - % 9,15 ± 1,52 16,62
Ash - % 3,02 ± 0,15 11,11

In case of ovine youth intensively
fattened in shelter registered an higher
content of dry matter in chop level
comparatively with those one registered at
leg of mutton level, the differences between
the two regions being greater given to those
ones registered in the pasture fattening case.
Comparing the two applied fattening
systems comes out that the dry matter level is net
superior for the intensive fattening system given
to the pasture one, but the fat content is more
reduced in the lots fattened on pasture both for
the chop region and the leg of mutton one, fact
which allow us to affirm that from this point of
view the meat could be more appreciated by a
consumer segment oriented on a reduced animal
fat consumption, but which do not know detailed
the content in unsaturated fatty acids of suet
proceeded from ovine species. The content level
in SEN in case of meat proceeded from animals
submitted for fattening in the two systems has
values approximately equal both for leg of
mutton region and that of chop one, varying
between 1.05 and 1.98 %.
CONCLUSIONS
Besides quantitative carcass characteristics,
usually is also done the chemical analysis of
meat proceeded from the mentioned two muscle
regions Longissimus dorsi and Biceps femoris,
because this one is tight linked of meat psycho-
sensitive features’ manifestation, features which
are appreciated by the consumers for the meat
evaluation, this appreciation leading implicitly to
a market with culinary preferences extremely
jumpy and very pretentious for the meat quality
[3].
The water and dry matter proportion varies
depending a lot of factors, from which an
essential role is played by the breed and
administrated fodder, besides the sample
proceeding region and applied fattening
technology. The completion of carcass tissue
composition or structure with meat chemical
composition analysis, with data concerning the
meat sensory features and all these correlation,
offer the adaptation possibility of technological
system to obtain carcasses appreciated by
consumers and the meat consumption increasing.
REFERENCES
Journal article
[2] Palmquist D.L.; St-Pierre N.; McClure E.,:
Tissue fatty acid profiles can be used to quantify
endogenous rumenic acid synthesis in lamb,
Journal of nutrition, 2007, p.2407-2414.
Books
[1] Janice R.H.: Dietary fat and cholesterol,
Division of Agr. Sci. and Natural Resources –
Oklahoma State University.
[3] Russo C.; Preyiuso G.; Verita P.: EU carcass
classification system: carcass and quality in light
lambs, Meat Science, 2003, 64: 411-416.
[4] FAOSTAT, 2007.

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

THE EFFECT OF ESSENTIAL OIL OF THYME

(THIMUS VULGARIS) ON TO THE QUALITY OF MEAT AND
CARCASES OF MEAT CHICKEN BROILERS
Lenuţa Fotea1, Doina Leonte1, Iuliana Ţugui2
1
Animal Sciences Faculty, University of Agricultural Sciences
and Veterinary Medicine, Iasi, Romania
e-mail: fotealenuta@yahoo.com
2
School of Tourism Iaşi

Abstract
Food safety is the desiderate after which the consumers of animal products guides. The specific
of this research was to determine the effect of thyme essential oil used in food at different levels on
growth performance, slaughter yield, carcasses weight and internal organs, chemical composition
and organoleptic qualities of meat chicken. The 200 Ross 308 broiler chicken were used distributed
in four lots, E1 (0.1%), E2 (0.3%), E3 (0.7%) and M (without additives). The experiment lasted 42
days. The data obtained were statistically processed. The results showed that supplementation with
0.7 fodder essential oil of thyme determined to obtain the best results on the average body weight,
carcass weight, slaughter yield and the most efficient feed conversion to growth rate compared with
witness lot (p <0.05). Regarding the weight of internal organs and the chemical composition of
meat values were similar. The results of organoleptic observations have shown no influence on
color or smell of the meat. The conclusion which detaches is that the use of essential oil thyme
0.7% may be a potential natural growth promoter used for chicken broilers.
Key words: essential oil, promoter, safety, broilers

INTRODUCTION that contain substances free (antibiotics) and

Current trends and future market for
agricultural products is to sell organic
products. This was required by consumers
who have established a set of values by
which orientates regarding nutrition, health
and welfare of considering them as a priority
and very important. Consumer modern
objectives are: food safety (without
antibiotics), products with high nutritional
value (proteins, fatty acid Ω 3 and Ω 6) and
ofthe environment (3, 11). The use of
medicinal plants in animal husbandry was
based on their properties to cure and prevent
a number of diseases at humans. Due to the
left of studies have shown that many plants
have beneficial effects on animal body from
a very good value of food due to stimulating
enzyme secretion, antibacterian effect,
immunomodulating, antioxidant, etc.. and
that reaching these effects due to real factors
antistres respectively to achieve the welfare
of the animal (5,6,8,10). Using natural
growth promoters to obtain animal products
natural products ().If the research has been
done towards the use of thyme essential oil
used in feed for chickens to determine
whether the levels used have positive effect
on growth performance, slaughter yield, meat
quality and the chemical composition of it
(1,2,6, 7,9, 10,12).
MATERIAL AND METHOD
In the experiment they were used 200
day-old chicks of Ross 308. Chicks were
reared in a pyramid Battery BP4 in cuşti. The
birds were divided into four treatment groups
of 50 birds each: M (without additives) E1
(0.1%), E2 (0.5%) E3 (0.7%). The
experimental period was 42 days.A
established a regime of light 24 hours a day
throughout the experimental period. Food
and water were administered at discretion.
Food was made from a specific standard
recipe for chicken meat (table 1) on three
separate periods: starting, growing and
growing+finishing, which was built by

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homogenization essential oil that has
previously been dissolved in vegetable oil.
Was prepared daily amount of food for each
batch separately. The data obtained were
statistically processed (the ANOVA).
Weighings were made for each period of
growth: 0, 14, 28 and 42 days. Was done to
establish and increase growth and feed
conversion in the calculation of daily live
weight (0-42 day). After the experiment
ended 10 chicks per lot were slaughtered to
determine the slaughter yield, the weight of
the carcasses and internal organs. Evidence
of breast muscles and thigh muscles were
taken and subjected to chemical analysis to
determine the chemical composition of meat.
Were monitored daily the health and viability
of their chickens. Chicks were reared in
conditions of maximum security and have not
been vaccinated.

Table 1
Structure and nutritional composition of standard diets
Feed ingredients UM 0-14 day 15-28 day 29-42 day
Corn % 61.00 65.00 65.00
Soybean meal % 28.00 23.00 23.00
Full-fat soybean % 2.00 4.00 7.00
San flowers % 1 - -
Gluten de porumb % 1.00 1.00 -
Fish meal % 400 3.50 -
Vegetable oil % - 0.50 1.50
L-Lysine % 0.05 0.10 0.05
DL- methionine % 0.20 0.20 0.20
Carbonat de calciu % 0.45 0.45 0.75
Dicalcium phosphate % 1.10 1.00 1.15
Salt % 0.15 0.20 0.30
Vitamin and minerals premix % 1.00 1.00 1.00
Kemzyme VP dry % 0.05 0.05 0.05
Total % 100 100 100
Analysis
kcal /kg 2995 3100 3153
Crude protein % 23 20 18
Crude fiber % 3.25 3.33 3.01
Eter extract % 4.51 4,01 6,01
Ash % 6.12 6.05 6.33
Lysine % 1.36 1.17 1.00
Methionine +Cistine % 1.00 0.90 0.82
Ca % 1.03 0.95 0.91
P % 0.76 0.66 0.61

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION than in group M (without additives). Average

The results obtained after finishing of the
experiment are presented in tab.2. Thyme
essential oil was tested to determine the
influence of different levels of chicks
administered in feed on quality meat.
Regarding the average body weight at the
end of the experiment the best results
compared with the group were recorded in
group E3 values recorded were higher by
13% (E3), 7.8% (E2) and 3.4% (E1)
compared with M. Converting food to
increase growth was very good at all the lots
that have received the essential oil being
10.4% (E3), 7.1% (E2) and 6.5% (E1) higher
carcass weight was consistent with the
average body weight, slaughter yield and had
the highest values in group E3. Regarding the
average weight of internal organs that was
correlated with average body weight. For all
recorded values were determined significant
differences (p <0.05) between E3 and M. As
regards the chemical composition of meat the
breast and thigh were made consistent with
the results obtained by other researchers
(7,9), it and showing that the essential oil did
not influence the chemical composition of
meat (table 3).Results on quality does not
have a strong effect exerted by the essential

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

oil, but up to the meat samples from E3 for qualification with excellent meat table 4.
all the observed values were maximum wose

Table 2
The effects of different level of thyme essential oil on growth performance, carcass yeld and internal
organs of broiler chickens
E1 E2 E3
Results M
0.1% 0.3% 0.7%
Final average weight 42 day g 2200 2276 2358 2490
Daily weight gain g/bird/day 51.28a 53.19 55.14 58.26b
FCR g feed/g gain 1.82a 1.72 1.69 1.63
Carcass weight 1562a 1616 1710 1866b
Carcass yeld (%) 71a 71 72.51 74.97b
Liver (g) 48.16 48.51 49.23 50.14
Heart (g) 10.91 11.18 11.20 12.28
Pancreas (g) 4.97 4.18 5.10 5.34
Spleen (g) 2.31 2.28 2.39 2.48
Mortality % 3 - - -
ab (p<0.05) the values differ significantly

Table 3
Chemical composition of the breast and thigh muscles (%)
E1 E2 E3
M
Results 0.1% 0.3% 0.7%
* ** * ** * ** * **
Water 73.56 71.22 72.96 71.20 73.14 71.14 73.08 71.34
Dry mater 22.44 28.78 27.04 28.84 26.86 28.86 26.92 28.66
Proteins 22.02 19.46 22.86 20.14 22.52 19.64 22.80 19.54
Fat 2.54 8.26 2.62 7.66 7.40 8.08 2.22 8.20
Ash 1.46 1.06 1.49 1.08 1.58 1.14 1.56 1.02
* breast muscles **thigh muscles

Table 4
Chemical composition of the breast and thigh muscles (%)
E1 E2 E3
Results M
0.1% 0.3% 0.7%
Smell B A A A
Flavour B B B A
Color C A A A
Tender B B A A
A- excellent, B- very good, C- good,

CONCLUSIONS
Following the results it can be said that
the use of thyme essential oil can cause a
good growth and development of chicken
meat, meat to obtain a high quality and
because the essential oil is a natural and safe
products for consumers.
REFERENCES
Journal articles
[1] Cavitt, L.C., Meullenet, J.F., Gandhapuneni, R.
K., Youm, G. W., Owens, C.M. – 2005 – Rigor
development and meat quality of large and small
broilers and the use of Allo-Kramer Shear, Needle
Puncture and Razor blade to measure texture.
Poultry Science, 84, pg. 113-118.
[2] Danka Lperňękovę, Dionđz męté, Hanna
Rěżaňska, Gabriel Kovęč Effects of dietary
rosemary extract and "-tocopherol on the
performance of chickens, meat quality, and lipid
oxidation in meat storaged under chilling conditions.
Bull Vet Inst Pulawy 51, 585-589, 2007

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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

RESEARCHES CONCERNING THE SLAUGHTERING

EFFICIENCY AND THE CUT PARTS PROPORTION IN THE
CARCASSES OF THE CHICKEN BROILERS REARED
WITHIN INTENSIVE SYSTEM
R.M. Radu-Rusu, I. Vacaru-Opriş, M.G. Usturoi
University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Iaşi,
Animal Science Faculty, Iaşi
e-mail: rprobios@gmail.com

Abstract
The researches focused on some aspects concerning meat yield in chicken broilers reared within
the intensive system. The biological material comprised 120 broilers, belonging to “COBB-500” (30♀
and 30♂) and “ROSS-308” (30♀ and 30♂), slaughtered at 42 days old. The slaughtering efficiency
was calculated using the gravimetric data achieved at slaughter moment and at 24 hours post
slaughter. Through the rationing between trenched parts weights and carcasses weight, the proportion
of these commercial products in carcass structure was calculated. In “COBB-500” broilers, the
average achieved values, for both genders, are listed below: 78.94% (fresh) and 77.76% (post
refrigeration); participation of trenched parts in whole carcass: 29.66% (breast with bone and skin),
8.98% (wings), 15.71% (thighs), 13.33% (shanks) and 32.33% (carcass remnants). At the ROSS-308
chickens (males and females), there have been calculated the average values listed below: 79.56%
(fresh carcasses) and 78.40% (refrigerated carcasses); participation of trenched parts in carcass:
29.20% (breast with skin and bone), 9.11% (wings); 16.31% (thighs); 13.32% (shanks) and 31.4%
(carcass remnants). For both studied genotypes, the slaughtering efficiency was found within the
range specified by the hybrids producers (77-80%) while the breast participation in carcass
structure reached very good values.
Key words: chicken broiler, intensive system, carcass, slaughtering efficiency, trenched parts

INTRODUCTION selected as representative for the originating

The companies producing high
performances broilers provide to poultry
industry certain technical data describing
hybrid performance, nutritional requirements
and management parameters. However, these
hybrids performances are straight related to
the technological conditions provided by
farmers and the technological specifications
give a wide range of variation for meat yield
parameters [7, 8]. Therefore, the paper
emphasises on the results achieved during the
intensive husbandry of two meat-type
hybrids of chicken – COBB-500 and ROSS-
308, mainly on those performances
concerning dressed weight, slaughtering
efficiency and proportion of the main cut
parts in whole carcass structure.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
Biological material was represented by
60 “Cobb 500” hybrid specimens (30♂ +
30♀) and by 60 “ROSS-308” hybrid
individuals (30♂ + 30♀), aged 42 days,
flock. Fowl feeding has been done using a
corn-soymeal diet (3012 KCal ME and 24%
CP - starter; 3175 KCal ME and 22.5% CP -
grower; 3226KCal ME and 20% CP -
finisher). Necropsy has been used to
eviscerate and cut the carcasses, according
to the main anatomic and commercial parts
nomenclature [2]. From each chicken, live
weight, carcass (fresh and refrigerated,
completely eviscerated) and main trenched
parts have been weighted. Gravimetric
assessments have been run using a Shimadzu
UX4200H technical digital scales (0.01 g –
4200 g range) and a Denver Instruments
Pinnacle 214 analytical digital scales (0.1 mg
– 210 g range). The slaughtering efficiency
has been calculated, dividing carcass weight
values to the live weight ones and
multiplying by 100. Same computation
algorithm has been used to obtain the
participation quota of the trenched parts.
The data was compared to the hybrids
performances, as they were published by

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 Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

broilers producers, and to those date found 1705.0±33.4g (females) and 1818.57±38.17g
in the main scientific stream [3, 4, 7, 8]. The (males), leading to an average value of
achieved values of the studied parameters 1761.79±29.02g for both genders (table 1).
have been statistically processed running the The variation coefficient indicated a very
ANOVA single factor method. well uniformity (V=6.2%). After variance
analysis computation, statistical significance
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS occurred for the differences between
In “COBB-500” broilers, the fresh cockerels and pullets.
carcasses weight varied between
Table 1
Slaughtering efficiency and the participation of the trenched parts in the whole carcass structure of
“COBB-500” broilers
Average values for
Males Females both genders
Notice
x± sx V
(%) x± sx V
(%) x± sx V
(%)
Live weight (g) 2295.71 50.1 5.8 2168.57 43.8 5.3 2232.14 36.50 6.1
Fresh carcass weight (g) 1818.57b 38.17 5.6 1705.00a 33.42 5.2 1761.79 29.02 6.2
Slaughtering efficiency
79.23 0.38 1.3 78.64 0.60 2.0 78.94 0.35 1.7
on fresh carcass(%)
Refrigerated carcass
1794.62b 37.82 5.6 1676.68a 33.40 5.3 1735.65 29.24 6.3
weight (g)
Slaughtering efficiency
on refrigerated 78.19 0.43 1.5 77.33 0.52 1.8 77.76 0.35 1.7
carcass(%)
Breast with bone+skin
534.59b 11.11 5.5 495.01a 11.03 5.9 514.80 9.31 6.8
weight (g)
% from carcass 29.79 0.16 1.4 29.52 0.21 1.9 29.66 0.13 1.7
Breast fillet weight (g) 402.64b 9.08 6.0 372.32a 8.26 5.9 387.48 7.24 6.9
% from carcass 22.43 0.04 0.4 22.20 0.12 1.5 22.32 0.07 1.2
Wings weight (g) 164.89b 4.60 7.4 147.02a 3.53 6.4 155.96 3.73 8.9
% from carcass 9.18b 0.08 2.3 8.77a 0.13 4.1 8.98 0.09 3.9
Thighs weight (g) 275.05 8.91 8.6 270.16 7.15 7.0 272.60 5.53 7.6
% from carcass 15.32 0.35 6.1 16.10 0.11 1.8 15.71 0.21 4.9
Shanks weight (g) 237.17 6.81 7.6 225.95 7.71 9.0 231.56 5.18 8.4
% from carcass 13.20 0.12 2.5 13.45 0.22 4.3 13.33 0.13 3.5
Remnants weight (g) 582.91c 11.25 5.1 538.53a 7.33 3.6 560.72 8.91 5.6
% from carcass 32.50 0.37 3.0 32.16 0.41 3.4 32.33 0.27 3.1
ANOVA test – for each analysed feature, compared between genders:
ab
significant differences ( F̂ >F α 0.05 la 1;58 FD);
ac
distinguished significant differences ( F̂ >F α 0.01 la 1;58 FD).

The situation was similar after
refrigeration. Using algebraic computation,
the slaughtering efficiency has been
calculated for both assessment moments.
Therefore, an average value of 78.94±0.35%
was obtained for both genders, when the
calculation has been done basing on the data
measured just after slaughtering, while the
post-refrigeration values were slightly lower,
meaning 77.76±0.35% (table 1, fig. 1) for
males and females together. The achieved
values were higher than those specified by
the “COBB-500” hybrid producer company,
which guarantees the reaching of at least
72% slaughtering efficiency for the
completely eviscerated carcasses [6, 7].

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

Slaughtering ef f iciency (%) (f resh carcasses) Slaughtering ef f iciency (%) (post ref rigeration)

80
79
79.23
Slaughtering efficiency (%)

78 78.64 78.94
77 78.19 77.76
77.33
76
75
74
73
72
71
70
Males Females Both genders

Fig. 1 – Slaughtering efficiency values in “COBB-500” broilers

Concerning the participation of main in females (table 1). Statistical significance

trenched parts in carcass formation, the data occurred for the differences between genders.
showed proportions of 29.79±0.16% (males) In “Ross 308” broilers, the fresh
and of 29.52±0.21% (females), for breast, carcasses weight was found within the
including bone and skin, while the interval of 1749.63±31.65g (females) and
homogeneity was found very good 2056.39±24.00g (males), with an average of
(V=1.7%). When breast fillet (sum of 1903.01±41.89g for genders considered
superficial and profound pectoral muscles) together (table 2). The variation coefficient
participation was calculated, it was found a also revealed very well uniformity of the
mean value of 22.32±0.07% (both genders), studied flock (V=3.6-5.43%). Highly
very close to that published in 2008 by Cobb significant statistical differences occurred
Vantress UK ltd. Into the technical between the averages of cockerels and
specification files of the hybrid (22.36%) [7]. pullets, when the variance has been analysed.
Despite this, an improvement may occur, After refrigeration, the weight difference
considering that “COBB-500” producer between males and females was preserved. The
states that this production parameter could slaughtering efficiency was calculated, resulting
increase each 2 years with 0.9 p.p., using average values of 79.52±0.30%, for both
genetic improvement ways [5]. genders fresh carcasses, respectively of
The others carcasses components reached 78.36±0.30%, post refrigeration (table 2, fig. 2).
mean participation quotas of 8.98±0.09% The achieved values corresponded to the
(wings); of 15.71±0.21% (thighs); highest edge of the interval specified by the
13.33±0.13% (shanks); 32.33±0.27% (other “ROSS-308” producers, whose limits are of
parts, meaning head, neck, back and legs). 70-81% - slaughtering efficiency, assessed on
Comparing both genders, it could be stated that, completely eviscerated carcasses [8].
for breast involvement in carcass formation, Concerning the main trenched parts
cockerels gave higher results, while the values participation in whole carcass structure, several
for both rear limbs parts (thighs and shanks) values occurred: breast with bone and skin
were found better in pullets (table 1). reached 29.32±0.81% in males and 29.07±0.29%
If the performances of cockerels are in females, the average value for both genders
compared to those achieved by pullets, it being of 29.20±0.42%, while the uniformity was
could be observed that, for breast fillet considered as very well (V=1.63%). Other
participation in whole carcass, males gave scientific articles presented values passing over
better results, while the data concerning 30% for this carcass cut part [3].
thighs and shanks participation were higher

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 Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

Table 2
Slaughtering efficiency and the participation of the trenched parts in the whole carcass structure of
“ROSS-308” broilers
Average values for
Males Females
both genders
Notice
x± sx V
(%) x± sx V
(%) x± sx V
(%)
Live weight (g) 2563.52d 29.96 3.51 2220.52a 43.62 5.89 2392.02 48.88 8.67
d
Fresh carcass weight (g) 2056.39 24.00 3.50 1749.63a 31.65 5.43 1903.01 41.89 9.34
Slaughtering efficiency
80.22b 0.32 1.20 78.82a 0.40 1.51 79.52 0.30 1.60
on fresh carcass(%)
Refrigerated carcass
2027.94d 24.35 3.60 1722.70a 31.37 5.46 1875.32 41.73 9.44
weight (g)
Slaughtering efficiency
on refrigerated 79.11c 0.32 1.21 77.61a 0.38 1.46 78.36 0.30 1.63
carcass(%)
Breast with bone+skin
594.61d 17.55 8.85 504.65a 8.19 4.87 547.56 14.77 11.45
weight (g)
% from carcass 29.32 0.81 8.26 29.07 0.29 2.99 29.20 0.42 6.06
Breast fillet weight (g) 492.44d 14.82 9.03 377.85a 11.97 9.51 435.15 16.69 16.27
% from carcass 24.27c 0.62 7.68 21.91a 0.45 6.12 23.09 0.47 8.62
d
Wings weight (g) 194.15 7.34 11.35 149.59a 5.83 11.69 171.87 7.06 17.43
% from carcass 9.56b 0.29 9.02 8.67a 0.22 7.50 9.11 0.21 9.56
b
Thighs weight (g) 319.55 7.42 6.97 290.75a 8.11 8.37 305.15 6.37 8.86
% from carcass 15.75a 0.27 5.19 16.87b 0.33 5.93 16.31 0.25 6.48
b
Shanks weight (g) 266.98 5.73 6.44 238.89a 5.87 7.37 252.94 5.24 8.79
% from carcass 13.17 0.26 5.87 13.90 0.43 9.33 13.32 0.05 15.90
Remnants weight (g) 652.65b 13.58 6.24 542.95a 15.98 8.83 597.80 16.75 11.89
% from carcass 32.20 0.68 6.30 31.48 0.52 4.98 31.84 0.42 5.64
ANOVA test – for each analysed feature, compared between genders:
ab
significant differences ( F̂ >F α 0.05 la 1;58 FD);
ac
distinguished significant differences ( F̂ >F α 0.01 la 1;58 FD).
ad
high significant differences ( F̂ >F α 0.01 la 1;58 FD).

Slaughtering efficiency (%) (fresh carcasses) Slaughtering efficiency (%) (post refrigeration)

82

80
Slaughtering efficiency (%)

80.22
79.56
78 79.11 78.79
78.40
77.58
76

74

72

70
Males Females Both genders

Fig. 2 – Slaughtering efficiency values in “ROSS-308” broilers

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Breast fillet (sum of the superficial and
profound pectorals muscles) participation in
carcass structure reached an average value of
23.09±0.07%, considered as very well,
compared to the minimal performance
guaranteed by the “ROSS-308” technical
specifications (19-20%). High significance
occurred for the difference between both
genders.
The other carcass parts reached average
participation percentages of 9.11±0.21%
(wings); 16.31±0.25% (thighs); 13.32±0.05%
(shanks); 31.84±0.84% (remnant parts,
comprising head, neck, back and legs). Close
results have been also reported by similar
researches, but in other hybrids, such as
Hybro and Arbor Acres [1].
CONCLUSIONS
It was found that, within the same
genotype, the males produced highest
breast fillet yields, while the females gave
better weights for thighs and shanks.
The performances of both hybrids were
situated within the producers’
specifications, even toward the upper area
of the variation interval.
Meanwhile, within the same nutritional
conditions, “ROSS-308” broilers provided
better slaughtering efficiency than the
“COBB-500” ones, including the breast
fillet yield (≈+3%). Despite this, the
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
differences between studied broilers were
not statistically tested, due to some
different microclimate control conditions
recorded during rearing.
REFERENCES
Journal articles
[1] Bogosavljevic-Boskovic S., Kurcubic V.,
Petrovic M.D., Radovic D.: The effect of sex and
rearing system on carcass composition and cut
yields of broiler chickens, Czech J. Anim. Sci.,
2006, 51(1): 31–38
[3] Summers J.D.: Tech Info2, Broiler carcass
composition, 2003, available online at
http://www.poultryindustrycouncil.ca/pdf/tech/TE
CH%20INFO%202.pdf
Books
[2] Nickel R., Schummer A., Seiferle E.: Anatomy
of the domestic birds, Verlag Paul Parey, Berlin,
Hamburg, 1977.
[4] Usturoi M.G.: Creşterea păsărilor, Editura “Ion
Ionescu de la Brad”, Iaşi, 2008.
[5] Vacaru-Opriş I., Apostol L., Apostol T.F.,
Movileanu G., Usturoi M.G., Sisteme şi tehnologii
de creştere a puilor de carne, Editura Ceres,
Bucureşti, 2005.
[6] Van I., Damian A., Marin Gh., Cofas Vl.,
Custură I., Covaşă Ana-Maria: Creşterea şi
industrializarea puilor de carne, Editura Ceres,
Bucureşti, 2003
[7] *** COBB 500 Broiler Management Guide -
http://www.cobb-vantress.com, 2008
[8] *** ROSS 308 Broiler Performance Objectives
- http://www.aviagen.com, 2008
 BACK

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

MELISOPALINOLOGICAL ASPECTS REGARDING

THE COMMERCIAL ROBINIA PSEUDOACACIA
NATURAL HONEY

A.A. Prelipcean, Anca Teuşan

Faculty of Animal Sciences, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine

„Ion Ionescu de la Brad” Iasi, Romania

Abstract
Robinia pseudoacacia honey is one of the most appreciated and sold honeys on the Romanian
market. The study wants to highlight some melisopalinological aspects of Robinia pseudoacacia
honeys from some manufacturing companyes that act on the Iaşi commercial market. Depending on
the specific pollen granite percent, the quality class can be set, and the possible forgery. The
methods used are microscopically analysis on the centrifuged sediment, counting of the determinate
pollen grains and nonpollenical impurities. Reporting the pollen grains number to the used honey
amount used provides information on the botanical and geographical origins, quality class and
purity of the honey. The robinia pollen percentage from the analized samples vary from 12,31% and
52,76,including the honey in all the quality classes for Romania. The nonpollinical impurityes vary
from 2627 to 15744 in 10 grams honey. Overprocessing increases the honey quality class,
subtracting the impurities but also makes authenticity testing more difficult, makeing this honey
easier to forge. In order to have an objective romanain honey quality, a processing and labeling
alignment with the european standards is necessary.
Key words: Robinia pseudacacia honey, quality, melisopalinology, pollen, standard

INTRODUCTION on the Iasi market, can highlight how the

Due to the different polen/nectar and manna
proportion contained, from a great variety of
vegetal sources, the honeys differ among
themselves. This variety can have benefical
effects offering products with specific
proprieties, according to the particularities of
each botanical source, but also negative effects,
for the market demands who wants a
standardized product. The international normes
[7] allow different product categories for the
honeys that have particular botanical sources, if
those honeys are from the indicated origin and
have the properly phisico/chemical,
organoleptical and microscopical proprieties.
These rules specify certain compositional limits
for floral and extrafloral honey, but do not
establish any criteria for unifloral honey so that
the rules do not guarantee effective control of
the categoryes. Limits vary from country to
country, and may lead to some difficulties in
international trade in unifloral honey. New and
promising analytical methods have been already
developed but before being used as ways of
routine control, they can be still tested and
improved [1]. Knowledge of the Robinia honey
current standards are met. However, the
undertaken researches on microscopic polinical
and nonpolinical impurities from honey, will
highlight some important aspects of honey
processing in line with current European
standards [6].
MATERIAL AND WORK METHODS
For analysis were used 6 types of Robinia
honey marketed in the city of Iasi. Honey has
been marked with M1, M2, .., M6. Stated that
honey M1, M2 and M3 originated from the
same producing company, only the form of
presentation being different. Also M4 and M6
honey came from the same company, just
different packaging type. All honeys were
processed in the laboratory to obtain permanent
microscopic blades. The method used was the
qualitative analysis proposed by Laveaux [3,4].
For each type of honey samples, 10 grams have
been taken. They were placed in centrifuge tubes
of 50 ml, above which were added 20ml of
distilled water of 20-40°C. Mixed solutions were
made, and then centrifuged for 5 minutes at
2500 rpm (1000G).The supernatant liquid was

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

removed leaving an amount of liquid as safety. well visible. Microscopic analysis was made
Quantities of sediment obtained were filled with an optical microscope with mobile
again with distilled water up to 50 ml. board, I.O.R. type (MC3).
Subsequently the solution was homogenized by All the vegetal impurities found have
mixing. The solution tubes were centrifugated been counted. Also, the pollen granite have
again at 2500 - 3000rpm for 5 minutes. The aim been counted and identified.
of the operation was to better remove the For a detailed analysis of pollen and its
remaining carbohydrates. Supernatantul was counting, photos were made with a digital
removed with absorbent paper and pipette camera, Samsung Digimax 420 type.
leaving a quantity of liquid. The centrifuge tubes Determination of pollen was performed
with sediment were weighed so that it can using both romanian determinators [5] and
determined the exact solution existing in the the one offered online by the Palinological
sediment. An analytical balance with an Research Society from Austria [8]. The
accuracy of 4 decimal places has been used. Robinia pollen granites and nonpolinical
Six clean microscopic blades were tagged impurities were counted with a computer
and weighed, noting the obtained values. software (Image Tool v.3.00) for the
Each blade containded two drops of comparative assessment of honey purity.
sediment, weighing the blades after each The polinical and nonpolinical impurities
stage. Thus was determined the exact were reported to the entire sediment solution,
sediment solution on the blades. Blades were representing the amount of honey used in the
left to dry in the drying stove at 30ºC until centrifuge. The number of contained items
complete evaporation of water. To achieve were reported at the total honey quantity (tab.
permanent preparations, Canada balm has 1). Similarly we determined the amount of
been used. No dye was used whereas pollen pollen and Robinia pollen, and we reported it
granite were well preserved in honey and so to the entire amount of honey used.

Table 1.
Data centralization

M1 M2 M3 M4 M5 M6
Blades
P1 P2 P1 P2 P1 P2 P1 P2 P1 P2 P1 P2
0,0122

0,0298

0,0117

0,0336

0,0353

0,0422

0,0359
0,032

0,035
0,03

0,02

0,02
Weight sediment on blades (g)

Nonpolinical impurities
21169 163

44038 229

27436 214

176

18485 122

152

156

13223 160

10139 146

13261 122
66

98

contained (particles)
Nonpolinical impurities
9167

7958

8667

3929

5904

contained, calculated for all the

honey used (particles)
The impurities and nonpolinical
32603

36603

13222

11681

elements mean calculated for

6298

9583

the entire honey quantity used

(particles)
Impurities in 10 g honey
14016 15744 5586 2627 5213 3971
(particles)
Total pollen found on blade
55 103

5417 104 333

22 167

39 169

13 153

23 104

12 110
63

22

58

58

51

(granites)
Robinia pollen found on blades
35

11

23

(granites)
Pollen deducted from the total
4546

2115

7051

3485

1152

2167

1597
774

744

761

723

Robinia honey used in the

centrifuge
Average percentage of Robinia
pollen from the total pollen 52,76 % 42,31 % 26,41 % 15,78 % 18,81 % 12,31 %
found (%)
RESULTS

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

After counting the impurities found in the
analyzed samples and reporting it to a
quantity of 10 grams honey, we obtained
values between 2627 and 15744 impurity
particles (fig. 1). Honey M1, M2 and M3 had
the highest content of impurities: 14016 for
M1, 15744 for M2 and 5586 for M3. The M4
and M6 honeys had the lowest amount of
impurities: 2627 for the first one (M4) and
3971 for the second one (M6). M5 honey had
a number of 5213 impurities.
The presence of impurities in the honey,
when they belong to the visited plant species
or when they are in small quantities are not a
problem. When their number increases that
lead to the deepen of the honey color, loss of
translucence and decreased aesthetic qualities
of honey. A honey with a lower quantity of
impurities (using fine filtration) is quantified
as qualitatively superior in terms of aesthetic
view,and it represents the evidence of a more
efficient processing. Besides the use of fine
filters may aggravate the melisopalinological
determination of honey origin.
The pollen granites counting was carried
out in the first phase by counting total pollen
granites, regardless of the plant species
found. Subsequently we determined the
pollen number of Robinia genus.

Figure 1. The amount of nonpolinical impurities calculated for 10 grams honey

We counted 1391 samples of pollen
granites, of which 353 belong to the Robinia
genus (tab.1 and fig. 2). Thus the average of
all analyzed honey contain a percentage of
about 25% Robinia pollen, placing the pollen
as frequently. The Robinia pollen mean,
places the honey in normal limits of Robinia
honey for Romania: 20-30% [2] (tabelul 2).
The situation of the Robinia pollen content is
different but for each sample of honey taken
separately.

Table 2.
Extract from STAS 784/1-89 - honey classification into classes - taking from producers

Features Quality class

Superior I II*
Specific granules of pollen reported to the total number Robinia
of pollen grains examined (Robinia
(% min.) pseudoacacia) 30 25 20
*At sales there is no class II

By counting the Robinia pollen grains, highest proportion of Robinia pollen

and reporting to all the pollen in the sample, respectively 52.76% for M1 honey, 42.31%
we established that honey from a single for M2 honey and 26.41% for M3 honey.
commercial source (M1, M2, M3) have the

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The lowest values were recorded for M4
with 15.78% Robinia pollen and M6 with
12.31% Robinia pollen. The M5 honey had a
rate of 18.81% of Robinia pollen (Fig. 2).
Besides the first three honey samples
(M1, M2 and M3), the Robinia pollen proved
to be really under-represented even with
under the minimum standards of this type of
honey.
52,76
42,31
26,41
M1 M2 M3
Figure 2. The percentage of pollen of Robinia pseudoacacia reported to total residue
for the police of each analized sample
In terms of determining the origin of
plant in accordance with the quality standards
(STAS 784/1-89), the analyzed honey were
classified into the following categories as:
- M1 - 52.76% Robinia pollen – superior
quality
- M2 - 42.31% Robinia pollen – superior
quality
- M3 - 26.41% Robinia pollen – 1st quality
class
- M4 - 15.41% Robinia pollen - under IInd
quality class
- M5 - 18.81% Robinia pollen - under IInd
quality class
- M6 - 12.31% Robinia pollen - under IInd
quality class
From the analyzed data, we established
that the honey with high percentage in
Robinia pollen, were classified in the
superior and first quality classes in terms of
percentage of pollen, also have a larger
quantity of impurities then those honey that
were not classifiable in the quality classes
(under IInd quality class).
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
Graphic representation of the data on the
amount of impurities of honey and the
Robinia pollen, highlight the fact that honey
M1, M2 and M3 were not as effective as the
ones centrifugated from other companies,
having the largest quantities of sediment,
default nonpolinical impurities and pollen.
18,81
12,31 12,31
M4 M5 M6
DISCUSSION
The problem of impurities, is questionable
when they are macroscopic and affect the
quality and aesthetic aspects of the honey
trade. A assessment in this direction can be put
in evidence only if it is a honey with secure
origin. In the large consumption commercial
framework, honey does not require a supra-
processing to a microscopic level especially if
it comes from a processing company with
multiple manufacturers. The advantages of
supra-procesing is that of producing a clear
and aesthetically attractive honey. Instead
prolonged procesation has the disadvantage of
eliminating microscopic particles used to
determine the origin of honey.
In making the honey, the blendering
technique is used that consists in mixing
several sorts of honey in different sweepers
(homogenization devices), in order to obtain
some color, taste or flavor. If the honey
comes from various collecting sources then
there is the possibility that the determination
of honey origin to be compromised. It is
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
therefore recommended that this way of
conditioning to be used only for polifloral
honey for which the standards for the pollen
residue are not very demanding.
CONCLUSIONS
Under melisopalinologic aspect we
noticed that the percentage of Robinia pollen
varies between 12.31% and 52,76% with an
mean within the normal range for Romania.
The amount of impurities is high for
samples of honey that presents an increased
pollen percentage of Robinia pollen,
highlighting differences in conditioning
levels of honey.
The percentage of Robinia pollen content
of honey places the analized honeys in the
superior and first quality classes. Three
samples of honey are below the lower limits
of the second quality class.
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REFERENCES
Journal articles
[1] Bogdanov S., Gallmann P., Authenticity of
honey and other bee products state of the art, ALP
Science Nr. 520, 2008
[3] Persano Oddo L., S. Bogdanov, Determination
of Honey Botanical Origin: Problems and Issues.
Apidologie 35/2004, pg. 2–3
[4] Persano Oddo L., Piro R. and colab., Main
European unifloral honeys: descriptive sheets,
Apidologie 35/2004, pg. 38-81
[6] Directiva Consiliului European 2001/110/EC
regarding honey, Official Journal of the European
Communities, 2001
[7] Codex Standard for Honey, Codex Stan 12-
1981, Adopted in 1981. Revisions 1987 and 2001
[8] http://paldat.botanik.univie.ac.at/
Books
[2] Lazăr Şt. and col., Apicultura, Alfa 2007, Iaşi
[5] Tarnavschi I.T. and col., Monografia polenului
florei din România, vol. III, 1990, pg. 28, 74
 BACK

Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

GLOBAL FOOD TRENDS – FUNCTIONAL FOODS

Micsuna Rusu

Grupul Şcolar Economic Administrativ Piatra Neamţ

e-mail: rusu_mic@yahoo.com

Abstract
The way we approach food has been changed a lot lately. We have passed from a subsistence
economy, where food was a matter of survival, to an economy of abundance, where the alimentary
excesses went to an overly of so-called „diseases of the civilization:” cardio-vascular diseases
(CVD), obesity, diabetes and a few types of cancer. The society is now heading to finding an
optimum alimentary diet that tries to promote the consumption of the foods that have a favorable
effect on the health. This is the context where appeared the concept of functional foods.
Key words: functional foods, tendencies, health

INTRODUCTION In the 80s the Japanese society,

The study of human nourishment entered
quite lately in the scientific concerns, although
connections between health and nutrition have
been made from the early ages. If Pitagora’s
follower claimed that the food ,,is the source of
every atrocity”, Hipocrate will bring arguments
saying that the nourishment plays a very
important part in diseases preventing.
The context in which the functional
foods have appeared
The way in which man feeds himself is not
a constant, but it evolves and is part of a
particular way of living. It depends (generally)
on natural agents (geographical, climatic,
geological, geo-botanicals, geo- zoological), but
also on the changes that civilization and the
science especially can bring.
In the last period the way the nourishment
is being approached has changed
significantly. It has been passed from a
subsistence economy, where food was a
matter of survival, to an abundance economy,
where the alimentary excesses went to an
overly of so-called „diseases of the
civilization:” cardio-vascular diseases
(CVD), obesity, diabetes and a few types of
cancer. The society is now heading to finding
an optimum alimentary diet that tries to
promote the consumption of the foods that
have a favorable effect on the health. This is
the context where appeared the concept of
„functional foods” [10].
consciousness of the aging process, became
more and more thoughtful in preventing the
diseases caused by the life-style, by every-
day nourishment. This gave a pretty strong
impulse to foods science and to the politics
from the alimentary area ([1]. A series of
projects have been initiated on this theme.
Thus the first project marks three
functions of the foods:
• Regular function, of organism sustenance;
• Sensorial function, that refers to the effects
that taste and smell have on the sensitive
organs and also on the brain;
• The function of body-modulation (new
defined) of the non-nutritional, function
that is, directly or indirectly connected to
diseases preventing.
The researches made over two decades had
as a result a new vision on the nourishment and
also on the adjoining legislation.
In 1991 the Ministry of Health and
Welfare (MHW) put the basis of the first
world politics that allows the legal marketing
of the foods that have benefits on the health,
the expression used being: ,,foods for
specified health uses” – FOSHU [1].
The foods are being accompanied by a
message or a representation (including
pictures, graphics or symbolic
representations, in any form) that refers to the
food or a ingredient of the food and a
disease/benefits that it has on the organism
called „demand of health.”

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
The foods can be declared FOSHU in the
case in which every effect expected, said to
contribute on maintaining the health, it is based
on certain facts on the relationship between
foods (compounds of the food) and health ([1].
In 1993, in the Nature magazine, was
published an article called „Japan and the
boundary between food and medicine”. In this
article it appeared for the first time, in English,
the term of „functional food” [2]. The article
was pointing on the researches and the results
obtained by Japan. The expression was then
taken by the science and as a result the concerns
on the boundary between foods and health has
always been a problem.
In our country the famous teacher Brad
Segal has the merit to initiate the research
domain, at the limit between foods science
and medical science.
Most of the scientific environment,
governmental and non- governmental, from
the alimentary domain and the health
domain, older or newly created, will focus
their attention on functional foods:
• EFSA (European Food Safety Authority)
– it is an European organization based on
the EU budget, that operates
independently from European
Commission, European Parliament and
the states members of the EU. EFSA (The
Authority) brings scientifically proofs and
the scientifically and technical support in
all the areas that influence the food’s
safety. It is constitute like an independent
source of information in all the areas from
this domain and makes sure that the
public is well informed.
• EUFIC (The European Food Information
Council) – it is a non-profit organization
that procures the scientifically information
that concerns the foods security, quality,
health and nutrition for mass-media, the
professionals from health and nutrition,
educators and the leaders of opinion.
• ILSI (International Life Sciences
Institute) – it is a world non-profit
foundation that tries to improve the state
of good for everyone using the
scientifically discoveries. Its purpose is to
promote the understanding of
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scientifically matters that concern
nutrition, foods safety, toxicology, risks
evaluation and bounds science-people
from the academically environment,
govern and industry [14].
These organizations unrolled and unroll a
large number of projects and programs in the
domain of functional foods. Among this, the
most important ones are the following:
• FUFOSE (Functional Food Science in
Europe)– it is a program that acts on
„The security of functional foods in
Europe”
• PASSCLAIM (Process for the
Assessment of Scientific Support for
Claims on Foods) –it intends to provide
to industry, the academical environment,
groups of consultancy and to legislators
methods to evaluate the scientifically
basis for health claims.
Functional foods received a series of
different definitions:
o A food is being considered functional if
it was demonstrated that it favorable
influenced one or more key-functions
of the organism, next to the suitable
nourishment effect, in a relevant way,
by improving the state of health and of
good and/or by reducing the risk of
getting sick. Functional foods need to
remain in the form of classical foods
and needs to prove their effects in
quantities that are usually used in a
diet; they are not pills or capsules, but
they are a part of a regular diet, this
definition was adopted by FUFOSE
o Foods or ingredients of the foods that
bring benefits to health, next to their
fundamental role, of sustenance, for the
population that consume them,
including conventional foods, fortified,
enriched, improved or additional foods.
These one deliver essential
nourishments, often above the
quantities needed to a normal feeding,
growth and development and/or another
active biological components that
brings benefits to health or the needed
physiological effects (MacAulay,
 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

2005), definition adopted by IFT
(Institute of Food Technologists)
o Functional foods or foods that bring
benefits to health, next to the
nourishments contained, definition
adopted by American Dietetic
Association (ADA).
o Any food or ingredient of a food that
may bring benefits to health, next to
their fundamental role, of sustenance [4],
definition adopted by IFIC (International
Food Information Council).
From the definitions analysis we can observe
that exist a common component (food/bioactive
component brings benefits to health, next to their
fundamental role, of sustenance), but also the
next characteristic features:
o To be conventional foods, that are used in a
conventional diet/ they can also be
alimentary supplement as pills or capsules;
o To consider only the ingredients of the
food, in the proportion found in the
food/functional foods also include the
enriched and fortified foods.
In this way it appeared the necessity of
terminology diversification; next to the form
known as the „functional foods” also being
used term like: nutraceuticals, medifoods,
pharmafoods, superfoods, design-foods.
In most of the countries acception,
function foods are the ones that have in their
structure classical foods and they can be
included in a normal diet, and the
nutraceuticals are concentrate forms of the
active biological ingredients, usually in the
form of pills or capsules.
Medifoos and pharmafoods are separated
from the other groups by their propriety of
being prescribed by a doctor and being used
in diseases treatment.
Biologically active compounds
The researches in the functional foods are
centered upon few directions:
o Biologically active compounds and
their effects on health;
o The foods with beneficial effect on
health;
o The influences of the different
treatments on the biologically active compounds.
The biologically active compounds are
chemical compounds of the food with an
essential role in the good development of the
human body. From this category are:
proteins, fatty acids mono or polyunsaturated
(PUFA), dietary fibers, vitamins, mineral
salts, bioantioxidants, etc.
Some of the biologically active
compounds are being enumerate in the table
No. 1, also being enumerate the
representativeness sources and part of their
effects on the health [13].

Table No.1
Biologically active compounds found in the foods and their beneficial effects on the health
Class/Components Source Potential Benefit
Carotenoids
Beta-carotene carrots, pumpkin,sweet potato, neutralizes free radicals, which may
cantaloupe carrots, pumpkin, damage cells
sweet potato
Lycopene tomatoes and processed tomato may contribute to maintenance of
products, watermelon, red/pink prostate health may contribute to
grapefruit tomatoes and maintenance of prostate health
processed tomato products,
watermelon, red/pink grapefruit
Dietary (functional and total) Fiber
Beta glucan oat bran, oatmeal, oat flour, may reduce risk of coronary heart
barley, rye disease (CHD)
Soluble fiber psyllium seed husk, peas, may reduce risk of CHD and some
beans, apples, citrus fruit types of cancer may reduce risk of
psyllium seed husk, peas, CHD and some types of cancer
beans, apples, citrus fruit

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

Fatty Acids
Monounsaturated fatty tree nuts, olive oil, canola oil may reduce risk of CHD may reduce
acids (MUFA) tree nuts, olive oil, canola oil risk of CHD
Polyunsaturated fatty walnuts, flax walnuts, flax may contribute to maintenance of
acids (PUFAs) heart health; may contribute to
-Omega-3 fatty acids maintenance of mental and visual
- ALA function
AGPNPUFAs—Omega-3 beef and lamb; some cheese may contribute to maintenance of
fatty acids—DHA/EPA desirable body composition and
**AGPNAGPN AOmega-3 healthy immune function may
fatty acids contribute to maintenance of
-Conjugated linoleic acid desirable body composition and
(CLA) healthy immune function
Flavonoids
Anthocyanins—Cyanidin, berries, cherries, red grapes bolsters cellular antioxidant defenses;
Delphinidin, Malvidin may contribute to maintenance of
Anthocyanins brain function bolsters cellular
-Cyanidin, Delphinidin, antioxidant defenses; may contribute
Malvidin to maintenance of brain function
Flavanols—Catechins, tea, cocoa, chocolate, apples, may contribute to maintenance of
Epicatechins, grapes tea, cocoa, chocolate, heart health may contribute to
Epigallocatechin, apples, grapes maintenance of heart health
Procyanidins
Flavanols
-Catechins, picatechins,
Epigallocatechin,
Procyanidins
Proanthocyanidins cranberries, cocoa, apples, may contribute to maintenance of
strawberries, grapes, wine, urinary tract health and heart health
peanuts, cinnamon may contribute to maintenance of
urinary tract health and heart health
Isothiocyanates
Sulforaphane cauliflower, broccoli, broccoli may enhance detoxification of
sprouts, cabbage, kale, undesirable compounds; bolsters
horseradish cauliflower, cellular antioxidant defenses may
broccoli, broccoli sprouts, enhance detoxification of undesirable
cabbage, kale, horseradish compounds; bolsters cellular
antioxidant defenses
Minerals
Calcium sardines, spinach, yogurt, low- may reduce the risk of osteoporosis
fat dairy products, fortified
foods and beverages
Magnesium Magnesium spinach, pumpkin seeds, may contribute to maintenance of
whole grain breads and normal muscle and nerve function,
cereals, halibut, brazil nuts healthy immune function, and bone
spinach, pumpkin seeds, health
whole grain breads and
cereals, halibut, brazil nuts
Selenium fish, red meat, grains, garlic, neutralizes free radicals, which may
liver, eggs fish, red meat, damage cells; may contribute to
grains, garlic, liver, eggs healthy immune function
Prebiotics
Inulin, Fructo- whole grains, onions, some may improve gastrointestinal health;
oligosaccharides (FOS), fruits, garlic, honey, leeks, may improve calcium absorption
Polydextrose fortified foods and beverages
whole grains, onions, some
fruits, garlic, honey, leeks,
fortified foods and beverages
Probiotics
Yeast, Lactobacilli, certain yogurts and other may improve gastrointestinal health
Bifidobacteria, and other cultured dairy and non-dairy and systemic immunity; benefits are

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specific strains of applications
beneficial bacteria
Phytoestrogens
Isoflavones—Daidzein, soybeans and soy-based foods
Genistein Isoflavones
-Daidzein, Genistein
Tendencies in the American nourishment
A hierarchy of the natural needs compared
to the incomes evolution is based on the
subsistence requirements and also on the
satisfaction of the ultimate needs; it beguiles in
the area of luxury products and goes to the area
of the products needed to improve the state of
health. By making an analysis of the most
successful makers in the foods/drinks area, (Top
10 food / Beverage Pacesetters”), that was
elaborated based on the sales level, Elisabeth
Sloan (CEO of the Sloan Trends & Solutions,
Inc, editor Food Technology Magazine and
North American Columnist, Functional Foods
Table no 2
The value of sales for functional foods based on the principle of nutritional
Nutritional claim Increase
percentagePercentual
increase
Low fat
Fat-free
Absent from a specific type of fat
Reduced-calorie
No sugar
No salt/sodium
On the top of the American tendencies
made at the end of 2008 by Elisabeth Sloan
we can find the next bench-marks [11]:
1. Healthy Household Halo: Despite
the fact that many Americans are cooking at
eating at home, 57% of shoppers are making
a lot of effort to eat healthier.
2. Natural End Benefits. Nine out of
10 consumers have long felt it important to
eat foods that are naturally good sources of
nutrients vs taking dietary supplements or
eating fortified foods.
3. Balancing the ‘Bul-get’ The U.S.
weight loss market is undergoing. To use low-
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
strain-specific
may contribute to maintenance of
bone health, healthy brain and
immune function; for women, may
contribute to maintenance of
menopausal health may contribute to
maintenance of bone health, healthy
brain and immune function; for
women, may contribute to
maintenance of menopausal health
Magazine - U.K) finds on top of the list
products that conquered the market by their
„functional” character.
No matter if we follow diseases
prevention, improve performances, the
promotion of the state of good; it can be
observed that the sales have improved for the
products that promote the benefits for health.
Functional foods become pretty fast a part of
the contemporary life. The values of sales for
functional foods based on the principle of
nutritional demand for the year 2007 are
being presented in the table no. 2 [6].
The value of sales for 2007 (bil.
$)
1 14
2 9,5
38 8
6 11
6 3
1 4
carb foods, reducing portion sizes, products of
low fat associate with physical exercises.
4. Contemporary Conditions. The
aged-man Americans are being affected by
CHD, cancer, high level of cholesterol, blood
pressure, osteoporosis, diabetes, etc. For this
segment of population are thought a series of
products with increased value of polyphenols
and flavanols, peptides and gamma-
aminobutyric acid (GABA) for blood
pressure, and plant sterols for cho-lesterol
management, products with omega-3.
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
5. Proactive Lifestyles With the
majority of consumers trying to live a
preventive lifestyle, functional foods and
fortified beverages have quickly become a
way of life. Vitamin C topped the list of
nutrients consumers, followed by calcium, B
vitamins, fiber, antioxidants, vitamin E,
omega-3s/DHA/fish oil, vitamin A, omega-
3s, potassium, iron, and folic acid, beta-
carotene, phytochemicals, amino acids, and
probiotics. The consumers are trying to
eliminate from their nourishment the
elements that are being bad for their health:
o Seven out of 10 consumers tried to
limit trans fat, animal fat, and saturated
fat in their diet [4];
o 45% are looking for foods with low
level of sodium;
o 45% are checking the calories level;
o 42% checked sugar level [3].
Also, to give importance on food products
that enhance skin, hair, and nails from the
inside out are another exciting market.
6. Simpler, Greener, and Cleaner.
Many consumers are taking a simpler, more-
natural approach to the foods they eat, looking
for foods with only a few ingredients and as
fresh and close to the farm as time and budget
will allow. On the top of their preferences
remain ,,natural” and ,,organic” foods. Based
on this criteria people choose fruits,
vegetables, cereals, milk, meat and fish.
7. Smart Treats. The record between
traditional snacks and healthy snack sold on the
American market is 1:3. This record was
obtained by eliminating part of trans fat, low-fat,
whole-grain and use of whole-meal. Also grow
the chips market, "better for you", followed by
products based on rice, popcorn, yogurt [8]. Best
evolution was made by deep-frozen and drying
fruits and also fruit-made chips [5].
8. Sensitivity Training. The number of
adults who perceive that they, or their
children, suffer from food allergies,
intolerances. 20% of U.S. adults say they
have a food “sensitivity;” 28% of parents
report their child is afflicted [7]. For this
population they obtained products from
probiotics bacterium (milk), fibers, probiotic,
foods for the decrease of the acidity (tomato
juice, spaghetti souce, juice, soup). Also a
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special attention is being offered for kids,
aged people, but also to the people with
intolerance for lactose or gluten.
9. Vitality Treadmill Energy was the
top reason consumers made a dietary change.
While few adults are consuming energy
products, young people are choosing this
products more and more. On the top there are
energy-drinks, vitality beverages. The
consumers are also interested in buying
products that increase performance and
mental performance [4]. Ginseng, guarana,
and taurine are among the key ingredients.
Candies, gums, and chocolate also gained in
popularity. Improving cognitive ability in
children and teens is another fast-growing
market. Omega-3s, DHA, choline, B
vitamins, minerals, and taurine are frequently
used ingredients. For sleep problems the food
market is full with products with high level
of containing melatonin and GABA. Teas for
calming and stress are another opportunity on
the functional food market.
10. New Venues. Convenience stores
have become a powerhouse for sales of some
healthy products. Statistics say that compared
to 2007, in 2008 sales for combined salads
grow with 59%, chicken (NRA, 2008). Also
18% of the Quality System Regulation (QSR)
operators plan to add more healthy items in the
new year [9]. Low-fat, low-carb, gluten-free,
light, organic, trans fat-free, natural, healthy,
and low-calorie, vegetarian and vegan are the
top 10 health claims on menus [8].
Trends of functional foods market
A analyze of market food effectuate in
2008 from experts in domain and who are
benefit by information provide with An
analysis made in 2008 by experts from the
domain and that were able to use official
dates provided by Datamonitor USA New
York; Business Insights Ltd., Londra; Innova
Market Insights, Duiven, Netherlands;
International Food Information Council,
Washington and Mintel International Group
Ltd., Chicago came to the conclusion that
most of the products have a constant quota on
the market, most obvious exception being
made by foods and drinks with benefits for
health [12].

For the American market, Datamonitor
makes an analysis of the sales for functional
foods and drinks, based on their main claims
Table No. 3
The value of sales for functional foods based on the main claims for health
Benefit for health 2004 (mil. $)
Bones health 3096
Hearth health 4126
Stomach health 445
Energy 6502
Others 4729
*CAGR - Compound Annual Growth Rate
o Products for hearth health.
According to the research made by
Datamonitor, almost 25% of the population
over 40 years suffers from hearth diseases.
This fact reflects on a high level of stress,
obesity, and inadequate diet. The ingredients
that beneficially influence the hearth health
(anthocyanins, antioxidants, carotenoids like
carotene, lycopene, lutein, zeaxanthin,
isoflavons, fatty acids, phytosterols, Omega-
3, Q10 coenzyme) are used in snakes, baked
products, dairy-produce, oils, tea and other
drinks, soybean products, etc.
o Products for bones health and
against arthritis. Earth's population is in a
continue process of ageing. Typical problems
for aged people are the one of bones and
arthritis. In a Datamonitor report it is being
showed that the number of people with bones
diseases grown with 1% a year in Europe and
with more than 2% in USA between 1994
and 2004. Calcium and vitamin D are the
typical ingredients associated with bones
health. Recent studies indicate the beneficial
effect on the heart health, but also protection
ingredients against cancer; this is why people
try to introduce them (especially calcium) in
as many products as possible, especially in
drinks: soybean milk, orange juice, water,
refreshments.
o Products for stomach health. The
number of consumers suffering from serious
medical conditions affecting the gut and
bowel is low. The products for this consumer
are various: gluten-free products, probiotics
products (specifically probiotic yogurts).
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
for health. A synthesis of the results obtained
is being presented in the table No 3.
2009 (mil. $) CAGR* 2004-2009
(%)
3927 4,9
5609 6,3
858 14
8748 6,1
5756 4
o Products for According to World
Health Organization (WHO), the obesity
reached epidemical proportion in an
aggregate level, with more than a billion
adults being overweighed and more than 300
millions being obese, clinically speaking.
The obesity is also dangerous because it
favors other diseases: BCV, diabetes, bones
diseases, cholesterol growth. Consumers are
being aware of the risks, and as a result, the
market destined to this kind of peoples is
growing with more than 3,5% a year. This
diets do not necessarily contain functional
foods, but mostly low energetically value,
with low content of fat. There are two
tendencies of development for this group of
products: "light" products and products with
"negative caloric value." This second group
mostly influence the metabolism using
stimulating, like: coffin, guarana, ginseng,
herba mate (that are using more calories than
the product itself) and action in soothing the
appetite; this products are mostly found as
drinks. A large number of products from this
category are being destined to overweighed
children, because these ones are the most
exposed to multiple diseases. In order to
adjust the weight, in 2001 it was being
recommended appetizers, cereals,
refreshments, using attractive colors and
packs with cartoons destined to attracts the
smallest from the consumers. In our days
people are focusing mostly on consuming
fruits and vegetables.
o Products for immunity and against
aging. They are being reached in
antioxidants. Leaders of sales in this category
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
are cooling drink, appetizer, dairy-produce,
whole meal [12].
Another approach of the tendencies can
be realized from the perspective of hierarchy
sales on the functional foods market from the
last period of certain types of alimentary
products.
In this way the consume of functional
foods has been extended in the last period
from the ones being consumed on a daily
basis (bread, milk, fruits) to the ones
consumed mostly for pleasure: sweets, pastry
products, snacks, dairy-produce.
The level of development for the country
and the education also influence in a decisive
way the way people feed themselves and can
also straighten the populations to a healthy
diet, making campaigns against the obesity,
smoke, excessively use of sugar, salt and fats.
REFERENCES
Journal articles
[1] Arai S.,: A mainstay of functional food science
in Japan—history, present status, and future
outlook, Bioscience, Biotechnology, and
Biochemistry, 2001, 65: 1-13
[2] Arai, S., Morinaga, Y.: Recent trends in
functional food science and the industry in Japan,
- 428 -
Bioscience Biotechnology and Biochemistry,
2002, 66: 2017–2029
[9] Lempert, P.: Feeding fresh minds. Progressive
Groc., 2007, 86(13): 14
Books
[3] FMI U.S.: Grocery shopper trends. Food
Marketing Institute, 2007
[4]
http://www.ific.org/nutrition/functional/index.cfm
[5] http://www.ilsi.org/AboutILSI/
[6]
http://www.menuinsights.com/sinatra/menu_insigh
ts/about/
[7] IFIC, Food & health survey. International Food
Information Council, Washington, D.C. 2007,
www.ifc.org.
[8] IRI, Snacking report. Times & Trends., 2007,
Nov.
[10] Mintel, Food allergies and intolerance—U.S.,
2007, April.
[11] Mintel: Healthy snacking—U.S., 2008, Feb.
[12] NRA: Restaurant forecast, 2008
[13] Secretin M.: Aliments fonctionnels et
nouveaux aliments: évolution du concept et
aspects règlementaires, 2001
[14] Sloan, A.E.: The top 10 functional food
trends, from http://members.ift.org/NR/rdonlyres/
[15] D94DACC3-0EA8-46F8-BBF9-
AFA2103FB714/0/0408feat_trends.pdf, 2007
[16] *** Wellness Foods Trends, from
http://www.foodprocessing.com, 2007
 BACK

Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

TEMPORAL VARIATION OF WATER

QUALITY PARAMETERS IN INTENSIVELY IMC
CULTURED LINED POND

Lala I.P. Ray, P.K.Panigrahi, B. C. Mal

Agricultural and Food Engineering Department

Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur-721302 West Bengal
e-mail: lalaiswariprasadray@yahoo.co.in, lpray@agfe.iitkgp.ac.in

Abstract
Water is a crux in the life of all biological species. Aquaculture, which depends predominantly
on water, regular monitoring water quality is given the most importance. An attempt was made at
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, West Bengal, India during 2006-07 to study the
response of the growth of Indian Major Carps (IMC) semi intensively cultured in polythene lined
ponds. Nine ponds were stocked with IMC at stocking densities of 2.0, 3.5 and 5.0 numbers per
square meter. The pond water quality was measured at regular interval to determine the levels of
NO3, NO2, NH3 and PO4 pollution. Physio-chemical parameters such as temperature, pH, dissolved
oxygen, organic carbon were also monitored along with the above critical nutrients. The average
water temperature, dissolved oxygen, and pH during culture period were 15–32.5 °C, 6.7–8.6 ppm,
3.1–7.8 ppm and 6.5–8.0 respectively. Nutrients like Total Ammonium Nitrogen (TAN), Nitrate-N,
Nitrite-N and orthophosphate-P ranged between 0.2 to 1.2 ppm, 0.1-0.7 ppm, 0.02-0.1 ppm and
0.05-0.4 ppm respectively. Water exchange interval varied between 30 to 42 days for different
stocking densities. Nutrient concentration initially increased with time until the water was
exchanged. The exchange of water from the pond was carried out before nutrient concentrations
reached the critical values. The fluctuation of nutrients in the pond water with higher stocking
density (STD-3.5 and 5.0) was higher as compared to the lower stocking density (STD-2.0). The
biomass increases with the increase stocking density but water exchange is needed. In this paper an
attempt has been made to highlight the variation of important water quality parameters during a
perennial culture period and its management by water exchange
Key words: Water quality, IMC, stocking densities, water exchange

INTRODUCTION subsystems help to provide income whilst

Water quality includes all physical,
chemical, and biological factors that
influence the beneficial use of water. Where
aquaculture is concerned, any characteristic
of water that affects the survival,
reproduction, growth, or management of fish
or other aquatic creatures in any way is a
water quality variable. There are many water
quality variables in pond aquaculture, but
only a few of these normally play an
important role. Increases in overall
productivity in relation to water use are
desirable in the context of rising pressure to
utilize water more efficiently. Integrated
agri–aquaculture systems (IAAS) involving
various crop, livestock and aquaculture
rehabilitating the soil through better on-farm
nutrient recycling (O’Donnell et al., 1994).
When feeding cultured fish or shrimps in
monoculture systems, a significant part of the
ingested food is discharged to the
environment as excretory products containing
nitrogen and phosphorus, which are in
general limiting nutrients in the marine
environment. These nutrients are part of the
proteins and hard tissues that make up the
body and from the point of view of
conservation their excretion into the
environment is wasteful. Approximately 70%
of the dietary nitrogen and 65% of the
phosphorus from fish food is excreted into
the water. Feed is the single most expensive

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
item in the production of fish, with the
protein component sometimes accounting for
50% of the feed cost. Water exchange in a
highly stocked fish pond helps to minimise
pollution, eutrophication, as well as to
optimise the use of valuable natural
resources. (Edwards, 1993; Luo and Han,
1990; Marten, 1986).
Freshwater aquaculture in India mostly
involves polyculture of three Indian major
carps, viz. catla (Catla catla Hamilton), rohu
(Labeo rohita Hamilton) and mrigal
(Cirrhinus mrigala Hamilton). They are the
most important groups of fishes cultured in
the Indian subcontinent and accounts for
more than 95% of the world’s carp
production (Kalla et al.2004).Composite fish
culture or polyculture of indigenous carp
together has been found to result in high fish
production in freshwater ponds in India.
(Lakshmanan et al. 1971; Singh et al. 1972;
Chakrabarty et al. 1972 a and b ; Sinha et al.
1973 ). Based on experimental studies,
Chaudhuri et al. (1974) reported the different
forms of composite fish culture in India, the
highest production recorded in these studies
being 7.5 t/ha/year. However, the production
varies significantly in intensive culture
basing on the water quality management.
Layout of Experimental Site
Nine dugout ponds were constructed at
the experimental farm. The ponds are
rectangular in shape with gradually sloping
sides, having an average water depth of 1.45
m. For perennial aquaculture at the site with
sandy type soil texture retention of water is a
problem after the monsoon season. To
overcome this problem all the ponds were
lined with 250 micron polyethylene sheets to
check seepage. Below the lining material, 30-
45 cm thickness of sand cushioning was
provided to avoid rupture. Over the lining,
loamy soils were provided to a depth of 30-
45 cm to provide suitable environment for
the growth of phytoplankton and zooplankton
to be used by the fish as natural feed. The
average water spread areas of the three lined
ponds were about 145 square meters. Ponds
were individually supplied with ground water
from an adjacent mini deep tube-well through
a under ground pipe line system and fully
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exposed to prevailing sunlight. Pond
embankments were covered with grass.
Perforated pressure pipe lines were laid
throughout the pond for aeration.
Pond fertilization with organic and
inorganic fertilizers is an effective method
for increasing primary productivity.
However, their excessive use deteriorates the
water quality (Boyd, 1992; Azim, et al.
2002.b). Prior to the trial, ponds were treated
with lime (200 kg ha−1), inorganic fertilizers
viz. urea, and single super phosphate both at
the rate of 40 kg ha-1 and farmyard manure at
the rate of 5000 kg ha−1. No further
fertilization was done during the culture
period in order to avoid any external addition
of nutrients.
Experimental setup
Within the framework of experiment,
three Indian major carp species, viz, surface
feeder catla (Catla catla L.), column-feeder
rohu (Labeo rohita L.), and the bottom-
feeder mrigal (Cirrhinus mrigala L.) were
considered to be suitable for this polyculture
system. The growth of the species was
evaluated using higher stocking densities
(S.D). The usual stocking density followed
by the farmers is 1 to 1.5 m-2 under stagnant
water condition. In this case, three
treatments, viz. 2.0 (T-1), 3.5 (T-2) and 5.0
(T-3) numbers per square meter of water
spread area with three replications were
experimented. Fishes were stocked in nine
experimental ponds with a stocking ratio of
4:3:3 for catla, rohu and mrigal respectively.
Ponds (P-1 to P-3) constituted one treatment
i.e. (T-1); similarly ponds (P-4 to P-6) and
(P-7 to P-9) constituted treatments T-2 and
T-3 respectively. A schematic diagram of the
experimental layout is shown in Fig-1.
The initial sizes of fingerlings stocked
were (16.50 ± 1.35 g), (17.55 ± 1.46 g) and
(21.5 ± 2.22 g) for catla, rohu and mrigal,
respectively. Fishes were fed daily at 5.0 %
of their body weight for the first month of
their cultivation and subsequently reduced to
2.0 %. Sampling of fishes was carried out at
15 days intervals to assess the growth and
biomass of fish. Reduction in water level in
tanks was periodically compensated and
water exchange as per requirement was
 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

carried out to overcome eutrophication. At recorded for each pond for calculation of
the end of experiment, the species-wise various yield parameters.
number and total weight of fish were

P-3 P-4 P-9

P-2 P-5 P-8

D
H

C
P-1 P-6 P-7
J
K
A
B F
I

INDENT
G A- Deep tube well
B- Non return valve
C- Regulating valve
D- Water pipe line
E- Junction box
F- End plug for water line
G- Electric compressor
H-Air pipe line
I- End plug for air line
J- Pressure gauge with air
regulating valve
K- Perforated pressure pipe lines

Fig-1. Schematic diagram of the experimental site

MATERIALS AND METHOD alternate day using spectrophotometric

Tubewell water along with aeration was
used to ascertain desirable dissolved oxygen
in the rearing experimental ponds. The pond
water quality viz. total ammonia nitrogen
(TAN), nitrate, nitrite, orthophosphate, total
suspended solid were monitored at every
method (HACH-DR/2500). Dissolved
oxygen was measured by using YSI-make
DO meter, pH by Systronics-make pH meter
and total nitrogen by Kjeldhal apparatus.
Water samples were collected at a depth of
0.30- 0.45 m from the surface at 8.30 AM for

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

the nutrient analysis (APHA, 1998). Water RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

exchange was done before total ammonia Temporal variation of various water
nitrogen (TAN) nutrient reached the critical quality parameters like ammonia nitrogen,
level (i.e. 1.0 mg L-1) (Aquaculture Authority nitrate and nitrite nitrogen, orthophosphate,
of India-2001). The water quality parameters dissolved oxygen, organic carbon, pH and
were monitored after two days interval and water temperature are shown in Fig- 2 to 9
were maintained within the acceptable limits respectively. There is a sinusoidal gradual
throughout the culture period. However, in variation of nutrients in the pond water.
this case the concentrations of the nutrients However, the variation is maximum in higher
were maintained at a much lower level to stocking density pond as compared to a lower
avoid fish stress and encourage growth. The one. A decreasing trend of orthophosphate
polluted water from the fish pond was not (PO43-) was found in most of the rearing
discharged in any natural stream but used ponds. It may be due to the increase in
beneficially for irrigation as the effluent is biomass of phytoplankton. Decrease in
enriched water for the crop. This also helped dissolved oxygen with the progress of culture
to avoid environmental pollution. in different treatments could be attributed to
Random sampling was done at every the increase in fish biomass. Similar results
fifteen days interval to assess the growth and were obtained by Jena et al. (2001, 2002a, b)
health of the stocked fishes in ponds. Fish at CIFA, Bhubaneswar. The increasing trend
weights were recorded on a top-loading of organic carbon is due to increase in phyto
balance. Around thirty sampled fishes of and zooplankton mass and it provided a
three different species viz. Catla, Rohu and better environment for fish culture. Initial
Mirgal were netted from each pond. Fishes reduction of water pH was observed which
were sampled using cast net. Weight and may be corroborated to mineralization of
length of the sample fishes were recorded. added organic manures. However, pH value
During the sampling the fishes were remained around 7.5 to 8.0 for most of the
quarantined using 1.0 ppm potassium times during the culture period. Intermittent
permanganate solution (KMnO4) for disease liming helped in stabilization of pH during
prevention. On the sampling day, no feed later part of culture as mentioned earlier.
was provided to the fish. However, during Water temperature fluctuated from 180C to
the sampling, efforts were made to minimise 320C during the culture period. Minimum
the stress due to handling. At the end of the water temperature was recorded during 70-
culture period all the fishes were harvested 80 days of experimental trial.
by draining the ponds.

1.4
Total ammonia-nitrogen concentration (mg/l

1.2

0.8 St.D-2
St.D-3.5
0.6 St.D-5

0.4

0.2

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Days of culture

Fig-2. Temporal variation in ammonia-nitrogen concentration in ponds with different stocking

densities

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

0.8
0.7
Nitrate concentration (mg/l

0.6
0.5 St.D-2
0.4 St.D-3.5
0.3 St.D-5
0.2
0.1
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Days of culture

Fig-3. Temporal variation of nitrate-nitrogen concentration in ponds with different stocking densities

0.12

0.1
Nitriteconcentration(mg/l)

0.08
STD-2
0.06 STD-3.5
STD-5
0.04

0.02

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300

Days of culture

Fig-4. Temporal variation of nitrite-nitrogen concentration in ponds with different stocking densities

0.3

0.25
Phosphate concentration (mg/

0.2
St.D-2
0.15 St.D-3.5
St.D-5
0.1

0.05

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Days of culture

Fig-5. Temporal variation of orthophosphate concentration in ponds with different stocking densities

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

11

10

8
DOconcentration (mg

7 St. D-2
St. D-3.5
6
St. D-5
5

0
0

0
30

60

90
0

12

15

18

21

24

27

30
Days of culture

Fig-6. Temporal variation of dissolved oxygen concentration in ponds with different stocking densities

3.4

3.2
3
Concentrationof organiccarbon(mg/

2.8

2.6
2.4
St D-2
2.2
St D-3.5
2 St D-5
1.8
1.6

1.4

1.2
1

0.8
0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150
Days of cult ure

Fig-7. Temporal variation of total organic carbon concentration in ponds with different stocking
densities

9.50
9.00
8.50
8.00 St.D-2
PH

7.50 St.D-3.5
7.00 St.D-5

6.50
6.00
5.50
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

Days of culture

Fig-8. Temporal variation of pH in ponds with different stocking densities

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

35.00

30.00
Temperature (0C

St.D-2
25.00 St.D-3.5
St.D-5
20.00

15.00
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Days of culture

0
Fig-9. Temporal variation of water temperature ( C) in ponds with different stocking densities

A water exchange schedule is prepared for exchanging water in different months of culture
for various stocking densities viz. STD- 2.0, 3.5 and 5.0 (Table-1). It is found from the table-3
that 540 % of water is exchanged for STD-5.0 350 % for STD-3.5, 160 % for STD-2.5.
Maximum frequency (17 times) is found in STD-5.0 as compared to the other stocking
densities (Fig-10).
Table-1
Water exchange schedule for different stocking densities
Water exchange schedule in different stocking densities (%)
Month of culture STD-2.0 STD-3.5 STD-5
Jun 0 0 0
Jul 0 0 0
Aug 0 0 0
Sep 0 10 20
Oct 0 20 20
Nov 10 20 60
Dec 10 40 80
Jan 20 60 100
Feb 20 80 120
March 20 120 140
Total 80 350 540
No. of water exchange (frequency)
4 17.5 27

140 STD-1.5
120 STD-2
100 STD-2.5
80 STD-3.5
Water Exchange (%)
60 STD-5
40

20

0
Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb March April
Months

Fig-10. Water exchange for different stocking densities

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

It is observed from the figure that during
June, July and August no water is exchanged.
It is due to the fact that water quality
parameters were well within the permissible
range and they did not reach the pollution
level. The non adherence of pollution level is
due to low initial biomass, less biological
activities and dilution of pond water due to
rainfall.
The average harvested fish weight is
presented in Table-2. It can be seen from the
table and the figure that the average individual
fish growth is the highest in ST.D-2.0
followed by ST.D-3.5 and ST.D-5.0. Although
the higher stocking gives lower individual fish
growth, but the total biomass production is
much higher. The average individual growth
was found to be the maximum for lower
stocking density of STD-2.0 as compared to
the higher stocking density of STD-5.0. The
average maximum weight in STD-2.0 was
191.5 g, 202.9g, and 198.3g for catla, rohu and
mirgal respectively; for STD-3.5 the
corresponding respective values were 171.6 g,
176.3 g, and 175.3 g. Similarly for STD-5.0
the values were 137.5 g, 126.0 g, and 146.5g.
The specific growth rate (SGR) was found to
Table-2.
Fish growth for various stocking densities in different years
Species
2.0
Catla 187.1
Rohu 202.9
Mirgal 198.3
decrease with stocking density .i.e. maximum
in STD-1.5 and minimum in STD-5 (Table-3).
The survivability percentage for different
species of cultured fishes at different
stocking densities during different year of
culture is presented in the Table-4.
Survivability is calculated using Equation-3
as presented earlier in this section. The
maximum death of the cultured fishes is due
to stress during fish sampling days. From the
table it is seen that survivability percentage
varied from 72 to 96. However, on an
average around 90% of all the species
survived during the whole culture period.
Higher yields in higher STD ponds are
due to larger number of animals with better
use of aeration and water exchange which
helped in the survivility and growth of fishes.
The fishes were grown in the ploythene lined
small ponds of about 145 m2 water spread
area each. Therefore, the yields and growth
can not be considered as absolute; rather they
are relative values. Therefore, it can be
inferred that with the increase in stocking
density, the growth of individual fish is
reduced but the total biomass production
increases and leads to more profit.
Fish weight (g)
STD
3.5 5.0
170.9 137.5
176.3 153.7
175.3 146.5

Table-3.
Specific growth rate for different stocking densities
Species STD-2.0 STD-3.5 STD-5.0
Catla 0.72 0.66 0.65
Rohu 0.73 0.71 0.71
Mrigal 0.70 0.71 0.66

Table-4.
Survivility of fish for different stocking densities
Species STD
2.0 3.5 5.0
Catla 90.41 85.74 85.58
Rohu 93.39 87.93 87.88
Mirgal 96.17 89.09 89.95

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CONCLUSION
The results of the trial conducted in
polythene lined earthen pond of around 145
m2 water spread area each may not be
replicated in bigger size natural earthen
ponds without lining. It is clear from the
study that with higher stocking densities with
a provision of water exchange and aeration, it
is possible to produce more biomass of fish
and the farmer can certainly earn more
income. It can also be inferred from this
experimental result that in upland areas with
sandy loam type of soil where water retention
is a problem, semi intensive fish culture can
be possible with polythene lining. However,
feeding on a regular basis is essential for
proper growth and profitable income.
REFERENCES
Journal articles
[2] Azim, M. E., Verdegem, M. C. J., Khatoon, H.,
Wahab, M. A., van Dam. A. A. and M. C. M.
Beveridge. 2002.b. A comparison of fertilization,
feeding and three periphyton substrates for
increasing fish production in freshwater pond
aquaculture in Bangladesh. Aquaculture 212, 227–
243.
[6] Edwarards, P.1993. Environmental issues in
integrated agriculture-aquaculture and waste water
fed fish culture systems, ICLARM conference
Proceeding. Vol.31.
[7] Jena, J. K., Ayyappan, S., Aravindakshan,
P.K., 2002. a. Comparative evaluation of
production performance in varied cropping
patterns of carp polyculture systems. Aquaculture
207, 49–64.
[8] Jena, J. K., Ayyappan, S., Aravindakshan,
P.K., Dash, B., Singh, S.K., Muduli, H.K., 2002. b.
Evaluation of production performance in carp
polyculture with different stocking densities and
species combinations. J. Appl. Ichthyology. 18,
165–171.
[9] Kalla, A., Bhatnagar, A., Garg, S.K. 2004.
Further Studies on Protein Requirements of
Growing Indian Major Carps under Field
Conditions. Asian Fisheries Society, Manila,
Philippines. Asian Fisheries Science 17, 191-200.
[10] Lakshmanan, M.A.V., Suktimaran, K.K.,
Murty, D.S., Chakrabarty, D.P. and Philipose,
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M.T., 1971. Preliminary observations on intensive
fish farming in fresh water ponds by the composite
culture of Indian and exotic species. J. Inland Fish.
Sot. India, 3 : 1-21.Milstein, A.1992. Ecological
aspects of fish species interactions in polyculture
ponds. Hydrobiologia- 231, pp. 177–186.
[13] Singh, S.B., Sukumaran, K.K., Chakrabarti,
P.C. and Bagchi, M.M., 1972. Observations on
composite culture of exotic carps. J. Inland Fish.
Sot. India, 4: 38-50.
[14] Sinha, V.R.P., Vijaya Gupta, M., Banerjee,
M.K. and Dhirendra, K., 1973. Composite fish
culture at Kalyani, West Bengal. J. Inland Fish.
Sot. India, 5: 201-208.
Books
[1] APHA, 1998. Standard Methods for the
Examination of Water and Wastewater, 18th Edn.
American Public Health Association, Washington
DC. 1268 pp.
[3] Boyd, C.E. 1992. Water quality management
for pond fish culture. Elsevier Scientific
Publishing Co., Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
316pp.
[4] Chakrabarty, R.D., Murty, D.S., Sen, P.R.,
Nandy, A.C. and Chakrabarty, D.P., 1972 a.
Periodic harvesting to enhance production in
composite culture of Indian and exotic carps. In:
Silver Jubilee Symp., Aquaculture as an Industry,
Centr. Inland Fish. Inst. Barrackpore, p.27
(Abstract).
[5] Chakrabarty, R.D., Murty, D.S., Sen, P.R.,
Nandy, A.C. and Chakrabarty, D.P., 1972 b. Short
term rearing of Indian and exotic carps. In: Silver
Jubilee Symp., Aquaculture as an Industry, Centre
Inland Fish. Res. Inst., Barrackpore, p.25.
[11] Luo, S. M., Han, C.R.1990. Ecological
agriculture in China. Sustainable Agriculture. Soil
and Water Conservation Society. USA.
Marten, G. G.1986. Traditional agriculture and
agricultural research in Southeast Asia.
Environment and Policy Institute, East West
Center, Honolulu, Hawaii.
[12] O` Donnell, A. G., Syers, J.K., Vichiensanth,
P., Vityakon, P., Adey, M.A., Nannipiri, N.
Sriboonlue, W. and Suanarit, A., 1994. Improving
the agricultural productivity of soils of Northeast
Thailand through soil organic matter management.
Soil science and sustainable Land Management in
the Tropics. CAB International, Wallingford, UK.
 BACK
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

ESTIMATION OF THE QUALITY OF THE WASTE WATER

EVACUATED FROM IASI AT THE LEVEL OF DANCU
PURIFYING STATION

Valerica Macovei, I. Gîlcă, D. Robu

Faculty of Animal Sciences, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine

„Ion Ionescu de la Brad” Iasi, Romania
e-mail: m_valerica_univagro@yahoo.com

Abstract:
The waste water purified at the Purifying Station Dancu-Iasi is deviated in Bahlui River. The
quality of waste water purified deviated in Bahlui river influenced the fauna and flora from this
aquatic ecosystem. Take into consideration the quality of the waste water purified will establish the
field of using, respectively in industry, irrigation, urbanity aims, aquaculture or tourism.
The aim of our research consists in the estimation of waste water evacuated from Iasi town at
the Purifying Station Dancu. In function of the level of pollution of water established the measures
of prevention and combat of pollution respectively the special methods of treatment.
The researches were done at the Purifying Station Dancu-Iasi. The preservation of samples
realized into a period of three months, respectively March, April and May of 2008, at the beginning
of every month. The preservation of the samples realized at the level of the canalization system and
at the level of effluent - mechanical and biological steps – in the purifying station.
Remaking of samples realized in the laboratory of hydrobiology at the faculty of Animal
Sciences, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Iasi. We determined the
following parameters of water: temperature, pH value, quantity of suspension, alkalinity and the
organoleptic properties, respectively color and odor.
The results obtained indicated that the waste water evacuated at the level of Iasi town have a high
content in biogenic substances and represent a danger for aquatic basins in which it will arrived.
Thus, the analyses realized in the months March, April and May 2008 fined inadequate values at the
majority parameters of quality of waste water The odor and the taste was at 0degree (class 0 of quality)
watter being inodorous; pH value was variable at the scale 7 – 7,3; the values of alkalinity registered
values between 6,5 and 7,4 and the temperature presented values between 11 and 19˚C.
Key words: water, pollution, inodorous, purified

INTRODUCTION urbanity aims, aquaculture or tourism

The researches were done at the Purifying
Station Dancu-Iasi. The preservation of
samples realized into a period of three
months, respectively March, April and May
of 2009, at the beginning of every month.
The waste water purified at the Purifying
Station Dancu-Iasi is deviated in Bahlui
River. The quality of waste water purified
deviated in Bahlui river influenced the fauna
and flora from this aquatic ecosystem [1,4,7].
Take into consideration the quality of the
waste water purified will establish the field
of using, respectively in industry, irrigation,
[3,5,6,12].
The aim of our research consists in the
estimation of waste water evacuated from
Iasi town at the Purifying Station Dancu. In
function of the level of pollution of water
established the measures of prevention and
combat of pollution respectively the special
methods of treatment [2,8,10,11].
MATHERIAL AND METHODS
The collecting of the samples realized at
the level of the canalization system and at the
level of effluent - mechanical and biological
steps – in the purifying station.

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The collecting of samples was done twice
per month in March, April and May 2008, at
the beginning and the ending of every month,
the researches following to determine: color,
temperature, odor, pH value and total
quantity of suspension.
Remaking of samples realized in the
laboratory of hydrobiology at the faculty of
Animal Sciences, University of Agricultural
Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Iasi.
For collecting of samples we used
recipients from special material which didn’t
influence the water composition, respectively
bottles of glass with special cork. The
volume of water which was preserve was
enough for a possible new analyze in case of
non conclusive results. The analyses were
done as soon as possible to avoid the
modification of water characteristics.
Determination of total suspension
The suspension represents the content of
the non soluble substances in water which
can separate throw filtration, centrifugation
and sedimentation.
Method of work. 100 ml water filtrated
throw filter’s paper which was firstly
weighing. Then, the filter’s a paper put in the
drying closet at the temperature of 105˚C in
time of 1 hour and, after cooling it weighing
again.
The mathematical formula is: mg
suspensions/l= m2-m1/ x100, where:
m1 = initial weight (mg); m2 = the weight
of bottle with the filtered samples (mg); V=
the volume of sample’s water
Determination of temperature
The principle’s methods consist in the
appreciation of the indication of a decimal
thermometer after that it was introduced in
the water for analyze. The determination of
temperature realized after STAS 6324-61.
Conformable this method we choose a
sample of 2 liters of water from shade’ area
and determined the temperature after 10
minutes.
Determination of color
Usually the water has two types of color:
an apparent color, determined by the solid
suspensions and a real color caused by
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
dissolved substances. The apparent color
didn’t determine but it disappear throw
centrifugation. The real color determined
with comparison with different standard
colors (little glass’ plates colored). The
determination of color can be qualitative and
quantitative.
The qualitative method consists in the
comparison of water’s color with the color of
distilled water. The sample of water and the
distilled water are introduced in two
calorimetric tubes and was compared the
color, both tubes being in vertical position on
a white foundation, and noted the water color
in comparison of distilled water.
The qualitative method consists in the
comparison of the color of water with a
calorimetric scale prepared from a solution
platinum-cobalt or dichromate-cobalt. The
color expressed degrees of color. A degree of
color represent the color produced of a
solution which contain 1 mg platinum/1 dm3
as form of ion of chlorine platinum.
Determination of odor
The principle’s method consists in
determination of odor at the place of
samples’ collecting or in housing without
another particular odor, being qualitative and
quantitative determinations.
For qualitative determination we compare
the sample’s odor with known odor being
necessary a graduated cylinder of 250 ml,
glass of watch, vessel with hot water, and
thermometer.
The way of work: in a cylinder of 250 ml
is inserted approximately 150 ml water,
cover with watch glass and after a few
movements of rotation of the cylinder is
raised watch glass and aspiring the air from
cylinder. Se warm air in the cylinder and then
covered with watch glass to a temperature of
60˚C on water bath after which the aspiring
air from cylinder, after removal of glass
watch. Scoring smell is comparing it with a
familiar smell (aromatic, herbal, mold,
hydrogen sulfide, the product, wet wood,
smell of bog, smell undefined). Expression
quantitative smell is made by the degree of
intensity as follows:
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

Table 1
Expression quantitative smell and taste of water
The smell and taste Intensity Degree
Without taste and smell odorless 0
Perceptible fellowship Very weak 1
Perceptible (usually a consumer) Weak 2
Net perceptible Perceptible 3
Sufficiently strong to make the water unpleasant strong 4
Strong that can not consume Very strong 5
(after Chifu and colab. 1997)

Determination of pH value realized with the electronic pH-meter

RESULTS OBTAINED AND THEIR
INTERPRETATION
Waste waters from different economic
agents are discharged into the sewage of the
city where it is mixed with waste water of
city, water with excreta and pluvial water.
Waters here are directed toward the cleaning
station Dancu Iasi. Maximum rate of the
cleaning station is 500 l/s.
Analysis of temperature (Table 2) that it
has between 11 and 19˚C with an average of
16˚C. Standards, maximum permissible
temperature is 32.5˚C in water without
importance, and maximum 30˚C in water
with fish importance.

Table 2
The values of quality indicators at the purifying station Dancu Iaşi step organic effluents
March April May
Indicators U.M. 01.03. 15.03. 01.04. 15.04. 01.05. 15.05.
2008 2008 2008 2008 2008 112008
Temperature ˚C 11 13 15 17 17 19
pH value 7 7,1 7,3 7 7 7,1
Total suspension mg/l 20 21 27 20 16 15
Alkalinity mg/l 7,3 7,4 6,7 6,5 6,5 6,8

Temperature affects the quality and
activity hidrobionts both directly and
indirectly. It is one of most important factors
influencing the toxicity of substances.
Increase temperature to 10 ˚C, within
certain limits compatible with life causes a
doubling of metabolic intensity and speed of
penetration of toxic substances in the body
(van Hoff law). Values recorded in the
temperature parameter indicate that the
waters are not polluted heat.
Following the analysis carried out in
March, April and May of 2008 at the
purifying station Dancu Iasi, the water
treatment plant effluents - biological step has
the following characteristics: smell and taste
ranged class of 0, being inodorous water, the
pH of water presented between 7 and 7.3
(Table 2).
In terms of total particulate matter (Table
2), the results indicate a maximum 27 mg /l
in April and a minimum of 15 mg /l in May.
Alkalinity (Table 2), presented values
between 6.5 mg /l and 7.4 mg /l, the average
being 6.9 mg /l.
CONCLUSIONS
- Values recorded in the temperature
indicates that waters are not polluted heat.
- On the pH-values of this indicator
shows a very slight alkaline reaction.
- Total value-suspension is very
important for characterization of natural
waters. According to norm DCS 414/79
permissible limit for total suspension in
effluent from waste water treatment station is
25 mg /l. The results show that the filtered
water is easily polluted physical with total

- 440 -

suspension, exceeding the maximum
allowable of 2 mg /l.
- The smell and the taste were classified
as quality class 0, class indicating a water
inodorous and good to drink.
REFERENCES
Books
[1] Barnea M., 1975, Poluare şi protecţia mediului,
Editura ştiinţifică şi enciclopedică, Bucureşti;
[2] Bown L., French H.,1991, Probleme globale
ale omenirii, Editura Tehnică Bucureşti;
[3] Ciplea Al., 1978, Poluarea mediului ambiant,
Editura Tehnică, Bucureşti;
[4] Chifu T., Murariu Alexandrina, 1999, Bazele
protecţiei mediului înconjurător, Editura
Universităţii „Alex. I. Cuza”, Iaşi;
- 441 -
Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
[5] Gruia E., 1990, Apa şi poluarea, Editura
ştiinţifică şi enciclopedică, Bucureşti;
[6] Mănescu S., 1998, Chimia sanitară a mediului,
Editura medicală, Bucureşti;
[7] Mustaţă Gh., 1998, Hidrobiologie, Editura
medicală, Bucureşti;
[8] Negulescu M., 1995, Protecţia mediului
înconjuător, Editura Tehnică, Bucureşti;
[9] Preti L., 1991, Planeta Terra în pericol, Editura
Tehnică, Bucureşti;
[10] Stan T. Păsărin B., 1996, Acvacultură, Curs,
Editura Univ. I. Ionescu de la Brad, Iaşi;
[11] Vaicum L., 1981, Epurarea apelor uzate cu
nămol activ, Editura Academiei Române,
Bucureşti;
[12] Legea apelor nr. 107/1996;
 BACK

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

STUDY ABOUT SUPPEMENTARY FEEDING OF CARP

WITH GRANULATED MIXED FEEDS

Doina Leonte, C. Leonte

Faculty of Animal Sciences, University of Agricultural Science and Veterinary Medicine

„Ion Ionescu de la Brad” Iasi, Romania
e-mail: doinaleonte@gmail.com

Abstract
For achieving of high fish production on hectare is necessary, unless natural feed, to use
supplementary feed sources.
Usually, in classical farms there are administered supplements consist in cereal meal and its
subproducts and groats.
A modern reasonable feed implicates using of granulated feeds that correlate nutrient viewpoint
with species-age-category requirements of grown fish and it lends oneself, for administering, to
aquatic medium.
Our investigation were effectuated on two lots of one summer old Cyprinus carpio sapling,
during 45 days period(26 of July-10 of September).
The analysed data served for prominence of weight growing, feed input and survival of fish from
both lots(voucher lot –LM and experimental lot-LE),wich was feeded with granulated feed with
28%(LM) and 38%(LE) protean value.
In the end of experiment, on experimental lot were obtained, comparative to voucher lot, a
22.8% biger corporal weight, a / shorter input index and a 17 percent points beter viability ,results
wich mark out the advantages of using in carp feeding of granulated feeds with high protean value.
Key words: aquaculture, input, granulated, growing, proteins

MATERIAL AND METHOD protean level on control lot, respective 38%

The esperiments were effectuated on two
lots (Lm and Le) composed both from 30
Cyprinus carpio sapling exemplars. Fish was
grown in submersible cages.
The supplementary feed was represented
by granulated nutriments with a 28,5%
on experimental lot.
The structure and nutrient value of feeds
administered on these two fish lots are
presented in table 1.

Table 1
The structure and nutrient characteristics of granulated mixed feed used on feeding program on LM
and LE lots
Lot
Specification UM
LM LE
ED Kcal/kg 3270 3455
PB % 28,5 38
Met+cist % 0,95 1,34
Lizine % 1,71 2,54
Calcium % 0,69 1,33
Available phosphorus % 0,48 0,83
Maize % 30 10
Soya groat % 28 30
Sunflower groat % 3 2,9
Fish flour % 15 31,1
Wheat bran % 20 20
Soya oil % 2 3,9
Premix % 1 1
Cement(binding) % 1 1

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Data registered during experiment provided
informations about some indicators, as: weight
evolution, feed input indicator, survival.
On experimental lot,where was used a
granulated mixed feed with 38% protean
level, was reached on 45 days old a corporal
weight with 23% biger than control lot,
where was used a granulated mixed feed with
28.5% protean level (tab 2).
Concerning to feed input it can be
observed from table 3 that on experimental
lot,where was used granulated feed with 38%
protean level,the feed input indicator was with
7% smaller than control lot,where was used a
granulated feed with 28.5% protean level.
Concernig to fish survival (in good relation
with their health situation) it can affirm that it
wasn’t influenced by feed quality, but just by
environment factors, wich were not on
optimum limits. On experimental lot the
survival rate was with 7 points better than
one of control lot (tab. 4).

Table2
Weight increase of fish during all experiment

Medium weight on populating (g) Medium weight on 45 days old (g)

LM LE LM LE LE/LM %
30 30 74,11 91,5 123

Table 3
Feed input indicator registered on fish from both lots
Feeded days Dailymedium Daily medim Input indicator
Lot
number input (g) increase (g) (kg feed/kg increase)
LM 45 2,65 0,98 1,26
LE 45 3,27 1,35 1,18

Table 4
The mortality evolution of fish from both lots
Losses on experimental period (exemplars) Mortality (%)
Period (days) LM LE LM LE
Populating 0 0 0 0
0-15 1 1 4 4
15-30 3 1 14 4
30-45 4 4 23 21
Total period 8 6 47 31

COCLUSIONS achievement of a feed input indicator with 7%

The analysis of results obtained in our
experiments allows us to declare that feed
protean level and its granulated presentation
mode, doubtless influence weight increase,
daily medium increase and feed input on fish
as well.
Thus, in the end of experiment, on
experimental lot, where was administered feed
with 10.5% protean level more than on control
lot, it was registered a medium corporal
weight with 17.39 g heigher than control lot.
Daily medium increase attained on
experimental lot fish was with 0.37 g higher
than control lot, wich determined the
smaller on experimental lot than control lot.
Survival percent of fish, easy out of
tehnological limits due to big temperature
variations during experiments period, had
values with 7% higher on experimental lot
than control lot.
REFERENCES
Books
[1] Oprea, L., 2000 – Nutriţia şi alimentaţia
peştilor, Ed. Tehnică, Bucureşti
[2] Păsărin, B Traian, S., 2002 – Acvacultură-
îndrumător practic, Ed. PIN, Iaşi
[3] www.interniche.org
[4 www.fishanatomy.net

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 BACK

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

RAPD TECHNIQUE USED IN ANALYZING THE GENETIC

STRUCTURE OF CYPRINUS CARPIO SPECIES – GALITIAN
AND LAUSITZ VARIETIES

R.G. Oroian, T.E. Oroian, Crina Teodora Carsai, Viorica Cosier, L. Sasca

University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine,

Faculty of Animal Husbandry and Biotechnologies Cluj-Napoca, Romania
e-mail: oroianrg@yahoo.com

Abstract
The purpose of this study is to analyze the genetic structure of Cyprinus carpio species,
Galitian and Lausitz varieties, from Arinis fishery, Maramures county, using RAPD technique. This
work perfomed to improve the artificial reproduction, by making the pairing management using
DNA fingerprinting. This manual labor was applied for all the reproduction individuals from the
enlarged selection nucleus (150 individuals, 60 from each variety), with the ages between three and
six summers. We present in the paper the data from 6 reproduction individuals used for
reproduction in 2008. We gathered the biological samples from fish fins and scales, extracted the
DNA, using phenol-chloroform method, verified the DNA purity and applied RAPD technique. From
a total number of 50 RAPD primers used, only 3 from Operon series (OPM-14, OPM-12 and OPQ-
09) allowed the observation of electrophoretic profiles of the amplified samples. We also made the
similarity matrix of the two varieties, considering the line number, calculated based on Nei Lee-
Dice similarity coefficient. Based on the existent similarity, we performed the UPGMA type
dendrogram, represented by two base clusters, where are included the two varieties’ genotypes.
Key words: Cyprinus carpio, RAPD, DNA, dendrogram

INTRODUCTION The tubes are homogenized by inversion

The analyses of carp species genetic
structure are useful for the establishing of
possible phenotypical correlations. The most
frequent techniques used in genotyping
different fish species are RAPD and
microsatellite (Bartfai, R. and col.).
MATERIAL AND METHODS
DNA isolation from fish fins – K
proteinase method
One cm2 from fish fins is overnight
incubated (for 10 hours), with K proteinase at
55°C. The tissue fragments are then
introduced into an Eppendorf tube, of 1,5 ml,
which contains 500 µl lysis buffer and 10 µl
K proteinase (the equivalent of 200 µg from a
stock solution of 10 mg/ml, which is
prepared and freezed at – 20oC ).
The lysis buffer contains: 50 mM KCl;
10 mM Tris-HCl; 2.5 mM MgCl2 ;Tween 20.
After the incubation, 600 µl of phenol
are added to each sample.
for 15 minutes, then centrifuged 4 minutes at
8000 rpm. During centrifugation, new
Eppendorf tubes of 1,5 ml are labelled. At the
end of centrifugation, the tubes have a yellow
inferior phase, which contains the organic
solvent, a superior phase, which contains the
DNA and an intermediate phase, where the
proteins are stored.
There is separated the superior phase of
each tube (approximately 700 µl), then are
added 550 µl of phenol:chloroform. The
tubes are shaked for 30-60 seconds, then are
centrifuged for 3 minutes, labeling the new
tubes. There is made a last extraction only
with chloroform.
DNA is precipitated with ethanol 70%,
cooled first at -20°C (two volumes), inverting
a few times the tubes and making a
centrifugation at 10000 rpm. The
precipitated DNA is air dried and re-
suspended in TE (10 mM Tris-HCl pH 8; 1

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mM EDTA pH 8). After the complete DNA
dissolution, the samples are stored at -20°C.
The DNA integrity is verified after the
migration in 1% agarose gel, stained with
ethidium bromide, and a molecular weight
marker. The total quantity of DNA, extracted
from samples and its purity (RNA or proteins
contamination), were established using an
UV/VIS spectrophotometer (BioPhotometer
Eppendorf).
The medium values obtained after the
spectrophotometer readings (5 readings for
each sample) are indicating a good purity and
a high DNA amount for every extracted
sample.
After DNA isolation and the purification
of some samples with inadequate purity
(genome wizard kit- Promega USA), the
samples were amplified using a Termocycler
(Uniequip, Germany).
PCR – RAPD reaction
RAPD (Random Amplified Polymorphic
DNA) technique
RAPD technique is based on the allelic
polymorphism determination concerning the
amplification products obtaining or lacking,
after the use of an arbitrary oligonucleotide
primer, in a position allowing the
amplification.
This variant of PCR technique don’t
involves the DNA cloning or sequencing and
can detect more loci at the same time.
The method principle: The DNA
isolated from an individual is amplified using
a PCR reaction and arbitrary oligonucleotide
primers, which will hybride the
complementary sequences, when these exists.
The short primers sequences, random
paired (8 – 12 base pairs) are used for DNA
RAPD type amplification, usually resulting a
presence/absence polymorphism in the gel. A
situation like this, which allows the random
amplification, in more points, can be realized
at the hole genome. Because RAPD is a PCR
based method, we will present some
important singularities.
The changing of a single base in the
genome is sufficient for inhibiting the primer
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
alignment to that place and the fragment
amplification, defined by the primer. RAPD
analysis can detect the modification of a
single base in the genomic DNA, in some
conditions.
The length changes are rarely observed,
often the polymorphism is observed when an
amplified fragment can be present or absent,
the RAPD polymorphism being used as a
molecular marker.
RAPD markers are behaving like
dominant markers when are observed in the
descendants. This behaviour results from the
fact that an amplified fragment is present in
the gel (as a dominant A allele) or absent (as
a recesive a allele).
In the offsprings analysis, a fragment is
observed in a homozygote condition (similar
to AA), being amplified either the DNA from
one parent, or from the other parent, as well
as in heterozygote condition.
The amplification protocol using RAPD
method
For the individuals matching in pairs we
used RAPD method, after a first phenotypical
characterization of the individuals
(dimension, body weight, body shape, etc.).
RAPD reactions were made using as a matrix
the DNA extracted by K proteinase method,
in a final volume of 26 µl. Initially, there
were tested 50 decamer primers from Operon
series (Mycrosinth, Switzerland), which
didn’t produce any amplification, excepting 3
of them: OPM-12, OPM-14 and OPQ-09.
RAPD primers from Operon series have
tge following nucleotide bases sequence:
OPM -14 (Sequence 5’-AGGGTCGTTC- 3’)
OPM-12 (Sequence 5’-TTATCGCCCC -3’)
OPQ-09 (Sequence 5’-TTATCGCCCC -3’)
A single primer with 5’-3’ sequence is
needed for RAPD reaction, and we used the
following reaction mixture, for each primer.
The primers were diluted initially,
because they were sended lyophilized. The
concentration used was of 20 picomoles and
the primers were diluted with sterile water.
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

The reaction mixture for RAPD using OPM-14 primer

sterile water - 14,8 µl

buffer - 2,5 µl
dNTP - 1 µl
primers - Primer 1-2 µl

MgCl2 -1,5 µl
Taq polymerase - 0,2 µl
DNA - 1 µl
Final volume: 26µl

The amplification thermic cycle

1 x 950 C - 3 minutes
45 x 940 C - 1 minute
360 C - 1 minute
720C - 2 minutes
720C - 10 minutes

The amplified samples were migrated in 3% agarose gel and stained with ethidium
bromide and also in 2% agarose gel stained with Seybr Save.
The samples were visualized using a data processing system, observing a high specific
primer alignment.

The reaction mixture for RAPD using OPM-12 primer

sterile water - 14,8 µl

buffer - 2,5 µl
dNTP - 1 µl
primers - Primer 2-2 µl

MgCl2 -1,5 µl
Taq polymerase - 0,2 µl
DNA - 1 µl
Final volume: 26µl

The amplification thermic cycle

1 x 950 C - 3 minutes
45 x 940 C - 1 minute
360 C - 1 minute
720C - 2 minutes
720C - 10 minutes

From all the tested primers in the
amplification reactions, the primers OPM-14,
OPM – 12 and OPQ- 09 gave a good
amplification, obtaining a different number
of patterns between the scale and mirror carp.
For observing the similarity degree
between the individuals from the two
varieties, we calculated the matrix similarity
based on Nei Lee-Dic similarity coefficient.
For the existent similarity values, we made
the UPGMA dendrogram, represented by two

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base clusters, where are included the
genotypes of the two analyzed varieties.
We identified the reproduction individuals,
males and females, because we wanted to
observe the traits transmission to the offsprings,
after the genotype establishing, using RAPD
technique and after the primers use for the
population variability identification.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The genetical characterization of the
reproducers used in the present study
RAPD technique is a PCR based method,
where there are used short length arbitrary
primers and which doesn’t amplifiy a known
DNA sequence. Many times, RAPD mehod
shows the polymorphism of more loci, which
can characaterize a genome quickly.
It is used for the obtaining of
informations concerning the inter- and intra-
populational genetic diversity, the
performing of fast genetic fingerprint, genetic
mapping and for the marker saturation of a
particular genome region. The isolated DNA
from one individual or one group of
individuals, is submitted to a PCR reaction,
using a single arbitrary primer, which will
attach to the complementary sequences of
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Figure 1. RAPD profile obtained with primers OPM-14,OPM-12 and OPQ-09, for the individuals from
10 breeder families of Lausitz and Galitian varieties (Ladder de 2000 pb)
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
DNA matrix, when it exists. DNA-
polymerase elongates the primers which
found the complemetary sequence and
attached to the matrix.
If casually two successive neighborhood
primers (as usually at less then 3000 base
pairs), are attaching to the matrix in opposite
directions, each of them on one of the two
strains, the defined fragment will be
amplified.
If an individual has one of the two situses
absent, the amplification will not take place
and a polymorphism will be observed, at the
level of the amplified fragments length. In
RAPD analyses for the genetic diversity
establishing, there are used arbitrary primers.
These are usually formed by 6-10 nucleotides
randomly paired. The G-C contetnt must be
at least 40%, because those ones with less
then 40% G-C content do not produce the
amplification (because the hydrogen bonds
are weaker and are breaking at 72-74°C, the
polymerization temperature).
Initially, there were tested 50 decamer
primers from Operon series (Mycrosinth,
Switzerland), which didn’t produce any
amplification, excepting 3 of them: OPM-12,
OPM-14 and OPQ-09.
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 L
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

The samples from 1,3,5,7,9,11positions dominant A allele) or absent (as recessive a

were amplified with OPM-14
primer.
The samples from 2,4,6,8,10,12
positions were amplified with
OPM-12 primer.
The samples from 13,14,15,16,17,18,19
positions were amplified with OPQ-
09 primer.
The technique provides dominant
markers, that is a presence/absence
polymorphism, showed by the fact that an
amplified fragment appears in the gel (as
allele), so the dominant homozygote can’t be
distinguished from the heterozygote one.
95% form RAPD markers are behaving in the
descendance as dominant markers and under
5% as codominant markers.
In the case of our study upon the
analyzed reproducers, we obtained the
amplification only with 3 primers from
Operon series: OPM-14, OPM-12 şi OPQ-09.
The similarity matrix, calculated based
on Nei Lee-Dic similarity coefficient is
presented in table 1.

Table 1
Matrix similarity based on Nei Lee-Dic similarity coefficient at the individuals of Lausitz and
Galitian varieties
No. of
1 2 3 4 5 6
patterns
1 - 0,17391 0,09091 0 0,15385 0,09091
2 0,17391 - 0,45714 0,48649 0,61538 0,45714
3 0,09091 0,45714 - 0,38889 0,31579 0,58824
4 0 0,48649 0,38889 - 0,4 0,38889
5 0,15385 0,61538 0,31579 0,4 - 0,47368
6 0,09091 0,45714 0,58824 0,38889 0,47368 -

Based on the existent similarity values, we made the UPGMA dendrogram, represented by
two base clusters, where are included the genotypes of the two analyzed varieties.
2

75

5
37

4
96

77
100

1
0.1

Figure 2. UPGMA type dendrogram of similarities found between the two varieties

Based on RAPD genetical analysis, we The method used – UPGMA

realized the genotypes distribution in the two (Unweighted Pair Group Method with
studied varieties-Lausitz and Galitian, group Aritmetic Mean) involves an analyzation of
shown in the obtained clusters. the group or the clustering and indicates the

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relatable connections between the operational
taxonomic units by similarity establishing
and the difference between all the obtained
polymorphisms, with primers which made
the amplification.
The individuals studied formed two
clusters. One cluster includes the individuals
from 2 to 6 and the other cluster includes the
individual 1. The cluster formed by the
individuals 2-6 divides in two subgroups, one
containing the individuals 3 and 6, and the
other one the individuals 2, 4 and 5. Also, 2nd
and 5th individuals are grouped together,
separately from the 4th individual.
The results obtained after the
dendrogram analysis indicate the fact that the
genetic similarity of the individuals
belonging to the analyzed families is
variable, dependind on the geographic origin.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The DNA isolation from fish fins
using K proteinase protocol is an efficient
and relatively quick method, obtaining a
good DNA quantity and quality.
2. From the total number of 50 decamer
primers tested, belonging to Operon series
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
(Microsynth, Switzerland), which didn’t
produce any amplification, excepting 3 of
them: OPM – 12, OPM – 14 and OPQ – 09.
3. The UPGMA dendrogram analyses
indicate the fact that the genetic similarity of
the individuals belonging to the analyzed
families is variable, dependind on their
geographic origin.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The present study was financed from
the CEEX research project, number
45/2005, Module I Biotech.
REFERENCES
Journal article
[1] Bartfai, R., Egedi, S., Yue, G.H., Kovacs, B.,
Urbanyi, B., Tamas, B., Gizella Tamas, Horvath,
L., Orban, L., Genetic analysis of two common
carp broodstocks by RAPD and microsatellite
markers, Aquaculture, 2003, 219: 157-167.
Books
[2] Coşier, Viorica, Inginerie genetică, Editura
Risoprint, Cluj-Napoca, 2007;
[3] Oroian, T.E., Selecţia asistată de markeri la
crap, Editura Risoprint, Cluj-Napoca, 2007;
[4] Vlaic, A., Genetica peştilor, Editura Risoprint,
Cluj-Napoca, 2007;
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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

RESEARCH ON THE FLUCTUATING ASYMMETRY OF

SOME MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS OF THE FINS
OF PERCA FLUVIATILIS SP.

Anca Teuşan, V.Teuşan, A.A. Prelipcean

Faculty of Animal Sciences, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine

„Ion Ionescu de la Brad” Iasi, Romania
e-mail: anca.teusan@yahoo.com

Abstract
On our planet, most of the living organisms are characterized by a bilateral simetry of their
body. Besides the bilateral symetrical organisms, well manifested, there are many creatures in wich
the simetry is disrupted. These asymmetryes may occur as some differences between the right and
left side of their bodyes and have most of the time a negative impact over the individuals. This paper
reviews some aspects of the fluctuating asymmetry manifested at the length and width of the
pectoral and ventral flippers of perch. This kind of data are almost absent in the speciality
literature, therefore this study reviews a part of this problem. Four lots were organized according
with the age and the weight of the fish. Their weight has been determined by weighing with a digital
balance and the measurements have been making using vernier callipers. The age of the fish has
been determined by counting the growth rings on the scales. The mean difference found at the pair
flippers had values between 0,75 and 1,88 mm for the length of pectoral flippers; between 0,57 and
1,63 mm for the length of the ventral flippers; between 0,43 and 0,84 mm for the pectoral flippers
base width; between 0,38 şi 0,69 mm for the ventral flippers base width. The differences that were
found between the right and the left side of the studied parameters are no statistically significant,
although they show the phenomenon of fluctuating asymmetry.
Key words: fluctuating, asymmetry, Perca, age, flippers

INTRODUCTION MATERIAL AND METHOD

Before beeing a plant and animal grower,
man used to be a collector and a hunter,
exposing himself to many and great dangers in
order to provide daily food. Among the
animals that were hunted the fish was counted
too, because it offered man a great trofico-
biological valued meat, rich in proteins, lipids,
calcium and especially phosphorus.
The fish has a dietetic, easily digestible
meat which gives the body a energy, mental
force and a remarkable longevity.Studies
made so far show that one kilogram of fish
meat equals with 1,7 kilograms of pork; with
32 hen eggs; with 6 liters of cow milk or with
9,5 kilograms of potatoes. [8]. Reported in
the above, we could say that man is obliged
to know in detail the biology of all the
species of fish that inhabits the water of this
planet, no matter how big or insignificant
their economic importance is.
The species of fish taken in our study, the
perch, Perca fluviatilis, has the following
systematic classification: Kingdom Animalia;
Subkingdom Gnathostomata; Supraclasa
Pisces; Clasa Osteopterygii, Supraorder
Teleostei; Order Perciformes; Underorder
Percoidei; Family Percidae; Gender Perca
[2],[8], [9],[10].
The Perca fluviatilis species (the perch) is
one of the approximately 6000 species of the
Perciformes Order. It is a freshwater fish,
although it can gradually adapt to the brackish
waters. The body of this fish is elongate and
laterally compressed, with an oval or suboval
shape, with a pronunced spinal camber line.
[1],[2],[3]. The relationship between the
bodylenght and the height of its maximum line is
of 3/1-3,5/1 [3],[4]. The scales from the body's
surface are small, with jagged edges and well
stuck in the skin. When this fish reaches the age
of maturity it can measure 30 centimeters in
length and may weigh 500-700 grams.The

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perchs head is subconic, with a short and blunt
gab, the mouth is terminal and protractile, with
small but strong teeth, seated both on the maxile
and the mandible [1],[5]. The eyes are deprived
of the lacrimal glands and eyelids. On their
body there are 8 fins of which 4 are odd and 2 are
in pairs. The two pairs of fins on which we have
been studied the fluctuating asymetry at these
fish species are: the pectoral fins snd the ventral
fins [8],[9]. The Perca fluviatilis fins formula:
D1/13-16; D2/1/3; P/13; V1/5; A8-9; C17 and the
formula of the lateral line of these species is: L.
lat = 57(7-10)/(12-16)77 [2],[5]. On the lateral
side of the body the perch has 5-9 dark olive
bands, one of them (the central one) has the
appearance of letter "Y". These bands have the
role of protection (mimics underwater
vegetation) and intended to intimidate prey
[8],[9]. From an ecological and ethological pion
of view, the perch is an cold,slack water species
which prefers both clear and high turbidity water.
The perch ia an well adapted species to water
with an oxygen content of 4% to 6%. The perch,
especially the females, live in flocks of up to 5-7
individuals approaching the age and the body
size, (especially during the winter [8], and the
food of these fish differ with age. So until the
age of two this fish is peaceful, feeding himself
with plankton, worms, crustaceans, etc., but after
this age it becomes a predator and hunts a wide
range of aquatic beings (juvenile fish, molluscs,
frogs, poor, shells). The duration of the feed
digestion may vary between 30 and 48 hours.It
reproduces after the age of 3 years, at a water
temperature of 7-8°C when females are
spawning in the dawn of the day. Juveniles occur
after 2 weeks, depending on water temperature
and it is active even at hatching [8],[9].
In our research we used 31 copies of perch
with different age and size (table 1), which
have been harvested from the ponds of S.C.
Pescaris S.A. Iaşi, Ţigănaşi fish farm.The 31
fish were grouped in 4 batches, the number of
copies in each batch being different (table 1),
depending on age, size and weight.The age of
the fish was determined using the method of
highlighting, examination and counting of
growth rings on scales which are from area
placed above and belw the lateral line opposite
the two dorsal fins.
Other materials that we used in our
researche were: "Toya-150" type callipers, a
"Momert" type digital balance, scissors,
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
microknifes, tweezers, needles for dissection,
glass blades, Berzelius glasses, pipettes,
graduated cylinder, distilled water, etilic
alcohol, 5% ammonia solution, filter paper,
gelatin, binocular microscope Novex type,
computer Aurora-TB609A, Karce-K.C.-181,
PC-512MB type with Lexmark-X1190 and
Digimax-Samsung fotodigital device. The
determination of the weight of the fish was
done by weighing with an accuracy of ± 1
gram and the size of the pair fins were
determined by measuring with callipers. Data
obteined from the weighings and
measurements were processed statistically,
by calculating some usual statistical indices
(the average and standard error of the mean;
standard deviation, the variation and the
coefficient of variability) and for testing the
semnification of the differences between the
left and the right side of the body at the
indicators stuied the ANOVA monofactorial
test was applied.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
In terms of age, weight and body size, the
fish we studied (the perch) were
characterized by a pronunced heterogeneous.
Therefore, at the first lot of fish, the age of
the 7 individuals ranged between 1 and 2,5
ani, the average of this lot is 1,64±0,21 years
(v=33,92%)(table 1).
The body weight of these fish ranged
between 45 and 89 grams, the mean of the 7
individuals was of 69,71±5,83 grams
(v=22,14%). The second batch of fish was
more homogenous of age, the 16 individuals
had ages betwenn 3 and 4 years an a age mean
of 3,44±0,09 years (v=10,45%)(table 1). The
body weight of the fish from the second batch
varied between an lower limit of 102 grams
and an upper limit of 176 grams, with a mean
of 145,38±6,18 grams (v=17%)(table 1). The
fish from the third batch had the same age (4,5
years),but their body weight varied between
206 and 268 grams, the 4 individuals had a
average body weight of 250,5±14,91 grams
(v=11,91%)(table1). The fourth batch of
perch has a average age of 5,5 ±0,2
years(v=7,42%) and an average weight of
442,75±59,1 grams (v=26,64%)(table 1). The
dimensions of length and width of the pair fins
and not only have been incresing with age and
the body weight. Thus, naturally, there is an
 Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

increase of the length and width of the pectoral grows from 21-22,5 mm, for one year old fish
and ventral fins of the fish, depending on age. up to 48-50 mm, for the fish of 5,5-6 years old.
For example, the length of the pectoral fin

Table 1.
The age and the weight of the biological material used (31 Perca fluviatilis individuals)
Statistical indicators used Variation limits
Specification n
x±sx s V% minimum maximum
Lot I 7 1,64±0,21 0,556 33,92 1,0 2,5
(years)
Age of

Lot II 16 3,44±0,09 0,359 10,45 3,0 4,0

Lot III 4 4,50±0,0 0 0 4,5 4,5
fish

LotIV 4 5,50±0,20 0,408 7,42 5,0 6,0

Lot I 7 69,71±5,83 15,43 22,14 45,0 89,0
Lot II 16 145,38±6,18 24,72 17,00 102,0 176,0
Weigh
of fish
(gr.)

Lot III 4 250,50±14,91 29,82 11,91 206,0 268,0

Lot IV 4 442,75±59,10 118,20 26,64 347,0 616,0

Table 2.
The main statistical indicators used regarding the defferences found for pair fins of Perca fluviatilis,
between the left and the right side

Fish Statistical indicators Variation limits

Measured characters n
batch x±sx s V% minimum maximum
Pectoral fin stg. 7 27,29±1,23 3,26 11,96 25,5 30,5
length(mm) dr. 7 27,64±0,75 1,97 7,14 25,0 30,5
Lot I Ventral fin stg. 7 29,36±2,04 2,70 18,42 25,0 33,5
1,64 length(mm) dr. 7 29,50±0,90 2,38 8,07 25,5 33,0
years stg. 7 7,36±0,26 0,70 9,51 6,5 9,0
69,71 Width at base of
grams pectoral fin(mm) dr. 7 6,93±0,23 0,61 8,80 6,0 7,5
Width at base of stg. 7 7,14±0,28 0,75 10,50 6,0 8,0
ventral fin(mm) dr. 7 7,00±0,29 0,76 10,86 6,0 8,0
Pectoral fin stg. 16 33,88±0,48 1,92 5,67 31,5 38,0
length(mm) dr. 16 33,69±0,47 1,88 5,58 30,5 36,5
Lot II Ventral fin stg. 16 35,25±0,45 1,80 5,33 33,0 39,0
3,44 length(mm) dr. 16 35,78±0,42 1,68 4,70 33,0 39,5
years
145,38 Width at base of stg. 16 8,84±0,31 1,24 14,03 7,5 13,0
grams pectoral fin(mm) dr. 16 8,50±0,12 0,48 5,65 8,0 9,5
Width at base of stg. 16 8,00±0,20 0,80 10,00 7,0 10,0
ventral fin(mm) dr. 16 7,94±0,20 0,80 10,08 6,0 10,0
Pectoral fin stg. 4 40,00±1,70 3,40 8,50 35,0 42,5
length(mm) dr. 4 40,27±1,30 2,60 6,46 36,0 42,0
Lot III Ventral fin stg. 4 41,13±1,98 3,96 9,63 36,5 46,0
4,50 length(mm) dr. 4 40,50±1,51 3,02 7,46 37,5 44,5
years
250,50 Width at base of stg. 4 10,38±0,55 1,10 10,60 9,0 11,5
grams pectoral fin(mm) dr. 4 10,25±0,25 0,50 4,88 9,5 10,5
Width at base of stg. 4 9,25±0,25 0,50 5,41 9,0 10,0
ventral fin(mm) dr. 4 9,50±0,35 0,70 7,37 8,5 10,0
Pectoral fin stg. 4 46,88±1,33 2,66 5,67 44,0 50,0
length(mm) dr. 4 46,50±1,94 3,88 8,34 43,0 52,0
Lot IV Ventral fin stg. 4 48,25±1,97 3,94 8,17 45,0 54,0
5,50 length(mm) dr. 4 48,00±2,21 4,42 9,21 43,5 54,0
years
442,75 Width at base of stg. 4 11,75±0,52 1,04 8,85 10,5 13,0
grams pectoral fin(mm) dr. 4 11,25±0,63 1,26 11,20 10,0 13,0
Width at base of stg. 4 12,88±1,57 3,14 24,38 10,5 17,5
ventral fin(mm) dr. 4 12,50±1,19 2,38 19,04 11,0 16,0

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

The length of the ventral fin grows from 25-
27,5 mm up to 48-54 mm,also, depending on
age (1-5,5-6 years).For the width of the pair fins
(pectoral and ventral), the evolution occurs from
6-7,5 mm, for one year old, to 12-17 mm, for
5,5-6 years old . By age group, these dimensions
had mean values as follows. (table 2) (fig. 3,4).
For the first bach of fish (1,64 years old and
69,71 grams), the pectoral fins have a average
length of 27,29 mm, on the left side and 27,64
mm, on the right side, the average difference is
of 0,35 mm (table 3)(fig. 1). Therefore,
asymetry is manifested, at this stage of age, for
the right side of the body. For the second batch
of age (3,44 years an 145,38 grams), the length
of the pectoral fin has a average of 33,88±0,48
mm, on the left side and of 33,69±0,47mm, on
the right side (table 2). The difference is, in this
case of 0,19 mm and the asymetry is manifested
on the left side of the body (fig. 1). For the batch
of 4,5 years old (the third batch)(250,5
grams)the pectoral fin is longer on the right side
than on the left side of the body with 0,27 mm,
which means that the asymetry is manifesting
again on the right sife of the body (fig. 1). For
the fourth grup of age (5,5 years and 442,75
grams), the difference in length between the left
and the right side of the pectoral fin is of 0,38
mm, the asymetry is manifested on the left side
of the body. Consequently, at this character there
is a fluctuating asymetry which apears
alternatively on the left and the right side of the
body, along with aging. For the other characters
studied by us there is an increase in size of the
length and width, depending on the age of fish
(table 2) (fig.1).

L4 5,50 a 442,75 gr 46,5

46,88
L3 4,50 a 250,5 gr 40,27
40
33,69 dreapta
L2 3,44 a 145,38 gr 33,88
L1 1,64 a 69,71 gr 27,67 stânga
27,29

0 20 40 60

Fig. 1.Pectoral fin length of Perca fluviatilis, depending on age

For the length of the ventral fin, the
asymetry between the left and he right side of
the body, has been manifested fluctuating
also, in correlation with the age of fish, on
the right for the first two batches and on the
left for the next two batches (ages). (tables
2,3) (fig. 2). For the width at baze of the
pectoral fin, the asymetry was manifested
only on the left side of the body, for all
groups of age. (fig. 3).

Table 3.
The differences found between the left and the right side of the body, for pair fins of Perca fluviatilis
species
Studied batch of fish
L1 L2 L3 L4
1,64years 3,44 years 4,5 years 5,5 years
Specifications
69,71gr. 145,38gr. 250,5gr. 442,75gr.
Val. Val. Val. Val. ± Val. Val. Val. Val.
±% ±%
abs. rel. abs. rel % abs. rel abs. rel
Pectoral fin
- +
length 0,35 100 0,19 54,29 0,27 77,14 -22,86 0,38 108,57
45,71 8,57
(mm)
Ventral fin length + + +
0,14 100 0,53 378,57 0,37 264,28 0,25 178,57
(mm) 278,57 164,28 78.57
Width at base of - +
0,43 100 0,34 79,07 0,13 30,23 -69,77 0,50 116,28
pectoral fin(mm) 20,93 16,28
Width at base of - + +
0,14 100 0,06 42,86 0,25 178,57 0,38 271,43
ventral fin(mm) 57,14 78,57 171,43

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

Fig. 2. Ventral fin length of Perca fluviatilis, depending on age

L4 5,50 a… 11,25
11,75
L3 4,50 a… 10,25
10,38
dreapta
L2 3,44 a… 8,5
8,84
stânga
L1 1,64 a… 6,93
7,36

0 5 10 15

Fig. 3. Width at base of pectoral fin of Perca fluviatilis, depending on age

For the width at baze of the ventral fin, the right side for the third batch and again on
the asymetry was manifested on the left side, the right side for the last batch of age,
for the first two batches of age and then on meannd the age of 5,5 years (L4) (fig. 4).

L4 5,50 a 442,75 gr 12,5

12,88
L3 4,50 a 250,5 gr 9,5
9,25
7,94 dreapta
L2 3,44 a 145,38 gr 8
L1 1,64 a 69,71 gr 77,14 stânga

0 5 10 15

Fig. 4. Width at base of ventral fin of Perca fluviatilis, depending on age

Within age groups, the asymetry
phenomenon for the folowed characters had
manifested differently. So, for the length of
the pectoral fin, from all 31 studied
individuals, only two of them had no
difference between the two sides of the body,
and for the rest 29 (93,55%) of the fish, these
differences varied between 0,5 mm şi 4,0
mm, on the right or on the left side.
Regarding the second character (the length of
the ventrak fin) the asymetry manifested for
26 (83,87%) individuals, with values from
0,5 mm up to 30 mm, also on the rifgt and
left side of the body. For the width at base of
Table 4.
the pectoral fin, the asymetry apeared at 26
(83,87% from the total number) and for the
length of the ventral fin, the asymetry
occured for 23, which represents 74,19 %
from total number of perch (31=100%). The
differences that were found betwenn the left
and the right side of the body, for the last two
characters have varied between 0,5mm and
5,0 mm.
From a statistical viewpoint, all the
differences that have ben found between the
left and the right side of the body, for the
studied fish, have proven to be insignificant
(table 4).

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

Statistical significance of the defferences between the left and the right side for the pair fins
of Perca fluviatilis species,depending on age and body
Studied charaters of Perca fluviatilis
Width at Width at
Pectoral fin Ventral fin
base of base of
Fish batch length length
pectoral ventral
(mm) (mm)
fin(mm) fin(mm)
Left x Right Left x Right Left x Right Left x Right
L1 1,64years
ns. ns. ns. ns.
69,71gr.
L2 3,44 years
ns. ns. ns. ns.
145,38gr.
L3 4,5 years
ns. ns. ns. ns.
250,50gr.
L4 5,5 years
ns. ns. ns. ns.
442,75gr.

Regarding the causes that can explain
these fluctuating asymetry for Perca
fluviatilis, they were not investigated in this
study, but they could be genetical or external
(environmental pollution, the stress etc.) [6],
[4].
CONCLUSIONS
1. All the body parameters determined for
the studied individuals of perch are growing
in correlation with the age of the fish.
2. At the pair characters there was
revealed the fluctuating asymetry
phenomenon, both for the individuals and the
groups of age.
3. The differences of asymetry between
the pair characters studied by us are not
statistical significant.
REFERENCES
Books:
[1] Bejenaru, Luminiţa; Stanc, S.; Neagu, A.,:
Elemente de anatomie comparată a animalelor,
vol. I, Editura PIM, Iaşi, 2002
[2] Bogoescu, C.; Dabija, A.; Sanielevici, E.,:
Atlas zoologic, Editura Didactică şi Pedagogică,
Bucureşti, 2002
[3] Păsărin, B., Stan, T.,: Acvacultură –
îndrumător de lucrări practice, Editura PIM, Iaşi,
2002
[4] Voican, V., Rădulescu, I., Lustun, L.,: Practica
selecţiei şi reproducţiei la peşti, Editura Ceres,
Bucureşti, 1975
Journal Article:
[5] Moyle, B.,P., Cech, J., jr.,: Fishes, An
Introduction to Ichthyology Fourth Edition,
Prentice Hall, U. K., London, 2000.
[6] Palmer, A., R.,: Fluctuating asymetry analyses.
A primer, in T.A. Markow (ed.) Developmental
Instability: Its Origins and Evolutionary
Implications, Kluwer, Dordrecht, Netherlans,
1994, p. 3-35
[7] Popovici, M., Ion, C.,: The study of fluctuating
asymetry in some populations belonging to Mus
spicilegus Petenyi, 1882 species from north of
Moldova, Analele Ştiinţ. U.A.I.C. Iaşi, Biologie
Animală, tom LI, 2005, p. 237-240
[8] Stoian, Ioana,: Aspecte etologice ale bibanului
(Perca fluviatilis) din Lacul Bicaz, Lucr. Licenţă la
U.A.I.C. Iaşi, Fac. Biologie, 1995
[9] Teuşan, Anca,: Cercetări privind asimetria
fluctuantă la nivelul unor parametri de morfologie
externă la specia Perca fluviatilis, Lucr. Licenţă,
U.A.I.C.,Iaşi, 2006.
[10] Teuşan, Anca, Macovei, Valerica,: 2
Bibliographyc study regarding some biological
and etological elements of Perca fluviatilis (The
perch), Lucr, Ştiinţ USAMV, Iaşi, Seria
Zootehnie, 2007.

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 BACK

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

THE MONITORING OF PHYTOPLANKTON EVOLUTION

BY BIOLOGICAL YEAR WITHIN ARINIS-MARAMURES
FISHERY COMPLEX

T.E. Oroian, R.G. Oroian, Cristina Hegedus, V. Cighi, D. Dronca

University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine,

Faculty of Animal Husbandry and Biotechnologies Cluj-Napoca, Romania
e-mail: teoroian@yahoo.com

Abstract
The research took place on the period 2005-2008, being a part of CEEX project, number
45/2005, module I Biotech. The purpose of the study was the monitoring of phytoplankton evolution
in the nine fish ponds, having in total a surface of 90 hectares, being an indicator of the water
biologic qualitative level. The phytoplankton having algae in its composition, a base for the
consumers development, we observed the composition of Chlorophyceae, Cyanophyceae and
Diatoms species. We established the taxonomic composition for each month of the study, evaluating
the species number, as well as the percent from total value. Specially, we examined Cyanophyceae,
Crysophyceae, Bacillariophyceae, Chlorophyceae, Conjugatophyceae, Euglenophyceae,
Cryptophyceae species. Within the Chlorophyceae we identified: volvocals, protococaceae,
Desmids; within the Cyanophyceae, the genera: Spirulina, Coelosphaerium, Oscillatoria sp.,
Dactylococcopsis, Merismopedia, Microcystis. The identified Diatoms, especially in springtime, are
included in the genera: Melosira, Cyclotella, Amphora, Navicula sp., Achnanthes, Asterionella,
Cymbella, Cocconeis, Fragillaria, Synedra. The phytoplankton taxonomic composition shows a
good qualitative water, proper for carp culture.
Key words: phytoplankton, taxonomic composition, Chlorophyceae, Cyanophyceae, Diatoms

INTRODUCTION gathered from different areas (one sample for

The phytoplankton is composed
exclusively by algas (producing organisms,
on which are developing the consumers), and
that are growing up in the illuminated area of
the fish-pond. The phytoplankton includes
species of Chlorophyceae (green algas),
Cyanophyceae (blue-green algas) and
Diatoms (silicate algas). Those algas were
analyzed in March, April, May, June, July,
August, September 2008.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
There were monitored 9 fish-ponds in
total surface of 90 Hectares, from Arinis
fishery complex, Maramures county, on the
period 2005-2008.
In this paper we present some results
from the year 2008. Because we wanted that
the samples were representative, from each
fish-pond there was collected a mixted
medium sample consisting in 5 samples
each shore and one from the centre).
For the Diatoms identification we made
fixed samples. A small quantity of gathered
sample is washed with distilled water,
decanting two or three times, for the formalin
removal, then are put droplets on the
calcination spangles, on a asbestos strainer.
There are incinerated for 25-30 hours,
then are put the colophonium fragments, for
the melting. The colophomium spangles are
fixed on microscope slides, avoiding the
forming of air bubbles.
In this manner we eluded the organic
substance and there are remaining visible
only the skeleton ornamentations. The
frustule ornamentations, the knurls and dots
number on the linear unit of 10 µm are the
base of Diatoms classification systems.
The Diatoms species identification from
those microscopic samples realized with a
Niklon Eclipse E400 optic microscope, 100x

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objective, using usual determinations
(Hindák F., 1978; Krammer K., Lange-
Bertalot H., 1986, 1988, 1991; Zelinka M.M.,
Proskina-Lavrenko A.I., Sesukova V.S.,
1951).
For the establishing of Diatoms species
relative abundance, we made average counts
of 800 individuals/sample (1 ml), the
obtained values being expressed either as
number/species/sample, or as percent.
For the construction of Diatoms normal
distribution curves, we used Preston method
(1948), applied for the first time by Patrick,
Holn and Wallace (1954). The allocation of
individuals’ number on intervals (1, 2, , ..., n)
was made so that each interval should be 2
times bigger then the previous one (1-2, 2-4,
4-8, ..., n-2n).
The flowery similarity degree between
the algas communities, adequate to the five
collecting points from the nine fish-ponds,
was analyzed using Sörensen index, which is
based on the species presence or absence in
the biocenoses. The numeric value of the
index is between 0 and 1, and when the value
is more closer to 1, the similarity is more
pronounced.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
In the following tables we present: the
phytoplankton taxonomic composition
(number of species), as well as the percent of
each species from the total number of
identified species in each monitored fish-
pond, depending on the analyzed month.
We observed differences from one
species to another, either as number, or as a
percent, between months and fish-ponds
(tables 1-14).

Table 1
The phytoplankton taxonomic composition (number of species)
Species March 2008
F-p 1 F-p 2 F-p 3 F-p 4 F-p 5 F-p 6 F-p 7 F-p 8 F-p 9
Cyanophyceae 11 8 10 10 8 9 8 8 10
Crysophyceae 3 1 2 1 1 2 2 2 1
Bacillariophyceae 35 25 25 20 29 25 25 30 30
Chlorophyceae 12 13 14 10 8 8 13 8 15
Conjugatophyceae 8 8 8 3 5 4 7 5 5
Euglenophyceae - - - - - - - - -
Cryptophyceae - - - - - - - - -
Total specii/ lună 69 65 59 44 41 48 55 53 61
F-p=Fish-pond

Table 2
The phytoplankton taxonomic composition (%)
Species March 2008
F-p 1 F-p 2 F-p 3 F-p 4 F-p 5 F-p 6 F-p 7 F-p 8 F-p 9
Cyanophyceae 15,94 12,30 15,38 22,73 19,51 18,75 14,54 15,09 16,39
Crysophyceae 4,35 1,54 3,40 2,27 2,43 4,16 3,63 3,77 1,63
Bacillariophyceae 50,72 38,46 42,37 45,45 70,73 52,08 45,45 56,60 49,18
Chlorophyceae 17,39 20,00 23,73 22,73 19,51 16,66 23,63 15,09 24,59
Conjugatophyceae 11,59 12,30 13,56 6,82 12,19 8,33 12,72 9,43 8,19
Euglenophyceae - - - - - - - - -
Cryptophyceae - - - - - - - - -
F-p=Fish-pond

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

Table 3
The phytoplankton taxonomic composition (number of species)
Species April 2008
F-p 1 F-p 2 F-p 3 F-p 4 F-p 5 F-p 6 F-p 7 F-p 8 F-p 9
Cyanophyceae 9 10 10 11 10 10 9 10 11
Crysophyceae 3 3 1 3 3 3 3 2 2
Bacillariophyceae 25 30 31 29 25 25 30 30 30
Chlorophyceae 12 15 20 20 15 20 25 25 20
Conjugatophyceae 3 3 3 3 2 2 1 1 2
Euglenophyceae - - - - - - - - -
Cryptophyceae 2 1 1 1 2 1 2 2 2
Total specii/lună 54 62 66 67 57 61 70 69 67
F-p=Fish-pond

Table 4
The phytoplankton taxonomic composition (%)
Species April 2008
F-p 1 F-p 2 F-p 3 F-p 4 F-p 5 F-p 6 F-p 7 F-p 8 F-p 9
Cyanophyceae 16,66 16,12 15,15 16,41 17,54 16,39 12,85 14,49 16,41
Crysophyceae 5,55 4,83 1,51 4,47 5,26 4,91 4,28 2,89 2,98
Bacillariophyceae 46,29 48,38 46,96 43,28 43,85 40,98 42,85 43,47 44,77
Chlorophyceae 22,22 24,19 30,30 29,85 26,31 32,78 35,71 36,23 29,85
Conjugatophyceae 5,55 48,38 4,54 4,47 3,50 3,27 1,42 1,44 2,98
Euglenophyceae - - - - - - - - -
Cryptophyceae 3,70 1,61 1,51 1,49 3,50 1,63 2,85 2,89 2,98
F-p=Fish-pond

Table 5
The phytoplankton taxonomic composition (number of species)
kSpecies May 2008
F-p 1 F-p 2 F-p 3 F-p 4 F-p 5 F-p 6 F-p 7 F-p 8 F-p 9
Cyanophyceae 9 10 10 10 9 10 8 10 9
Crysophyceae 8 5 3 5 3 3 2 5 5
Bacillariophyceae 15 10 10 15 15 15 15 19 15
Chlorophyceae 25 25 30 30 28 25 25 21 20
Conjugatophyceae 2 3 4 2 1 2 2 2 1
Euglenophyceae 3 7 5 5 3 2 3 3 3
Cryptophyceae 5 7 3 3 2 1 2 3 5
Total specii /lună 67 67 65 70 61 58 58 63 58
F-p=Fish-pond

Table 6
The phytoplankton taxonomic composition (%)
Species May 2008
F-p 1 F-p 2 F-p 3 F-p 4 F-p 5 F-p 6 F-p 7 F-p 8 F-p 9
Cyanophyceae 13,43 14,92 15,38 14,28 14,75 17,24 13,79 15,87 15,51
Crysophyceae 11,94 7,46 4,61 7,14 4,91 5,17 3,44 7,93 8,62
Bacillariophyceae 22,38 14,92 15,37 21,42 24,59 25,86 25,86 30,15 25,86
Chlorophyceae 37,31 37,31 46,15 42,85 45,90 43,10 43,10 33,33 34,48
Conjugatophyceae 2,98 4,47 6,15 2,85 1,63 3,44 3,44 3,17 1,72
Euglenophyceae 4,47 10,44 7,69 7,14 4,91 3,44 5,17 4,76 5,17
Cryptophyceae 7,46 10,44 4,61 4,28 3,27 1,72 3,44 4,76 8,62
F-p=Fish-pond

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

Table 7
The phytoplankton taxonomic composition (number of species)
Species June 2008
F-p 1 F-p 2 F-p 3 F-p 4 F-p 5 F-p 6 F-p 7 F-p 8 F-p 9
Cyanophyceae 10 10 9 10 8 7 8 9 10
Crysophyceae 8 5 4 5 3 5 4 6 6
Bacillariophyceae 12 10 12 14 15 15 20 15 15
Chlorophyceae 30 30 30 32 35 32 29 30 29
Conjugatophyceae 5 5 4 3 5 5 3 4 5
Euglenophyceae 5 6 5 5 6 6 5 3 5
Cryptophyceae 5 5 4 5 5 4 4 3 5
Total specii/lună 75 71 68 74 77 74 73 70 75
F-p=Fish-pond

Table 8
The phytoplankton taxonomic composition (%)
Species June 2008
F-p 1 F-p 2 F-p 3 F-p 4 F-p 5 F-p 6 F-p 7 F-p 8 F-p 9
Cyanophyceae 13,33 14,08 13,23 13,51 10,38 9,45 10,95 12,85 13,33
Crysophyceae 10,66 7,04 5,88 6,75 3,89 6,75 5,47 8,57 8,00
Bacillariophyceae 16,00 14,08 17,64 18,91 19,48 20,27 27,39 21,42 20,00
Chlorophyceae 40,00 42,25 44,11 43,24 45,45 43,24 39,72 42,85 38,66
Conjugatophyceae 6,66 7,04 5,88 4,054 6,49 6,75 4,10 5,71 6,66
Euglenophyceae 6,66 8,45 7,35 6,75 7,79 8,10 6,84 4,28 6,66
Cryptophyceae 6,66 7,04 5,88 6,75 6,49 5,40 5,47 4,28 6,66
F-p=Fish-pond

Table 9
The phytoplankton taxonomic composition (number of species)
Species July 2008
F-p 1 F-p 2 F-p 3 F-p 4 F-p 5 F-p 6 F-p 7 F-p 8 F-p 9
Cyanophyceae 10 10 8 10 9 8 9 10 10
Crysophyceae 6 5 5 5 3 5 6 5 5
Bacillariophyceae 10 12 11 15 15 15 20 15 15
Chlorophyceae 30 30 29 33 34 31 28 30 30
Conjugatophyceae 5 5 4 3 5 5 2 4 5
Euglenophyceae 4 5 5 5 6 5 5 3 5
Cryptophyceae 5 5 4 5 5 4 4 3 5
Total specii/lună 70 72 65 76 77 73 74 70 75
F-p=Fish-pond

Table 10
The phytoplankton taxonomic composition (%)
Species July 2008
F-p 1 F-p 2 F-p 3 F-p 4 F-p 5 F-p 6 F-p 7 F-p 8 F-p 9
Cyanophyceae 14,28 13,88 12,30 13,15 11,68 10,95 12,16 14,28 13,33
Crysophyceae 8,57 6,94 7,69 6,57 3,89 6,84 8,10 7,14 6,66
Bacillariophyceae 14,28 16,66 16,92 22,38 19,48 20,54 27,02 21,42 20,00
Chlorophyceae 42,85 41,66 44,61 43,42 44,14 42,46 37,83 42,85 40,00
Conjugatophyceae 7,14 6,94 6,15 3,94 6,49 6,84 2,70 5,71 6,66
Euglenophyceae 5,71 6,94 7,69 6,57 7,79 6,84 6,75 4,28 6,66
Cryptophyceae 7,14 6,94 6,15 6,57 6,49 5,47 5,40 4,28 6,66
F-p=Fish-pond

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

Table 11
The phytoplankton taxonomic composition (number of species)
Species August 2008
F-p 1 F-p 2 F-p 3 F-p 4 F-p 5 F-p 6 F-p 7 F-p 8 F-p 9
Cyanophyceae 10 10 9 10 9 8 9 10 9
Crysophyceae 9 5 6 5 4 5 5 5 5
Bacillariophyceae 11 12 12 15 15 15 15 15 15
Chlorophyceae 30 32 30 31 35 31 32 31 28
Conjugatophyceae 5 5 5 4 5 4 3 4 5
Euglenophyceae 5 5 5 5 6 6 5 3 5
Cryptophyceae 5 5 4 5 5 4 4 3 5
Total specii/lună 75 72 71 75 79 73 72 71 72
F-p=Fish-pond

Table 12
The phytoplankton taxonomic composition (%)
Species August 2008
F-p 1 F-p 2 F-p 3 F-p 4 F-p 5 F-p 6 F-p 7 F-p 8 F-p 9
Cyanophyceae 13,33 13,88 12,67 13,33 11,39 10,95 12,50 14,08 12,50
Crysophyceae 12,00 6,94 8,45 6,66 5,06 6,84 6,94 7,04 6,94
Bacillariophyceae 14,66 16,66 16,90 20,00 18,98 20,54 20,83 21,12 20,83
Chlorophyceae 40,00 44,44 42,25 41,33 44,30 42,46 44,44 43,66 38,88
Conjugatophyceae 6,66 6,94 7,04 5,33 6,32 5,47 4,16 5,63 6,94
Euglenophyceae 6,66 6,94 7,04 6,66 7,59 8,21 6,94 4,22 6,94
Cryptophyceae 6,66 6,94 5,63 6,66 6,32 5,47 5,55 4,22 6,94
F-p=Fish-pond

Table 13
The phytoplankton taxonomic composition (number of species)
Species September 2008
F-p 1 F-p 2 F-p 3 F-p 4 F-p 5 F-p 6 F-p 7 F-p 8 F-p 9
Cyanophyceae 10 10 10 10 9 8 8 10 10
Crysophyceae 6 5 4 4 4 5 5 6 5
Bacillariophyceae 10 10 11 14 15 15 20 15 15
Chlorophyceae 30 32 31 33 35 30 30 30 31
Conjugatophyceae 5 5 5 4 5 5 3 4 5
Euglenophyceae 4 5 5 5 6 6 5 4 5
Cryptophyceae 5 5 4 5 5 5 4 3 5
Total specii/lună 70 72 70 71 77 74 75 72 76
F-p=Fish-pond

Table 14
The phytoplankton taxonomic composition (%)
Species September 2008
F-p 1 F-p 2 F-p 3 F-p 4 F-p 5 F-p 6 F-p 7 F-p 8 F-p 9
Cyanophyceae 14,28 13,88 14,28 14,08 11,68 10,81 10,66 13,88 13,15
Crysophyceae 8,57 6,94 5,71 5,63 5,19 6,75 6,66 8,33 6,57
Bacillariophyceae 14,28 13,88 15,71 19,71 19,48 20,27 26,66 20,83 19,73
Chlorophyceae 42,85 44,44 44,28 46,47 45,45 40,54 40,00 41,66 40,78
Conjugatophyceae 7,14 6,94 7,14 5,63 6,49 6,75 4,00 5,55 6,57
Euglenophyceae 5,71 6,94 7,14 7,04 7,79 8,10 6,66 5,55 6,57
Cryptophyceae 7,14 6,94 5,71 7,04 6,49 6,75 5,33 4,16 6,57
F-p=Fish-pond

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From the identified Chlorophyceae we
present: the volvocals Chlamydomonas,
Eudorina, Volvox, Pandorina; the
protococaceae Scenedesmus sp., Coelastrum,
Pediastrum sp., Tetraedron sp., Actinastrum;
the desmids Cosmarium, Euastrum,
Staurastrum, Micrasterias, Closterium,
Spirogyra. Most frequent there were
identified Cyanophyceae from the species of
the genera: Spirulina, Coelosphaerium,
Oscillatoria sp., Dactylococcopsis,
Merismopedia, Microcystis.
The diatoms were observed most frequent
in spring colder months, being better
represented by the species from the genera:
Melosira, Cyclotella, Amphora, Navicula sp.,
Achnanthes, Asterionella, Cymbella,
Cocconeis, Fragillaria, Synedra.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The phytoplankton evolution in the
observed fish-ponds follows an evolution
curve, characterized by: the presence in a big
number of Bacillariophyceae species in
springtime and in a small number of
Chlorophyceae and Cyanophyceae species,
following their regression in the warm
season, when the phytoplankton is formed by
Chrolophyceae, succeded by Cyanophyceae,
percent maintained in the same order in the
next season.
2. Euglenophyceae and Crysophyceae
species are absent in springtime in the
studied fish-ponds; their appearance taking
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
place begining with April month, in the case
of Crysophyceae and May in the case of
Euglenophyceae; on the hole summery
period and in the first autumn month their
number being constant.
3. Refering to the phytoplanktonic
species number, the smallest number is
recorded in springtime (41-69), following an
ascendant curve in the next months (79
species).
4. There is a large palette of
phytoplanktonic species, specific to some
changes of the medial water parameters, as:
Cosmarium, Scenedesmus, Microcystis,
Asterionella.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The present study was financed from
the CEEX research project, number
45/2005, Module I Biotech.
REFERENCES
Journal articles
[1] Medlin Linda K., Doucette Gregory, Maria
Celia Villac, Phytoplankton evolution, taxonomy
and ecology, Ed. J. Cramer, XVIII, Stuttgart,
2008;
[3]
***http://www.mhi.iuf.net/atlantic_ocean/biology/
taxa/phyto_taxa.htm
Book
[2] Oroian, T.E., Selecţia asistată de markeri la
crap, Editura Risoprint, Cluj-Napoca, 2007;
 BACK
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

RESEARCH CONCERNING SOME FACTORS

INFLUENCING THE GROWTH PHYSIOLOGY IN A
RAINBOW TROUT POPULATION (Oncorhynchus mykiss),
REARED WITHIN CONTROLLED ENVIRONMENT

D. Cocan, Vioara Mireşan, R. Constantinescu, I. Bud, Viorica Coşier,

Camelia Răducu, Aurelia Pece

University of Agricultural Science and Veterinary Medicine,

Faculty of Animal Husbandry Cluj – Napoca
e-mail: cocandaniel@yahoo.com

Abstract
In this research the authors aim to emphasize the way in which the environmental factors act on
the growing rhythm in a rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) population, reared within controlled
environmental conditions. After the experimental period, the results were compared to those
recorded within salmonidae classical rearing system – Trout Fiad Fishery, county of Bistriţa -
Năsăud. In experimental development, 100 individuals were randomly selected from the
experimental system and 100 from Fiad trout fishery, and measured monthly. According to the
presented data, for the described experimental system, superior results of the growing rhythm of the
body weight and total length were recorded compared to the results recorded within classical
system of salmonidae rearing – Fiad trout fishery. This can be explained by the influence of the
temperature factor, because pH and dissolved oxygen frame within normal values in both rearing
systems.
Key words: rainbow trout, growth physiology, environmental factors, rearing systems

INTRODUCTION and diseases, as well as rapid growing

The very rapid increase of the aquatic
products (fishes, clams, shell fishes, etc.)
consumption determined men to better and more
consciously understand that fish and fish
products or by-products must be more attentive
and responsible treated, because the animal
origin protein obtained from aquatic environment
play a very important role for the development
and maintaining of the human organism health
and development.
Majority of the countries possessing
aquatic resources look for directing their
efforts towards obtaining fish productions, as
big as possible, with maximum efficiency. In
this context, salmoniculture represents one of
the most important branches of fishery and
aquaculture.[1]
The rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus
mykiss) is the most important specie reared in
salmonicole complexes, due to the plasticity
and resistance against environmental factors
rhythm, obtained as result of the selection
and improvement processes applied to this
specie.[2]
In the last time, the researchers’ attention
was directed towards supplying optimum
environmental conditions, that will create
conditions for shorter time needed for
developing production cycles, while obtained
products have superior quality.
In this paper the authors aim to
emphasize the way in which the
environmental factors act on the growing
rhythm in a rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus
mykiss) population, reared within controlled
environmental conditions. After the
experimental period, the results were
compared to those recorded within
salmonidae classical rearing system – Trout
Fiad Fishery, county of Bistriţa - Năsăud.

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MATERIAL AND METHOD
The research performed on the biological
studied material were performed during 210
days (December - June), in two different
locations: a system of water recirculation
destined to fish rearing organized in Cluj-
Napoca town and Fiad trout fishery, county
of Bistriţa - Năsăud.
The recirculation system was organized
in a small size hall (30 m2), and in its
constitution are included a circular pool with
3 m3 capacity, electric pumps with water
recirculation, pipes, mechanical and
biological filters for water, air pumps and
oxygen spreaders. The used water source was
the public network for water distribution
from Cluj – Napoca. [3]
The Fiad trout fishery was founded in 1983,
and the main activity object is represented by
the salmonidae reproduction and obtaining
biological material destined to the repopulation
of the waters from the mountain areas. Pools
populated with biological material destined for
consumption are also managed in this unity
with the aim of increasing profitableness. The
Fiad trout fishery has an area of 1.7 ha, and is
located at 452 m altitude, while the water
supply is obtained from two sources: Valea
Sălăuţa with a flow of 200 L/s and Valea Fiad
with a flow of 100 L/s. The water temperature
within this salmonicole unity records large
variations in last years, with a minimum of
0.5oC in January and a maximum around
26.5oC in August. In lasts years, during
summer, an increase of the numbers of the days
when water has temperatures over 20oC was
recorded.
The experimented biological material
belongs to the same line and generation, both
within the recycling system realized in Cluj-
Napoca and trout fishery Fiad.
With the aim of marinating of some constant
environmental factors, appropriate to the biology
of the rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss),
within the recycling system placed in Cluj-
Napoca the following methods were used:
- The dissolved oxygen was
maintained within an optimum level by
recirculation of the water and falling back in
the culture pool from 1 m height, as well as
by using some air pumps and oxygen
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
spreaders installed within the pool. The
monitoring of the dissolved oxygen was
periodically performed, using mobile
electronic pH-meters.
- The water pH was permanently
monitored with mobile electronic pH-meters.
- During December – April, with the
aim of maintaining a temperature as similar as
possible to the optimum necessary for the
Oncorhynchus mykiss specie, a thermic micro-
station was used. Through radiators, it warmed
the closed space where the recirculation system
was installed. During May – June the
supplementary heating was not necessary,
because the water temperature framed within
normal values: in May – 13oC, and in June –
16oC. the temperature monitoring was
performed with portable electronic
thermometers.
Within Fiad trout fishery the following
methods were used:
- The dissolved oxygen was maintained
within optimum values with fruit support type
aerators from endowment.
- The water pH was permanently
monitored with mobile electronic pH-meters.
- The water temperature within trout
fishery was monitored with some portable
electronic thermometers, but on the recorded
values corrections could not be performed
because the pools were placed in open
spaces.[4]
In order to avoid the most likely
differences of the growing rhythm
determined by the feeding system, the same
forage type was used and the same foraging
regimen was applied in both experimental
locations.
In experimental development, 100
individuals were randomly selected from the
recirculation system and 100 from Fiad trout
fishery. The somatic measurements were
monthly performed and aimed two essential
traits in emphasizing the growing rhythm of
the individuals from both locations: body
weight and total length (the distance from the
edge of the mouth and line connecting the
edges of the caudal flippers lobes). The body
weight was expressed in grams and total
length in centimetres. The three studied
microclimate parameters were also studied
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

and monitored: dissolved oxygen, water pH, RESULS AND DISCUSIONS

and water temperature. THE SOMATIC MEASUREMENTS.
All values were statistically processed The somatic measurements deliver a series of
and interpreted. results graphically represented (fig. 1 and 2)

160 23,48
141 25,00
21,51
140
18,46 18,37
120 110 20,00
16,68 16,12 16,65
15,92
100 87,5 14,56
14,04
77,5 73
15,00 13,10 13,11 13,10 13,32
80
59 Experiment
60 52
10,00 Experiment
44 Păstrăvăria Fiad
36,5 32 Păstrăvăria Fiad
40 24,5
20 20 20
5,00
20
0 0,00
07

07

07
7
06

7
7

.0 7
r. 0

.0

07

07
.0

7
06

07
.0 7
n.

b.

n.

r.0
c.

ai
ar

b.

n.
a i.
c.

ian
ap

ar
de

ia

fe

iu

ap
m

de

fe

iu
m

m
m
Fig.1 Growing rhythm – body weight Fig.2 Growing rhythm – total length

dissolved oxygen values in both locations are

The analyze of the three studied presented in fig.3.
environmental factors led to the following THE WATER pH. Concerning the
results: environmental factor pH, it framed within
normal and specific limits for the rainbow
THE DISSOLVED OXYGEN. The trout biology (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Within
values of the dissolved oxygen were relative the recirculation system a minimum was
constant within experimental system during recorded in June (pH=7.0) and a maximum in
the experimental development, but with light February. Within the trout fishery Fiad, a
variations: 9.8 mg/L – June, 10.6 mg/L – minimum of the pH value was recorded in
January, respectively. In trout fishery Fiad, April (pH=7.0) and a maximum in March
the values of the dissolved oxygen were (pH=7.3). The pH values recorded in both
between 8.8 mg/L – June and 12.8 mg/L – locations of the experiment are graphically
December – February. The evolution of the presented in.4.

7,4
14 12,8 12,6 12,8 7,4
11,6 7,3 7,3 7,3
12 10,5 10,6 10,2 10,3 10,5 10,2 7,3
10,2 9,8
9,6 7,2 7,2 7,2 7,2
10 8,8
7,2
8 7,1 7,1 7,1 7,1
7,1
6 Experiment 7 Experiment
7
Păstrăvăria Fiad
7 Păstrăvăria Fiad
4

2 6,9

0 6,8
.0 7

07

07
07

7
.07

07
6

07

07
7

.0 7
.0 7

r.0
c.0
r .0
c .0

ai .

b.

ai.

n.
b.

n.

ian
ia n

ar
ar

ap
ap

fe
de

iu
de

fe

iu
m

m
m
m

Fig.3 The values of the dissolved oxygen Fig.4 The pH values water

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

TEMPERATURE. The temperature of temperatures had variation between 0.5oC in

the culture environment differs within January and 18.2oC in June. The temperature
recirculation system between 4oC in January evolution during the experimental time
and 16oC in June. In Fiad trout fishery, the interval, in both locations, is graphically
values of the culture environmental emphasized in fig.5.

20 18,2
18 16
16
13 13,6
14
12 11

10 8
7 Experiment
8
5 Păstrăvăria Fiad
6 4
4,8
3,8
4
1,5 1
2 0,5
0
.0 7

07

07
7
6

07
.0 7

r.0
c.0

b.

n.
ai.
ian

ar
ap
fe

iu
de

m
m

Fig.5 The temperature water

An average of the measurements was Fiad trout fishery, with body weight of just
performed, and a monthly value vas obtained 38,92±2,06 g. The differences was very
for both body weight and total length. The significant and is related to the environmental
monthly data aiming both studied traits were factors, which were optimum in the
compared and sample statistical parameters experimental system. The same aspect we
were calculated, then statistical interpretation found in the case of total length, where are
of the averages was performed using the „t”- also very significant differences between the
Student test. From data analysis presented in two raised systems, 17,67±0,37 cm in
Tabel 1, we found that body weight of fishies experimental system, compare with
raised in experimental system have values of 14,95±0,20 cm found in Fiad trout fishery.
74,90±4,23 g, compare whith the fishies from

Table 1
The average values and significance of the differences of the body weight and total length in rainbow
trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)

Experimental system Fiad trout fishery

Issue d sd t
n X±sx s V% n X±sx s V%
Body 35.98
100 74.90±4.23 42.38 56.58 100 38.92±2.06 20.66 53.11 4.71 7.63
weight xxx
Total 2.72
100 17.67±0.37 3.73 21.10 100 14.95±0.20 2.09 13.97 0.42 6.47
length xxx

CONCLUSIONS trout fishery. This can be explained by the

According to the presented data, for the influence of the temperature factor, because pH
described experimental system, superior and dissolved oxygen frame within normal
results of the growing rhythm of the body values in both rearing systems.
weight and total length were recorded Under the influence of the low
compared to the results recorded within temperatures recorded in wither season
classical system of salmonidae rearing – Fiad (0.5oC – January; 1oC – February; 1.5oC –

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

December; 3.8oC – March), in Fiad trout

fishery, the central nervous system (through
hypothalamus) determines a clear slowing of
the metabolic processes development, with
clear consequences on the growing rhythm,
while in experimental system, the minimum
water temperature of 4oC recorded in
January, has a very small influence on the
growing rhythm. Because the fishes are
poikiloterm organisms a slowing of the
metabolic processes is produced in the mean
time with water temperature decrease, and
increase of the metabolic activity in the mean
time with temperature increase.
REFERENCES
Books
[1] Bud I., Ionescu O., Vlădău V., Pop S. – Peştii
din apele reci.Păstrăvii. Ed. Risoprint, 2007
[2] Cărăuşu S. – Tratat de ihtiologie. Ed.
Academiei R.P.R., 1952
[3] Cocan D. – Creşterea păstrăvului curcubeu
(Oncorhynchus mykiis) în sistem recirculant şi
condiţii controlate de mediu. Ed. Bioflux, Cluj-
Napoca, 2008
[4] Cristea V., Grecu I., Ceapă C. – Ingineria
sistemelor recirculante din acvacultură. Ed.
Didactică şi Practică, Bucureşti, 2002

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 BACK

Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

STUDY ABOUT SOME FACTORS WHICH HAVE

INFLUENCE ABOUT REPRODUCTION FUNCTION
IN SHEEP

C. Pascal1, Mihaela Ivancia1, I. Gîlcă1, G. Nacu1, L. Stancescu2,

Gh. Hrincă3, N. Iftimie4
1
Faculty of Animal Sciences, University of Agricultural Sciences
and Veterinary Medicine „Ion Ionescu de la Brad” Iasi, Romania
e-mail pascalc@yahoo.com
2
S.C.D.C.E.S. Perieni-Bîrlad
3
S.C.D.C.O.C. Popauti-Botoşani
4
S.C.D.C.O.C. Secuieni-Bacau

Abstract
The aim of these researches was practical and economical ways identification for increasing
reproduction function. There were two major aspects: the puberty inducing for using female lamb to
reproduction in first autumn and using natural factors influence for heats inducing and synchronizing to
adults’ sheep. The biological material was Merinos from Palas-ecotyp Perieni, Karakul from Botosani
and Turcana sheep. For puberty artificial inducing, young sheep was sheared about 40 days before
mate and reproduction ram have been introduce in flock. The results show us for body weight in mate
moment significant differences (p>0.01) just between Merinos from Palas and Karakul from Botosani
sheep groups. The obtained differences for mate age and for calving age were insignificant for all
groups for p>0.01. The study of natural factors what have a influence of heats inducing and
synchronizing to adults’ sheep was made in 2 consecutive years, between July 10th and July 20th, when
light and dark report is very close or is higher than 1/1. In this period, belated, semibelated and
semiprecocious races can have sexual heats with a minimal possibility. The 54.28% sheep have heats
from initial reproduction group from more precocious race, Merinos from Palas. 37.14% sheep were
mated to Karakul from Botosani and 45.71% were mated to Tzurcana (semibelated races). The
researches show us, also, the over season fecundity what was determined to semibelated local
populations, the closely values to more precocious race (Merinos from Palas) (84.61% and 71.42%, for
each studied year, to Turcana and 81,25% and 86,66% to Karakul from Botosani). The value and the
level of obtained results demonstrate the possibility of young using since first year and justify the
profitableness of heats inducing in over season.
Keywords: sheep, oi locale, reproduction, photoperiod, puberty

INTRODUCTION path for intensive sheep exploitation with

The aim of these researches is the
identification of practical and economical
ways which should induce a reproduction
function higher to sheep. There are two major
aspects followed in these researches: inducing
the puberty to use young females sheep for
reproduction from them first year and using
the influence of natural factors for inducing
and synchronizing of heat to adult sheep. The
determination of the way and of the influence
level of these can be a simple and efficient
major implications of genetically breeding
process for the main breed and populations.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
The biological material was Merinos
from Palas, Karakul from Botoşani and
Ţurcană young and adult sheep. Researches
had the aim to identification of ways and of
practical and economical possibilities to
intensification of reproduction function. For
this aim, two aspects had studied:

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
- inducing of puberty and using young
sheep to reproduction since them first
autumn;
- the role and natural factors influence,
especially light period, in the start of heats to
adult sheep.
In first case, for inducing of puberty on
artificial way there was ensure the
maintenance, microclimate conditions and
necessary nutritional requests to optimal
parameters. In these conditions, the body
growth in first life months of young sheep
wasn’t affected. Also, about 40 days before
reproduction, the young female sheep have
been shear and there have been introduced
reproduction rams.
In the second case, the influence of
natural factors in the start of heats to adult
sheep, for increasing the data specifying and
for final results, researches have been made
in same intervals in two consecutive years.
The all races have been studied in same
photoperiodic rhythm, in June 10 – July 20,
when the light/dark report is very nearly or
higher then 1/1, when the possibilities as
belated, semibelated and semiprecocious
races to have sexual heats are minimal. For
the first 14 days, the sheep have been kept on
the grassland, when the day light is 16 hours.
Then, step by step, the light period have been
reduce after 8 days to 11 hours and 30
minutes to all lots. Further on, for the rest 18
days, the studied lots have been have same
daily light program 11 hours and 30 minutes,
and finally, there have been introduced
reproduction rams in lots.
The used methods have been specified for
these determinations. There have been used
directly observations on body weight to the
reproduction and the calving moments. Also,
the results were prelucrated and interpreted.
Data have been centralized and statistical
analyzed and there have been used Fisher and
Tukey tests to determined differences and
them signification.
RESULTS AND DISCUSION
It is known the estrus (heats) is
manifested to sheep and goats throughout the
year to tropical and under tropical zones,
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where the vegetation is abundance. In
Romania, where climate is temperate, the
reproduction activity is sharing in tow
seasons depending on day light period [38,
43, 44]. First season, the principal, is autumn
when the light decrease to 1:1 light/dark
report and the second season is in spring
months when the light increase to 1:1
light/dark report. The reproduction is
seasonal and this is a specie characteristic
inherited from wild forms. This is prove for
domestication process unfinished in useful
way for breeder [3, 4, 5, 9, 28, 30]. Now, in
animal rising is important to identification of
extension possibilities for reproduction
season to sheep and goats for a larger period
[4, 5, 9, 28, 30].
The germinal cycle period, sexual heats
period and gestation period to sheep allow
organization two calving/year, if lactation
anoestrus is eliminated through lambs’ artificial
rising. As a rule, to this specie, after calving is a
long anoestrus period, without heats, because
maternal factors (lactation anoestrus) and
climatic factors (seasonal anoestrus). The both
factors groups are more important for bio-
economical efficiency to sheep rising. Those
using in sense and to breeder wanted intensity is
a heavy practice because them effects can
overlap in many periods.
Puberty and heats artificial inducing to
young sheep. The optimal age and weight for
the first reproduction to young sheep varies
very much intra and inter races. The optimal
age is considered to be between 6-8 months
to majority races (Dyrmundson and Haresing,
quoted by C. Pascal [33]), but it can put off
till 18 months. Also, there are situations
when some young female sheep proceed
from later calving can calve to 4-6 months.
The obtained results until now [14, 15,
16, 20, 22, 30, 31, 33, 35, 38, 44] show sheep
reproduction is without negative effects when
the young sheep have a body growth
minimum 60-70% from adult sheep to
Merinos and 50-60% to prolific races and to
meat English races. Other researches show
females proceed from twins calving achieve
the puberty to an elder age and to lower body
weight [7, 12, 13, 21, 25, 30, 34].
 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

The body growth determination of young Researches about the influence of

females’ sheep from studied lots is based on
body weight to reproduction and calving
moments (table 1). The average body weight
was over 70% to reproduction moments to all
studied lots. This is a request for an early
using to reproduction of young females.
The body weight to reproduction moment
is different between all lots, with significant
differences (p > 0,01) between Merinos from
Palas and Karakul from Botosani lots. The
age of sheep to reproduction moment and to
the calving moment is insignificant
differences between the study lots. These
differences and them significations show
there are differences between intra and inter
races for body weight to the reproduction
moment.
gestation about body growth rhythm of
pregnant young sheep have to base the body
weight to reproduction and calving moments.
Results show us the body weight isn’t
affected even when the young sheep are use
to the reproduction in the first them life year.
The higher body weight increase between
reproduction and calving was to Merinos
from Palas lot which the body live weight
evaluated since 41,965 ± 0,931 kg to
reproduction moments to 49,305 ± 0,474 kg
to calving moments. The analyze of obtained
result proved young females’ sheep can use
to reproduction since them first life year if
they have a good body growth.

Tabel 1
Age and weight of young females to reproduction and calving
Total number
Body weight (kg) Sheep age (days)
(heads)
Lot Statistics
For
Covering Reproduction Calving Reproduction Calving
covering
41,965 ± 49,305 278,855 ± 427,085
X ±sx 0,931 ± 0,474 1,91 ± 9,456
Merinos s 2,6547 2,321 11,844 34, 256
from 45 14 V% 7,3104 5,544 9,652 13,514
Palas- minimum 37 45 268 411
maximum 49 55 312 465
2
h 0,259 ± 0,033
35,398 ± 42,051± 298,440 ± 439,530
X ±sx 0,425 0,333 1,333 ± 3,119
Karakul s 3,455 3,455 11,878 25,131
from 44 9 V% 6,322 5,154 11,545 7,331
Botoşani minimum 32 37 275 410
maximum 45 51 325 466
2
h 0,244 ± 0,125
434,
37,644 ± 44,021 283,541 ±
X ±sx 207 ±
0,763 ± 0,322 3,714
9,533
s 2,441 2,541 14,854 45,855
Ţurcană 45 11
V% 5,358 4,522 12,874 6,787
minim 33 38 278 430
maxim 48 54 311 461
2
h 0,251 ± 0,531

The females’ body weight to reproduction
moment and obtained results after
reproduction motivate intra race variability
depend on body weight which has a higher
influence than age about sexual maturity
installation. If we study the young female
sheep percent which had heats and which
have been used since first autumn we can see
different values depend on races. Thus, to
Merinos from Palas, from young sheep total

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
number, 15 females had heats and have been
to covering, means 31,11%. For the other
lots, the young female sheep percent which
had heats and have been to covering since
49,305
50 41,965
40
30
20
10
0
MP
Nota:
Mp – Merinos of Palas
KB – Karakul from Botosani
TA – Turcana white
Weight at mating
Fig. 1. Body weight (kg) evolution on gestation period to analyzed lots
The obtained data show, also, the sheep
age used to covering is different depend on
race. Thus, young females’ sheep from
Merinos from Palas had average age lower
(278,855 ± 1,91 days), Karakul from
Botosani females lot had average age higher
with 20 days (298,440 ± 1,333 days), and
Turcana females lot had average age 283,541
± 3,714 zile. The registered differences show
differences between races for precocity, too.
Using the obtained results we can
calculate the heritability coefficient for first
estrus. The lower value for h2 (the higher is
0,259 ± 0,033 to Merinos from Palas) we can
conclude the age of first covering has a
decrease genetically determination and
external factors are very important in sexual
precocity expression. For same parameter,
Bashin, quoted by M. Mochnacs [30], have
been find 0,256± 0,048 value.
Also, there are differences between races
for gestation total period, too. This was the
lowest value to Karakul from Botosani young
sheep lot (141 days), lower with 7 days than
Merinos from Palas lot and lower with 9 days
first autumn is 20,45% to Karakul from
Botosani race and 24,44% to Turcana race
(fig. 1)
42,051 44,021
35,398 37,644
KB
TA
Weight at calving
than Turcana young sheep gestation total
period.
The traditional age to first calving is 550-
730 days. If this age can be reduce with 20-
30% through puberty inducing, the effort is
justified even few females are used to
reproduction since them first life year. This
fact has remarkable economical effects and
good influences because the process of
amelioration is acceleration with increase
prolificacy of each female from reproduction
lot and made shorter period between
generations.
Photoperiodic influence about sheep
reproduction function. At this specie, like
goats also, the reproduction is determined by
genotype/environment interaction. The
environment is represented especially by day
light period-photoperiodic, and other factors
like nutrition, temperature, humidity, social
factors etc. Photoperiodic information (light
or obscurity) is received by sheep to eyes
level through retina and is transmitted by
nervous way till to pineal gland (epiphysis)
which secretes melatonin hormone [1, 7, 9,
17, 19, 26, 27, 36, 40].
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Through hypothalamus and hypophyses,
secreted period and secreted melatonin
quantity depending on night period have
influence about sexual hormones (FSH and
LH) excretion [1, 2, 3, 9, 18, 37, 4142, 44].
Based on these findings and scientifically
arguments, the experimental protocol for
inducing heats in extra season has next
phases:
- long days simulation, in this case log
day means day with light more than 12 hours,
corresponding to late spring-summer months;
- short days simulation, in this case short
day was in that period when sheep stay into
the light less than 12 hours, corresponding
autumn-early spring months.
The sheep lots have been observed
permanently and have been establish in short
time, the manifestation of first sexual cycles
to some of them sheep. In first 7 days, 19
Table 2
Situation of sexual cycles manifestation and of fecundity
2005
Total Total sheep
Race sheep covered to first
(n) heats
n %
Merinos Palas 65 36 55,38
Karakul from
65 25 38,46
Botoşani
White Ţurcană 65 29 46,15
In the form lot of sheep breed from
Karakul from Botosani, in 2005, after the
imposed light program, it was noticed that
were in heat and 38,46% from the lot were
fertilized, in 2006 number of fertilized sheep
in the lot increases to 44,61%. Due to this
data it was noticed that fecundity percent it
was higher in 2005 than in the next year.
In the lot formed from adult sheep
belonging to Turcana breed it was noticed in
2005 that 46,15% of all were in heat and
were fertilized, of them give birth to
offspring 82,75%. In the next year number of
sheep in heat decreases due to photoperiodic
to 43,07% the fertility increases to 89,28%.
After analyzing all the data it is
confirmed that reproduction of sheep is
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
Merinos from Palas females had heats, means
54,28% from initial lot. The results are good
to both other lots: to Karakul from Botosani,
37,14% sheep have been covered after first
cycle and 45,71% to Turcana lot (table 2).
The higher values to Merinos from Palas can
be due to the higher precocity
characteristically to this race. Also, to this
race, the fecundity in these two years was
superior to other two local races.
Thus, in 2005, from total number sheep
which had heats, 36 females have been
covered and have been pregnancy, means
94,44%. In 2006 (second studied year), same
reproduction index was higher with 0,68%.
In both situations, the specificity values for
fecundity are normal in our study, because
they are in specialty literature limits [15, 30,
34, 43].
2006
Total sheep
Fecundity covered to Fecundity
first heats
n % n % n %
34 94,44 41 63,07 39 95,12
21 84,00 29 44,61 23 79,31
25 82,75 28 43,07 25 89,28
directly determinate by natural factors, from
this point to increase the productivity and
biological efficiency on sheep exploitation it
is required to use all the possibilities that can
increase fertility on local breeds.
In Romania were made several researches
on other breeds of sheep and the influence of
photoperiodic was based on progressive
maintenance of sheep on cold pen, organizing
mostly night grazing and pulling the sheep in
the shade during hot summer days.
As a result of this procedure came in
heats 35,10%[30] of lot between the 25 of
Julie and 30 of August. From this point of
view our data indicate the same results, but
with greater efficiency on all lots, proving
that on sheep reduction of day light during
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
the year up to 1/1 increases breeding
efficiency. Results are different according to
different breeds.
Because of this researches were made on
several breeds that were in the same program
of exposure on day light and we find that
seasonal estrus is on reverse relation with day
light exposure. This physiological process is
determinate by thyroid function which is
influenced by heats and light and as a direct
outcome it is reduced thyroxin excretion [1,
2, 6, 7, 8, 10, 23, 39]. To fall when daylight
and temperature decreases this physiological
process straighten, this is the reason why on
most of the breeds sexual period is during the
seasons when daylight decreases, from Julie
to September – October.
The effected researches prove that adults’
sheep, indifferently by characteristically
precocity, there can obtain covered and
calving in extra season using photoperiodic
like principal factor for heats cycles starting.
CONCLUSIONS
1. 20-31% young sheep from those three
studied lots have been having heats since
them first life year without affected body
growth. In this case, puberty and heats
artificial inducing to young sheep is bio-
economical justified.
2. Between lots are significant differences
for the body weight, to the covered moment.
The body weight evolution wasn’t affected
during pregnancy to the young female sheep
and this fact proves using to covered the
young female sheep since first life year isn’t
unrecommendable.
3. The heritability coefficient determined
for first covered age is lower (h2 =0,259 ±
0,033), so it’s genetically determination is
decrease. In this situation, is very clear the
external factors are very important in sexual
precocity expression.
4. The traditional age to first calving is
550-730 days. If this age can be reduce with
20-30% through puberty inducing, the effort
is justified even few females are used to
reproduction since them first life year. This
fact has remarkable economical effects and
good influences because the process of
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amelioration is acceleration with increase
prolificacy of each female from reproduction
lot and made shorter period between
generations.
5. Researches show us the local
populations which are semi belated, in same
conditions, have values nearly by Merinos
from Palas (a precocious race) for heats and
fecundity manifestation in extra season. In
this case, inducing heats in extra season is
economical justified.
6. Decreasing day light period for 20 days
there are created conditions for increasing
gonadotrophic hypophyses hormones content
and ovulation process starting and, implicitly,
estrus.
7. The length and localization of
reproduction season in one year are very
variable between races, so, the reproduction
season is a character with a high hereditary
control.
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[37]. Pellietier J., 1996. Les mecanismes de
controle de la saisonnalite de la reproduction chez
le belier. Comptes Rendus de l`Academie de
France, vol. 82, no. 7, p. 27-38.
[38]. Picard-Hagen N., Gayrard V., Chemineau P.,
Malpaux B., Berthelot X., 1996. Photoperiode et
reproduction chez les petits ruminants: role de la
melatonine. Le Point Veterinaire vol. 28, Numero
special “Reproduction des ruminants”, p. 83-88.
[39]. Sandu Gh. 1993 – Inginerie în exploatarea
ovinelor. Editura Alutus, Bucureşti
[40]. Scaramuzzi R.J., Baird D.T., Carke I.J.,
Martenesz, N.D., Van Look P..F.A., 1980. Ovarian
morphology and the concentration of steroids
during the oestrus cycle of sheep actively
immunized against androstendione. In J. Reprod.
Fert. , vol. 58, 1.
[41]. Skinner D.C., Maurice-Mandon F., Malpaux
B., 1996. Melatonin in third ventricular
cerebrospinal fluid: temporal relationship with
melatonin concentrations in jugular plasma. Italian
Journal of Anatomy and Embryology (5 th
Internaţional Conference on Hormones, Brain and
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Behavior, 25-30 August 1996, Torino, Italy) 101,
Suppl. 1, p. 79-80.
[42]. Thiery J.C., Gallegos-Sanchez J., Picard S.,
Malpaux B., 1997. Inhibition de la pulsatilite de
LH en jour longs chez la brebis: effects precoces et
tradifs de l`oetradiol sur les neurotransmetteurs
preleves par microdyalise dans l`hypothalamus.
3eme Collowue de la Societe des Neurosciences,
25-28 mai, Bordeaux, France, p. 116, Abst D-41.
[43]. Viguie C., Thibault J., Thiery J.C., Tillet Y.,
Malpaux B., 1997. Characterization of the short
day-induced decrease in median eminence tyrosine
hydroxylase activity in the ewe: temporal
relationship to the chamges in luteinizing hormone
and prolactin secretion and short daz-like effect of
melatonin. Endocrinology, 138, p. 499-506.
[44]. Zamfirescu S., Ionescu Fl., 1985. Efectul
utilizării medroxiprogesteronului în sincronizarea
estrului şi a fătărilor la oaie. Lucr. Şt. ICPCOC
Palas, vol. 5, p. 253-261.
[45]. Zamfirescu S., Pivoda I., Creţu Lidia, Pop A.,
Anghel F., 1994. Inducerea estrului fertil la oi şi
capre în afara sezonului natural de montă prin
diferite tratamente hormonale. Lcr. Şt. ICPCOC
Palas, vol. 7, p. 223-230.
[46]. Zarazaga L.A., Malpaux B., Chemineau P.,
1997. The characteristics of the melatonin
secretory rhythm are not modified by the stage of
pregnancy in ewes. Reproduction, Nutrition,
Dvelopment 37, p. 105-112.
Books
[8]. Brige G., 1995. Effects de la PMSG lies aux
traitements repetes de synchronisation sur la
reproduction ovine. Res. Ruminants, 2.
[12]. Constantin N., Cotrut M., Sonea A., 1998.
Fiziologia animalelor domestice. Ed. Coral Sanivet
Bucureşti.
[15]. Dumitrescu I., Bogdan Al., Năforniţă M.,
Turliuc O., 1976. Reproducţia animalelor
domestice. Ed. Did. şi Ped. Bucureşti.
[31]. Mochnacs M., Taftă V., Vintilă I. 1978 –
Genetica şi ameliorarea ovinelor. Editura Ceres,
Bucureşti
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

STUDIES OF QUANTITATIVE GENETICS AT THE

POPULATIONS OF HORSES USED IN THE EQUESTRIAN
SPORTS FROM ROMANIA

V. Ujică1, I. Dulugeac2, Mita Enache3, M. Doliş1,

Rodica Dănăilă1, M. Burlică1
1
Faculty of Animal Sciences, University of Agricultural Sciences
and Veterinary Medicine „Ion Ionescu de la Brad” Iasi, Romania
2
Academia Ecvestră Mogoşoaia
3
A.N.C.A. Prahova

Abstract
The quantitative characters have a complex genetic determininism, their forming and control
being mainly due to the major genes (Mather, 1941). This determines distinguishable effects on the
phenotype that they control, only through the action cumulated with other such genes, where the
denomination of polygenes with cumulative or additive action is derived from.
In our country, the cumulative genetic researches regarding horses are relatively few, which is
projected in the elaboration of some modern programs of genetic improvement of horse populations.
For the horses used in the equine sports in Romania, the most recent researches were carried
out by our team, whose analyses and conclusions are presented synthetically in the present paper.
A common characteristic of the heritability of characters at the Sports Horse, resulted from our
researches, is represented by the degree of strong genetic determination for the analyzed
characteristics, which is in correspondence with the data mentioned in the specialty literature.
It can be considered that the actions of genetic improvement within the analyzed populations,
have been led towards the direction of hereditary fixing of characters which determine the body
format, the body mass and the increase of energetic capacity; also, the stronger genetic variability
within these populations of horses ensures a rapid effect of selection and an increased safety in
obtaining the desired selection effect.
Key words: horses, equestrian, equine, sports, entertainment

INTRODUCTION amplitude as in the case of bulls, sheep, pigs

The quantitative characters have a
complex genetic determininism, their
forming and control being mainly due to the
major genes (Mather, 1941).
Significant aspects of the hereditary
transmission of quantitative characters were
first emphasized by Emerson and East
(1913), aspects that represent specific laws of
heredity.
The results of all the researches carried
out with the purpose to study the heredity
behaviour of quantitative characters in
animals confirmed the hypothesis of
polygenic heredity and in consequence, the
Mendel transmission laws.
The study of heritability of characters in
horses, although it does not know the same
or birds developed together with the
scientific improvement and elaboration of
optimized genetic improvement programs.
In the foreign literature, the study of
heritability of morphological characters and
skills of obstacle, dressage, complete test
horses is very much approached, but the
researches regarding heritability of characters
and horses used in the trot and gallop courses
are much more numerous.
The estimates of heritability of riding
performances for the horses in France,
Germany and Sweden vary between h2 =
0.04 for the dressage hierarchy (Philipsson,
1976) and h2 = 0.71 for the score in jumps.
(Bade and col., 1975). The majority of
researchers estimate a weak genetic

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

determinism for the performances in jumps On this biological material, totalling 41

ad dressage, which means that the genetic
improvement of these performances must be
based on the selection according to
ascendants, collateral relatives and
descendents.
In our country, the cumulative genetic
researches regarding horses are relatively
few, which is projected in the elaboration of
some modern programs of genetic
improvement of horse populations.
The following were preoccupied by this
aspect: V. Ujică, E. Călinescu and N.
Pipernea for the breeds Huţul, Gidran,
Bucovina Horse and Romanian Poney in
Moldavia area; Gh. Georgescu, Şt. Popescu
Vifor, I. Apahideanu, C. Drăgănescu, Gh.
Mărginean, H. Grosu, Al. Şonea in the breeds
Romanian Trăpaş , Romanian Sports Horse,
Arabian breed and Englis Pure blood; I.
Vintilă, Gh. Lunguescu for the breeds Nonius
and Ardenez from Banat; N. Marcu, C.
Velea, Gh. Mureşan for the breeds Furioso
North-Star and the Semi-heavy horse of
Transylvania, and more recently V. Ujică, I.
Dulugeac and M. Doliş, whose analyses and
conclusions will be presented in the
following paragraphs.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
In conformity with the research protocol,
we took in the study the horse population
used in the equine sports and exploited under
the conditions of breeders and private sports
associations.
Romanian Sports Horses (10.8% from the
total per country), we determined and
analyzed the main morphological
conformation characteristics – constitution,
age structure, appurtenance to sports clubs
and associations in the country, the colours
and colour particularities, the performances
achieved in the internal and international
competitions.
At the same time, we analyzed the origin
and genetic structure of the population,
identifying the genetic families with at least 3
individuals semi-brothers and paternal semi-
sisters.
In the first stage, we calculated the
average values and the estimates of
researched characteristics’ variability, and in
the following stage we established the
percentage of genetic variability in the
population, using as work method the
analysis of the variation per group of half-
brothers and paternal half-sisters, and also
the REML method, whose results will be
presented in the following lines.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The heritability (h2) of the main
morphological characteristics. In table 1
figure 1 we present the values of the
heritability coefficients for the characters
analyzed in the Romanian Sports Horse.

Table 1
The heritability of the main morphological characters
at the Romanian Sports Horse
2
Specification h
Height at withers 0,77
Depth of thorax 0,74
Oblique length of the body 0,86
Length of head 0,68
Length of neck 0,59
Length of the croup 0,63
Width of the chest 0,81
Width of the croup at hips 0,70
Thorax perimeter 0,84
Shank perimeter 0,91
Body weight 0,58

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Body weight
Shank perimeter
Thorax perimeter
Width of the croup at hips
Width of the chest
Length of the croup
Length of neck
Length of head
Oblique length of the body
Depth of thorax
Height at withers
0 0.1
Fig. 1. The heritability of the main morphological characters at the Romanian Sports Horse
Examining the values of the heritability
coefficients for the analyzed morphological
characters, it results they have a different
genetic determination, as a result of the
genetic interrelations specific to each
character and variability of genotypes that
make up the groups of the studied animals.
A common characteristic of the
heritability of characters at the Sports Horse,
resulted from our researches, is represented
by the degree of strong genetic determination
for the analyzed characteristics, which is in
correspondence with the data mentioned in
the specialty literature.
The high genetic determination quota for
the morphological characters reflects, on the
one hand, the genetic variability of the
female biological material, and on the other
hand, the high variation between the male
reproducers.
The environment, in the case of these
characters participates with a more reduced
quota in determining the total variation,
which will determine orientations, methods
and different managerial systems in the
selection process and the genetic
improvement compared with the characters
with weak hereditary transmission.
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
The stronger determination of the
hereditary variation for the morphological
characters emphasizes the reduced influence
of the environment factors and the high quota
of genetic determination of the respective
characteristics’ variabilities.
CONCLUSIONS
It can be considered that the actions of
genetic improvement within the analyzed
populations, have been led towards the
direction of hereditary fixing of characters
which determine the body format, the body
mass and the increase of energetic capacity;
also, the stronger genetic variability within
these populations of horses ensures a rapid
effect of selection and an increased safety in
obtaining the desired selection effect for the
obstacle, dressage or complete riding test
horses.
As a consequence, the use of the values
of the own phenotype in the appreciation of
the genotype for these characters is efficient
and useful from the zootechnical point of
view.
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

REFERENCES [7]. Ujică V., Popa lia, Iesenciuc Angela,: Studiul

Journal articles
[1]. Arnason T.,: Prediction of Breeding values in
horses by the BLUP method, 34-th Annual
Meeting of the EAAP, Madrid, 1983.
[3]. Budzynski m., Chmiel K., Estimation of
breeding value of purebread Arabian stallions, 45-
th Annual Meeting of the EAAP, Edinborught,
1994.
[4]. Hartman O., Lengerken G., Schwark H.J.,:
Linear Description of conformation traits in riding
horses, 45-th Annual Meeting of the EAAP,
Edinborught, 1994.
[6]. Ujică V.,: Efectul ameliorativ al armăsarilor de
rasă asupra populaţiilor de cabaline din Moldova,
Lucr. şt., seria Zoot. – Med. Vet., vol. 30, I.A. Iaşi,
1988.
culorilor şi transmiterea în descendenţă a cestora la
rasa Huţul, Lucr. şt., seria Zoot. – Med. Vet., vol.
30, I.A. Iaşi, 1990.
Books
[2]. Brandsch H.,: Genetsiche Grundlagen der
Tierzűchtung, G. Fisher, Verlag, Jena, 1983.
[5]. Mărginean Gh.,: Echitaţie şi sporturi hipice,
USAMV, Bucureşti, 1991.
[8]. Alecu I., Ciurea I.V., şi col.,: Management în
exploataţiile agricole, Editura Ceres, Bucureşti,
2001.

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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

POSSIBILITIES TO INDUCE TWIN CALVING IN COWS BY

EMBRYO-TRANSFER

N. Păcală, I. Bencsik, D. Dronca, Ada Cean, V. Carabă, Alexandra Boleman

Faculty of Animal Science and Biotechnologies- U.S.A.M.V.B. Timisoara

e-mail nicolae_pacala@yahoo.com, www.animalsci-tm.ro

Abstract
The aim of our paper was to induce twin gestations in cows, by transferring frozen embryos. The
embryos necessary for transfer were obtained from 12 donor cows from Romanian Black Spotted
breed, super ovulated with FSH pituitary extract (Foltropin-V). Embryos were no surgically
recovered at 7 days after the induced estrus, and those that were in 1 and 2 quality code (after IETS
Manual) were frozen. At 11 recipient females we transferred embryos no surgically, one embryo for
each uterine horn, 6 females were diagnose as pregnant (54,5%), from which 5 carried the
gestation to term. From those, 3 cows had twin calving (60%) and 2 had simple caving (40%). 12
recipient cows received two embryos, by no surgical embryo -transfer, on luteal body ipsilateral
uterine horn. 6 females have been diagnose pregnant (60%). From those, 2 cows had twinned
calving (33,3%) and 3 cows (66,7%) had simple calving. The twin calving at the females that had
one embryo transferred in each uterine horn was higher (60%) comparative to the females that had
two embryos transferred into the luteal body ipsilateral uterine horn (33,3%).
Key words: cow, embryotransfer, twin calving

INTRODUCTION the case of the transfer of two embryos in the

Twin calving inducing at monotocic
species can be realized by administering low
doses of folliclestimulating hormone (FSH or
PMSG) or by embryo-transfer. In the case of
embryo-transfer two embryos can be
transferred at each recipient cow or an extra
embryo can be transferred at the beginning of
the natural gestation (days 6-7).
In dairy cows, to prevent the producing of
sterile females (freemartinism), sexed
embryos must be transferred, in meat cows
not sexed embryos can be transferred [3].
The surgical transfer of an embryo in
each uterine horn or two embryos in the
ipsilateral luteal body can give gestation rates
of 70%. The twin calving rate after the
transfer of one embryo in each uterine horn is
70-72 %, compared with the gestation rate in
same uterine horn (45%) [1].
Newcomb (1982) have reported gestation
rates of 60% by nonsurgical transfer, form
which 50% were twins.
The aim of our paper was to obtain twin
calving from dairy cows by nonsurgical
embryo-transfer.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
The embryos necessary for embryo-
transfer were obtained from 12 donor cows
of Romanian Black Spotted. Embryos donor
cows were superovulated using the protocol
described by Robertson Ed. (2003). As
follicle-stimulating hormone we used
pituitary extracts of FSH (Folltropin-V) and
two subcutaneous implants with Norgestomet
(Synchro Mate B).

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

Day AM PM
0 Introduced the first SMB implant + 2 -
ml injectable SMB solution
5 Introduced the second SMB implant -
(without injectable solution)
6 50 mg FSH 50 mg FSH
7 50 mg FSH 50 mg FSH
8 50 mg FSH 50 mg FSH
9 50 mg FSH 50 mg FSH
+ 25 mg Lutalyse + 25 mg Lutalyse (redraw both SMB implants)
10 - -
11 IA IA
12 IA -
18 Recovery, transfer or freezing -
21 25 mg Lutalyse 25 mg Lutalyse
Figure 1. Donor cows superovulation inducing protocol with FSH and two Norgestomet implants
(Robertson 2003)

The day in which the implants were
introduced was considered the 0 day of the
ovary stimulation protocol. The implant was
applied to the internal face of the ear
simultaneous with this we also administered
2 ml SMB (Syncro Mate-B) of injectable
solution. In the 5th day we introduced the
second SMB implant without administering
the injectable solution. In the 6th day we
started the superovulatory treatment with
pituitary extracts of FSH (Folltropin-V), in a
total dose of 400 mg, divided in 8 doses 50
mg each. The FSH doses were administered
at 12 hours intervals. In the 9th day of the
superovulatory treatment, in the same time
with the last two FSH doses, we administered
25 mg Lutalyse (PgF2α). The two implants
were redrawn after the last FSH
administration (the 9th day). There were 3
A.I. performed, two in the morning and
evening of the 11th day and the third in the
morning of the 12 day. In the 18th day from
the beginning of the hormonal stimulation
(the 7th day of the induced estrus) embryos
were non surgically recovered. At 3 days
after embryo recovery 25 mg Lutalyse was
administered to the donor cow.
Embryo quality was established after
IETS Manual (1998). Embryos in 1 or 2
quality code were frozen by controlled
freezing procedure, with the help of Biocool
IV freezer.
In order to obtain twin calving, two
embryos per female, one each uterine horn,
were nonsurgical transferred at 11 recipient
females, reproductively correlated with the
embryo developmental stage. At 12 recipient
females, there were transferred two frozen
embryos both in the luteal body ipsilateral
uterine horn.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The results obtained are presented in
table 1 and 2.
In table 1, we presented the results
obtained at the transfer of one embryo in
each uterine horn.
At the 11 recipient females 22 embryos,
appreciated as viable after thawing, were
nonsurgically transferred. From the 11
females, 6 (54.5%) were diagnosed as
pregnant, from which one aborted. 5 cows
carried the gestation to term. From these 3
cows calved twins (60.0%), and 2 cows
calved each one calf (40.0%).
In table 2 we presented the results
obtained after the transfer of two embryos in
the uterine horn ipsilateral to the ovary that
presented the luteal body.

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

Table 1
Results obtained by transferring one embryo in each uterine horn
Recipient Transferred Pregnant females Calved females
females embryos n % n Twin calving Simple calving
(n) (n) n % n %
11 22 6 54.5 5 3 60.0 2 40.0

Table 2
Results obtained by embryo-transfer two embryos into the same uterine horn
Recipient Transferred Pregnant females Calved females
females embryos n % n Twin calving Simple calving
(n) (n) n % n %
12 24 6 50.0 6 2 33.3 4 66.7

To the 12 recipient females a total of 24 - Because of the rising of the incidence of

embryos, appreciated as viable after thawing,
were transferred. From the 12 females, 6
were diagnosed as pregnant (50.0 %). From
the 6 pregnant cows, 2 had twin calving
(33.3%), and 4 had simple calving (66.7%).
From these experiments it can be
concluded that gestation rates after the
transfer of two embryos, with the aim to
obtain twin calving, are similar (54.5-60.0%).
In respect to the twin calving, the
proportion is higher (60.0%) to the recipient
females at which there were transferred one
embryo in each uterine horn compared to the
recipient females at which there were
transferred two embryos in the luteal body
ipsilateral uterine horn (33.3%).
CONCLUSIONS
- After the nonsurgical transfer of one
embryo in each uterine horn, twin
pregnancy rates are higher (60,0%),
compared to the transfer of two embryos
in the uterine horn ipsilateral to the
ovary that the luteal body is present
(33,3%).
intersex females, resulted from the birth
of twins of different sex, twin calving
with unsexed embryos can be used only
in the case of meat calf’s.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This study was supported by IDEI Grant
CNCSIS code 2515/2008.
REFERENCES
Journal article
[3] Păcala N., Vintilă I., Dronca D.,: Artificial
twinning inducing at cows by embryo transfer.
Current problems in cellular and molecular
biology, 17th Annual Meeting of SNBC
Constanţa, 1999:p 697-698
Books
[1] Grevet, T.,: Contemporary embryo technology
in cattle: its implication. Ugesksift for Lordsburg,
Selected Research, Review,1986
[2] Newcomb, R.,:Egg recovery and transfer in
cattle in: Mammalian egg transfer. Ed. Adams
CRC Press, Inc. Boca Roton, Florida, 1982
[4] Robertson Ed.,: Non surgical embryo transfer.
9th Edition, Harrograte Genetics International,
Tennessee USA, 2003
[5] Xxx-Manual of the International Embryo
Transfer Society the 3rd Edition, 1998

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

ESTABLISHING THE EMBRYO VIABILITY FROM FERTILIZED

EGGS AND DETERMINATION OF GENETIC SEX TO DANIO
RERIO JUVENILE

I. Bencsik, N. Pacală, D. Dronca, Rodica Caprita, Lavinia Stef

Banat’s University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Timisoara – Romania

www. usab-tm.ro, e-mail: bencsik54@animalsci-tm.ro

Abstract
Establishing the viability of embryos inside the fertilized eggs and the determination of genetic
sex to the zebra fish (Danio rerio) was based on the principle of emphasizing the electromagnetic
bio-field generated by embryonic cells. The generated electromagnetic bio-field can move a
pendulum showing the embryo viability and according to its trajectory (circular or transversal) the
genetic sex of embryo or of fry can be established. The studied embryos or fry that generated the
transversal movement of pendulum were considered to have male sex, and the studied embryos or
fry that generated the circular movement of pendulum were considered to have female sex. The
method allows to establish the sex ratio among sexes which was 49.06:50.94. The precision of
predicting the genetic sex at 2 weeks at the XY group was 75.38% and to the XX group was of
78.47%. The precision of predicting the genetic sex by emphasizing the electromagnetic biofiled
confirmed by establishing the phenotypic sex to the XY group was of 69.66% and to the XX group
was 71.05%.
Key words: embryos, sex prediction, electromagnetic bio-field

INTRODUCTION Cytogenetic analysis is pointing out the

Genetic sex is determined by the
interaction of gonosomes XY (male) and XX
(female) in Drosophila sex type. Nowadays
different methods are used to predetermine
the sex of the offspring. Some methods
employ sex determination in gametes other in
preimplantational embryos.
One of the highly used methods in
gametes is based on the flow-cytometric
separation of X- and Y-chromosome-bearing
sperm based on X/Y DNA content difference
(2,4). This method was used with success in
cattle, swine, sheep and laboratory animals.
Skewed sex ratios of 85 to 95% of one sex or
the other were achieved in most species (6).
Some of the disadvantages of this method are
that it implies the use of expensive
equipment and the viability of the gametes is
also affected by flow cytometry.
Embryo sexing has been attempted by a
variety of methods including cytogenetic
analysis, X-linked enzyme activity assays,
detection of male specific antigens, use of Y-
specific DNA probes and PCR based assays.
sex chromosomes from embryonic cells.
Methods like karyotiping (1), Barr body
staining (3) can be used to predetermine the
genetic sex. These methods rely on embryo
biopsy, which affects the integrity and the
viability of embryos.
Measurement of X-linked enzyme
activity implies micro-surgical drawing of
embryonic cells, their development in special
media and the assessment of the quality of
enzymes coded by the X chromosome (7).
Female embryos having double set of X
chromosomes are producing doubled quantity
of enzymes. Sex prediction accuracy of 60-
70% was reported with this method.
The use of antibodies (H-Y) against a Y
chromosome specific surface antigen leads to
elimination of male preimplatational embryos
whereas the female embryos are surviving.
(9) Using this non-invasive method sex
prediction accuracy of 80,9% was reported in
mice and bovine (8).
Detection of genes known to be presents
either on the Y chromosome or on the X

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chromosomes were adapted for sexing
embryo by polymerase chain reaction (5).
Although the procedure seems to be accurate,
sensitive and precise, this technique relies on
embryo biopsy that affects the viability of the
embryos.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Establishing the viability of embryos
inside the fertilized eggs and the
determination of genetic sex to the zebra fish
(Danio rerio) was based on the principle of
emphasizing the electromagnetic bio-field
generated by embryonic cells. The generated
electromagnetic bio-field can move a
pendulum showing the embryo viability and
according to its trajectory (circular or
transversal) the genetic sex of embryo or of
fry can be established. The studied embryos
or fry that generated the transversal
movement of pendulum were considered to
have male sex, and the studied embryos or
fry that generated the circular movement of
pendulum were considered to have female
sex. In the case when embryos from the eggs
are inactive, are not producing an
electromagnet bio-field, tested with the
pendulum, are considered dead (10).
In our experiment, to demonstrate
practically this phenomenon, we induced
spawning to a group of females and males of
zebra fish, by the cycle of light and darkness
and controlled temperature in an aquarium
equipped with a net. The net had a protective
role, not allowing the fish to eat its own
Table 1
Viability and genetic sex of zebra-fish embryos
Total
Total number of viable
number of
embryos
obtained
eggs Total % Total
680 640 94,12
From the above table, we observe that
from 680 eggs, a number of 640 had an
electromagnetic bio-field, being alive, which
represents 94.12%. From these 640, 314
(49,06%) had showed a specific field to the
male genetic sex (XY), and 326 (50,94%)
manifested a female sex specific
Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
offspring. The eggs were harvested in the
morning after the mating ritual stopped, and
the parents were moved to a different
aquarium. The viability determination of
embryos from the obtained roes was made
individually by putting the egg in a Petri dish
with the help of the pendulum. If the roe was
fertilized and the embryo was alive, the
electromagnetic bio-field started to move the
pendulum. On the contrary, if the pendulum
was not moving, the egg and its embryo were
considered dead. From the determined live
embryos we established two groups,
according to the way of pendulum
movement. Therefore, a group was made
from embryos that moved in a transversal
trajectory the pendulum (considered to be
males, on Drosophyla sex type with XY
chromosomes), and another group was made
from embryos that moved in a circular
trajectory the pendulum (considered to be
females, also on Drosophyla sex type with
XX chromosomes). The eggs from these two
groups were incubated separately.
The hatched fry was reared for two
weeks, when the sex was determined again
by the same method. Finally, the fish were
reared to allow phenotypic macroscopic sex
determination.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Table 1 is presenting the results
regarding the number of obtained eggs and
the viability test of embryos from the eggs.
Number of embryos with Number of embryos with
genetic sex XY genetic sex XX
% Total %
314 49,06 326 50,94
electromagnetic bio-field. In this way we can
appreciate the sex ratio between sexes of
49,06:50,94, being very close to 1:1.
The following table presents data
referring the electromagnetic bio-field
determination to 2 weeks old zebra fish fry.
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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

Table 2
Obtained results regarding the electromagnetic bio-field determination to 2 weeks old zebra fish fry
Total number Total number
Number of fry with
of Number of of fry at the
determined sex at the age
Specification embryonated obtained fry age of 2
of 2 weeks
eggs by weeks
sexes Total % XX % XY % Total %
XY 314 226 71,97 49 24,62 150 75,38 199 88,05
XX 326 230 70,55 164 78,47 45 21,53 209 90,86

The above table shows that from the two
groups of embryonated eggs XY and XX
were obtained cca 70% of live fry. At the
group with the genetic sex considered male
XY from 314 eggs, 226 fry were obtained
(71.97%), and from the group with the
considered female genetic sex XX the 326
eggs produced 230 live fry (70.55%). In
order to handle the live fry without producing
any injuries, the determination of the
electromagnetic bio-field was made at the
age of 2 weeks. In these 2 weeks, the losses
recorded to both groups were of cca 10%.
From the live fry in XY group (199) only 150
(75.38%) showed the specific
electromagnetic bio-field for the male sex
and the other 49 (26.64%) showed a female
specific electromagnetic bio-field. From the
live fry in group XX (209) only 164
(78.74%) manifested the electromagnetic
bio-field specific for female and the rest
(21.54%) manifested a male specific
electromagnetic bio-field. The precision in
predicting the genetic sex at the age of 2
weeks for XY group is of 75.38% and for XX
group is 78.47%.
In table 3 we present the results
regarding the determination of phenotypic
sex at 3 months old fingerlings.

Table 3.
Obtained results regarding the determination of phenotypic sex at 3 months old fingerlings
Total Total number of fry
Number of fingerlings with
number of at the age of 4
phenotypic sex at 3 months
Specification fry at the months
age of 2 Total % XX % XY %
weeks
XY 199 178 89,45 54 30,34 124 69,66
XX 209 190 90,91 135 71,05 55 28,95

From the 3 months fingerlings in group presence of phenotypic sex at group XY is

XY (178) only 124 (69.66%) manifested
specific male phenotypic sexand the other 54
(30.34%) manifested specific female
phenotypic sex. From the 3 months
fingerlings in group XX (190) only 135
(71.05%) manifested specific male
phenotypic sexand the other 55 (28.95%)
manifested specific female phenotypic sex.
Recorded losses from different causes at
both groups were around 10%. The precision
in predicting the genetic sex by the
emphasize of electromagnetic bio-field
confirmed at the age of 3 months by the
69.66% and for females is 71.05%.
CONCLUSIONS
• Electromagnetic bio-field generated by the
live embryo in zebra fish egg can move the
pendulum;
• The method allows the appreciation of sex
ratio which is 49.06 : 50.94, which is very
close to 1:1 ratio;
• The precision in predicting the genetic sex
at the age of 2 weeks for XY group is of
75.38% and for XX group is 78.47%;
• The precision in predicting the genetic sex
by the emphasize of electromagnetic bio-
field confirmed at the age of 3 months by

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the presence of phenotypic sex at group
XY is 69.66% and for females is 71.05%.
REFERENCES
Journal articles
[1] Bacchus, C., Buselmaier W., (1988) -
Blastomere karyotyping and transfer of
chromosomally selected embryos. Implications for
the production of specific animal models and
human prenatal diagnosis. Hum.Gen. Dec;
80(4):333-6.
[2] Hagele. W.C., Hare, WC., Singh, E.L., Grylls
J.L., Abt D.A., (1984)-Effect of separating bull
semen into X and Y chromosome-bearing fraction
on the sex ratio resulting embryos. Can. J.
Comp.Med. Jul; 48(3):294-8.
[3] Gardner, R.L., Edwards, R.G., (1968) –
Control of the sex ratio at full term in the rabbit by
transferring sexed blastocysts. Nature. Apr.
27;218(5139):346-9.
[4] Garner, D.L, (2006) - Flow Cytometric sexing
of mammalian sperm. Theriogenology, Mar
15;65(5): 943-57.
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
[5] Gimenez, C., Egozcue, J., Vidal, F., (1994) –
Sexing sibling mouse blastomeres by polymerase
chain reaction and fluorescent in situ
hybridization. Hum.Reprod. Nov 9(11):2145-9.
[6] Johnson, LA.,(1996)- Gender preselection in
mammals: an overview.
Dtsch.Tierartytl.Wochenschr. Aug-Sep; 103(8-9):
288-91.
[7] Monk, M., Handyside A.H., (1988)- Sexing of
preimplantation mouse embryos by measurement
of X-linked gene dosage in a single blastomere. J.
Reprod. Fertil. Jan: 82(1):365-8.
[9] Moreira, P.N., Pitado, B., Montolin L., Gutirre-
Adam, A., (2004) ICSI-Mediated gene transfer
skew sex ratio against female births in
mice.Reprod.,Fertil., Dev., Jan.:16(2):292-292.
[9] Utsumi, K., Satoh, E., Iritani, A., (1991)
Sexing of rat embryos with antisera specific for
male rats. J. Exp. Zool. Oct; 260(1):99-105
[10] Pacala N., Bencsik I., Corin N., Stanculet
Jana, Bencsik Alena. 2007, Aparat si metoda
pentru determinarea sexului genetic, Brevet
nr.121316 B1.
 BACK
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

RESEARCHES ON EARLY EMBRYOGENESIS FROM

TRANSYLVANIAN NAKED NECK AND PLYMOUTH ROCK
HEN BREEDS

D. Dronca1, N. Păcală1, I. Bencsik1, T. Oroian2, Mihaela Ivancia3,

Gabi Dumitrescu1, S. Voia1, Liliana Boca1
1
Faculty of Animal Sciences and Biotechnologies, Timişoara, România
e-mail: ddronca@yahoo.com
2
Faculty of Animal Sciences and Biotechnologies Cluj-Napoca, Romania
3
Faculty of Animal Sciences Iaşi, Romania

Abstract
In Romania, the Transylvanian Naked Neck hen breed is considered to be an “endangered”
population, reason for which we consider that a special attention should have been given until now.
Plymouth Rock breed was imported for the first time to Romania from the Studler Company, France
in 1969. This paper is aiming to perform a profound analysis of the development patterns of the
neural tube in the two breeds, by measurements carried out at 30, 40, 50, and 60 hours of
incubation. Observations show that the closure of the neural canal and its transformation into a
tube follows an undulatory pattern, of which positive and negative curls are diametrically opposed
in the two breeds, while the development speed during the whole studied period have a relative
similar value between the two breeds. We estimate that the two breeds have a good combinative
capacity, which recommend the utilization of these genetic materials to obtain hybrids for
producing “peasant-type” chicken meat, very well-appreciated by the Europeans between the two
World Wars.

Key words: embryos, Transylvanian Naked Neck, Plymouth Rock

INTRODUCTION why we should give it a special attention

The Transylvanian Naked Neck hen
breed became known in 1875, when a
Transylvanian peasant presented a Plymouth Rock breed belongs to the
homogenous group of naked-necked hens in
an exhibition in Vienna. After that, this breed
was presented in several exhibitions such as
Universal Exhibition in Paris in 1878,
Poultry Exhibition in London in 1900 etc.
Also, it is a fact that around 1875 the Naked
Neck hen was found and well-appreciated in
Transylvania, where some breeders started to
raise it on rational basis and to make
selection of this breed. These are the breeders
we could owe the standard of the breed.
Later, in year 1905, this standard was
adopted and improved by the German
Association of Transylvanian Naked Neck
breeders from Silesia (Ştefănescu, 1956).
Transylvanian Naked Neck breed has a
special importance for our country that is
within the management of animal genetic
resources.
American dual-purpose breeds, being formed
in Massachussetts. In Europe, it was
imported in 1880 in England and in 1882 in
the Netherlands. In year 1969 Romania
imported N and H lines from Studler
Company, France and S and F lines from
Shaver Company, Canada. Also, in year 1984
some lines were imported from Ross
Company, England.
Plymouth Rock is a genetic improver
breed, being the third in the world as
importance and population number in the
industrial aviculture. It is used almost
exclusively as broiler hens.
The aim of this paper was to carry out
development patterns of the neural tube
during the early embryogenesis in order to

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achieve a more profound knowledge of these
populations. The subsequent objective is to
obtain hybrids for producing “peasant-type”
chicken meat that was very well-appreciated
by the Europeans between the two World
Wars.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
If morphological characteristics such as
pellucid area, primitive line, embryo’s length
during the first 60 hours of incubation grow
and develop based on cell number increase,
cell differentiation processes form the basis
for neural tube development. Neural tube
formation belongs with development of the
Hansen nodule of the cephalic prolongation
of which the anterior extremity ends with
cephalic fold. Closure of the embryo’s neural
groove from the anterior to the posterior
extremity and its transformation into a tube is
taking place following a certain pattern. After
Table 1.
Neural tube development in embryos belonging to the two hen breed [mm]
Embryo groups
30
Plymouth Rock (NH) 1.11±0.05
Transylvanian Naked Neck 0.23±0.07
Differences +0.88
Analyzing data presented in Table 1 one
could observe that time evolution of the
neural tube development in the two groups of
embryos are taking place following different
patterns. In Plymouth Rock (NH) embryos
the neural tube is already formed at the age
of 30 hours of incubation along a distance of
1.11 mm. This suggests that this type of
genetic structure is causing earlier processes
of cell differentiation and growth compared
to the Transylvanian Naked Neck embryos,
which at the same age have the neural tube
formed only on 0.23 mm long.
It is to be noticed the time interval
between 30 and 40 hours of incubation, when
the neural tube in Transylvanian Naked Neck
breed has a high growth intensity of 4.47
mm. During the next interval, 40-50 hours of
incubation, the Plymouth Rock embryos
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
the age of 31 hours of incubation, the neural
canal “gives up” to be formed following the
zipper type pattern and adopts the closure of
the groove similar to closing up a book
(B.Menkeş, Şandor, Elias (1965) and
I.Vintilă (1968)).
The measurements carried out in order to
establish the standards of the neural canal
closure during the early embryogenesis in the
two hen breeds were carried out on 16-
embryos groups at the age of 30, 40, 50, and
60 hours of incubation. The method used was
a special method developed in the
Experimental Embryology Laboratory from
the Timişoara Branch of the Romanian
Academy.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Time evolution of the neural tube
dimensions in the two groups of embryos is
presented in Table 1.
Embryos age - hours of incubation
40 50 60
4.97±0.027 8.39±0.06 8.44±0.065
4.70±0.035 5.45±0.08 7.45±0.055
+0.27 +2.94 +0.99
show an intense development achieving 3.42
mm, while the Transylvanian Naked Neck
embryos show a moderate development of
only 0.75 mm. During the last studied
interval (50 to 60 hours of incubation) the
growth speed is reversed again. The
Transylvanian Naked Neck embryos show a
vigorous development of 2.0 mm compared
to that of only 0.05 mm achieved by the
Plymouth Rock embryos. By the end of the
studied period of 60 hours, the Plymouth
Rock embryos (NH) have an extra 0.99 mm
in the neural tube development compared to
the Transylvanian Naked Neck embryos.
In order to carry out a more profound
analysis of the development patterns in the
two breeds, the average speed of the neural
tube formation during the studied time
intervals are presented in Table 2.
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
Table 2.
Average speed of the neural speed formation in the two breeds [mm/hour]
Item
30-40
Plymouth-Rock (NH) 0.386
Transylvanian Naked Neck 0.447
Differences -0.061
Data in Table 2 show that the neural tube
formation in the two breeds have a similar
average speed during the incubation period
(30 to 60 hours). It is to be noticed that
during the embryos’ growth, the neural tube
development is following an undulatory
pattern, totally different from a genetic group
to another.
If from 30 to 40 hours of incubation the
neural tube formation in Transylvanian
Naked Neck embryos is taking place with a
high speed (0.447 mm/hour), during the next
period, 40 to 50 hours, the average speed of
the neural canal closure and tube formation
decreases very much (0.075 mm/hour).
Totally different is the case of the Plymouth
Rock embryos. They show a relative similar
average speed of the neural groove closure
during the two incubation periods.
From 50 to 60 hours of incubation the
situation is reversed again. The
Transylvanian Naked Neck embryos show an
increased average speed to 0.200 mm/hour,
while in the Plymouth Rock embryos the
speed is reduced to a minimum (0.005
mm/hour). When the overall speed of the
neural tube formation was compared between
breeds, a slight advantage (+0.004 mm/hour)
was observed in the favor of the Plymouth
Rock embryos.
CONCLUSIONS
As a result of the observations we could
positively state that the differentiation and
cell replication processes that contribute to
the neural tube formation have an undulatory
evolution pattern, the positive and negative
curls of the curve being diametrically
opposed in the two breeds.
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Age interval of embryos
40-50 50-60 30-60
0.342 0.005 0.244
0.075 0.200 0.240
+0.267 -0.195 +0.004
Thus, it is to be noticed that the overall
studied period development speed have a
close value, which demonstrates that the
Transylvanian Naked Neck breed have a
vigorous embryo development following an
own pattern.
If we add to these conclusions the other
renowned qualities of the two breeds, as well
as the estimation that both have a good
specific combinative capacity, we could
recommend utilization of these genetic
materials to obtain hybrids for producing the
“peasant-type” chicken meat, very well-
appreciated by Europeans between the two
World Wars.
REFERENCES
Journal articles
[8] VINTILĂ I. - Manifestarea fenomenului
heterozis în dezvoltarea embrionului de găină de la
20-60 ore de incubaţie. Lucr.Şt.I.A.T., Seria
med.vet, vol.XI. [1968]
[5] ŞANDOR ŞT., ELIAS ŞT. – Acţiunea
alcoolului etilic asupra dezvoltării embrionului de
găină. Stud.şi Cercet. Embr. şi Citol. 3,2.
Timişoara, [1966]
Books
[1] DRONCA D. – Ameliorarea genetică a
populaţiilor de animale, Ed.Mirton, Timişoara,
[2007]
[2] DRIHA ANA – Curs de tehnologia creşterii
păsărilor, Ed.Mirton, Timişoara [2000]
[3] GROSU H., OLTENACU P. (2005) –
Programe de ameliorare genetice în zootehnie.
Ed.Ceres Bucureşti, [2005]
[4] OROIAN T. DRONCA D. – Valori genetice şi
selecţia la animale. Ed.Mirton, Timişoara, [2005]
[6] VAN I. - Creşterea şi industrializarea puilor de
carne, Ed.Ceres Bucureşti [2003]
[7] VĂCARU – OPRIŞ I. – Tratat de avicultură,
vol. I, Ed.Ceres, Bucureşti [2001]
 BACK

Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

STUDY ON THE HETEROZIS EFFECT IN EARLY

EMBRYOGENESIS OF THE COMMERCIAL CHICKEN
BROILER HYBRIDS

D. Dronca1, N. Păcală1, I. Bencsik1, T. Oroian2, V. Cighi2, Mihaela Ivancia3,

Gabi Dumitrescu1, Liliana Boca1
1
Faculty of Animal Sciences and Biotechnologies, Timişoara, România
e-mail: ddronca@yahoo.com
2
Faculty of Animal Sciences and Biotechnologies Cluj-Napoca, Romania
3
Faculty of Animal Sciences Iaşi, Romania

Abstract
In the literature, there is less discussed in what extent the methods that modify the genetic
structure of a population for a certain character has an impact on the hyperplasia of the tissues
during the embryogenesis. The aim of this paper was to study in what extent the different genetic
structure, meaning the heterozygosis status in the first and second hybrid generation, is influencing
the breadth development of the chicken embryos at the optic and auditory vesicles level between the
30th and 50th hour of incubation. Experiments were carried out on two representative groups of
simple bilinear hybrids NH and double tetra-linear hybrids Cy1Cy2NH. The results sustain the idea
that cephalic processes, and optic and auditory vesicles become visible earlier, and the
differentiation and cell replication processes are more vigorous in hybrids with higher
heterozygosis than in those with lower heterozygosis.
Key words: hybrid, heterozygosis, genetic structure

INTRODUCTION "Studler" (France), and was homologated in

The heterozis effect shown up in the
heterozygote (hybrid) animals, and obtained
by crossbreeding of the parents having
different and complementary genetic
structure in the non-additive loci could be
made evident and even measured. Genetists
consider that the plus the hybrid showed over
their parents' of the average is due to the
heterozis effect or hybrid vigor. On this basis
we can think that the plus of a quantitative
trait in hybrids over one of the parental forms
that is less heterozygote is determined by the
heterozis effect, also.
The aim of this paper was to study in
what extent the different genetic structure is
influencing the dynamics and evolution of
the breadth of the optic and auditory vesicles
in early embryogenesis of the commercial
chicken broilers.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
"Robro 69" hybrid is made up of Cornish
lines Cy1 and Cy2 and Plymouth Rock lines
N and H that were imported in 1969 from
1987.
Experiments were carried out on two
representative groups of embryos having
different genetic structure. One group was
highly heterozygous being a simple hybrid F1
between lines N and H belonging to
Plymouth Rock breed. The other group
comprised a double hybrid F2, obtained from
crossbreeding of the simple hybrid NH of
Plymouth Rock breed with the simple hybrid
Cy1Cy2 of Cornish breed.
In order to make evident the heterozis
effect during the early embryogenesis of
broilers, the average of the trait measured in
double tetra-linear hybrid embryos "Robro
69", having the formula Cy1Cy2 NH, was
taken as the reference point.
The area where the morphogenetic
differentiation processes were the most active
was the cephalic end of the embryo. In this
area is taking place differentiations of the
cells that make up the future segments of the
encephalon, eyes, ears and skull. After the
neural canal begins to transform into a neural

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

tube starting with the cephalic end of the
embryo, the optic vesicles start to develop,
too. In the stage when the embryo has
already about 20 somatic cells, the auditory
vesicle and its ganglion could be observed in
the cephalic part.
Using a special technique, measurements of
the breadth of embryos at the level of optic and
auditory vesicles were carried out every 10
hours, during 30th and 50th hour of incubation.
The data was statistically processed in
order to quantify the influence of the genetic
structure of each embryo group (simple and
double hybrids).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The measurements performed at the level
of optic and auditory vesicles on 35 double
hybrid embryos, less heterozygous, which
were sacrificed at the ages of 30, 40 and 50
hours of incubation made possible to analyze
the standard of embryo development in
breadth during this developmental period.
We did not performed measurements at the
age of 60 hours of incubation because at this
age the cephalic end of the embryo suffers a
big inflection so the results would be less
precise and biased. The results are shown in
Table 1.

Table 1.
Evolution of the average breadth of the double embryos (Robro 69) at the level of optical and auditory
vesicles (mm)
Age of embryos (hours of incubation)
Item
30 40 50
Embryo breadth at the optic vesicles level 0.40±0.040 0.58±0.059 0.86±0.027
Embryo breadth at the auditory vesicles level 0.39±0.080 0.62±0.070 0.65±0.086

The data shown in Table 1 suggests that
the breadth of the chicken embryos increase
only up to 40th hour of incubation. From the
40th to the 50th hour of incubation the double
hybrid (standard) embryos remain at the same
size they achieved at 40 hours of incubation.
This phenomenon is true for both optic and
auditory vesicles. This not means that the
embryos' breadth is not growing further 40
hours of incubation. They stay at the same size
for 10 hours then they begin to grow more
vigorously. Our calculations lead to the
conclusion that from the 30th to the 40th hour
of incubation the average growth speed of the
breadth of optic vesicles is 0.045 mm/hour and
that of auditory vesicles is 0.023 mm/hour.
If we compare the data obtained from
double hybrids to those obtained from simple
hybrids, we obtain information regarding the
influence of the genetic structure on the
breadth development of embryos. The data
are shown in Table 2.

Table 2.
Dynamics of differences regarding the breadth development of the double and simple hybrid embryos
Age of embryos (hours of incubation)
Item
30 40 50
At the level of optic vesicles
Simple hybrid embryos 0.25±0.05 0.78±0.06 1.146±0.031
Double hybrid embryos 0.40±0.04 0.85±0.059 0.86±0.027
Difference +0.12 -0.10 +0.286
At the level of auditory vesicles
Simple hybrid embryos 0.40±0.05 0.526±0.06 0.814±0.07
Double hybrid embryos 0.39±0.08 0.62±0.07 0.65±0.086
Difference +0.01 -0.094 +0.164

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Analyzing the data in Table 2, one can
observe that at the age of 30 hours of
incubation the first generation simple hybrids
had a superior development than double
hybrids both at the level of optic (+0.12 mm)
and auditory (+0.01 mm) levels. The
situation is inversed at 40 hours of
incubation, the double hybrids having a more
vigorous growth during this period. At the
age of 50 hours of incubation the simple
hybrids overcome the "handicap"
encountered earlier, so at the level of optic
vesicles they are 0.286 mm bigger and at the
level of auditory vesicles they are 0.164 mm
bigger than the double hybrids.
By applying the statistical methods for
the growth speed calculated over the whole
studied interval, we have to accept the null
hypothesis. If we analyze the average
development speed over short time periods, it
was concluded that this is net following a
continue line with a constant rate, but it
displays undulatory according to the
incubation period.
CONCLUSIONS
All the above-mentioned data suggest that
the embryos that have more frequent
heterozygosis are developing in breadth
following another pattern than those who are
less heterozygote. The higher heterozygosis
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
determines an earlier and faster development
of the embryos at the level of optic and
auditory vesicles. Our data sustain the idea
that the occurrence of the cephalic processes,
and optic and auditory vesicles take place
earlier, and the differentiation and cell
replication processes are more vigorous in
hybrids with higher heterozygosis.
REFERENCES
Journal articles
[1] BARLOW R. - Experimental evidence for
interaction between heterozis and environment in
animals. Anim.Breed Abstr.49, 715-737, [1981]
[3] ELIAS St. - O metodă pentru măsurarea
precisă a creşterii în stadii tinere de dezvoltare
embrionare. Stud. şi Cercet. Embr. şi Citol., Seria
Embr. Tom IV, nr.2, Bucureşti, [1967]
[4] NEELY J.D. et al. - Heterozis estimate for
measures of reproductive traits in crossbred boars.
J. Anim. Sci. 51, 1150, [1980]
[5] ŞANDOR Şt., ELIAS Şt. - Acţiunea alcoolului
etilic asupra dezvoltării embrionului de găină.
Stud. şi Cercet. Embr. şi Citol. 32, [1966]
[6] VINTILĂ I. - Manifestarea fenomenului
heterozis în dezvoltarea embrionului de găină de la
20-60 ore de incubaţie. Lucr. şt. IAT, seria Med.
Vet. voi. XI, [1968]
Book
[2] DRONCA D. – Ameliorarea genetică a
populaţiilor de animale, Editura Mirton,
Timişoara, [2007]
 BACK
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

CHANGES INDUCED BY SOME NUTRITIONAL FACTORS

ON FEMUR HISTOLOGICAL STRUCTURE IN PIG

Gabi Dumitrescu1, Lavinia Stef1, D. Drinceanu1, Liliana Petculescu Ciochina1,

D. Stef1, D. Dronca1, Rodica Criste2, Liliana Boca1, C. Julean1
1
University of Agricultural Science and Veterinary Medicine, Timisoara, Romania
Faculty of Animal Science and Biotechnologies
e-mail: gdumitrescu@animalsci-tm.ro
2
National Research and Development Institute for Biology
and Animal Nutrition, Balotesti, Romania

Abstract
The problems approached by our team are represented by the involvement of different sources
and levels of calcium, namely calcium carbonate, fructoborate and alfalfa, in the mineralization of
bone tissue. So, we made fix histological preparations of tissue fragments taken from femure, from 9
pigs belonging to three batches: the control batch, where calcium was provided in a proportion of
1% through calcium carbonate, experimental batch 1, where calcium was provided in a proportion
of 1.04% through fructoborate, on a calcium carbonate support, and experimental batch 2, where
calcium was provided in a proportion of 1.13% through fructoborate + alfalfa, on a calcium
carbonate support. The histomorphometric parameters assessed were represented by the volume of
bone trabeculae (BV/TV, %) or the percentage of bone tissue in a given volume and the mean width
of bone trabeculae. At the same time, in order to establish fructoborate and alfalfa implication in
bone mineralization, we supervised the presence and activity of osteoblasts respectively osteoclasts.
In the case of the experimental batch 1, the histomorphometric study shows an increase of bone
trabeculae dimension, with a mean width of about 115.4µ µ, and also an increase of their mean
volume, which is about 36.46%. The trabecular system is dense and present mineralised and
ossified territory where are formed by osteoclasts with osteocytes. Peritrabeculary are presented
active osteoblasts which are involved in plurilamellar stratification by deposition of young collagen.
In the case of individuals from experimental batch 2, trabeculae mean width is about 111,5µ, while
their volume is 33.60%.
Key words: pig, bone, fructoborate, calcium, histomorphometry

INTRODUCTION bone during its formation and it is released

The process of mineralization occurs in
two inseparable steps. The first step is
represented by the release of the osteoid
matrix, by osteoblasts, as stripes. The second
step consists in the proper osteoid
mineralization. Bone strength and stiffness are
given by the presence of mineral salts in the
osteoid matrix and, particularly, of calcium
salts and phosphate hydroxyde that
precipitates as hydroxyapatite crystals (HAP),
thermodynamically stabile. These crystals fix
between and on the collagen fibres, providing
in this way the osteoid mineralization.
Calcium plays an important role in bone
physiology and homeostasis. It is stored up in
during bone resorption. Calcium absorption at
intestinal level represents a complicated
process that involves the presence of sexual
hormones (Nielsen, F.H. et al., 1987),
especially estrogens. But the researches
carried out so far reveal boron involvement in
the synthesis of estrogens, vitamin D and other
steroid hormones, this one being essential in
the process of –OH addition to hormone
molecules, respectively vitamin D. The
presence of –OH bounds determines a big
difference of the hormonal characteristics, the
differences between testosterone and estrogen
being especially determined by a single
hydroxyl bound (-OH) (Armstrong, T.A. at al.,
2000, Bentwich, Z. et al., 1994, Nielsen, F.H.

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et al., 1990, Samman, S. et al., 1998, Shen, V.
et al., 1995).
MATERIAL AND METHOD
The histological study was performed on
tissue fragments taken from femur, from 9
pigs distributed into three batches: the control
batch (M), where calcium was provided in a
proportion of 1% through calcium carbonate,
the experimental batch 1 (E1), where calcium
was assured in a proportion of 1.04% through
Fructoborate on calcium carbonate support,
and the experimental batch 2 (E2), where
calcium was provided in a proportion of
1.13% through Fructoborate + alfalfa on
calcium carbonate support.
The tissue fragments were fixed in
alcohol 800 and/or neuter formalin10%,
decalcified in solution 15% of trichloroacetic
acid and introduced in paraffin blocks, after a
previous dehydration and clearing. The
histological sections, stained with the
hematoxylin-eosin, trichromic Mallory and
trichromic Masson methods, were examined
with the research microscope Olympux
CX41 endowed with digital photo camera
and software for image histomorphometric
analysis (QuickPhoto Micro 2.2). Among the
histomorphometric parameters recommended
by the American Society for Bone and
Mineral Research (Jaworski, ZFG., 1983,
Eclou-Kalonji, E. et al., 1997, Mocetti, P. et
al., 2000, Parfitt, A.M. et al., 1987), we
evaluated the volume of bone trabeculae
(BV/TV, %) and their mean width. At the
same time, in order to establish fructoborate
and alfalfa involvement in bone
mineralization, we supervised the presence
Fig. 1. Femur CB –reserve cartilage
(Trichromic Mallory st.; 200x)
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
and activity of osteoblasts, respectively
osteoclasts.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
In the case of the control batch, the
histological study shows the area of reserve
cartilage consisted of hyaline cartilage,
idling, that binds the rest of the growth
cartilage to epiphyses. Between this area and
epiphysis, there are sanguine capillaries
involved in the trophicization of bone tissue
and diaphysis-epiphysis cartilage (fig. 1). In
the peripheral epiphysis area, we may
observe the ossification process, marked
through fibroblast metaplasia in osteoblasts,
cells with hyperchromatic nucleus and
basophile cytoplasm that synthesizes young
conjunctival tissue (fig. 6), and also by
disposing osteoblasts on the areolar bone
trabecula face (fig. 2). They lay down a thin
young collagen layer, on the bone lamella
surface (fig 2). Below this layer, we may
notice a territory where bone trabeculae are
submitted to a more advanced differentiation
process (fig. 3), and in the central epiphysis
area, we may observe differentiated
trabeculae that, by association, generate large
cavities, occupied with marrow. The
histomorphometric study performed on
transversal and longitudinal sections reveals
a mean bone trabecula dimension of about
109µ. The myeloid parenchyma is submitted
to intense changes, expressed through
stromal fibroblasts metaplasia in adipocytes
(fig. 4). This aspect suggests the fact that, in
this area, osteogenesis is very slow, a big
number of fibroblasts turning into fat cells
and not in osteoblasts.
Fig. 2. Femur CB – active osteoblasts
disposed on the areolar face of bone
trabeculae (Trichromic Mallory st.; 200x)
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

Fig. 3. Femur CB –differentiated bone

trabeculae (Trichromic Mallory st.; 200x)

The longitudinal sections performed through femur reveal the presence of the periost (fig.
6) and its involvement in the process of osteogenesis through apposition.

Fig. 4. Femur CB: fibroblasts Fig. 5. Femur CB –transversal section

metaplasia in adipose cells assembly (Trichromic Mallory st.; 40x)
(Trichromic Mallory st.; 400x)

Fig. 6. Femur CB – processes of osteogenesis

through apposition (Trichromic Mallory st.; 400x)

The histomorphometric study of the
transversal sections performed through the
superior femur extremity, in the individuals
from the experimental batch 1, leads to the
conclusion that the mean trabecula dimension
is bigger compared with the control batch, this
one being about 115,4µ, and their mean
volume is about 36.46%. Trabeculae have a
compact aspect and present territories of bone
deposits and mineralization, leading to the
formation of osteoplasts with osteocytes (fig.7,
8). Peritrabeculary (fig. 9), we may observe
active osteoblasts, involved in plurilamellar
stratification through deposition of young
collagen. The myeloid parenchyma of the
hematogenous marrow has a rarefied aspect
and, as a general aspect, is represented by the
tendency of fibroblasts metaplasia in adipose
cells (fig. 8). We may also notice a slight
hypertrophic hyperplasia of blood vessels,
with lymphocytes being concentrated around
them.

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Fig. 7. Femur superior extremity EB1 Fig. 8. Femur superior extremity EB1
assembly (trichromic Mallory st.; 100x) - fibroblasts metaplasia in adipose
cells (trichromic Mallory st.; 400x)

Fig. 9. Femur superior extremity EB1

active osteoblasts involved in plurilamellar
stratification. We may also notice osteocytes
in the trabecular territories (trichromic Mallory st.; 1000x)

In the case of the experimental batch 2,
the transversal sections performed through
the superior femur extremity reveal intense
processes of osteogenesis, with the
involvement of the periost, respectively of
the osteoprogenitor cells from its cellular
layer structure, cells that enter pre-formed
cavities and, by turning into osteoblasts,
initiate the synthesis of young conjunctival
tissue (fig.10). The osteoblasts within
cavities present an intensely basophil
cytoplasm, justifying their active implication
in the process of protein synthesis.

Fig. 10. Femur – EB2 –processes of Fig. 11. Femur – EB2 – assembly
osteogenesis (trichromic Mallory st.; 400x) (trichromic Mallory st.; 100x)

Bone trabeculae (fig. 11) are thinner
compared with the control batch and with the
experimental batch 1, having a mean width of
about 111,5µ and have, on the whole, a
“rarefied” aspect (fig. 12). The
histomorphometric analysis of sections
reveals the fact that the volume of bone
trabeculae, respectively the proportion
“full/empty” is 33.60%. The areas occupied
by osteoblasts are more reduced (fig. 13); on
the contrary, we may remark an intenser
activity of osteoclasts (fig. 14), large cells
involved in bone resorbtion. Bone areolas are
wide, loaded with hematoforming tissue,
where intense processes of erythropoiesis are
made evident.

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

Fig. 12. Femur – EB2 – Bone trabecula with Fig. 13. Femur – EB2 – Osteoblasts rarefied
aspect (trichromic Mallory st.; 1000x) – matrix deposition (trichromic Mallory st.; 1000x)

Fig. 14. Femur – EB2 – Osteoclastic and osteoblastic

activity (trichromic Mallory st.; 1000x)

Among the changes induced by the
utilization of calcium-deficient diets, the
literature mentions: the decrease of bone
forming level, bone loss or diffuse
osteoporosis (Ohya, K., 1994; Shen, V. et al.,
1995); the increase of the number of
osteoclasts and, consequently, bone resorbtion
(Liu and Baylink, 1984; Ohya, K., 1994); the
increase of the number of endosteal cells
(Stauffer, M. et al., 1973) and, in young,
osteomalacia (Pettifor, J.M. et al., 1984,
quoted by Mocetti, P. et al., 2000). Although
the literature presents little data where the
effects exerted by hypocalcemia are
corroborated with histomorphometric
measurements, on the whole, they show a
reduction of bone trabecula volume, especially
in adult animals (Thomas, M.L. et al., 1991;
Weinreb, M. et al., 1991; Shen, V. et al.,
1995). In t his study, we attempted to analyze
from a histomorphometric view point the
effect exerted by calcium supplementation
from various sources, like Fructoborate +
alfalfa on calcium carbonate support,
compared with the control batch where
calcium was provided only through calcium
carbonate. The histomorphometric data
achieved show that, in both experimental
batches, trabeculae volume increases and their
width as well, the biggest values being
available in the experimental batch 1. In both
cases, we noticed the presence of osteoblasts,
disposed on one row, peritrabeculary, involved
in plurilamellar stratification through
deposition of young collagen, the presence of
a reduced number of osteoclasts, and in the
myeloid parenchyma of the hematogenous
marrow we observed the tendency of
fibroblast metaplasia in adipose cells.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The histomorphometric study reveals,
in the control batch, a mean bone trabecula
dimension of about 109µ, and a mean volume
of about 31.20%. In the myeloid parenchyma,
fibroblasts are metaplasied into adypocytes,
suggesting a very slow process of osteogenesis.
2. The histomorphometric analysis of the
transversal sections performed through the
superior femur extremity in the experimental
batch 1 leads to the conclusion that the mean
trabecula dimension is bigger compared with
the control batch, being about 115.4µ, and the
mean volume is about 36.46%. Trabeculae have
a compact aspect and present territories of bone
deposition and mineralization, leading to the
formation of osteoplasts with osteocytes.
Peritrabecularly, we may observe active

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osteoblasts, involved in the plurilamellar
stratification through deposition of young
collagen.
3. In the case of the experimental batch 2,
the transversal sections performed through the
superior femur extremity reveal intense
processes of osteogenesis, with the
involvement of the periost, respectively of the
osteoprogenitor cells from its cellular layer
structure.
4. Bone trabeculae, in the experimental
batch 2, are thinner compared with the
control batch and with the experimental batch
1, having a mean width of about 111,5µ and
have, on the whole, a “rarefied” aspect, their
volume being about 33.60%. The areas
occupied by osteoblasts are more reduced; on
the contrary, we may remark an intenser
activity of osteoclasts. Bone areolas are wide,
loaded with hematoforming tissue, where
intense processes of erythropoiesis and
leucopoiesis are made evident.
REFERENCES
Journal articles
[1] Armstrong T.A, et al.,: Boron supplementation
of a purified diet for weanling pigs improves feed
efficiency and bone strength characteristics and
alters plasma lipid metabolites. Journal of
Nutrition. 2000; 139: 2575-2581.
[2] Banks, W.J. Supportive Tissues – Bone. In:
Banks W.J.,: Applied veterinary Histology, 3 rd
Edition. Mosby Year Book Inc: Baltimore, 107 –
126, 1993.
[3] Bentwich Z, Bingham R, Hegsted M et al.,:
The Art of Getting Well: Boron and Arthritis.
Foundation for the Eradication of Rheumatoid
Disease: Fairview, TN, 1994
[4] Dragoi, G.S., Ligia Rusu, Stanescu, M.R.,
Melinte, P.R., Mesina, C., Vreju, A.F.,:
Sinergisme morfogene in evolutia sistemului
osteomedular. Implicatii in expertiza
medicolegala. Rom. J.Leg. Med, 12 (2), 108-122,
2004.
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
[5] Ducy, P.,: Control genetique de la
squelettogenese.Med.Sci., 12, 1242-1251, 2001.
[6] Eclou-Kalonji, E., Colette Collin, Herminie
Lacroix, Isabelle Denis, Zerath, E., Pointillart, A.,:
Composition minerale, qualities mecaniques et
histomorphometrie osseuses chez le porcelet
carence en calcium. Journees Rech. Porcine en
France, 29, 269-276, 1997.
[7] Mocetti, P., Ballanti, P., Zalzal S., Silvestrini
G., Bonucci E., Nanci A.,: A Histomorphometric,
Structural and Immunocytochemical Study of the
effects of diet – induced hypocalcemia on bone in
growing rats. The Journal of Histochemistry &
Cytochemistry. 48 (8): 1059-1077, 2000.
[8] Nielsen FH.,: Studies on the relationship
between boron and magnesium which possibly
affects the formation and maintenance of bones.
Magnesium and Trace Elements. 9: 61-9, 1990.
[9] Nielsen FH.,: Studies on the relationship
between boron and magnesium which possibly
effects the formation and maintenance of bones.
Magnesium and Trace Elements; 9: 61-69, 1990.
[10] Nielsen FH, et al.,: Effect of dietary boron on
mineral, estrogen, and testosterone metabolism in
postmenopausal women. FASEB J. 87: 394-397,
1987.
[11] Parfitt, A.M., Drezner, M.K., Glorieux, F.H.,
Kanis, J.A., Malluche, H., Meunier, P.J., Ott, S.M.,
Recker, R.R.,: Bone histomorphometry:
standardization of nomenclature, symbols and
units. J. Bone Miner Ress 2: 595-610, 1987.
[12] Samman S, et al.,: The nutritional and
metabolic effects of boron in humans and animals.
Biological Trace Element Research. 66: 227-235,
1998.
[13] Shen, V., Birchman, R., Lindsay, R.,
Dempster, D.W.,: Short-term changes in
histomorphometric and biochemical turnover
markers and bone mineral density in estrogen
and/or dietary calcium-deficient rat. Bone 16: 149-
156, 1995.
Book
[14] Smollich, A., Michel, G.,: Mikroscopische
anatomie der haustiere. Vol. 2., Gustav Fischer
Verlag, Jena-Stuttgart, 1992.
 BACK
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

THE APPRECIATION OF WATER HYGIENIC QUALITIES

IN A FARM OF CHIKEN BROILERS GROWING

Doina Leonte, C. Leonte

Faculty of Animal Sciences, University of Agricultural Science and Veterinary Medicine

„Ion Ionescu de la Brad” Iasi, Romania
e-mail: doinaleonte@gmail.com

Abstract
The water role for animal organism was marked out through more experiences.
In some terms water can transport parasitical maladies, conserving and transmiting parasites,
eggs and other parasitical forms.
Through hygienic qualities, water influences the organism health condition ,the level and
quality of procured production.
The intention of present study is that of hygienic qualities appreciation of water used in chiken
broilers growing, based on organoleptical characteristics and organic substances content.
Through method of warm oxidation with KMnO4 it was appreciated that organic substances
level from distribution network, rom water and recipients cistern had ascillated between 10-18 mg
KMnO4/l. The acquired results were compared with values allowed by STAS 1342/1991 (10-12 mg
KMnO4/l).
Key words: organic, standard, hygienic, control, rules

MATERIAL AND METHOD - under 30 cm-turbid water.

Experiments were envolved in a chicken
broilers growing farm with battery growing
system.
Water quality appreciation was based on
physical properties (colour, turbidity and
temperature), organoleptical properties
(odour and taste) and chemical properties
(organic substances level).
For laboratory analysis were gathered
water tests from distribution network,water
tank and water bowls.
From distribution network, tests were
gathered from different points, after tap was
opened about 10 minutes.
From pools, harvest was made on outlet
place. From water tank, tests were gathered
from outlet point.
For colour intensity determination it was
utilized a platinum-cobalt solution,wich
allows degrees expression of colour.Colour
degree is the dyeing produced by a solution
contains 1 mg platinum on 1 litre of
water,wich allows tape visibility thus:
- over 60 cm-clear water
- between 30-60 cm-opalescent water
Water temperature was determined with
a common thermometer,whose tank was
braided in gauze and introduced in water for
10 minutes.
For water odour determination we
introduced 500 ml water in baloon,wich we
closed with a bung. After an energic agitation
we took out the bung and we observed odour,
then we warm up the test on 60-70◦C. We
determined odour with other known odours:
flavoured, fish, mouldiness, and the intensity
we appreciated according to STAS
1342/1991.
Water taste can be expressed through
coomon terms (sweet, rancid, brackish, sour),
and the intensity is appreciated according a
scale like the taste one.
Water chemical properties can be
expressed through different qualities:
toughness, ammonia quantity, nitrits nitrates,
chlorides, iron and organic substances.
Organic substances from water were
indirectly determined, through method of
warm oxidation with potassium
permanganese solution.

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

RESULTS AND DISUSSIONS winter period) and May(for summer period).

The drinkable properties were The physical properties results of these
determined on tests gathered on February(for exams are presented on table 1.

Tabelul 1
Physical properties of inspected water
◦
Water Water temperature C Colour mg caramel/ l Turbidity
provenance I* V* I V I V
Distribution
8 16 Colourless Colourless clear clear
Network
Central
10 18 Colourless Colourless clear clear
Tank
Water bowls 11 18 Colourless Colourless clear clear
*I = winter; V = summer

Organoleptical properties of water distribution network,central tank and bowls

were normal,without any strange odour or
taste.
Among water chemical properties it
was determined the level of organic
substances.
The organic substances level
diversified between 10-12 mg KMnO4/ l on
tests gathered from distribution network
and it diversified between 12-18 mg
KMnO4/ l on tank and bowls
level,outrunning the drinkable rates
allowed by STAS,wich present an
oxidation index of 10-12 mg KMnO4/ l.
CONCLUSIONS
-oeganoleptical properties corresponded with
drinkable terms for water analysed from
level.
-organic substances were identified in STAS
limits just on water test from distribution
network;on the other tests the organic
substances quantity constantly exceeded the
maximum allowed limit,wich denotes
presence of nutrient substratum for
microorganism.
REFERENCES
Journal articles
[1] Shingari, B şi col., 1996 – Prevenirea
infecţiilor cu E.coli prin furajare la păsări, Dep.
Animal Science, Poultry International.
[2] Xxx – STAS 1342 /1991- Apa potabilă
[3] Xxx- STAS 3001/1991 – Analiza
bacteriologică

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

RESEARCH CONCERNING THE ESTABLISHMENT OF

THE BEST SIZE OF RACES POPULATIONS FROM THE
GENE STOCK SP. BOMBYX MORI L.

Alexandra Matei1, M. Androne1, A. Popescu2, D. Dezmirean3, B. Vlaic3

1
CS SERICAROM SA-Research Department Bucharest, Romania
e-mail: monicamatei47@yahoo.com
2
University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Bucharest
3
University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Cluj-Napoca

Abstract
The present technique utilized in sericultural genetic resources conservation, provides “in
situ”silkworm conservation with the maintenance of small effectives as part of races using the selection
based on mainly qualitative criteria (layings aspect and colour, larvae colour, cocoon shape and
colour). Paper’s aim is establishing the best size of gene stock populations based on quantitative
parameters achieved in the conditions of different populations size, and on the other hand the estimation
of an actual population size taking as criteria the increase of consanguinization by generation and the
real number of males and females. As biological material 6 silkworm races were used: AC 29/T, AB, B1,
AC/T, RG 90 si IBV. Adult free pairing was practiced. In the case of populations small actual size
utilization, small values of quantitative parameters, conglomerate layings deposit, appearance of
malformations at adults, are achieved. Minimum actual size of populations gene stock that allows a
distant consanguinization (Df=0.50%) is of 100 individuals (50 females +50 males).
Key words: Bombyx mori L., population size, prolificacy, silk cocoons

INTRODUCTION of consanguinization by generation and the

The size of silkworm population is
represented by families number as part of a
population and individuals number as part of
a family [2], [3].
The two elements influence the conservation
degree, genetic fin and selection effect.
The present technique utilized in
sericultural genetic resources conservation,
provides “in situ”silkworm conservation with
the maintenance of small effectives as part of
races using the selection based on mainly
qualitative criteria (layings aspect and colour,
larvae colour, cocoon shape and colour).
What differentiate the methods utilized in
different sericultural is in fact populations
size taken into conservation.
Paper’s aim is establishing the best size
of gene stock populations based on
quantitative parameters achieved in the
conditions of different populations size, and
on the other hand the estimation of an actual
population size taking as criteria the increase
real number of males and females [4], [5].
MATERIAL AND METHODS
6 silkworm breeds were taken in study,
AC 29/T, AB, B1, AC/T, RG 90 and IBV, for
each being established different populations
as actual size [1], as follows:
Ist variant 5 males and 5 females
IInd variant 20 males and 20 females
IIIrd variant 50 males and 50 females
The effect of populations actual size (Ne)
over the values of some quantitative
characters, respectively prolificacy, hatching,
raw cocoon weight and cocoon shell weight
were followed.
Adults free pairing was practiced.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The data presented in table 1 influence
the effect of populations real size over the

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main quantitative characters for a number of
6 silkworm races.
From their analysis results that for small
populations, of 5 individuals, for both sexes,
the prolificacy is decreased, respectively 405-
486 eggs/laying for all studied breeds.
As increases the number of females and
males from which the offsprings were
obtained, the respective parameter was
improved, maximum values being obtained
in the case of a population’s actual size of 50
females and 50 males, when prolificacy
achieves values situated between 498-614
eggs/laying.
The hatching rate registered a similar
evolution, which in case of a small
population size achieved, depending on the
breed, values ranking between 70-84.9%,
increasing with about 11.17 percent for the
populations with a number of 50 males and
50 females.
Favourable influence of population’s
individuals number increase, was also
noticed for raw cocoon weight which
registered values situated between 1.534-
1.918 g for small populations and between
1.974-2.861 g for populations with 50
females and 50 males.
A similar evolution registered cocoon
shell weight which obtained maximum
values, respectively 0.404-0.438 g, for
populations with the highest number of
individuals.
An estimation of populations actual size
was attempted on the basis of
consanguinization coefficient achieved by
generations, beginning from the real number
of males and females taking part to the
obtaining of successive generations.
The results presented in table 2 shows
that for small actual sizes of 6-20 individuals,
an increase of the consanguinization
coefficient by generations of 8.3-2.5%, which
explains the small value of races quantitative
parameters, achieved above, as well as some
qualitative aspects concerning layings
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
conglomerate form, larvae slow evolution
and adults malformations.
The increase of real size and implicitly
those effectives of populations involves the
decrease of consanguinization degree by
generations which represents 0.50% for
actual sizes of 100 individuals and 0.25% for
200 individuals, a distant consanguinization
being achieved.
CONCLUSIONS
1. In the case of populations small actual
size utilization, small values of quantitative
parameters, conglomerate layings deposits
appearance of malformations at adults, are
achieved.
2. Concerning these small populations,
consanguinization coefficient by generations
is 8.3-2.5%, a close consanguinization, which
induces negative effects as the ones reported
previously.
3. The minimum actual population size is
100 individuals (50 females and 50 males),
the gene stock allowing a distant
consanguinization (Df=0.50%).
REFERENCES
Journal articles
[1] Draganescu C.: Ratiuni si procedee pentru
conservarea materialului genetic la animalele
domestice, Revista de cresterea animalelor, nr 3,
1978, p. 25-30.
Books
[2] Grosu H., Oltenacu A. Pascal, Matei A. si coll.:
Programe de ameliorare genetica in zootehnie,
2005, Ed Ceres, ISBN 973-40-0613-4
[3] Vintila I.: Bazele ameliorarii genetice a
populatiilor de animale domestice, 1988, Ed Facla
[4] FAO: The state of the world’s animal genetic
resources for food and agriculture, Commission on
Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture Food
and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations , Rome, 2007, ISBN 978-95-5-105762-9.
[5] Raport de tara-FAO: Managementul durabil al
resurselor genetice la animalele domestice din
Romania, Institutul de Biologie si Nutritie
Animala Balotesti, 2003, ISBN 973-0-03426-5
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

Table 1
Evolution of quantitative characters by population’s actual size (Ne)
Prolificacy Hatching
Raw cocoon weight (g) Cocoon shell weight (g) Aspect of layings and adults
Race (eggs number/laying) (%)
NeA* NeB** NeC*** NeA NeB NeC NeA NeB NeC NeA NeB NeC
463
AC 29/T 499 510 80.7 93.9 95.7 1.578 1.535 2.041 0.317 0.317 0.404
408
AB 508 498 78.5 91.9 97.8 1.772 1.646 2.148 0.347 0.339 0.438
In the case of populations small actual
407 size (Ne=5-20), a decrease of the
B1 504 578 70.0 90.7 92.8 1.534 1.548 1.974 0.296 0.334 0.434
quantitative parameters, conglomerate
405 layings deposit, appearance of
AC/T 510 523 71.4 96.5 87.2 1.605 1.482 2.861 0.299 0.295 0.425 malformations at adults, are noticed.
429
RG 90 583 614 84.9 95.0 95.4 1.589 1.783 2.007 0.320 0.363 0.407
486
IBV 513 512 81.6 85.9 89.9 1.918 1.806 2.216 0.388 0.331 0.405
*NeA=5M+5F **NeB=20M+20F ***NeC=50M+50F

Table 2
Real and actual silkworm gene stock populations size
Free pairing-
Real size
Paring selection
Male Female Actual size Rearing by generations of the consangunization coefficient
x) xx)
no no Ne Df
3 3 6 8.3%-close consanguinization
5 5 10 5.0%- close consanguinization
10 10 20 2.5%- close consanguinization
25 25 50 1.0%- close consanguinization
50 50 100 0.50%-distant consanguinization
50 100 150 0.37%- distant consanguinization
100 100 200 0.25%- distant consanguinization
x) xx)
Ne=4Nm x Nf/Nm x Nf Df=1/8 Nm x 1/8 Nf

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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

OBSERVATIONS REGARDING SOME

ENVIRONMENT FACTORS ON HEMOLEUCOGRAMA
IN LACTATION OVINES

M. Condrea

University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine

„Ion Ionescu de la Brad” Iasi, Romania
e-mail: mcondrea22@yahoo.com

Abstract
A study was made on a lot of Merinos de Palas sheep, with the same age (second lactation) and
the same milk production.
Some hematologic marks were investigated during winter season (February) and summer
season (June). The results show a decrease in the average values of the erythrocytes number
(9.9x106/mm3), hemoglobin 10.9g/dl) and hematocrit (3.,2%) during the winter season as compared
to the summer season (1.7x106/mm3; 11.2g/dl; 36.8%). These variations do not exceed the
physiologic limits of the species. In the leukocytes series there is an increase in the average values
of the leukocytes number during wintre season (9.9x103/mm3) as compared to the warm season, but
without pathologic significance and a slight increase of limphocytes (63.07%). We can conclude
that there is a corelation among alimentation, environment temperature and the value of some
hematologic marks.
Key words: Ovines, hemoleucograma, environment factors

MATERIAL AND METHOD
The research was done on Merinos de
Palas sheep. Only one lot of 10 sheep was
formed, with the same age (second lactation)
and the same milk production. The
investigations were made in 2 phases. The first
determination was made in February, at the
beginning of the lactation, when the food was
grass (table 1). The second determination was
made in June, in the middle of the lactation,
with summer food (table 2).
Blood tests were made for this lot on
anticoagulant substances (EDTA Na2), in the
morning before the first meal (during the two
phases).
The blood samples were used for the
following determinations: number of
erythrocytes and leukocytes, hemoglobin,
hematocrit, leukocytes formulae.
For the determinations we used an
automatic veterinary hematologic analyzer,
MS 4-5.
The individual data were statistically
transformed by counting the average (X) and
the standard error of the average (Sx).

Table 1
Diet for a 45 Kilos sheep (winter season)
Forage Kg 2.33 1.55 175 175 13.1 5.6
SU (Kg) UFL PDIN (g) PDIE (g) Ca (g) P (g)
Lucerne hay 1.7 1.53 0.9333 160.65 133.11 23.715 3.825
Corn grains 0.62 0.5301 0.667926 43.4682 63.612 0.15903 1.85535
Stock beet 2 0.26 0.299 16.12 22.36 0.65 0.39
Salt 0.003
TOTAL 2.3201 1.900226 220.2382 219.082 24.52403 6.07035

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Table 2
Diet for a 45 Kilos sheep (summer season)
Forage Kg 1.2-1.8 0.95 89.5 89.5 5.6 3.2
SU (Kg) UFL PDIN (g) PDIE (g) Ca (g) P (g)
Corn grains 0.35 0.2992 0.377055 24.5385 35.91 0.089775 1.047375
Hill grass land 5 1.9 1.501 171 155.8 20.9 6.65
TOTAL 2.19925 1.878055 195.5385 191.71 20.98978 7.697375

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS between 24-50(38)%; Pârvu Gh.( ) quotes as

The results ragarding the hematologic
marks researched during the two seasons are
presented in table 3.
As presented in the table, the average
values of the erythrocytes series has
variations according to the season.
At the first determination (winter season)
the average values of the erythrocytes
number (9.9x106/mm3), hemoglobin
(10.9g/dl) and hematocrit (34.2%) are
decreased as compared to the ones obtained
at the second determination, during the
summer season (10.7x106/mm3; 11.2g/dl;
36.8%). This decrease in the average values
of the erythrone on the lot investigated in
February does not go under the inferior limit
normal for this species and physiologic
category. In the specialty literature the
normal values for the erythrocytes series vary
between large limits according to the author:
e.g. Schalm (3) thinks that the erythrocytes
values in the clinically healthy sheep vary
between 8.0-16.0(12) x106/mm3, hemoglobin
between 8-16(12)g/dl and hematocrit
averages of the three marks in adult sheep,
the values of 12.0x106/mm3; 11g/dl; 36%.
According to The Merck Veterinary Manual
– 8th edition, the variation limits of the red
series in sheep are: 9-15x106/mm3, for the
number of erythrocytes; 9-15g/dl, for
hemoglobin and 27-45% for the hematocrit.
Pârvu Gh. (2) also obtained in his study a
decrease in the average values of the
erythrocytes series. He reports even a
decrease in the marks values to the limit of
anemia at the end of winter and beginning of
spring, and their recovery during summer –
autumn. The higher values of the erythrone
during summer season are explained by some
researchers (3, 4) probably by the bigger
ingestion of plastic and catalytic components
(proteins, Co, Fe, Cu, etc.) necessary for
erythrogenesis and hemoglobinogenesis.
Moreover it can also be about a relative
increase of these values as a result of a
reduced water and sodium ingestion during
summer.

Table 3
Variations of the average values of the hematologic picture in Merinos de Palas sheep during summer
and winter
No. Studied constant U.M. First determination Second determination
(winter season) (summer season)
6 3
1. Erythrocytes 10 /mm 10.7±0.95 10.7±1.01
2. Hemoglobin g/dl 10.9±0.75 11.2±0.97
3. Hematocrit % 34.2±0.94 36.8±0.98
3 3
4. Leukocytes 10 /mm 9.9±1.05 7.2±0.98
5. Neutrophils % 31.01±0.85 31.31±0.84
6. Eosinophils % 1.32±0.96 2.18±0.92
7. Basophils % 0.3±0.88 0.41±0.97
8. Lymphocytes % 63.07±0.81 61.06±0.89
9. Monocytes % 4.3±0.90 5.04±0.76

There are researches in the specialty of these in summer: Smith and Kilbourne
literature which support an increase of the (quoted by Schalm) discover bigger numbers
erythrone’s values in winter and a decrease in winter than in summer, 12.0x106/mm3

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respectively 10.0x106/mm3. Greig and Bayne
(quoted by Schalm) discover a significant
difference in favour of the high nutritional
level in a research regarding the influence of
increased nutrition on the number of
erythrocytes.
There are also authors (3) who don’t
speak about differences at the level of
phosphoremia, sideremia and haemoglobin at
the end of winter and after 2 grazing months.
Brody (quoted by Schalm) studies the
influence of the environment temperature on
the blood composition and sustains that the
water lost through exudation is pretty little
and hemodilution installs in the warm
environment as a result of the increased
water consumption, the consequence being a
relative decrease of the erythrocytes series
values during this season.
Having regard to the total number of
leukocytes we discover in this research that
there is a difference between the two lots,
respectively a higher value in winter
(9.9x103/mm3) as compared to the summer
season (7.2x103/mm3), values which are
between the normal limits of variation for the
species. In the leukocytes series there is also
a decrease in the inferior limit of the
eosinophils values in both lots (1.32% and
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
2.18%) and a slight increase of limphocytes
(63.07%) in winter.
The overall analysis of the results shows
a slight influence of the nutrition and
environment temperatures especially on the
erythrocytes picture.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The average values of the erythrocytes
number, hemoglobin and hematocrit were
slightly lower in the winter determination as
compared to the summer season, but without
entering the pathologic area.
2. The total number of leukocytes slightly
increases during winter season, but without
exceeding the normal limits of the species.
3. There is an increase of limphocytes
percent in the leukocytes formulae during
winter season.
REFERENCES
Books
[1] Manolescu N.,1999 –Tratat de hematologie.
Edit. Fundaţiei “România de Mâine”,Bucureşti
[2] Pârvu Gh.,1992 – Suprvegherea nutriţional
metabolică a animalelor. Edit. Ceres, Bucureşti
[3] Schalm O.W.,.1975- Veterinary Hematology. 3
rd
-Edition, Philadelphia
[4] The Merck Veterinary Manual – Eighton
Edition, 1998
 BACK
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

THE MANAGEMENT OF THE HUNTING GROUND

NR. 40 AGNITA, SIBIU COUNTY

R. Blaj1, Mirela Stanciu2

1
Forest Administration Sibiu,
2
“Lucian Blaga” University Sibiu
e-mail: mirela_stanciu2008@yahoo.com

Abstract
The hunting ground nr. 40 Agnita is situated in the southern part of Sibiu County, in the water
catchment area of the Hartibaciu River, in the territory of Altana and Chirpar villages.
The measures concerning the organization and management of the hunting ground are: to
ensure the refuge, food and silence conditions for the wild animals, to adjust the number of
predacious animals based on the number of non predacious animals, to eradicate the trespass, the
right wild evaluation, to maintain optimal wild herds, to capitalize efficiently the wild.
The study presents the wild herds and their dynamic on 10 years as well as the calculation of the
necessary development projects, facilities/plants and hunting buildings.
Key words: management, wild animals, herds, capitalize

INTRODUCTION plants, fallows and feeding units and to wild

The administration unit in the hunting
domain is the hunting ground/territory. For
satisfying the wild exigency but also the
exigencies of an intensive and sustainable
management, the hunting ground has to be
endowed corresponding.
The hunting ground nr.40 Agnita lends
very well to an endowment based on the
amelioration of natural food and refuge
conditions, to the execution of endowments,
animals study.
THE GEOGRAPHIC LOCATION
The hunting ground nr. 40 Agnita is
situated in the southern part of Sibiu County,
in the water catchment area of the Hartibaciu
River, in the territory of Altana and Chirpar
villages.

The administrative organization

The forest administration is done by the Agnita Forest Range – Sibiu Forestry Department,
the villages Altana and Chirpar and has the following utility categories of land surface:
Hunting
Other Total
Water Plough Hay productive Unpro-
UM Wood Grazing agricultural Mountain (col
surface land field land (col. ductive
land 8+9)
1+7)
Ha 25 2770,5 2047 953 2174,7 0 0 7670,2 28,8 7699
% 0,32 32,09 26,59 12,38 28,24 0 0 99,62 0,38 100

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THE MAIN WILD SPECIES, THEIR NUMBER AND DYNAMICS IN THE LAST
10 YEARS
The great variety of natural conditions and the qualified work of the people, determinate
the existence of a high number of wild species. Their evolution is the following:
Nr. Wild specie 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
Stag – Male 5 5 6 6 6 5 5 6 7 8
1. Cervus Female 5 5 6 6 6 5 5 6 7 8
elaphus Total 10 10 12 12 12 10 10 12 14 16
Roe deer – Male 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 45 55 62
2. Capreolus Female 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 45 55 64
capreolus Total 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 90 110 126
Wild boar – Sus 25 25 23 23 24 23 25 40 40 42
3.
scrofa
Hare – Lepus 60 60 60 60 100 90 90 100 120 144
4.
europaeus
Pheasant – Phasianus 70 60 60 60 60 60 60 70 84 127
5.
colchicus
Partridge – Perdix 60 60 60 60 50 40 50 70 72 86
6.
perdix
7. Bear – Ursus arctos 5 3 3 3 4 3 4 5 5 5
8. Wolf – Canis lupus 4 3 3 3 4 6 7 12 14 14
Wild cat – Felix 5 5 5 5 5 5 6 6 10 11
9.
silvestris
10. Badger – Meles meles 10 10 10 10 10 10 15 20 24 26
11. Fox – Vulpes vulpes 10 10 10 10 20 20 25 30 35 30
Marten – Martes 5 5 5 5 10 10 10 20 24 26
12.
martes
Polecat – Putorius 10 10 10 10 10 10 15 15 17 19
13.
putorius
Weasel – Mustela 10 10 10 10 10 10 15 15 18 19
14.
nivalis
Ermine – Mustela 0 5 0 0 5 5 10 10 10 10
15.
erminea

Main hunting species are considered: the
stag, the roe deer, the bear and the wild boar.
The organization within the hunting
ground, protection and preventive
measures against disease
For the security of the hunting ground the
hunt keeper (forest guard) and the employees
of the manager are responsible, by
controlling in a systematic manner the area.
Concerning the preventive disease
measures, periodically the stags and roe deer are
medicated by putting veterinary medical
products in the granule food or salt, the salt
licks and food plants are greased with tar, in
dips Nevugon is pouring against hypoderms
and against pneumonia are used tetracycline,
oxytetracycline and cloranfenicol. No domestic
animals, without veterinary control, are allowed
to graze in the area. This averts the danger of
disease distribution in the territory.
To prevent the rabies, yearly the vaccine
Lysvulpen is administered near the burrows.
To prevent boar plague the vaccine Pestivac
M is injected in eggs and administered in the
land.
The additional and natural food
The quality and quantity of food are very
important for the wild animal life. If their number
is optimal in the ground and the natural
conditions very good, the wild is able to become
enough food in a natural way. Otherwise the wild
can cause damages or shall migrate.
Damages can appear if the number of
wild animals grows and the vegetal resources
come down. To prevent this situation, some
surfaces of land inside the hunting ground are
seeded with different types of crops.
The seeded fallows
On this hunting ground exists seeded land
surfaces, specially created for the wild

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

(maize, evergreen – Lucerne, clover, hay
fields) having the following structure: cereals
1.8 ha, hay fields 1.7 ha, clover/Lucerne 1.0
ha, stumpy plants 0.5 ha.
The leaf fodders
These represent some other food reserve
during the winter, because leafs and trees are
resources of food for the stag and roe deer,
about 50% of the necessary. To get these
implicates low costs and must be done even
if there is enough hay.
The best trees for getting leafs are: black
elder, ash, trembling poplar, maple, white
willow, goat willow, raspberry and
blackberry bush. The best time to harvest the
leaf is June, the leaf contains the most nitrous
substance. The quantity of nutrient
substances is not equal during one day, that’s
why the best period of harvesting them is the
afternoon, in sunny and warm days, when
they are dry. Their drying must be done in
the shadow, so that they won’t lose their
taste. The wild eats the leaf but not the
branch, that’s why this mustn’t be thicker
than 0.5 cm. The storage of leafs and hay
must be in stacks, near the feeding places.
The stacks have to stay in sunny places, on a
wood paving on 50 cm from soil, covered by
hay or other materials, able to keep them dry.
The salt licks
Is one of the most effective methods to keep
wild inside the ground, especially stag and roe
deer. These must be near feeding places,
fallows, etc. Their presence is very important.
The refuge and silence conditions
To ensure these, the access of tractors, horse
wagons and other persons in the wood is
regulated and can’t be done without serious
reasons. The locked barriers can limit the car
access and this is possible only after the
agreement of the forester. The harvest of berries
and mushrooms must be done organized and the
forester may charge penalties if this rule is
trespassed. The cutting areas and roads must be
very good delimitated and rules concerning the
wood exploitation must be respected. As chapter
II, article 5 from the contract, a refuge area of
10% of the productive area was fixed out, this
means 720 ha, surface delimited on the attached
map.
The disproof of trespass
The trespass tend to grow in the last years
(a reason can be the unemployment). The
poachers use different methods, from guns to
classical methods (traps). Using the cars light
the poachers can easily shot the stag or roe
deer. That’s why roads are blocked with
barriers. The hunt keepers are obliged to
patrol periodical.
Methods against environmental pollution,
with influence upon wild
Industrial activities are forbidden inside
the hunting ground. Small and factories exist
in the urban area. The zootechnical activities
can influence the propagation and
development of wild animals. The existence of
2174.7 ha pasture and hay fields, used yearly
by the domestic animals influence negatively
the life conditions for wild animals.
There is a growing tendency of domestic
animal herds, herds that cross the hunting
ground. Because of the weak development of
the region, the unemployment grows, so that
in the future acts of trespass may become
frequent.
Measures for protecting the young
animals
To protect the wild cubs is very important,
the most important measures are the
conservation of their habitats, the disproof of
rapacious animals, the elimination of pariah
dogs and the reduction of sheep dogs.

The evidence of hunted predacious animals in the last 5 years

Wild Pariah Pariah
Year Wolf Fox Marten Polecat Weasel Ermine
cat dogs cats
2004 1 1 18 1 1 1 1 26 11
2005 1 1 15 1 1 1 1 18 15
2006 1 1 20 1 1 1 2 18 12
2007 1 1 20 2 4 1 2 15 8
2008 1 1 23 2 4 1 1 8 6

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During the calving period (May-June),
especially in the calving places, the wood
exploitations are forbidden, some other
activities too. In their first life week, young roe
deer or stag, don’t follow their mother and
often good intentioned people are trying to
raise them. But their chances to live are very
few and later, because of the weak instincts
they are not able to defend from predacious.
The young pigeons and bears are well
defended by their mother. The population has
to understand that an unwounded young
animal is better to be left there, because his
mother will look for it exactly in that place,
where it was left behind.
Another measure, but not the less
important, is the amelioration of refuge
conditions, this means no cutting of young
trees in those parts of the forest where the
consistence of trees is law.
Methods of hunting and efficient
exploitation of wild
The wild hunting is done by the members
of the hunting group and the employees of
the hunting ground manager, only the meet is
going to be sell.

The situation of the hunted wild in the last 5 years.

Year Stag Roe deer Wild boar
2004 0 12 8
2005 1 12 7
2006 1 14 8
2007 2 16 8
2008 3 19 7

The hunting actions took place on the
basis of the hunting authorizations, issued by
the ground manager. Following hunting
methods are used: still, beat and grope hunts.
The stag is hunting by still and on coming
hunt
The trophies
The presented conditions and the
adequate management of the hunting
ground, determined the development of
species, bearing trophies.
In the last 5 years the following medal
trophies were hunted:
Wild boar: 4 gold, 6 silver, 3 bronze
Roe deer: 4 gold, 6 silver, 8 bronze
Wolf: 1 gold, 1 silver, 1 bronze
Fox: 6 gold, 22 silver, 31 bronze
Badger: 1 gold, 2 silver.
The existing hunt buildings and plants
The hunting ground has to be endowed
based on the natural and fauna conditions.
The endowments include works and plants,
bringing some modifications to the natural
conditions, for creating a better natural frame
to the wild or to facilitate the observation and
hunting. All these are useful for the
attendance and for the wild hunting.

Endowments Plants
Feeding Feeding places
Specifi- Hunting Hunting Salt Observa-
land Dips Watering – buc.
cation lines pathways licks tory
- ha - buc - buc - Roe Wild
- km - - km - buc - buc - Stag
deer boar
Existing 5,0 5,0 5,0 38 20 57 5 1 17 2
Proposed 0 0 0 0 0 0 15 2 8 16
TOTAL 5,0 5,0 5,0 38 20 57 20 3 25 18

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The necessary endowments and plants were calculated based on ICAS instructions:
Optimal number for specie Necessary
Specification for 100 ha
Stag Roe deer Wild boar wood
Feeding land 0,2 ha
Pathways 0,1-0,5 km
Dips 1 la 5 exemplars 1 la 5 exemplars 1 la 10 exemplars
Watering 1 la 10 exemplars 1 la 10 exemplar 1 la 10 exemplars
Salt licks 1 la 5 exemplars 1 la 5 exemplars 1 la 5 exemplars
Hunting lines 0,1-0,3 km
Feeding places 1 la 5 exemplars 1 la 5 exemplars 1 la 5 exemplars

The feeding places for stag shall be
supplement with 2 pieces and for roe deer with 8
(one piece for 5 exemplars), so that the animals
mustn’t walk far in wintertime for feeding.
The salt licks shall be located at 15-20 m
far from the feeding places, using the
following types: in the log or in the stump.
The observatories shall be located near
the stag call places, in glades where animals
graze and near the pathways.
All these endowments are included in the
presented map.
CONCLUSIONS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
Our conclusion is that hunting can be,
besides a hobby, an activity able to bring
profit. The hunting mustn’t be neglected in
the future but first of all we must not neglect
the wild. For being satisfied with this
activity, it must exists a continuous
preoccupation in view of growing
quantitative and qualitative the wild animals
number and the life conditions.
Generally the main conditions – refuge,
silence, food – are satisfied, but in the future
the evolution of anthropic factors must be
restrained.
The negative influences on the wild
animal evolution in the future, are:
‐ grazing in the forests
‐ the berries and mushrooms harvest
‐ the car access on forest roads
‐ the abusive wood cuttings
‐ the capture of young animals
The grazing has a very bad influence,
first of all because of the produced noise by
animals and people, but also because of wild
hounding by the sheep dogs. Where grazing
is allowed in the forest, the natural offer for
wild animal is reduced and one of the most
important existence conditions is eliminated.
The sheep dogs must be controlled
periodically, the pariah dogs must be gunned,
they are the greatest danger for young animals.
Wild fruit and mushrooms harvest can bring a lot
of noise but can also reduce the food for the
animals. In the mean time the car access
shouldn’t be allowed, by layout of barriers. The
refuges were destroyed, in many cases by
abusive cuttings, most of them in woods taking
in possession by former owners. Very important
in this case are the foresters, responsible for this
activity that must be done rational, respecting the
management plan of the forest. For decreasing
the bad effects of young animal capture, the
employees have to talk these things up, so that
the people should know the legal stipulations and
the penalties in these cases.
REFERENCES
Books
[1] Bohăţel T.,: Compedium practic de patologie
animală, Cluj Napoca, Editura Agronaut, 1996
[2] Cotta V., Bodea M., Micu I.,: Vânatul şi
vânătoarea în România, Editura Ceres
[3] Cotta V.,: Vânatul, Bucureşti, Editura Ceres,
1982
[4] Drăgulescu C.,: Cormoflora Judeţului Sibiu,
Editura Pelicanus, Braşov, 2003
[5] Drăgulescu C.,: Flora şi vegetaţia din Bazinul
Văii Sadului, Editura Constant, Sibiu, 1995
[6] Duda A.,: Vânat şi vânător, Editura Tipomur,
1993
[7] Micu I.,: Etologie, Braşov, Editura
Transilvania, 1998
[8] Micu I.,: Ursul brun, Editura Ceres, Bucureşti,
1998
[9] Negruţiu A, Şelaru N., Codreanu C., Iordache
D.,: Faună cinegetică şi salmonicolă, Tiparul:
Regia Autonomă „Monitorul Oficial”, 2000
[10] Şelaru N.,: Mistreţul, Monografie, Editura
„Salut 2000”, 1995
[11] Şofletea N., Curtu, I.ndrologie, Editura
„Pentru viaţă”, Braşov-2000,

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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

CONCERNS ON THE CONTRIBUTION OF THE

ECOTOURISM TO A SUSTAINABLE RURAL
DEVELOPMENT

R. Blaj1, Mirela Stanciu2

1
Forest Administration Sibiu,
2
“Lucian Blaga” University Sibiu
e-mail: mirela_stanciu2008@yahoo.com

Abstract
The study presents the ecotourism as a part of the sustainable tourism, setting the strong and the
weak points of the romanian ecotourism, off. We carried a SWOT analysis out, resulting the
elements which may transform the romanian ecotourism market in a reference market for the
tourists.
We also present the first ecotourism associations in Romania, as well as The Ecotourism
Association Romania, the one which elaborated the basic principles of the present and future
ecotourism.
Key words: ecotourism, sustainable tourism, ecotourist principles

Rural areas are very rich as regards the
ecological and cultural diversity. Their
dimensions and complexity make difficult a
generalization of the problems or values,
even if some common characteristics exist.
The sustainable development concept is
related to an economic growth, meeting the
needs of the society – prosperity, on short,
medium and especially on long terms. This
concept stands on the following reason: the
development must be faced with the present
needs without endangering the future needs1.
The sustainable tourism includes all the
types and activities of the hospitality
industry, as well as the conventional mass
tourism, the ecotourism, the cultural tourism,
the business tourism, the rural tourism, the
cruise tourism, the religious and sport
tourism, the urban tourism. The orientation
towards the sustainable development is a
process which requires the coordination of
1
Nistoreanu P., Bobe Magdalena, Stroia A.,
Negrea M. – „Contribuţia ecoturismului la
dezvoltarea durabilă a comunităţilor locale
rurale româneşti”, Turismul rural românesc.
Actualitate şi perspective, Editura
Performantica, Iaşi, 2008, p 53-61
the governmental authorities and needs to be
sustained by the local authorities.
The sustainability in tourism as well as
other industries, includes three aspects:
economic, social-cultural and environmental.
The sustainable development concerns
permanence, it means that the sustainable
tourism must use optimal the resources
(including also the biological diversity), has
to minimize the negative economic, social,
cultural and environmental impact and to
maximize the benefits of the local
communities, the national economies and of
the nature conservation. As a normal result,
the sustainability concerns also the
managerial structures, necessary to achieve
these purposes.
The attainment of the sustainable tourism
has to be part of the national and regional
development plans. These actions may have
economic targets (to increase the incomes, to
diversify and integrate activities, to control,
drive and distribute the development), social
aims (to ameliorate poorness and the unequal
distribution of the incomes, to protect the
social and cultural indigenous patrimony, the
participation and involvement of local
communities) or ecological purposes (to
protect the functions of ecotourism, to

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
preserve and use in a sustainable way the
biodiversity). Some experts prefer to speak
about a sustainable development of the
tourism, rather than a sustainable tourism.
The first includes all the aspects of the
development, the second only some aspects
and components of the tourism – like aerial
transport at large distance, that can’t be
sustainable, taking into account the actual
technological conditions, even using the best
practices2.
The implementation of the politics and
tourist plans represents a responsibility of the
govern but also of the private sector. The
private sector is responsible for fixing the
strategy, the planning and research, the
fulfillment of the basic infrastructure, the
development of some tourist attractions, for
fixing and administration of rules in offering
facilities and services, for introducing
measures in order to administrate and
capitalize a region and to preserve the
environment, for fixing the professional
standards in tourism specific vocational
training, for maintaining the public health
and security.
The private sector is responsible for the
development of the accommodation services,
the tourist agencies, the activity of the firms
specialized in tourism and is based on
infrastructure, on the development of tourist
attractions and on the way they are promoted
within the field of marketing.
The political engagement regarding the
development of the sustainable tourism is
very important, as well as the implication of
different non-governmental organizations,
more and more involved in the development
of the tourism.
Several methods of implementation are
used. The logical mounting and the
development projects programming are also
very important. Within this domain they must
exist efficient organizations in the public
sector and in the private one, organizations
able to assure the protection of the
2
Glăvan Vasile – Turism rural. Agroturism.
Turism durabil. Ecoturism, Editura Economică,
Bucureşti, 2003.
- 512 -
environment as well as the facilities
standards for the tourists.
The development of human resources in
tourism has to be a priority, these must be
able to offer high quality services, expected
on the tourism market and needs to be
approached in a systematic manner (to lay
out the demand on human resources and to
fix the modality these persons are going to be
trained) in order to provide qualified people
in the public and private sectors. If national
or regional institutions specialized in these
kinds of vocational training are not able to
provide the demanded people, then a local
institution must be established.
Also very important is the usage of
marketing methods and know-how: to set up
the objectives and marketing strategies and to
achieve a promotional program.
The deployment of marketing activities
has to take place in the governmental tourism
offices, at the local tourism office and in the
private sector, the development of a positive
image of the new tourism sector is very
important.
The Law nr.5/2000 regarding the
Development Project of the National
Territory - section III Preserved Areas –
named 17 sits as natural protected areas.
These areas of national interest represent
“reservations of biosphere, national or natural
parks” , with a surface of 1132175 ha,
including 134 natural reservations or natural
monument, on 129643 ha.
Beginning with 2007, in Romania 17% of
the country surface are natural protected
areas: the Biosphere Reservation of Danube
Delta on 580000 ha, 13 national parks on
315000 ha and 13 natural parks on 756000
ha. The National Forest Administration
ROMSILVA manages 12 national parks
(307000 ha, 10 natural parks (540000 ha),
more than 200 reservations and natural
monuments on 33000 ha3.
3
Toader Tudor, Dumitru Ion, coordonatori –
Pădurile României vol. 1, Parcuri Naţionale şi
Parcuri Naturale, Regia Naţională a Pădurilor
– ROMSILVA, Editura Tipografia Intact
Bucureşti, 2004

According to the actual laws and
settlements in this field of the protected areas
(OUG 236/2000, L 462/2001, HG 230/2003,
Ord.850/2003) ROMSILVA applies for the
management of the backwoods national and
natural parks, ensuring the necessary
resources for a sustainable and maintaining
management of these areas, according to the
management plans approved by the
environmental central public authority.
The management of the national parks
ensures the maintaining of geographic and
natural conditions, the protection of the
ecosystems, the conservation of genetic
resources and biological diversity under
conditions of ecological stability, preventing
and excluding every kind of natural resource
exploitation and land using, incompatible
with the prescribed purpose4.
In the last years most of these areas were
included in the ecotourist round trips. They
exist independent administrations for the
Biosphere Reservation of Danube Delta,
National Park Piatra Craiului (a protected
area since 1938), National Park Cozia,
National Park Retezat (the first in Romania,
since 1935), National Park Domogled –
Valea Cernei, National Park Rodnei
Mountains, National Park Calimani, National
Park Ceahlau, National Park Bicazului -
Hasmas Canyon, National Park Macinului
Mountains5, National Park Buila –
Vanturarita. Most of them dispose of
economic capitalization and tourist programs.
Generally they exists three groups of
managerial targets in these parks:
Main targets (conservation of
biodiversity, maintaining of ecological
functions, tourism and leisure)
Secondary targets (wildlife protection,
protection of natural and cultural sights,
4
Blaj Robert, coordonator – Ariile naturale
protejate din Judeţul Sibiu, Editura Constant,
Sibiu, 2005.
5
Toader Tudor, Dumitru Ion, coordonatori.
Pădurile României. Parcuri naţionale şi
parcuri naturale, Regia Naţională a Pădurilor
Romsilva, Editura Tipografia Intact, Bucureşti,
2004.
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
ecological public education and scientific
research)
Potential applicable targets (the
sustainable usage of natural ecosystems
resources in buffer areas without negative
effects on biodiversity).
The custodians, administrators and guides
have to operate without tracking while
visiting cultural, historical and architectural
sights or while crossing woods or other
natural areas.
ROMANIAN ECOTOURISM
Strong points:
• Diversity of natural tourist resources
• The rich fauna and flora, including
unique species
• The presence of wild areas, unharmed
by man
• An undeveloped infrastructure for
accessing the protected areas
• The existence of a legal frame, which
delimits the natural parks and the
protected areas and fixes the rules and
conditions for the management of these
Weak points:
• The extending of built up areas near or
inside the protected area, the aim is in
these cases the development of resorts
• The overexploitation of natural
resources, the excessive pasture, illegal
woodcuttings, wild trespass or
uncontrolled tourism
• The deficient administration of the
existing tourist facilities, generating big
quantities of wastes
• The deficient abidance by protecting
rules, because of the absence of land
demarcations, in buffer areas to
• The absence, in some protected areas, of
administrations able to run an efficient
management
One of Romanias competitive advantage
to well known tourist destinations is the
maintaining and presence of an unharmed
environment. Inside natural reservations
there exist a lot of species, stated as natural
monuments or endemic species. In Romania
we can find regions with flora and fauna
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
species, disappeared in other countries or
found out in captivity. Because of the weak
development of the classic tourism in some
regions, good conditions for the development
of ecotourism were created. This means that
Romania is able to become an important
destination for this kind of tourism.
SWOFT Analysis
Strong points:
• The rich natural patrimony inside
national and natural parks
• The rich number of sights included on
the UNESCO patrimony list, which are
located in parks
• The permanent development of the
protected area system
• The existence of the necessary legal
frame which allows this development
Weak points:
• The marketing of national/natural parks
is reduced especially on regional/local
field, that means the ignorance of these
sights
• Insufficient market studies
• The low vocational training level (for
guides, people who manages these
activities)
• The low accommodation capacity inside
the protected areas
• Reduced services and leisure offer
• The incapacity of the managers and local
communities to understand that this kind
of tourism may bring incomes
• The absence of ecological education
• The big wood cuttings and the waste
disposal in the areas
• A chaotic buildings layout
• The absence of other types of fuel so
that the wood is cut uncontrolled
• The pollution of creeks in regions where
there is no drainage
Opportunities
• the increasing number of tourists and
demand
• the diversification of the offer by
including representative natural sights -
Danube Delta, Rodnei Mountains or
Retezat Mountains
- 514 -
• to promote natural events from the “
Calendar of the Nature” (the call of the
stag, the blossom of the snow rose)
• to offer facilities to investors interested
in this kind of tourism
Threats
• the international competition
• the superior waste management in other
countries
• the urbanization of the country people
and the wastage of the cultural
patrimony
• the income decrease in this regions as a
result of the restraint system of different
economic activities
• the development of other tourism types
near these protected areas
The first ecotourism associations6 were
set up in Romania in the XIX – th century:
The Transylvanian Carpathians Tourism
Society (SKV), The Tripper Circle, The
Tripper Guesthouse, The Touring Club
Romania, The Academic Tourism Society
Romania, The National Tourism Office.
In the presence in Romania exists the
Ecotourism Association Romania(AER),
based on two international models:
• The Trusted Program on Nature and
Ecotourism developed in Australia
• Nature’s Best, the certification system of
the Ecotourism Association in Sweden
AER elaborated the following principles
to be applied by those who offer ecotourist
products and who plans the development of
an area based on ecotourism7:
1. The ecotourism occurs in the nature and
is based on the direct and personal
experience of the tourists in the nature.
2. The ecotourism has a large contribution
for a better understanding and
assessment of traditional nature for the
tourists but also for the local
communities.
6
Trască Doru, Primele Asociaţii Ecoturistice
din România, 2007
7
Matei Elena – Ecoturism, Editura Top Form,
Bucureşti, 2006.

3. The ecotourism offers the best practices
for a sustainable development and for
the nature conservation.
4. The ecotourism concurs in a positive
manner with the natural areas protection.
The ecotourism offers practical methods
for an efficient management and for the
natural area protection (may offer
financial support for rehabilitation
actions or contributions for the
conservation organizations).
5. The ecotourism offers sustainable
contributions in order to develop the
local communities. The local benefits
derive by using the local guides,
consumer purchase or usage of local
facilities.
6. The ecotourism needs to reduce the
negative impact on the local visited
community but also to conserve local
culture and traditions. Ecotourist
activities offer also contributions on
long terms for the local community.
7. The ecotourism must be able to face
with all the tourist expectations. The
potential tourist is usually high-bred,
that’s why the satisfying level of his
demands is high.
8. The ecotourism marketing has to offer
complete and responsible information,
able to concern the tourist about
preserving the culture and environment.
Our country disposes of the legal frame
necessary for the development of ecotourism.
This means to capitalize the protected area
- 515 -
Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
but also to practice a type of tourism based
on ecological principles, adapted to a
sustainable development.
REFERENCES:
Books
[1] Blaj Robert, coordonator – Ariile naturale
protejate din Judeţul Sibiu, Editura Constant,
Sibiu, 2005.
[2] Glăvan Vasile – Turism rural. Agroturism.
Turism durabil. Ecoturism, Editura Economică,
Bucureşti, 2003.
[3] Matei Elena – Ecoturism, Editura Top Form,
Bucureşti, 2006.
[4] Nistoreanu P., Bobe Magdalena, Stroia A.,
Negrea M. – „Contribuţia ecoturismului la
dezvoltarea durabilă a comunităţilor locale rurale
româneşti”, Turismul rural românesc. Actualitate
şi perspective, Editura Performantica, Iaşi, 2008
[5] Toader Tudor, Dumitru Ion, coordonatori –
Pădurile României vol. 1, Parcuri Naţionale şi
Parcuri Naturale, Regia Naţională a Pădurilor –
ROMSILVA, Editura Tipografia Intact Bucureşti,
2004
[6] Trască Doru, Primele Asociaţii Ecoturistice din
România, 2007
[7] *** OUG 57/2007 privind regimul ariilor
naturale protejate, conservarea habitatleor naturale,
a florei şi faunei sălbatice
[8] ***HG 1284/2007 privind declararea ariilor de
protecţie special avifaunistică ca parte integrantă a
reţelei ecologice europene Natura 2000 în
România.
[9] ***Ordinul MMDD 1964/2007 privind
instituirea regimului de arie natural protejată a
Siturilor de Importanţă Comunitară ca parte
integrantă a reţelei ecologice Natura 2000 în
România.
 BACK
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

LEGISLAŢIA ÎN DOMENIUL ALIMENTELOR

LAWS CONCERNING FOOD INDUSTRY

Ramona-Vasilica Bacter, D. Coita, Alina Moşoiu

Universitatea din Oradea, Oradea

e-mail:ramonabacter@yahoo.com

Abstract
The laws concerning food industry follow one or two general objectives in order to protect
human life and health, customers’ interests, the use of correct practice in food trade and taking into
account, whenever necessary, the protection of animals’ health and wellbeing, plants and
environment protection.
Food laws deal with free trade of food and animal manufactured food and with food trade
according to general principles and requirements.
When making and adopting food laws, existing international standards should be taken into
consideration, except the case when these standards or elements of these standards are not going to
be efficient or proper in order to achieve the objectives of the legislation, or when there is a
scientific motivation, or if these standards can determine a certain level of protection different from
the one adopted in the community. In order to achieve the general objective concerning the
insurance of a high level of protection of human life and health, food laws are based on risks
evaluation, apart the case when this approach is not suitable for the circumstances or the nature of
that regulation .Risks evaluation is based on scientific information available, and is done
independent, with objectivity, and transparency.
Risks management takes into account the results of risks evaluation and the opinions of
Animals and Food Safety Agency, other relevant factors for risks management and precaution
principle. In those special cases when after the evaluation of the existing information is identified
the possibility of side effects over health, but there is a scientific uncertainty, can be adopted
temporal measures of risk management necessary to insure a high level of health protection, until
new scientific information is provided for a complete evaluation of the risk.
The measures will be taken according to the possible side effects and will not restrain the food
trade more than necessary to insure a high level of protection for health considering technical and
economic possibilities and also other relevant factors.
These measures are reexamined in between a reasonable period of time, that depends both on
the nature of the risk for life or health and on the type of scientific information necessary to clarify
scientific uncertainty and to completely evaluate the risks.
Key words: legislaţi- alimente- consumatori law- food- customers’

MATERIAL AND METHOD
Elaboration, evaluation and modification
of the food laws has to be done as an open and
transparent process of public consultation
,direct or through representative organizations,
except those cases when the emergency of
solving it does not allow those actions.
When there are suspicions concerning the
existence of a risk for animals or people,
determined by a certain type of food or animal
food depending on the nature, gravity and
spreading area of the risk, public authorities
with competence in this field will take the
necessary measures to inform the population
about the nature of the risk, by identifying the
food or animal food, of the possible risks, and
of the measures to be taken to prevent, reduce
and eliminate that risk.
RESULT AND DISCUSSIONS
In order to ensure food safety some
requirements will be looked up to:
a) the food must not be traded unless it is
safe

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b) the food it is considered unsafe, if it is
injurious to health or inadequate to
human consumption
c) in order to determine whether the food is
safe or not, it will be considered the
normal conditions of using the food by
the consumer at each step of the
production, processing and distribution,
as well as the information supplied to
the consumer, including the information
on the label or any other general
information delivered to the consumer
thus avoiding the detrimental effects to
personal health, determined by a specific
food item or items
d) in order to establish the whether a specific
food item is injurious to health or not, it
must be considered the possible immediate
and/or short term and/or long term effects
of that specific food item over the health of
the person who consumes it, as well as the
effects over the future generations,
probable noxious causes cumulated, and
the sensitiveness over the health of a
certain category of consumers
e) in order to determine whether a food
item is adequate or not for the human
consumption, it must be examined if the
food item is unacceptable for the human
consumption in accordance with its
destination, from the point of view of
contamination, determined by external
factors or not, alteration, deterioration
and degradation.
f) Provided that an unsafe food item is part of
a parcel, charge or food transport from the
same group or with the same description, it
is supposed that the entire charge from the
respective lot is unsafe, excepting the fact
that after a thorough investigation it is
discovered that there is no evidence which
may indicate the opposite.
g) The conformity of a food item with its
specific previsions applicable to that
food item would not hinder the
competent authorities to take the
necessary measures in order to impose
restrictions over merchandising the food
the market or the withdrawal of it from
the market, in case there are motives
which show that the food is not safe,
although apparently it is.
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
In order to guarantee the food safety for animals
some requirements will be looked up to:
a) The food for animals would not be
merchandised or used for those animals’
diet/forage that are destined for food
production unless it is safe.
b) Considering its destination, the food for
animals is considered unsafe provided
that it has an injurious effect on the
humans’ or animals’ health or causes the
food derived from the animals destined
for food production to become unsafe
for human consumption
c) In case of identifying the animals’ food
as unsatisfactory from the point of view
of the requirements concerning the food
safety, and the particular food item is
part of a parcel, charge or food transport
from the same group or with the same
description, it is supposed that the entire
charge from the respective lot is
affected, excepting the case when after a
detailed evaluation evidence show that
the rest of the charge or transport does
not correspond to the requirements
concerning the food safety
d) The animal food conformity with its
applicable specific provisions does not
hinder the competent authorities to take
the necessary measures in order to impose
restrictions to merchandise or in view of
withdrawal from the market of the specific
product, in case there are suspicions which
show that the forage is not safe, although
it is according to the specific provisions.
The labeling, advertising and presentation
of food and animal food, including the
shape, aspect and wrapping, the materials
used for wrapping, the actual design and
presentation, and the information provided
by all means must not mislead the
consumer.
The food industry and animal food industry
operators, at each level of production,
processing and distribution done within the
activity itself, must take the necessary measures
that the food and the animals’ food must cover
the legislative requirements in the food domain
and to verify whether the requirements are
accomplished.
The competent authorities must ensure
the law applicability in the food domain.
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
These control and verify the abidance of the
legislation in the food domain by the food
industry operators and within the food
industry for animals at every level of the
production, processing and distribution.
In this respect, the competent authorities
must maintain an official control system and
other necessary activities considering the
situation, including public communication
activities in view of the security and risks of
the food and animal forage, of surveillance of
the food security and other monitoring
activities that may cover all the levels of
production, processing and distribution.
The measures and penalties applicable in
case of infranging the provisions of the
legislation concerning the food and animal
food are established according to the law.
The measures and penalties must be efficient,
proportional and discouraging.
The tracing out of the animal food, of the
animals destined for food production and of
any other substances destined or planned to
be incorporated in the food or animal food,
must be established in at every level of
production, processing and distribution.
The agents and the workers from the food
industry and those from the pet food industry
must be able to identify the origin and the
source which produced a food product or a
pet food product, an animal to be used in
food production or any other substance to be
used or to be put into a food or pet food.
Having these in mind, agents and workers
must have systems and procedures which can
allow them to work or present the information
whenever asked by legal authority.
Agents and workers from the food
industry and those from the pet food industry
must have systems and procedures to identify
activities that are good for their products.
This kind of information will be available to
lawful authority, when required.
The food or the pet food which are on
market or are to be on the market must be
labeled or individualized in a proper way so
that it can show the way of production,
through papers or other information, as
specified in the law.
When an agent from the food industry
believes or has reasons to believe that a food
product he has imported, produced created
- 518 -
or distributed is not in accordance with the
safety food demands, he would withdraw at
once the food from the market, if the food is
not under the direct control of the first agent
and in the same time he would inform at
once the lawful authority. When the product
has reached the buyer, the last should be
informed on the spot why the product has
been withdrawn from the market, and if
necessary, the agent will ask the food when
some other measures are not enough to
assure a high protection level of health.
Any type of agent from the food industry
who carries on wholesale or en-detail trade
which has not to do with packing, labeling,
safety or integrity of the food, would
withdraw at once those products which are
not safe and would give information linked to
their way of production , taking part into the
necessary actions of the producers,
distributors and/or lawful authority.
Any food industry agent would inform at
once the lawful authority when he believes or
has reasons to believe that a food product he
has sold can be harmful for people. The agent
would inform the lawful authority regarding
the measures he has taken for preventing
some risks for the buyer and he will not
hinder or discourage any person to work
together with the authority ,in legal or
juridical terms if those actions could prevent
reduce or eliminate some food risks.
The agents from the food industry should
collaborate with lawful authority when there
are actions for preventing or reducing the
risks due to food.
When are agent from the pet food
industry believes or has reasons to believe
that the pet food he imported, produced,
created or distributed is not in accordance
with the safety pet food demands, he would
withdraw the food from the market and
would inform the lawful authority.
Under these circumstances or those seen
in art.15 letter C, the pet
food must be destroyed, if there is not
another legal decision.
The agent would inform at once and
efficient the buyers regarding the withdrawn
of the pet food market, and if necessary, he
would collect the sold products when other
measures are not enough to protect the buyers.

Any type of agent from the pet food
industry who carriers on
En/gross or en/ detailed trade which has
not to do with packing, labeling, safety or
integrity of the pet food, would withdraw
from the market the products which are not
safe and would give information linked to the
way of production ,taking part into the
necessary actions of the producers,distributors
and/or lawful authority.
Any agent from the pet food industry
would inform at once the lawful authority,
when he believes or has reasons to believe
that a pet food product on the market can be
unsafe for pets/ animals.
The agent would inform the lawful
authority regarding the measures he has taken
for preventing some risks and he will not
hinder or discourage any person to work
together with the authority in legal or
juridical terms, if those actions could prevent,
reduce or eliminate some pet food risks.
The agents from the pet food industry
would collaborate with lawful authority when
there are actions for preventing or reducing
the risks due to pet food.
The responsibility of the safety food and
pet food is on the agents and workers from
the food industry and those from the
Pet food industry.
The Veterinary Agency and Safety food
Agency will elaborate the necessary documents
regarding the system of the information, the
management of crisis and emergency.
CONCLUSIONS
1. Imported food and animal food have to
be in accordance with food laws or with
rules agreed both by Romania and by
exporting country.
2. Exported or re-exported food and animal
food have to be in accordance with food
laws except those cases when authorities or
laws of importing country order otherwise.
3. In other cases, except the cases when food is
dangerous for health or animal food is not
safe, these can be exported or re-exported if
only competent authorities in importing
country agreed ,after being informed about
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
the reasons and situation because food and
animal food can not be traded.
4. In case of an agreement between
Romania and other country food and
animal food exported from Romania
have to be in accordance with food laws
stipulated in the agreement.
5. In food trade the competent authorities
have the following obligations:
a) participating in order to elaborate
technical rules for food and animal food
and sanitation rules.
b) ensuring coordinating activities
concerning the application of specific
rules for food and animal food, adopted
by governmental and non-governmental
organizations.
c) contributing if necessary at the
signing of agreements concerning the
recognition of specific measures about
food and animal food
d) paying attention to specific problems
of development ,financing and trade to
insure that international regulations do
not interfere with the exports.
e) promoting the concordance between
international regulations and food laws
so the high level of protection will not
be diminished.
6. Food laws aim to protect customers’
interests and to provide them the
necessary information in order to choose
according to their will the types of foods
they want; the laws aim to prevent:
a) fraud and cheating practice;
b) food falsification;
c) any practice that can mislead the
customer.
REFERENCES
Books
[1] Bacter Ramona Vasilica, 2008 - Veterinary
legislation, University of Oradea Publishing
[2] Brudaşcă Ghe. F. 2004 -Veterinary legislation,
Risoprint Publishing, Cluj-Napoca
[3] Mihai L, 2006 - Hygiene Requirements and
HACCP-Quality-ISO9001: 2000 units in food
industry under the rules of the European Union ,
Milenium Publishing, Piatra-Neamţ
[4] Oprean C-tin., Kifor C. V., Suciu O., 2005 -
Integrated management of quality, University
„Lucian Blaga”of Sibiu Publishing
 BACK
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

ANALYSIS OF THE ECONOMIC EFFICIENCY

IN FODDER PRODUCING

Agatha Popescu

University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Bucharest, Romania

e-mail: agatha_popescu@yahoo.com

Abstract
This paper aimed to present a study case concerning the analysis of the economic efficieny in
corn silage producing based on gross margin and profitability threshold methods. Two corn yield
levels were taken into account : V1 – 45 t /ha and V2 -55 t/ha, whose total production costs per
surface unit were Euro 1,967 and, respectively, Euro 2,096. The V2 variant assures a higher
economic efficiency as silage production in terms of net energy is higher per each paid Euro
(42,83 MJ NE/Euro). As a conclusion, in fodder producing, despite that it has a negative value,
gross margin allows the comparison between various types of forages based on its value per
production unit in terms of net energy per unit of cultivated surface. Also, gross margin assures the
comparison between various production intensities in the producing of the same fodder.
Key words: effciency, gross margin, profitability threshold

INTRODUCTION measure the increase of production intensity

Animal breeders are interested to assure
fodder production from a quatitative and
qualitative point of view, meeting animal
requirements but under economic efficiency,
meaning higher productions and lower
production costs [4]. In order to evaluate the
economic efficiency of various activities in
agricultura farms, the UE standards impose
the calculation of gross margin [2,7,11]. In
fodder producing, gross margin is a negative
one because fodder is consumed in the farm
and coverted into animal production. For this
reason, in order to analyse the comparative
efficiency of various fodder crops or among
various production intensities for the same
fodder crop, one can use the amount of
fodder energy produced per surface unit or
per every monetary unit production costs
[3,5, 10]. Among fodder crops, corn silage is a
high quality forage that is used on many
dairy farms. Its popularity is due to the high
yield of a very digestible, high energy crop
and the ease of adapting it to mechanized
harvesting and feeding [1]. In this context, the
paper concerns to corn silage production,
presenting a study case for two variants of
production level in order to establish in what
assures a higher economic efficiency.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
The paper aimed to carry out a
comparative analysis of corn silage yield and
production costs between two experimental
variants as follows:V1 control variant,
producing 45 t green corn for silage /ha and
V2 – achieving 55 t green corn per ha.
Fodder yield in terms of energy (MJ NEL/ha)
has been determined, taking into account:
green corn yield, 15% transportation losses
from the field to the storage place, 30% dry
matter content in corn silage, 6,400 MJ
energy per fodder unit according to the
standards in force. For the two variants all
the production costs, including both variable
and fixed costs, were calculated as follows:
seed, fertilizers, plant protection,
mechanization, labor but also interest related
to working capital, land rent, insurance,
assets depreciation, interest related to
invested capital. All the calculations were
made per surface unit. The comparison
concerning the economic efficiency between
the two variants was based on the following
specific indicators: energy in corn silage per
ha, production costs per ha, energy in corn

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silage per unit of production cost and
production cost per unit of energy in corn
silage.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Corn Silage Production.
Corn silage production is presented in
terms of energy starting from the wet corn
yield harvested in the field till the silo cell
where the fodder is stored. In case of V1 an
amount of 45 t green corn per surface unit
was achieved. During the forage
transportation from field to the silo cell
about 6.75 t has been lost that is about
15% losses. As a result the net green corn
yield is in fact only 38.25 t/ha. Taking into
consideration that a ton of corn silage has
Table 1
Calculation of corn silage yield in terms of energy
Calcularea productiei medii de porumb siloz exprimata in energie
Specification
Production of green corn for silage
Productia de porumb masa verde pentru siloz
Losses during transportation
Pierderi pe timpul transportului
(15 % )
Net green corn for silage
Productia de porumb masa verde pentru siloz
Net green corn silage in terms of D.M.
Productia neta de porumb siloz in SU
(1 t green corn = 30 % DM;
1 tona de porumb verde = 30 % SU )
Corn silage yield in terms of energy
Productia medie de porumb siloz exprimata in energie
(1 t DM corn silage = 6,400 MJ ;
1 tona SU in silozul de porumb = 6.400 MJ)
Production Costs.
The calculation of production costs is
presented in Table 2.
Seed cost was Euro 128.88 per ha for
the both variants, V1 and V2, taking into
account the the farmer used to buy selected
and certified seeds supplied in packages of
50.000 grains. In the both cases, the farmer
used 1.8 package of corn grains for seeding
1 ha. Every corn package was purchased at
the price of Euro 71.60.
Fertilizers cost depended on the amount
of fertilizers which has to be applied and in
its turn on the soil test concerning its content
in N, P2 O and K2O. This cost item was Euro
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
30% dry matter, the net corn silage yield in
terms of D.M. is 11,475 t. Knowing that one
ton dry matter corn silage is able to produce
6,400 MJ energy, the corn silage production
in terms of energy is considered to be
73,449 MJ/ha.
In case of V2, starting from the 55 t green
corn per ha and based on the same judgment,
we obtained 89,760 MJ energy in the corn
silage yield. Tin this case, the energy
production in the corn silage is by 16,320 MJ
or 22 % higher than in case of V1 when just
45 t of wet corn has been initially harvested.
The calculation of corn silage yield in
terms of energy is presented by experimental
variants in Table 1.
MU V1 V2 V2-V1
t 45 55 +10
t 6.75 8.25 +1.50
t 39.25 46.75 +8.50
t 11.475 14.025 +2.55
MJ 73,440 89,760 +16,320
342.97 in case of V1 and Euro 419.18 in case
of V2. The V2 variant registered higher costs
because the requirements in N, P2 O and K2O
were 236 kg, 115.5 kg and 280.5 kg
compared to V1 where the requirements in
N, P2 O and K2O were 193.1 kg, 94.5 kg
and, respectively 229.5 kg per surface unit.
Plant protection cost depended on the
amount of herbicides used and the number of
treatments applied. This cost item registered
Euro 50.75 in case of V1 and Euro 65.98 in
case of V2, because for a higher corn
production was necessary a higher amount
of herbicide (1.3 kg compared to 1 kg per
ha in case of V1).
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

Table 2
Calculation of Production Costs
Calcularea cheltuielilor de productie ( Euro/ha)
Specification V1 V2 V2-V1
Specificare
Seeds 128.88 128.88 -
Saminta
Fertilizers 342.97 419.18 +76.21
Ingrasamintele
Herbicides 50.75 65.98 +15.23
Erbicidele
Materials 522.60 614.02 91.44
Materiale
Own mechanized agricultural works 184.49 199.23 +14.74
Lucrari cu mijloacele proprii mecanizate
Thirds services 204.51 214.73 +10.22
Servicii terti
Other proportional variable costs 20.00 20.00 -
Alte cheltuieli proportional variabile
Proportional variable Costs 931.60 1,048.00 +116.40
Cheltuieli proportional variabile
Interest related to working capital 24.30 27.30 +3,00
Dobanda aferenta capitalului circulant
Labor 90.20 99,60 +9.40
Forta de munca
Land rent 240,00 240.00 -
Arenda terenului
Other variable costs 354.50 366.90 +12.40
Alte cheltuieli variabile
VARIABLE COSTS 1,286.10 1,414.90 +128.80
CHELTUIELI VARIABILE
GROSS MARGIN -1,286.10 -1,414.90 +128.80
MARJA BRUTA
Fixed Assets depreciation, maintenance and 412.34 412.34 -
insurance
Amortizarea, intretinerea si asigurarea activelor fixe
Interest related to fixed capital 196.46 196.46 -
Dobanda aferenta capitalului fix
General Labor 34.20 34.20 -
Forta de munca generala
Other fixed and general costs 38 38 -
Alte cheltuieli fixe si generale
FIXED AND GENERAL COSTS 681 681 -
CHELTUIELI FIXE SI GENERALE
TOTAL PRODUCTION COSTS 1,967.10 2,095.90 +128.80
CHELTUIELI TOTALE DE PRODUCTIE
EU Subsidies 100 100 -
Subventii de la UE
FINAL PRODUCTION COSTS 1,867,10 1,995.90 +128.80
CHELTUIELI FINALE DE PRODUCTIE

Costs of own mechanized agricultural Other proportional variable costs

works counted for Euro 184.49 in case of V1
and Euro 199.23 in case of V2. This cost
item depended on the list of agricultural
works for corn crop according to the
technological sheet, the machinery used and
related labor in terms of hours per ha and
year from soil preparation till harvesting.
counted for Euro 20 for the both variants.
The proportional variable costs
registered Euro 931.60 in case of V1 and Euro
1,048 in case of V2. These costs were 12.49 %
higher in case of V2, taking into account the
higher corn silage production intensity.

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Interest cost related to working capital
recorded Euro 24.3 in case of V1 and Euro
27.30 in case of V2.
Labor cost was Euro 99.60 in case of
V2 (of which Euro 76.7 family work and
Euro 23 employed labor) higher than in case
of V1 – Euro 90.20 (of which Euro 69.4
family work and Euro 20.8 employed labor).
Land rent cost counted for Euro 240 for
the both variants, taking into account that the
farmer owns 40% of arable surface and 60%
is rented .Land rent cost depended both on
the land surface owned by farmer and
rented from other owners, but also on rent
level in the area.
Variable costs related to the corn silage
yield per ha were Euro 1,286.10 in case of
V1 and Euro 1,414.90 in case of V2. The
variable costs are by Euro 128.88, meaning
10 % higher in case of V2 compared to the
level registered by the variant V1.
Fixed and general costs totalized Euro
681 both for V1 and V2. they included
depreciation, maintenance and insurance cost
for fixed assets (machinery and buildings) .
Fixed Assets depreciation, maintenance
and insurance costs were Euro 412.34 per
ha for the both variants.
Interest related to fixed capital counted
for Euro 196.46 for the both variants, taking
into account the fact that the farmer capital
consisted of 40 % borrowed capital and 60%
own capital and the interest rate was 7% for
the borrowings and 5% for owner’ s equity.
General Labor cost was Euro 34.20 for
the both variants, taking into account the
length of administration works and tariff per
work hours.
Table 3
Comparison concerning the Economic Efficiency between the experimental variants
Comparatie privind eficienta economica intre variantele experimentale
Specification
Specificare
Net energy in corn silage yield
Energia neta in productia medie de porumb siloz
Production Costs
Cheltuieli de productie
Net energy in corn silage per paid Euro
Energia neta in porumbul siloz per euro platit
Production Costs per energy unit produced of corn silage
Cheltuieli de productie per unitate de energie din silozul
de porumb
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
Other fixed and general costs counted
for Euro 38 in the both cases.
Total production costs recorded Euro
1,967,01 in case of V1 and Euro 2,095.90 in
case of V2 . Production costs were by Euro
128.80 higher in case of V2 compared to V1.
But we have to consider also the fact that the
variant V2 has a higher production intensity
and produced an additional amount of energy
counting for 16,320 MJ per ha (22 % more
than V1).
Gross Margin has negatives values,
being equal to variable costs, that is Euro -
1,286.10 in case of V1 and Euro – 1,414.90
in case of V2.Taking into account the EU
subsidies of Euro 100/ha, production costs
become lower, that is Euro 1,867.10 in case
of V1 and Euro 1,995.90 in case of V2 and
Gross Margin increase to Euro - 1,186.10 in
case of V1 and, respectively Euro - 1,314.90
in case of V2 (Table 2).
Economic efficiency is presented in
Table 3.The V2 variant assures an increased
economic efficiency in the producing of corn
silage because : the energy content of corn
silage yield is by 16,320 MJ /ha, respectively
by 22% higher than in case of V1; production
costs are by Euro 129 higher per ha or by
6.90 % higher than in case of V1; energy of
corn silage yield is by 5.63 MJ (14.31%)
higher per every Euro paid; production costs
are by Euro 0.003 (12 %) per MJ energy of
corn silage yield compared to the case of V1.
Therefore, the variant V2 having a higher
production intensity is able to produce more
corn silage in term of energy but under the
condition of lower cost per energy unit
(Table 3).
MU V1 V2 V2-V1
MJ/ha 73,440 89,760 +16,320
Euro/ha 1,867 1,996 +129
MJ/Euro 39.33 44.96 +5.63
Euro/MJ 0.025 0.022 -0.003
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
CONCLUSIONS
1. In fodder producing , Gross Margin has
a negative value, but it could be diminished
by subsidies which are able to reduce
variable costs.
2. Energy in corn silage yield per surface
unit, production costs per surface unit, energy
per every monetary unit paid and costs
invested for obtaining 1 MJ energy in fodder
production are high importance indicators for
assessing the economic efficiency for the
same fodder crop, but for various production
intensities.
3. The variant V2 , harvesting 55 t green
corn per ha, assures 89.760 MJ energy per
ha and respectively 44.96 MJ per paid Euro,
therefore higher performances compared to
the case when an amount of 45 t green corn
was produced per surface unit.
4. Farmers have to pay more attention to
the increase of fodder production per surface
unit in order to grow up economic efficiency
in the field and get higher performances in
animal production.
5. In this purpose, the management
decisions that influence the quality and
quantity of the crop that is harvested when
corn silage is grown are referring to: the use
of selected and certified high value corn
hybrids, the assurance of plant population per
surface unit, the use of a corresponding
fertilization according to the soil content in
N, P2 O and K2O and corn needs, the
achievement of the agricultural works
according to the crop technology, the choice
of the right moment for the crop harvesting
in close relationship to the plant maturity at
the harvest moment, the harvest and storage
management. All these aspects, if they are
respected, have to contribute to the
achievement of a high quality corn silage, in
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the expected amount in the benefit of animal
production under reasonable production costs
and to farmer’s satisfaction.
REFERENCES
Journal articles
[2] Draghici Manea, Oancea Margareta, Plesoianu
Gh., Zahiu Letitia, Scrieciu Fl.,: Farm
Management Textbook, Atlas Press S.R.L.
Calarasi, p.31-35, 2004
[8] Popescu Agatha,: Gross margin – a barometer
of profitability in agriculture, International
Symposium “Durable Agriculture – the agriculture
of the future“, Craiova, 23-24 November, 2006.
[9] Popescu Agatha,: Researches concerning Gross
Margin in Dairy Farms of various size and milk
producion, UASVM Bucharest, Scientific Papers ,
D Series, Vol. LI, Animal Production, p. 259-263,
2008.
[11] Ursu Ana, Nicolescu M., Dinu T.,: Technical
and economical practical Guides and of
Management. Vegetal Production, Cartea
Universitara Publishing House, Bucharest, p.30-35,
2008.
Books
[1] Bates Garry,: Corn silage .University of
Tennessee. Agricultural Extension Service. Plant
and Soil Science, 1998
[3] Kuhlmann, F.,: Betriebslehre des Agrar und
Emahrungswirtschaft, Sttutgart, 2002
[4] Oancea Margareta,: Modern management in
agricultural units, Ceres Publishing House,
Chapter 10, 2003.
[5] Odening M., Bokelmann W.,:
Agrarmanagement, Ulmer, Stuttgart, 2000
[6] Popescu Agatha,: Financial and business
Management in Dairy Farms, AGRIS Publishing
House, Bucharest, 2003
[7] Popescu Agatha,: Financial Management in
Dairy Farms, Do-minor Publishing House,
Bucharest, 2006
[10] Reisch E., Zeddies J.,: Ein fuhrung in die
Landwirtschaftliche Betriebslehre speizieller Teil,
Ulmer, Sttutgart, 1992
 BACK

Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

A COMPARATIVE STUDY CONCERNING ECONOMIC

EFFICIENCY FOR VARIOUS LEVELS OF MILK YIELD

Agatha Popescu

University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Bucharest, Romania

e-mail: agatha_popescu@yahoo.com

Abstract
This paper aimed to present a comparative study concerning the analysis of the economic
efficiency in dairy farming in close relashionship to milk yield performances.Two milk yield levels
/cow/year were taken into consideration as follows: V1-4,000 kg milk and V2 – 6,500 kg milk . For
each variant , the following specific indicators were calculated : gross product, variable, fixed and
total production costs, gross margin and profit. The V1 variant registered Euro 1,932.64 total
production costs, Euro 912.68 gross margin and Euro 787.5 profit while the V2 variant recorded
Euro 1.575.72 total production costs , Euro 457.46 gross margin and Euro 366.47 profit. As a
conclusion , the increase of milk yield assures the growing up of economic efficiency in terms of
gross margin and profit.
Key words : efficiency , dairy farming , gross margin

INTRODUCTION calculations concerning gross product,

Economic efficiency in Dairy Farming is
conditioned by breed raised in the farm and
its production potential, fodder quality and
quantity according to dairy cows
requirements for life maintenance,
production level, pregnancy, technology for
cow rearing and cost optimization. Various
research results shows that the increase of
milk yield requires higher production costs.
It is definitely true, but higher productions
leads also to higher returns, gross margin
and farmer’s profit [4,5,6,7,8]. Gross Margin
is considered the barometer of economic
efficiency in Dairy farms , as well as in any
agricultural farm according to the EU
provisions. It allows the comparison of
various activities, for instance in a dairy
farm between fodder and milk producing.
Also it shows if a cow is more efficient than
another one, according to milk yield
registered per year and lactation. Taking into
account the large range of farm size and
production level in the Romanian dairy
farming, practical guides for farmers have
been issued and published , where farmers
could find various models of technologies in
close relationship to their farm size and
profile but also the corresponsing
production costs and gross margin for
different milk yield, farm size and type :
private households, familly associations and
commercial companies [1,4,10]. Gross
margin calculation imposes the determination
of gross product, coming from marketed
milk, calf, culled cow and resulted manure) ,
variable costs (feeding, hiefer for cow
replacing, medicines and treatments,
veterinary services, articifial insemination,
labor, land rent, interest related to working
capital and other costs), which are
substracted of gross product. It is also
compulsory to agregate cow growing with
fodder producing in dairy farms in order to
establish the economic efficiency at farm
level [2,3,9].
MATERIAL AND METHOD
The research work was carried out within
two dairy farms raising Black and White
Spotted Breed in the plain area , as follows:
V1 – 6,500 kg milk yield per year with 4.1%
fat and 3.6 % protein , 600 kg cow live
weight ; V2 - 4,000 kg milk yield per year
with 3.8 % fat and 3.3. % protein, 550 kg
cow live weight. The cows are milked 4
years, 25 % cows are culled every 4 years,

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

the calving interval is 385 days . The calves
are raised till the weight of 80 kg and then
are sold for Euro 1.16 per kg live weight.
The culled cow is delivered for Euro 0.93 per
kg live weight to the slaughterhouse . For
every farm, the following indicators were
calculated: variable costs (replacing heifer,
cow and calf feeding, artificial insemination,
energy , watering, fuels, insurances, taxes to
cattle breeders association, family labor, land
rent, interest related to working capital),
fixed and general costs (fixed assets
depreciation and maintenance, insurances,
interest related to borrowed fixed capital,
other costs), total production costs . The
economic efficiency was comparatively
analyzed by yield level based on gross
product, production costs, gross margin,
profit per cow and year, profit per milk
kilogram, profit rate. All the calculation were
made in Euro per cow for the year 2008.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Gross Product.
Gross product consists of incomes
coming from the delivered milk, calf sold at
80 kg live weight , culled cow delivered at
550 kg live weight and manure, all this
income items calculated at market price .
The farm V1 registered Euro 2,720.14 gross
product, of which: 66.90 % from delivered
milk, 3.23 % from calf, 20.51 % from the
culled cow, 5.06 % from manure and 4.30 %
from Government subsidies.
The farm V2 recorded Euro 1,962.19
gross product, by Euro 757.95 (27.87 %) less
than the farm V1.The share of various gross
product items was : 57.07 % milk, 4.48 %
calf, 26.06 % culled cow, 6.44 % manure and
5.15 % subsidies.
The calculation of gross product for the
both experimental variants is presented in
Table 1.

Table 1
Comparison concerning Gross Product ( Euro /cow/year) by milk yield level
Comparatie privind produsul brut pe niveluri de productie ( euro/vaca/an)
V1 V2
Price Price
Specification Value Value V1-V2
MU Quantity Pret Quantity Pret
Specificare Valoare Valoare Euro
Cantitate Euro/ Cantitate Euro/
Euro Euro
MU MU
Milk
Production Kg/cow/
6,500 0.28 1,820 4,000 0.28 1,120 +700.00
Productia de Year
lapte
Calf
Kg 80 1.16 87.97 80 1.16 87.97 -
Vitel
Culled cow
Vaca Kg 600 0.93 558 550 0.93 511.50 +46.50
reformata
Manure
137.89 126.44 +11.45
Gunoi
Subsidies
116.28 116.28 -
Subventii

Feeding Costs . are an item of production costs. In the farm

Feeding costs are presented in Table 2.
The level of this cost item depended on the
diets established by farmer for dairy cows
and calves, according to the condition in the
farm. The diet structure, quantity of forages
and quality are the key factors determining
the production level and feeding costs, which
V1, feeding costs registered Euro 1,329.83
Euro, being by Euro 233.04 (21.24% ) higher
than in case of the farm V2, where this cost
item recorded Euro 1,096.79 per cow and
year. In the both farms, the calves consumed
500 kg milk and 40 kg combined fodder.
The following amounts of fodders have been

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

consumed in the year 2008 : in the farm V1 : the farm V2 : 8,100 kg green grass, 1,500 kg
9,000 kg green grass, 1,800 kg corn silage, corn silage, 360 kg straw, 1,080 kg hay , 365
450 wheat straw, 1,440 kg hay, 438 kg wheat wheat bran, 730 kg concentrates and 40 kg
bran, 1,095 kg concentrates and 50 kg salt; in salt.

Table 2
Comparison concerning Feeding Costs by milk yield level (Euro/cow/year)
Comparatie privind cheltuielile cu furajarea pe niveluri de productie ( euro/vaca/an)
Specification
V1 V2 V1-V2
Specificare
Calf feeding
154 154 -
Hranirea vitelului
Cow feeding, of which:
1,175.83 937.79 +238.04
Hranirea vacii, din care:
- green grass
217.60 195.90 +21.70
-masa verde
-corn silage
266.40 222.00 +44.40
-siloz de porumb
-wheat straw
30.60 24.48 +6.12
-paie de grau
-hay
263.88 197.90 +65.98
-fan
-wheat bran
214.96 174.94 +35.02
-tarata de grau
- farm concentrated mix
178.24 118.82 +59.42
-amestec concentrate de ferma
-salt
4.15 3.75 +0.40
-sare
Feeding Cost
1,329.83 1,096.79 +233.04
Cheltuieli de furajare

Production Costs by experimental
variant are presented in Table 3.
Biological material Cost. The cost of
replacing heifer was Euro 145.25 /year in
case of V1 by Euro 29 (24.94 %) higher than
in case of V2, taking into account as the
heifer was purchased for Euro 581 and
respectively Euro 465 in the year 2008.
Heifers have to be descendants of high
breeding value cows and bulls in order to
assure the gentic gain in the population . The
pedigree determines heifer market price.
Medicines and veterinary services
counted for Euro 36.16 in case of V1 and
Euro 24.41 in case of V2. In the farm V1 ,
the higher production cows were facing with
mastitis which increased medicine cost by
48.13 %.
Artificial Insemination counted for Euro
15 in the farm V1 and respectively Euro 13
per cow and year in the farm V2 .
Energy, water and fuel Cost registered
Euro 32.64 in case of V1 and Euro 26.49 in
case of V2. In the farm V1, this cost item was
by Euro 6.15, respectively 23.21 % higher.
Insurance, membership fee to cattle
breeders association , other taxes counted
for Euro 80 in the both farms.
Labor Cost. In the both farms, works are
done by the farmer’s family members. For
estimating this cost item , a monthly salary of
Euro 140, meaning Euro 0.82 per hour was
taken into consideration. A number of
105.30 hours were necessary per cow and
year in the farm V1 and, respectively 89.82
hours in the farm V2. As a result, labor cost
was Euro 86.34 in the farm V1, by Euro
12.69 (17.23 %) higher than in case of the
farm V2.
Land Rent counted for Euro 50 per cow
in the farm V1 (0.5 ha arable land /cow ) and
Euro 45 per cow in the farm V2 (0.45 ha
arable land per cow). In the area, rent level
was Euro 100 /ha in the year 2008.

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

Interest related to working capital
counted for Euro 32.24 in case of V 1 and
Euro 29.14 in case of V2.
Variable costs registered Euro 1,807.46
in case of V1 and Euro 1,504.73 in case of
V2, as one can see from Table 3. In the farm
V1, variable costs were by Euro 302.73
(20.11%) higher than in the farm V2.

Table 3
Comparison concerning production costs (Euro/cow/year) by milk yield level
Comparatie privind cheltuielile de productie pe niveluri de productie (euro/vaca/an)
Specification V1 V2 V1-V2
Specificare
Replacing Heifer 145.25 116.25 +29.00
Juninca de inlocuire
Feeding 1,329.83 1,096.79 +233.04
Hranire
Artificial Insemination 15.00 13.00 +2.00
Insamantarea artificiala
Energy, water, fuel 32.64 26.49 +6.15
Energie, apap, combustibili
Insurance, taxes 80.00 80.00 -
Asigurari , taxe
Labor 86.34 73.65 +12.69
Forta de munca
Land rent 50 45 +5
Arenda terenului
Interest related to working capital 32.24 29.14 +3.10
Dobanda aferenta capitalului
circulant
Variable Costs 1,807.46 1,504.73 +302.73
Cheltuieli variabile
Fixed assets depreciation , 196.80 196.80 -
maintenance and insurance
Amortizarea, intretinerea si
asigurarile pentru activele fixe
Interest related to fixed assets 111.25 111.25 -
Dobanda aferenta capitalului fix
Administration and other general 12.46 12.46 -
costs
Cheltuieli de administratie si alte
cheltuieli generale
Fixed and general costs 320.51 320.51 -
Cheltuieli fixe si generale
PRODUCTION COSTS 1,923.64 1,595.72 +336.92
CHELTUIELI DE PRODUCTIE
Productions Costs related to Milk 1,700.72 1,420.19 +280.53
Yield
Cheltuieli de productie aferente
productiei de lapte

Fixed and general Costs recorded Euro
320.51 in the both farms, including fixed
assets depreciation and maintenance, as well
as insurance for cow sheds and installations ,
administration and other items.
Total Production Costs registered Euro
1,832.64 in the farm V1 and Euro 1,585.72
Euro in the farm V2.
The indicators of the economic
efficiency are presented in Table 4.

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The production costs related to milk
yield counted for Euro 1,700.72 in the farm
V1 and Euro 1,420.19 in the farm V2.
Milk Cost was Euro 0.26 per kg in case
of V1 and Euro 0.35 in case of V2.
The financial result. The farm V1
registered 0,02 profit /kg milk and 7.6 %
profit rate, while the farm V2 recorded Euro
0.07 Loss/kg milk and - 20% loss rate.
Gross Margin was Euro 912.68 /cow
and year in case of V1 and Euro 457.46 Euro
Table 4
Comparison concerning economic efficiency by yield level
Comparatie privind eficienta economic ape niveluri de productie
Specification V1
Specificare
Gross Margin (Euro/cow/year ) 912.68
Marja bruta (euro/vaca/an)
Profit ( Euro/cow/year) 787.50
Profit ( euro/vaca/an)
Profit rate /cow/year ( %) 40.74
Rata profitului pe vaca si an
Milk Cost (Euro/kg ) 0.26
Costul unitary al laptelui (euro/kg)
Milk Price ( Euro/kg) 0.28
Pretul laptelui ( euro/kg)
Profit per milk kg (Euro/kg) +0.02
Profit pe kg de lapte ( euro/kg )
Milk Profit rate % 7.60
Rata profitului la lapte
CONCLUSIONS
1. At present in Romania, 4,000 kg milk
yield per cow and year does not assure any
profitability in milk producing, because milk
cost is Euro 0.36 per kg extremely higher
compared to milk price, which is just Euro
0.28 /kg. As a results, dairy farmers have to
raise cows giving more than 6,000 kg milk
per year in order to assure milk production
profitability. In this case, milk cost is a little
bit lower than milk price .
2. In case of the farm V1, the increase of
milk yield from 4,000 kg to 6,500 kg per
cow, meaning 2,500 kg/cow and year has led
to additional production costs counting for
Euro 336.92 compared to the farm V2. This
is not a negative aspect, on the contrary , it
shows the increase of economic efficiency.
The increase production cost rhythm was
lower (21 %) compared to the increase milk
production rhythm which was 62.50 %.
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
in case of V2. Therefore, the farm V1 where
milk yield is 6,500 kg per cow registered a
double gross margin compared to the farm
V2 where the cows delivered just 4,000 kg
per year.
Profit per cow was Euro 787.50 in case
of V1 and Euro 366.47 Euro in case of V2 .
Profit rate was 40.74 % in case of V1
and 22.96 % in case of V2 ( Table 4 ).
V2 V1-V2
457.46 455.22
3.66.47 +421.03
22.96 +17.78
0.35 - 0.09
0.28 -
-0.07 -0.09
-20.00 - 27.60
3. Gross margin recorded by the farm V1
was two times higher compared to the gross
margin registered by the farm V2. This
aspect was conditioned by the additional milk
yield of 2,500 kg per cow and year .
4. In order to increase economic
efficiency, farmers have to raise high
production potential dairy cows milking
more than 6,000 kg milk per year and to
assure high quality fodder and sufficient from
a quantitatively point of view.
REFERENCES
Journal articles
[1] Draghici Manea, Oancea Margareta, Plesoianu
Gheorghe, Zahiu Letitia, Scrieciu FL.,: Farm
Management Textbook, Atlas Press S.R.L.
Calarasi, p.31-35, 2004
[6] Popescu Agatha,: Gross margin – a barometer
of profitability in agriculture, International
Symposium “Durable Agriculture – the agriculture
of the future“, Craiova, 23-24 November 2006.
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

[7] Popescu Agatha,: Considerations upon Books

economic efficiency in dairy farms by gross
margin assessment, Scientific Papers UASVM
Iasi, Animal Production Series, Vol.50, p. 670-
672, 2007
[8] Popescu Agatha,: Researches concerning Gross
Margin in Dairy Farms of various size and milk
production, Scientific Papers UASVM Bucharest ,
Animal Production, D Series, Vol LI , p. 259-263,
2008.
[10] Ursu Ana, Nicolescu M., Toma D.,
Iurchievici Lidia, Lepadatu Claudia, Simionescu
D., Zeneci N., Popescu Agatha, Tindeche
Cristina,: Animal Production – Farmer’s Notebook
Cartea universitara Publishing House, Bucharest,
p.24-56, 2008.
[2] Kuhlmann, F.,: Betriebslehre des Agrar und
Emahrungswirtschaft , Stuttgart, 2002
[3] Odening M., Bokelmann W.,: Agrarmanagement,
Ulmer, Sttugart, 2000
[4] Popescu Agatha,: Financial Management in
Dairy Farms, Do-minor Publishing House,
Bucharest, 2006
[5] Popescu Agatha,: Financial Management in
Dairy Farms, Do-minor Publishing House,
Bucharest, 2006
[9] Reisch E., Zeddies J.,: Ein fuhrung in die
Landwirtschaftliche Betriebslehre speizieller Teil,
Ulmer, Sttugart, 1992

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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

STUDIES CONCERNING THE OBTAINING OF BIOMASS

FROM LACTOBACILLUS PARACASEI SSP. PARACASEI
USING CORN EXTRACT AS NITROGEN SOURCE

E. Vamanu1,2, A. Vamanu1,2, Diana Pelinescu4, O. Popa1,2, Sultana Niţă3,

Despina A. Ionescu3, Narcisa Băbeanu 1
1
University of Agronomic Sciences and Veterinary Medicine,
Faculty of Biotechnology, Bucharest, Romania
e-mail: emanuelvamanu@yahoo.com
2
Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology Center – Biotehnol, Bucharest, Romania
3
National Institute of Chemical-Pharmaceutical Research-Development – ICCF Bucharest, Romania
4
Faculty of Biology, Microgen Center, University of Bucharest, Romania

Abstract
The modern zootechnics characterised by keeping the animals in unnatural conditions (high
density, industrial feeding, chicken separation and stress) is not favourable for the animals. It results
production problems with high economic risk by decreasing the zootechnic performances (low weight
gain and high consumption index) and health alterations (intestinal disorders, diarrhea, infections).
Thus, the purpose of this study consists in proving that the Lactobacillus paracasei ssp. paracasei BS6
strain has a similar productivity to the MRS medium. So as to perform the tests, a medium containing
2% glucose, 50% corn extract – 1% d.s., 1% Ca(OH)2 was used. This medium was chosen because
corn extract is a natural raw material often used in the biosynthesis processes in drug industry. Corn
extract is a subproduct resulted from corn processing for starch and sugar obtaining. It represents one
of the most complex nutritive substrata for microorganisms development and a well-balanced source of
nitrogen, carbon, sulfur and mineral salts. Three batch fermentations were realised. Glucose
consumption, lactic acid accumulation, viability, maximum growth speed (µmax), duplication time (TD),
productivity (P) were determined. The results analysis proved that the development of Lactobacillus
paracasei ssp. paracasei strain is similar to that of the MRS medium.
Key words: Lactobacillus paracasei, glucose, productivity, fermentation

INTRODUCTION multiply in the animals’ rumen, thus blocking

It is considered at present that the
prebiotics can be used as preparations
containing monocultures or polycultures of
viable bacteria or other microorganisms,
selected from the animal intestinal flora or
from other accepted methods. Introduced as
fodder additives in animals’ food, they lead
to the improvement of the general health,
stimulating the digestive processes and the
productive performance of farm animals. The
role of the microorganisms within the
digestive tube of the animals is very
important in order to maintain the general
health and productive performance of
mongastric animals. [1]
The prebiotic microorganisms which can
be found in the preparations for farm animals
the proliferation of the undesired pathogen
strains. The prebiotic microorganisms attach
to the intestinal mucous membrane by
multiplying blocking the pathogen
microorganisms. Generally, the prebiotic
products intended to animals contain
Lactobacillus and Enterococcus
microorganisms. These strains produce
organic acids (mainly, lactic acid) that
determine the reduction of pH within the
digestive system. Besides the organic acids,
many of these strains also produce
antimicrobial substances. Thus, they
determine the emergence of a medium that is
unfavorable to the multiplication of the
pathogen strains. [1, 2, 3]

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
The aim of this research is represented by
obtaining biomass from Lactobacillus
paracasei ssp. paracasei in batch system,
using a medium containing corn extract as an
azote source. The aim was to obtain
productivity similar to that accomplished on
MRS, the standard medium. [2]
MATERIAL AND METHOD
The biological material and the media. In
order to develop the experiments, the
Lactobacillus paracasei ssp. paracasei BS 6
strain was used from the collection of the
Faculty of Biotechnologies, USAMV
Bucharest. The strain is kept in the freezer at
-820C, in a protective environment containing
20% glicerol.
A New Brunswick batch bioreactor is
used in order to obtain biomass. The medium
used contains glucose 2%, corn extract –
50% s.u. 1%, Ca(OH)2 1%. The medium as
well as the fermentation recipient are
sterilized at 1150C, for 20 minutes in an
autoclave Raypa The inoculation of the
bioreactor is made in proportion to 10%
culture obtained in MRS medium. The
conditions of fermentation are: 370C, pH 5.5,
stir 100 rpm once at every 12 hours of
fermentation in order to homogenize the
medium for 15 minutes. [4]
The determination of lactic acid
production. It was accomplished by NaOH
0.1N titration. For the determination, it is
taken into account the fact that 1 ml NaOH
0.1N corresponds to 0.009008 g of lactic
acid.
16
14
12
O.D. (600 nm)
10
8
6
4
2
0
0 4
Figure 1. The profile of the curve of Lactobacillus paracasei strains’ growth on MRS medium
The determination of the glucose
quantity. The Standard Test for glucose
measuring with a toluidine, accomplished by
the National Institute of Research and
Development ICCF Bucharest was used for
this determination.
The determination of the kinetic
parameters. The determination of the value
of maximum specific speed for cellular
growth µmax. The value of µ from the equation
for the time interval between two tests of a
culture was calculated. The maximum value
found represents the maximum specific speed
µmax, for the respective culture. The
determination of the time for cellular
concentration doubling (TD): was calculated
ln 2
according to the formula: TD = . The
µ
determination of cellular productivity:
Cellular productivity represents the mass of
dried cells obtained per unit of volume of
culture, in a time unit: P = D×X , in batch
system P = µ×X (P = the cellular
productivity, g×l-1×h-1, D = rate of dilution, h-
1
, X = cellular concentration, g×l-1, µ = speed
of cellular growth ).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The first stage of research is represented
by the determination of the evolution of
Lactobacillus paracasei ssp. paracasei BS 6
strains under laboratory conditions when
using MRS medium. In this case, glass
bottles of 250 ml each, with screwed cork
were used to keep anaerobiotics.
8 12 16 20 24
Time (hours)
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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

Table 1.
The average evolution of the functions X(t) and µ(t) in the case of Lactobacillus paracasei CMGB16
culture on MRS medium
Sample 1 2 3 4 5 6
Timp (hours) 4 8 12 16 20 24
-1
X, g×l 0,7 5,8 10,3 13,7 14,7 14,5
lnX - 1,75 2,33 2,61 2,68 2,67
lnX – ln(X-1) - - 0,58 0,28 0,07 -
-1
µ, h - - 0,145 0,07 0,0175 -
- -1 ln 2 0,69
µmedium = 0,0775 h 1; µmax = 0,145 h ; TD = = = 4,75 hours;
µ 0,145
-1 -1 -1
P = 0,145 h ×12 g/l =1,74 h ×g×l

It can be noticed from the diagram
(Figure 1) that a short lag phase lasts only 2
hours, after which the strain enter the
logarithmical phase of growth that lasts until
the 20th hour of fermentation. Until 16 hours
of fermentation, the curve has an ascending
2.5
phase, after which the strain gradually enters
the phase preceding the stationary phase. The
stationary phase lasts for approximately 2
hours. After 22 hours, the microorganism
enters the decline phase.

1.5
Lactic acid
1 Glucose

0.5

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30

Time (hours)
Figure 2. The accumulation of the lactic acid and glucose consumption for the strain of
Lactobacillus paracasei on MRS medium

The accumulation de lactic acid follows the
phases of growth curve. During the first part of
the logarithmical phase of growth, the
accumulation of lactic acid is also more
important, having an accelerated rhythm. The
accumulation of the lactic acid is reduced in the
second half of this phase. In the first hours of
the stationary phase, a synthesis also occurs,
and the concentration increases with small
values. Once the decline phase begins, a slight
reduction of the quantity of lactic acid also
occurs. The consumption of glucose aims at a
descendant curve, generally characterized by a
constant linear decrease. The greatest
consumption occurs during the first 16 hours, in
the first half of the logarithmical phase of
growth, due to the necessary used for the
multiplication of the microorganism. Even
during the stationary phase, the value of glucose
decreases, with values smaller and smaller.
Further on, the evolution of the
microorganism on the medium containing corn
extract was established, at the level of
bioreactor, in the batch system. The evolution
of Lactobacillus paracasei strains on this
medium is presented in Figure 3.

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

9
8
7
6
5 O.D.
4 Lactic acid
3
2
1
0
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28
Time (hours)
Figure 3. The evolution of the curve of growth and the accumulation de lactic acid during the culture in
batch system – fermentation 1

Table 3.
The average evolution of the functions X(t) and µ(t) in the case of Lactobacillus paracasei culture in
the bioreactor – fermentation 1
Sample 1 2 3 4 5 6
Time (hours) 4 8 12 16 20 24
-1
X, g×l 1,13 4,1 7 7,88 8,06 8,1
lnX 0,12 1,41 1,94 2,06 2,08 2,09
lnX – ln(X-1) - 1,29 0,53 0,12 0,02 0,01
-1
µ, h - 0,32 0,13 0,03 0,005 0,0025
- -1 ln 2 0,69
µmedium = 0,0975 h 1; µmax = 0,32 h ; TD = = = 2,15 hours;
µ 0,32
-1 -1 -1
P = 0,32 h × 8 g/l = 2,56 h ×g×l

As compared to the results at the level of
the laboratory, the logarithmical phase of
growth is bigger, ending after 20 hours of
fermentation. The greatest speed of growth
occurs in the interval of 4 – 12 hours, after
12
which it gradually decreases. The accumulation
of the lactic acid someway aims at the profile of
the curve of growth. Once the strains enter the
stationary phase, the synthesis gradually
decreases, with values smaller than 0.02%.

10

8
O.D.
6 Lactic acid

0
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28
Time (hours)
Figure 4. The evolution of the curve of growth and the accumulation of lactic acid during the culture in
batch system -fermentation 2

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

Table 4.
The average evolution of the X(t) and µ(t) functions in the case of Lactobacillus paracasei culture in
the bioreactor – fermentation 2
Sample 1 2 3 4 5 6
Time (hours) 4 8 12 16 20 24
-1
X, g×l 1,3 4,8 8,6 9,6 10,2 10
lnX 0,26 1,56 2,15 2,26 2,32 2,3
lnX – ln(X-1) - 1,3 0,59 0,11 0,06 -
-1
µ, h - 0,325 0,147 0,027 0,015
- -1 ln 2 0,69
µmedium = 0,1285 h 1; µmax = 0,325 h ; TD = = = 2,12 hours;
µ 0,325
-1 -1 -1
P = 0,325 h × 8 g/l = 2,6 h ×g×l

As compared to the results at the level of
fermentation 1, the logarithmical phase of
growth also ceases after 20 hours of
fermentation. The greatest speed of growth
occurs in the interval of 2 – 12 hours, after
which it gradually decreases. The
accumulation of the lactic acid also aims in
this case at the profile of the growth curve.
Once the strains enter the stationary phase,
the synthesis ceases, without the reduction of
the total quantity accumulated.

12

10

8
O.D.
6
Lactic acid
4

0
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28
Time (hours)

Figure 5. The evolution of the growth curve and the accumulation of lactic acid during culture in batch
system – fermentation 3

Table 4.
The average evolution of the functions X(t) and µ(t) in the case of Lactobacillus paracasei culture in
the bioreactor – fermentation 3
Sample 1 2 3 4 5 6
Time (hours) 4 8 12 16 20 24
-1
X, g×l 1,6 5 8,6 9,5 10 9,6
lnX 0,47 1,6 2,15 2,25 2,3 2,26
lnX – ln(X-1) - 1,13 0,55 0,1 0,05 -
-1
µ, h - 0,282 0,13 0,0025 0,012
- -1 ln 2 0,69
µmedium = 0,106 h 1; µmax = 0,282 h ; TD = = = 2,44 hours;
µ 0,282
-1 -1 -1
P = 0,282 h × 8 g/l = 2,25 h ×g×l

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
The third fermentation, in batch system,
confirms the previous data regarding the
profile of the growth curve. Similarly to the
first two fermentations, it can be also noticed
that the logarithmical phase of growth ceases
after 20 hours of fermentation. The
accumulation of lactic acid is constant during
the logarithmical phase of growth and it
maintains during those 24 hours of
fermentation.
The result of the studies made with
Lactobacillus paracasei ssp. paracasei BS 6
strain is the procurement of a significant
quantity of probiotic biomass. The usage of
corn extract leads to a productivity with 30%
greater unlike the case of MRS medium. The
biomass obtained is recovered by means of
centrifuging and it is dried by lyophilization.
After lyophilization, a white – creamy
powder, with a characteristic smell appears.
The viability titre of the lyophilied biomass is
6×108 CFU/gram.
CONCLUSIONS
The evolution of the strain for
Lactobacillus paracasei ssp. paracasei BS 6
strain was established on MRS media and on
the medium used for the batch system culture
that contains corn extract. Optical density
and the production of lactic acid were
determined for each medium, and the
maximum speed and average growth, µ, as
well as cellular productivity, P were
established.
Three fermentations were developed in
order to check the results. The medium used
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for the culture in batch system at the
bioreactor is economic due to the usage of
glucose and corn extract. The average
productivity on this medium is 2.47 h-1×g×l-1.
The time for the medium doubling, TD, is
2.23 h. All these values show that this
medium with corn extract is ideal for the
culture of strains in the bioreactor and for
obtaining some great quantities of viable
microbial biomass.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Financial support for this study was
assured by MEdC, through the project 61-
047/2007 – Partenerships, BIOSIN.
REFERENCES
Journal articles
[1] M. Pollmann, M. Nordhoff, A. Pospischil, K.
Tedin, and L. H. Wieler, Effects of a Probiotic
Strain of Enterococcus faecium on the Rate of
Natural Chlamydia Infection in Swine, Infect.
Immun., 2005, 73: 4346-4353.
[2] Agnes Weiss, Konrad Johann Domig and
Wolfgang Kneifel, Comparison of Selective Media
for the Enumeration of Probiotic Enterococci from
Animal Feed, Food Technol. Biotechno, 2005, 43,
2: 147–155.
[3] P. Becquet, EU assessment of enterococci as
feed additives, Int. J. Food Microbiol., 2003, 88:
247–254.
[4] H. Gaudreau, N. Renard, C.P. Champagne, D.
Van Horn, The evaluation of mixtures of yeast and
potato extracts in growth media for biomass
production of lactic cultures, Can. J. Microbiol.,
2002, 48,7: 626-634.
 BACK

Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

TESTING SOME PROTEIN FODDER USED FOR THE

INTENSIVE CARP RAISING (Cyprinus carpio, L.1758),
DURING SUMMER II

Corina Elena Gheorghe, Daniela Radu, Mioara Costache, Cecilia Bucur

Centre of Rechearches and Development of Aquaculture Nucet-Dambovita

e-mail: scp_nucet@yahoo.com

Abstract
In the last years, one can notice an intensification tendency of the aquaculture production,
which supposes the usage of a high quality biological population material. This is possible only by
using a protein fodder that corresponds to all the physiological needs of the breed and which is
economically efficient.
The purpose of this experiment was to test the efficiency of in the intensive system of carp
raising (Cyprinus carpio). By the studies realized one aimed at a biological evaluation of the
fodders through general methods based on using some bio-productive indicators – the raise rhythm
(Sr), the fodders conversion coefficient (FCR), the specific raise percent (SGR) and the efficiency
coefficient of the protein (PER).
The experiment took place in four tanks belonging to the C.C.D.P. Nucet, in three raising
variants. We considered using traditional fodder compared with two types of protein fodder - type
ALLER (32 % protein) and type Soprofish (25 % protein). The daily fodder ratio was established at
2, 5 % of the juvenile fish weight.
When was inhabited, the used fish had an average weight of 74,5±3,8g, and afther 120 days of
rearing,the biggest final average body moss was of 2286,2g/ex andwas recorder for thebatch that
received in food Soprofish.
Comparatively whit the other batches this one was the efficiency of using protein fodders.
Key words: testing, carp, protein fodders, intensive raising

MATERIALS AND METHODS Also, before flooding the ponds organic

The carp juvenile fish intensive raise
system was represented by 4 ponds, with a
total volume of 12.000 m3 water (100 m x 20
m x 1,5 m) each and units of maintaining the
water quality of 4 aerating systems.
The ponds were the fodder testing
experiment took place are realized in
excavation, with an independent water supply
and evacuation.
The ponds were prepared following the
technological regulations in traditional fish
piscicultura. In winter time, when the pond is
still dry, quick lime was used in the amount
of 500 kg/pond. The supply and evacuation
networks of each pond were verified and
repaired. To avoid wild juvenile fish from
penetrating the ponds, the flooding was made
through nytal sieves of 1 mm loops[11].
fodder were administrated under the form of
200 kg piles (ten per ponds), at the basis of
the slope to support the natural trophic base,
which is indispensable to fish life and
especially to the carp nutrition.
The most important parameters of water
quality taken into consideration while
executing the experiment were represented
by: the dissolved oxygen percentage, pH and
temperature, which were verified every
day([1],[9]).
Their determination was made by using
the following equipment: the oxygen
concentration and the saturation percentage
were determined with the WTW Oxi 315 i,
pH was determined using the WTW pH-
meter apparatus and the water temperature
was determined by means of mercury
thermometer.

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
The population of the 4 ponds destined to
the breeding in intensive system experiment
was made with 12.000 carp juvenile fish
(3000 specimens for each experimental
variant) with an initial average weight of
74,5±2,7 g. The juvenile fish were obtained
at C.C.D.P Nucet in 2006, by the process of
artificial carp reproduction.
The experiment of testing fodder for the
fish raised during summer II was made in
three experimental variants, using two types
of protein extruded fodder and two types of
traditional fodder (T1 and T2) realized with
our own recipe.
Variant I – used fodder ALLER
CLASIC 30 which is made up of: fish flour,
soy, blood flour, rape, wheat, fish oil and
vegetable oils and presents the following
biochemical features: protein 30 %, grease
7,0 %, NFE 43 %, celluloses 5 %, ash 7,0 %,
active urea 0,3 %, minerals, N and P;
vitamins: A, D3, şi E .
For variant II - we used the complete
extrude mixture for carp- SOPROFISH
25/12 PROFI- with the following content:
fish flour, soy protein, maize, minerals and
vitamins. The biochemical features of the
fodder were: protein 25 %, grease 12,0 %,
water 8,0 %, celluloses 3 %, ash 5,0 %,
active urea 0,3 %; minerals: Ca and P;
vitamins: A, D3, E and C ; essential amino -
acids Lizina and Metionina + Cisteina.
In variant III we used two types of
traditional fodder (T1 and T2), obtained
through our own recipes to raise carp in
summer II. The T1 traditional fodder
composition was the following: 30 %
sunflower grouts, 30 % wheat lees, 15 %
animal flours, 24 % dry maize dregs, and 1 %
bone flour. The biochemical composition of
the mixture was: protein 28 %, grease 5,4 %,
carbon hydrates 53 %, ash 11 %, water 3,6%.
The second type of traditional fodder T2
had the following structure: sunflower grouts 25
%, vegetable products 25 %; cereals 30 %,
wheat bran 10 %, meat flour 9 %, fish flour 1%.
The biochemical composition: protein 25%,
grease 4,5-5,6 %, carbon hydrates 27-33%.
The initial fodder ratio established for the
fish breeding in this experiment was of 2,5 %
of the body mass/day. In the first day of the
experiment the fish were allowed to adapt to
the new life environment and were not fed.
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The second day we started giving them 25 %
of the calculated fodder ratio to adapt them to
the feeding intensity, and in the following
days we continued with 50-75 and in the end
with 100 % in the fourth day. The total
quantity of fodder /day was administrated in
2 equal portions for meals established at
fixed points. We daily controlled the fodder
meals to note if the fish ate the fodder or not.
During the experiment, after the results of the
control fishing, the fodder ratio was
diminished to 2 %, respectively 1 %, through
the end of the experiment([6],[7],[8]).
The fish wellbeing (swimming behavior,
food consumption, mortality and the presence
of dead or sick fish) was evaluated and
recorded every day.
At the end of the experiment, the fish
were weighted, the following parameters
being determined on this basis([12],[13]):
- survival;
- growth progress (W) = Final weight
(Wt) – Initial weight (W0) (g);
- food conversion ratio (FCR) = Total
fodder (F) / Total growth progress(W)
(g/g);
- the specific growing rhythm (SGR) =
100 (lnWt – lnWi) /t (% BW/day);
- the protein efficiency percentage (PER)
= Total growth progress (W)/amount of
protein administrated (g);
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The experiment took place for a period of
120 days (between May 15 and September
the 15th 2007). The water temperature
registered values between 20,80C (at the
beginning of the experiment on May 15) and
18,80C (at the end of the experimental period
– September 15). Starting with the second
half of July, the water temperature registered
values that exceeded a lot the normal limit of
that period, which determined a reduction of
the food ratio for a period of a few days.
Because we used the aerating systems,
the level of dissolved oxygen was maintained
within the optimum interval for this species.
While performing the experiment the
water pH had values between 7, 6 and 8, 2.
The results of the experimental data
concerning the fish growth performances are
presented in the tables 1, 2, 3 and 4.
 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

Table no 1
The variation of tehnologic parameters from may 15 to june 15
Experimental period May 15– June 15
Fish raising performance B1 B2 B3 B4
Total fodder/ pond (Kg) 543.75 540.75 558.75 579.00
Total initial biomass (Kg) 217.50 216.30 223.50 231.60
Average initial weight (g/ex) 72.50 72.10 74.50 77.20
Total final biomass (Kg) 1155 1209 888.04 856.15
Average final weight (g/ex) 387.50 405.7 298.00 287.30
Individual growth progress(g/ex) 315.00 333.60 223.50 210.10
Total growth progress (g) 937.25 992.69 664.54 624.55
Specific growth ratio SGR (% BW/day) 5.59 5.76 4.62 4.38
Daily growth ratio - (g/kg/day) 10.50 9.27 7.45 7.00
FCR (g/g) 0.58 0.54 0.84 0.93
Protein / pond 163.13 135.19 156.45 144.75
Efficiency of protein retaining - PER (g) 5.75 7.34 4.25 4.31

Table no 2
The variation of tehnologic parameters from june 15 to july 15
Experimental period June 15– July 15
Fish raising performance B1 B2 B3 B4
Total fodder/ pond (Kg) 2886.9 3022.46 2220.1 2140.38
Total initial biomass (Kg) 1155 1209 888.04 856.15
Average initial weight (g/ex) 387.50 405.70 298.00 287.30
Total final biomass (Kg) 2458.8 3285.75 1799.03 1675.05
Average final weight (g/ex) 825.10 1102.60 603.70 562.10
Individual growth progress(g/ex) 437.60 696.90 305.70 274.80
Total growth progress (g) 1304.05 2076.76 910.99 818.90
Specific growth ratio SGR (% BW/day) 2.52 3.33 2.35 2.24
Daily growth ratio - (g/kg/day) 14.59 23.23 10.19 9.16
FCR (g/g) 2.21 1.46 2.44 2.61
Protein / pond 866.06 755.62 621.63 535.10
Efficiency of protein retaining - PER (g) 1.51 2.75 1.47 1.53

Table no3
The variation of tehnologic parameters from july 15 to august 15
Experimental period July 15– August 15
Fish raising performance B1 B2 B3 B4
Total fodder/ pond (Kg) 3589.18 4796.31 2626.09 2445.13
Total initial biomass (Kg) 2392.79 3197.54 1750.73 1630.09
Average initial weight (g/ex) 825.10 1102.60 603.70 562.10
Total final biomass (Kg) 3481.74 4758.61 2331.00 2142.84
Average final weight (g/ex) 1200.6 1640.9 832.5 765.3
Individual growth progress(g/ex) 375.50 538.30 228.80 203.20
Total growth progress (g) 2656.64 3656.01 1727.30 1580.74
Specific growth ratio SGR (% BW/day) 1.25 1.33 1.07 1.03
Daily growth ratio - (g/kg/day) 12.52 17.94 7.63 6.77
FCR (g/g) 1.35 1.31 1.52 1.55
Protein / pond 1076.76 1199.08 735.31 611.28
Efficiency of protein retaining - PER (g) 2.47 3.05 2.35 2.59

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

Table no4
The variation of tehnologic parameters from august 15 to september 15
Experimental period August 15– September 15
Fish raising performance B1 B2 B3 B4
Total fodder/ pond (Kg) 5222.61 7137.92 3496.50 3214.26
Total initial biomass (Kg) 3481.74 4758.61 2331.00 2142.84
Average initial weight (g/ex) 1200.6 1640.9 832.5 765.3
Total final biomass (Kg) 4787.32 6629.98 2984.52 2734.2
Average final weight (g/ex) 1650.8 2286.2 1065.9 976.5
Individual growth progress(g/ex) 450.2 645.3 233.4 211.2
Total growth progress (g) 1305.58 1871.37 653.52 591.36
Specific growth ratio SGR (% BW/day) 1.06 1.11 0.82 0.81
Daily growth ratio - (g/kg/day) 15.01 21.51 7.78 7.04
FCR (g/g) 4.00 3.81 5.35 5.44
Protein / pond 1566.78 1784.48 979.02 803.57
Efficiency of protein retaining - PER (g) 0.83 1.05 0.67 0.74

The initial weight of the fish which were
populated in the 4 experimental ponds was of
74,5±2,7 g/ex. In the first tank B1 3000
juvenile fish were populated having an
average weight of 72,5 g/ex; at a quantity of
217, 50 kg/pond. The second pond B2 was
populated with 3000 fish having an average
weight of 72,1 g/ex, the total weight of the
population material was of 216, 30 kg/pond.
In the third pond B3, 3000 fish were
populated with an average weight of 74,5
g/ex., the total weight being of 223, 50
kg/pond. In pond 4 (B4), 3000 specimens
of view, counted and weighted and the
growth result was calculated by means of the
indexes presented at chapter materials and
methods.
The fish growth rhythm in terms of the
total growth progress by pond was more
significant for variant B2 with a variation
comprised between 992, 69 g and 3656, 01 g,
and in terms of the individual growth progress,
variant B2 was also more significant (table no.
1, 2, 3 and 4 and picture 1).
78,00
77,00
2500

were populated, with a total weight of 231,

average initial weight (g)

average final weight (g)

76,00 2000
75,00 Average initial w eight

60 kg/pond, and the average initial weight

1500 (g)
74,00
73,00 Average f inal w eight
1000

was of 77, 2 g/specimen.

72,00 (g)
71,00 500
70,00
Breeding in the intensive type systems 69,00 0
T1

T2
Soprofish
Aller

supposes using some big population densities

and using fodder with high protein content. B1 B2 B3 B4
experimental ponds - type f odder

During the testing experiment of the

protein fodder efficiency for carp juvenile
Picture no. 1 The growth progress
fish (Cyprinus carpio) breeding in summer
II control fishing took place twice a months.
For all the experimental variants the
Its purpose was to establish the intervention
following indexes were calculated: SGR
method on the food ratio and to observe the
(specific growth rhythm), FCR (food
health status, in order to prevent possible
conversion ratio) and PER (protein efficiency
diseases of the fish population. This very
percentage). During the testing experiment of
important aspect, as important as the water
the protein fodders the best growth specific
temperature, which, during the experimental
percentage was also recorded for the second
period, had big variations, permanently
(picture 2).
requested our attention.
After 120 days, the carps were fished,
observed from the fish pathologic status point

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

Specific growth ratio SGR (%BW/zi) The prote in re ta ining e fficie ncy PER (g/g)

8
7
7
6
5 6

4
5
3 m ay-june
2 june-july 4 may-june

1 july -august 3
june-july
july -august
0
augus t -septem ber augus t -september
Aller

T1

T2
Soprofish

0
A ller Soprof is h T1 T2
B1 B2 B3 B4
B1 B2 B3 B4
experimental ponds - ty pe f odder

Picture no. 2 Specific growth ratio SGR Picture no. 4 The protein retaining efficiency –
(% BW/day) PER (g)

The food conversion ratio (FCR) The food conversion ratio (FCR) varied
oscillated inversely proportional to the protein inversely proportional to the protein
efficiency percentage (PER), as indicated in efficiency percentage PER as indicated by
the two pictures (picture no. 3 and 4). the two graphics. The best food conversion
ratio recorded was for the fish fed with
The variation FCR (g/g) Soprofish fodder (0,54 g fodder /g raised
6 fish) while the lowest FCR was obtained for
5
the fish fed with fodder in the traditional
recipe. As for PER (protein efficiency
4 may-june
june-july
3

2
july -august
august -september percentage) the best results were also
1 obtained when feeing with SOPROFISH
0
Aller Soprof ish T1 T2
fodder (even 7,34 g raised fish/gram protein).
B1 B2 B3
experimental ponds - type f odder
B4
The values obtained after this experiment
indicated a good growth in all the 4 ponds.
Picture no. 3 The FCR variation (g/g) As to their survival it situated between 93,3
% for variant III (ponds 3 and 4) and 96,0 %
for the variants where we tested the protein
fodder.
As for the economical aspect of fodder
testing the results we obtained are given by
table no. 5.

Table no. 5
The economic efficiency of fodders
B1 B2 B3 B4
The total fodder quantity (kg) 12.244,43 13.898,67 8.026,08 7.582,23

Fish production (kg) 4.787,32 6.629,98 2.142,84 2734,20

Conversion ratio (kg/kg) 2,5 2,09 3,74 2,77

CONCLUSIONS - The growth variants with protein

- After testing the protein fodders fodder type ALLER CLASIC and
used for the carp in summer II intensive raise SOPROFISH were the most efficient for the
system, in 2007, the result was that, carp breeding in the second summer, from
SOPROFISH fodder was the best valued by the point of view of growth rhythm, fodder
the biological material submitted to the conversion ratio and protein efficiency
experiment, even if the brut protein level percentage. (PER)
contained was of 25 % compared to the - From the point of view of the
ALLER CLASIC fodder (30 % brut protein). economical efficiency, SOPROFISH protein
fodder led to obtaining a high fish

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
production, of a superior quality compared to
ALLER CLASIC fodder and the traditional
fodders. This fodder conversion ratio
recorded the lowest values, which
particularly recommends its use for the
intensive raise system of summer II.
REFERENCES
Journal articles
[3]Bogatu D. 1991- Proteinele în alimentaţia
peştilor, Simp. Piscicultura şi pescuitul în faţa
economiei de piaţă, p. 24-26, Galaţi.
[4]Bradford M.M. 1976- A rapid and sensitive
method for the quantitation of microgram
quantities of protein utilizing the principle of
protein-dye binding. Analytical Biochemistry, 72,
248-254.
[7]Carvalho A.P., Escaffre A.M., Oliva Teles A.,
Bergot P., 1997- First feeding of common carp
larval on diets with levels of protein Hidrolisates,
Aquacult. Int. 5, 361-637.
[8]Costin GM., Bogatu D., Rauta M., 1992-
Contribuţii la optimizarea nutriţiei în piscicultura
intensivă, Simp. Acvacultura şi pescuitul
viitorului, p. 178-181, Galaţi.
- 542 -
[9]Cristea V., Ceapă C., Răuţă M., Ştefănescu V. –
Oportunitatea şi condiţiile introducerii sistemelor
superintensive în acvacultura României,
AQUAROM ´98, Simpozion internaţional, Galaţi,
România, 1998
[11]Niculescu-Duvaz M.-Cercetări şi rezultate în
legatură cu alimentaţia suplimentară a crapului,
Buletin de Cercetari Piscicole,1964, nr.4.
Books
[1]Gary A. Wedemeyere- Physiology of fish in
intensive culture system.ITP
[2]Billard R. – Les carpes. Biologie et elevage.
INRA, Paris, 1995.
[5]Burlacu Ghe. 1983 –Valoarea nutritivă a
nutreţurilor, normele de hrana si întocmirea
raţiilor, Vol.I si II, Edit. Ceres Bucureşti 1983
[6]Cadar D. 1990 –Unele probleme actuale privind
nutriţia şi furajarea peştilor de cultură, Piscicultura
Moldovei Vol I –1990
[10]Gheracopol O., 1981- Piscicultura,
Universitatea Galaţi.
[12]Oprea L., Rodica G. –Nutriţia şi alimentaţia
peştilor, Edit. Tehnică, 2000.
[13]Oprea L., 1996- Teză doctorat, Cercetări
privind utilizarea furajelor granulate in alimentaţia
peştilor, în diferite sisteme de cultură,
Universitatea Galaţi.
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

VALIDATION OF A METHOD TO DETERMINE VITAMIN E

(ALPHA TOCOPHEROL) FROM FEED INGREDIENTS BY
HPLC USING REVERSED PHASE CHROMATOGRAPHY

Denisa Rachieru, R. Duca, Margareta Olteanu

National Research Development Institute for Animal Biology and Nutrition –Balotesti
e-mail: denisaelena_rachieru@yahoo.com

Abstract
Keeping farm animals healthy is supported by feed quality. To prevent the high unsaturated
fatty acids ingredients from getting rancid it is necessary to add antioxidants such as vitamin E
(alpha tocopherol). EU and Romania regulations imposed special requirements on the performance
of related laboratories on the validation of vitamin E determination in feeds according to the
requirements of SR EN ISO/CEI 17025:2005 standard for the following performance categories:
exactness, accuracy, repeatability, reproducibility, sensitivity, detection limit and quantification
limit. The following results were obtained during the determinations on standard alpha tocopherol
solution: exactness = 100.64 %, accuracy with RSD = 1.06% and 1.29%, repeatability with RSD =
1.06%, 0.62% and 0.74 %, reproducibility cu RSD 2.5% and 1.59%, sensitivity with R2 = 0.998, the
detection limit was lower than the quantification limit and within the admitted performance range.
The model was tested on feed samples containing corn, rice, wheat, soybean meal, gluten used for
layer feeding. The dietary vitamin E was calculated using the equation from the standardizing curve
of the equipment obtaining 15 mg/100 g feed sample. Our work delivers to the specialists in feed
quality control a tested model for the validation of the method to assay vitamin E from feed
ingredients.
Key words: vitamin E, chromatography, validation, feed.

INTRODUCTION muscle and nervous system, they take part in

The European regulations concerning
feed quality are part of the legislation on food
safety, based on risk factors analysis in terms
of ensuring the public health. The economic
development and modernization of our
country impose a special attention to product
quality; the products must be competitive and
must meet the quality requirements
demanded by this circuit. Method validation
became compulsory for foods and feeds in
order to get as close as possible to the
requirements for human feeding [12, 13]. The
amount and quality of dietary vitamin E is
very important because it has a strong
antioxidant character, protecting against
oxidative degradation the biologically active
substances such as vitamins A, D, F, the
unsaturated fatty acids, hormones,
erythrocytes, enzymes. Vitamin E influences
the activity of tissues and organs, of
endocrine glands, of the erythrocytes, of the
many metabolic processes, playing an active
role in animal and vegetal organisms [1, 18,
4]. Because of the very high biological
activity of α-tocopherol, the nutritionists
prefer to introduce this form of vitamin E in
animal feeding [11, 14, 6]. Knekt et al. and
Kushi et al, have shown that the food with a
high level of dietary tocopherol is associated
to a low mortality caused by cardiovascular
diseases [9,10].
HPLC methods are currently used to
determine vitamin E in raw feed ingredients
and in finished feeds, with methanol and/or
acetonitrile mobile phases [18, 3, 15, 2, 8].
Svetlana et al. used in parallel the two mobile
phases: methanol/water (95:5) and
acetonitrile/water (78:22) to determine
vitamin E from sunflower oil, observing that
a better determination of the vitamin was
achieved using the mobile phase based on
methanol [18].

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
The validation of this analytical method
is a process by which, using laboratory
studies and mathematical-statistical analyses,
the characteristic performances of a method
are confirmed to meet the requirements for
the intended practical application [19]. This
is a procedure for the verification and
confirmation of the performances of an
analytical method, having several purposes:
to increase the confidence in the results
obtained with an analytical method; to show
that the method is fit for the intended use; to
meet customer demands and reach the
performance parameters required for testing
[5, 7, 16].
The purpose of this paper was to develop
an experimental model, easy to apply
practically in the laboratories for feed quality
control, including the stages necessary to
validate an analytical method for vitamin E
assay.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
Materials HPLC PerkinElmer series 200
with the following components (pump, UV-
VIS detector, chromatographic column
Thermo 150x4.6mm, Hypersil GOLD ,
autosampler); analytical scales with accuracy
to the fourth decimal; water bath with
adjustable temperature GFL Gesellschaft
Reagents: potassium hydroxide (KOH);
ethylic alcohol; methanol HPLC; petrol
ether; Sigma chemicals α-tocoferol blank. All
reagents were of the highest purity, being
purchased from Merk.
Vitamin E determination from the feed
sample:
The sample was processed according to
STAS SR EN ISO 6867:2001-Feeds-
Determination of vitamin E content – Method
by high performance liquid chromatography.
We used 2 g feed, dried and ground. The
sample was saponified with an ethanol
solution of potassium hydroxide; extraction
was done in petrol ether. The resulting
samples were concentrated in a rotavapor; the
residue was dissolved in 2 ml methanol.
Chromatographic separation: the mobile
phase was methanol:water (97:3); flow 1.2
- 544 -
ml/min; wavelength 295 nm; column
temperature 24ºC [17].
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
In this work we conducted tests to
validate an analytical method to determine
vitamin E by HPLC from a poultry feed with
42.72% corn, 10% rice, 10% sorghum, 20%
soybean meal, 5% gluten. The reference
documents are mentioned in the literature.
The analytical validation is the first step of
quality in a laboratory. The analytical works
on the poultry feed intended to validate the
method for vitamin E determination aimed to
determine:
EXACTNESS, which expresses the
degree of agreement between the result of a
test and the accepted (real) reference value of
the measuring device. The exactness was
determined on 15 determinations on the
certified reference material (α-tocopherol) of
50 ppm concentration.
Xmediu
Exactness % = 100
µ
where:
Xmediu = average of the 15 determinations
µ = real value of the reference material
Xmediu − µ
Bias % = 100
µ
The performance criterion demanded for
exactness ranges between: 80-120%, for
concentrations ≥ 10 µg/kg, i.e. 0.001% (g/g).
ACCURACY (fidelity) which is the
measure of the degree of agreement between
the independent results of a series of
determinations done for the same analyt from
a sample, using the same working conditions.
For the analysis of this parameter we
conducted 5 determinations of the analyt of
50 ppm concentration during the same day
and in different days.
s
CV(RSD) % = 100
Xmediu
where:
Xmediu = average of the 5 determinations
s = standard deviation
 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

The maximal RSD value is set according to different experimental conditions. We

the analyt concentration for concentrations
≥1000 µg/kg, CV(RSD)max = 10%,
according to ANSVSA Order no.51/2005.
REPEATABILITY is a measure of the
measure variability when the same analyst
works in the same conditions. We conducted
three series of 5 repeated analyses of the
reference material (α-tocopherol), by a single
analyst, at short intervals, using the same
measuring equipment and the same working
method.
The maximal RSD value is determined
function of the analyt concentration
according to Horwitz equation( for
concentrations of 1 ppm, RSD max =
10.72%), according to ANSVSA Order
no.51/2005
REPRODUCIBILITY is the way in
which the value of fidelity is found under
conducted two series of 10 repeated analyses
of the reference material. We worked on an
initial concentration of 50 ppm. The analyses
were conducted by two analysts using
different glassware, the same working
method and the same equipment.
The maximal RSD value is determined
function of the analyt concentration
according to Horwitz equation( for
concentrations of 1 ppm, RSD max =
10.72%), according to ANSVSA Order
no.51/2005
SENSITIVITY – variation of instrument
response to the variation of the analyt
concentration. We plotted the standard curve
in 10 points of the reference material. The
slope must be constant on the working
domain, R2 – correlation coefficient, must
tend towards 1 (Figure 1).

Curve alpha tocopherol

140000
120000 y = 1213.1x + 504.32
2
R = 0.9978
100000
80000
area

60000
40000
20000
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
conc

Fig.1 Standardization curve for vitamin E

LIMIT OF DETECTION (LOD)- the lowest analyt concentration that can be detected.
LIMIT OF QUANTIFICATION (LOQ) – the lowest analyt concentration that can be detected
quantitatively, at an acceptable level of incertitude.
We conducted 5 analyses of the reference material with an initial concentration of 5 ppm. The
demanded performance criterion is LoQ > LoD.

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

Table 1
Results obtained for the validation of HPLC method for vitamin E determination
Vitamin E
Determined parameters
(α-tocoferol)
EXACTNESS
BAlue (%) 100.64
Bias (%) 0.64
ACCURACY (FIDELITY)
Same day – RSD (%) 1.06
Different days – RSD (%) 1.29
REPETABILITY
series 1 (50ppm)-RSD (%) 1.06
series 2 (40ppm)-RSD (%) – (80% of the 0.62
concentration from series 1)
series 3 (60ppm)- RSD (%) – (120% of the 0.74
concentration of series 1)
REPRODUCIBILITY
Analyst 1 – RSD (%) 2.57
Analyst 2 – RSD (%) 1.59
LIMIT OF DETECTION AND LIMIT OF QUANTIFICATION
LoD (Μm) 6.79
LoQ (Μm) 9.34

In the case of the internal reproducibility, CONCLUSIONS

determined on 2 series of 10 analyses
repeated by two analysts, we obtained the
following values of the intralaboratory
variation coefficient CV(RSD)2calc = 2.57%
(analyst I), and CV(RSD)2calc = 1.59
(analyst II), both values being lower than the
highest limit admitted by ANSVSA Order
51/2005.
Regarding the sensitivity, we obtained it
from the linear regression equation Y = a +
bx = 1213.1x + 504.32 and of the regression
coefficient R2 = 0.997. It resulted that the
function is linear and is close to the ideal
case, the Burguer-Lambert-Beer law.
For the quantification limit LOQ, which
usually is the lowest point on the
standardization curve, we obtained a value of
9.34 µg/mL which is higher than the value
obtained by for the limit of detection LOD of
6.79 µg/mL, being in agreement with
ANSVSA Order 51/2005.
The incertitude may appear from several
possible sources, including sample collection,
environmental conditions, used glassware,
used equipment. We also calculated the
extended incertitude, with a value of
6.07ppm. Thus, we have found a vitamin E
concentration of 149 ±6.07 ppm.
The results of the tests conducted to
validate the analytical method for vitamin E
determination in the feeds, shows that they
are within the performance parameters
admitted for this method and they meet the
requirements of SR EN ISO 17025:2005
standard.
The characteristic performance of the
method meet the requirements for its
practical utilization. We consider that this
validation method can be an experimental,
practical model for those working in feed
quality evaluation and want to become
licensed according to SR EN ISO
17025:2005.
REFERENCES:
Journal articles
[1] Cesare Castellini, Paolo Lattaioli, Alessandro
Dal Bosco, Alba Minelli, Cecilia Mugnai,:
Oxidative status and semen characteristics of
rabbit buck as affected by dietary vitamin E, C and
n-3 fatty acids, Reprod. Nutr. Dev., 2003, 43: 91-
103.
[2] D.I. Sanchez-Machado, J. Lopez-Cervantes,
N.J. Rios Vazquez,: High-performance liquid
chromatography method to measure α-and γ-
tocopherol in leaves, flowers and fresh beans from
Moringa oleifera, Journal of Chromatography A.,
2006, 1105, 111-114.

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[3] E. Ryan, K. Galvin, T.P.O’Connor,
A.R.Maguire, N.M. O’Brien,: Phytosterol,
Squalene, Tocopherol content and fatty acid
profile of selected seeds, grains, and legumes,
Plant Foods Hum Nutr., 2007, 62:85-91.
[4] Ekaterina M. Paliakov, Brian S. Crow, Michael
J. Bishop, Dean Norton, Joe George, J. Alexander
Bralley,: Rapid quantitative determination of fat-
soluble vitamins and coenzyme Q-10 in human
serum by reversed phase ultra-high pressure liquid
chromatography with UV detection, Journal of
Chromatography B., 2009, 877: 89-94.
[6] I.G. Zigoneanu, L.Williams, Z. Xu, C.M.
Sabliov, Determination of antioxidant components
in rice bran oil extracted by microwave-assisted
method, Bioresource Technology, 2008, 99: 4910-
4918;
[8] J. Lopez-Cervantes, D.I. Sanchez-Machado,
N.J. Rios Vazquez,: Journal of Chromatography
A., 2006,1105: 135-139;
[9] Knekt P, Reunanen A, Jarvinen R, Seppanen
R, Heliovaara M, Aromaa A, Antioxidant vitamin
intake and coronary mortality in a longitudinal
population study. Am J Epidemiol., 1994,
139:1180-1189.
[10] Kushi LH, Folsom AR, Prineas RJ, Mink PJ,
Wu Y, Bostick RM, Dietary antioxidant vitamins
and death from coronary heart disease in
postmenopausal women.Nengl J Med., 1996,
330:1029-1035.
[11] Maziar Mohiti Asli, Seyed Abdollah
Hosseini, Houshang Lotfollahian and Farid
Shariatmadari,: Effect of probiotics, yeast,
vitamin E and vitamin C supplements on
performance and immune response of laying hen
high environmental temperature, International
Journal of Poultry Science., 2007, 6 (12); 895-900.
[12] Ordinul ANSVSA nr.51/2005 pentru
aprobarea Normei sanitar veterinare de
implementare a masurilor de supraveghere si
control al unor substante si al reziduurilor acestora
la animale vii si la produsele lor privind
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
performanta metodelor analitice si interpretarea
rezultatelor.
[13] Parsons, C.M.,: Assessement of nutritional
quality of soy products for animals. In: Soy in
Animal Nutrition.James K.Drkley Ed., 2000,
pg.90-105.
[14] Robert Gianello, Roksan Libinaki, Angelo
Azzi, Paul D.Gavin, Yesim Negis, Jean-Marc
Zingg, Phillip Holt, Hooi-Hong Keah, Annike
Griffey, Andrew Smallridge, Simon M.West, Esra
Ogru, Α,: Tocopheryl phosphate: A novel, natural
form of vitamin E, Free Radical
Biology&Medicine, 2005, 39: 970-976.
[15] Stephane Castan, Claude Villard, Stefan
Jakob, Antoine Puigserver, El Hassan Ajandouz,
A,: fast, sensitive method for the simultaneous
determination of alfa-tocopherol and alpha-
tocopheryl acetate in mixed micelles, Journal of
Chromatography B., 2005, 822:339-346.
[16] Standardul SE EN ISO/CEI 17025:2005,
Cerinte generale pentru competenta laboratoarelor
de incercari si etalonari;
[17] Standardul SR EN ISO 6867:2001, Nutreturi-
Determinarea continutului de vitamina E-Metoda
prin cromatografie de lichide de inalta
performanta.
[18] Svetlana A. Lanina, Patricia Toledo, Sabine
Sampels, Afaf Kamal-Eldin, Jelena A. Jastrebova,:
Comparison of reversed- phase liquid
chromatography-mass spectrometry with
electrospray and atmosferic pressure chemical
ionization for analysis of dietary tocopherols,
Journal of Chromatography A., 2007, 1157:159-
170;
Books
[5] *** Eurachem, 2003, The fitness for purpose
of analytical methods. A Laboratory Guide to
Method Validation and Related Topics
[7] ***ICH Q2B, 1996, Analytical Validation-
Methodology.
[19] Tanase and col, 2007,: Validation analytical
methods.
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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

RESEARCH REGARDING GREEN MASS

CONSUMABILITY OF NATURAL GRASS LANDS AND
PRODUCTIVE EFFECT IN FATTENING YOUNG CATTLE

Marinela Enculescu

Research & Development Institute for Bovine Breeding – Baloteşti

www.icdb.ro

Abstract
This experiment, aims to establish the relationships between chemical composition of volume
forages, their consumability and the productive effect in fattening young cattle of Brown breed . The
productive effect of volume forages along with concentrates administered in the food young cattle, is
influenced in the most part by ingestion capacity, which varies depending of many factors. Thus,
was organized three experimental groups: E1, E2 and E3 of eight heads young cattle of Brown breed.
The First one experimental group received green mass which coming from a natural grass lands,
consisting of a mixture of graminaceous that dominate Lolium perene and vegetable, all harvested
from the third pastoral cycle, given as the only component of the ration. The second experimental
group received green mass ad libitum and two kg concentrates for each head every day, keeping the
rations before established. The third experimental group received green mass ad libitum and three
kg concentrates for each head every day.
The results of this experiment showed that:the green mass consumability was different from
quantitative point of view (ingestion capacity per head per day), it have been in close
interdependence with nutritive value, the presence or absence of the other types of fodder in ration.
In the same time there is a other factors related to the body specifity, such as, the age, the body
weight, the capacity of the rumen etc.
Key words: fattening young cattle, green mass consumption, natural grass lands, productive effect

INTRODUCTION essential amino acid was observated in the

Animal breeding scientist are very
interested concerning the meat production, of
cattle breeds from economical, organizational
and technological point of view.
The main important parameters which
directly influences the capacity of food
consumption, increased weight gain, meat
quality, production, economic efficiency and
indirectly the health of animals are: the level,
the type and the food quality, the feeding
technologies [7], [10].
The volume forages have a very good
forage value given by the high content of
nutrients but compared with concentrates
their consumability is lower [1].
The meat of young cattle have the highest
energy value, due content in vitamins,
minerals and especially proteins with high
biological value. The highest value in
meat of young cattle in fattening [8].
To improve the nutrition of young cattle
in fattening we need to use much better of the
forages lands by changing the technologies of
production, the preservation and preparation
of them. At the same time, is necessary the
knowledge of real nutritive value foods for
optimization of feeding animals.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
This experiment was organised by useng
a trial scheme involving a number of three
variants (Table 1): The first variant was to
establish the capacity of green mass ingest
which coming from a natural grass lands,
consisting of a mixture of graminaceous that
dominate Lolium perene and vegetable, all
harvested from the third pastoral cycle, given
as the only component of the ration.

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The second variant received green mass
ad libium and two kg. concentrates/head/day,
keeping the rations before established.
The third variant received the green mass ad
libitum and three kg concentrates/head/day, on
two and three variants will determine the
capacity of replacement the volume forage
studied by concentrates.

Table 1
Experimenal Scheme

Body weight
(kg/head)
(months)
Lot Nr. Rations given
Age
head Sex

1)
E1 8 M =5 5,2 127 Green mass ad libitum
2) 3)
F =3 given to manger
1)
E2 8 M =4 5,1 127 Green mass ad libitum
2) 3)
F =4 given to manger + 2 kg
concentrates/head /day
1)
E3 8 M =4 5,2 127 Green mass ad libitum
2) 3)
F =4 given to manger + 3 kg
concentrates/head/day
1)
male
2)
female
3)
green mass of natural grass lands, the third pastoral cycle.

For each variant, was organized the three
experimental groups: E1, E2 and E3 (Table 1)
of 8 heads young cattle of Brown breed, with
an average age of 5 months and an average
body weight of 127 kg.
The structure of concentrates for the
experimental group E2 was: 77,67% corn,
19,42% grist sunflower and 2,91% CaCo3
and for lot E3 was: 73% corn, 26,29% grist
sunflower and 2,63% CaCo3. This study had
30 days subdivided in 3 experimental period
of 10 days each.
The animals used for experiment have
been weight at the beginning of the
experiment and then from 10 to 10 days.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The chemical composition of the food
used in the experiment was determined by
using the IBNA methodology [3], [4], [9].
Thus, was obtain the followed values: for
dry matter value situated between 23,38%
and 30,67%, for the protein average content
was between 2,91% and 3,55%, for cellulose
gross value situated between 6,18% and
8,96%. For the ash values ranging between
2,18% and 2,74%. Regarding the
composition of floriculture for the total
experimental period, graminaceous owns
59% (dominate Lolium perene with 35 %),
legumes 23% (represented by species
Trifolium repens with 23%), and plant
species affiliation of the other botanical
families 18% (dominate Achillea millefolium
with 8%).
Compared with green mass used in the
first and second experimental period the
nutritive value of green mass used during the
third experimental period was so rich in
D.P.B. (19,53 g/kg. forage) and the N.U.
(0,155 U.N./kg. forage).
This situation is explains by increasing
content of dry matter in the third
experimental peroid (0,307 kg./kg forage).
Regarding the evolution of body weight,
compared with control group E1 (E1 = 143
kg./head = 100%) the highest values was

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

recorded by lots E2 and E3 (E2 = 152 kg./head
= 106,3%, E3 = 160 kg./head = 111.9%).
Regarding the daily average weight gain,
the differences between lots for the total
experimental period, was obvious (E1 = 512
g/head/day = 100%, E2 = 838 g/head/day =
163,6%, E3 = 1100 g/head/day = 214,8%).
The consumability ratios for the total
experimental period was different for lots E1
and E2 compared with lot E1 (E1 = 14,358 kg.
green mass/ head/day = 100%, E2 = 11,255
kg green mass/head/day = 78,4% from E1, E3
= 11,225 kg green mass/head/ day = 78,2%),
which explains the situation only by the
different feeding sistem applied to the three
groups (energy and protein highest ratios in
the case of lots E2 and E3, which benefit
concentrates in their daily ration led to an
increased appetite for green mass resulting in
the third pastoral cycle).
The level provided of feed for the total
experimental period was: D.M. 887,8 kg,
447,8 N.U. and 57,12 kg D.P.B. for lot E1;
D.M. 1125,1 kg, 913,3 N.U. and 101,18 kg
D.P.B. for lot E2; D.M. 1336,4 kg 1170,3
N.U. and 140,23 kg D. P.B. for lot E3;
The daily ration of animals by group E1
not fully covered needs in the energy nor the
protein. The concentration of energy makes
ration increase or decrease daily consumption
of D.M. with consequences on the degree of
recovery of the principles nutrition and
weight gain benefit. Reducing the weight
gain is the consequence increasing the
number of days feeding and therefore
increase food consumption [2], [6],[10].
The lowest specific consumption
expressed in the N.U./kg. gain and D.P.B.
g/kg. gain for the total experimental period,
was recorded by lot E1 (3641N.U. and 481
D.P.B. g/gain) due to low content of green
mass in energy and in D.P.B., followed by
lots E2 (4543 N.U. and 503,4 D.P.B. g/kg
gain) and E3 (5269 N.U. and 624,4 D.P.B.
g/kg gain).
Dry matter consumption.
Analyzing Table 2, is found that the
addition of concentrates in a daily ration of
young cattle, along with green mass
contribute to the reduction ingestion of the
dry matter from grass lands, with values
ranging between 37,2% and 47,1%
depending the amount concentrates ratios
added, quality managed green mass,
especially the body weight of animals.

Table 2
Dry matter consumption
D.M. (g/head/day) D.M. (% total g/head/day)
Concentrates

Concentrates
Green mass

Green mass

Specification Lot
Total

Total

th E1 3565 3565 - 100 100 -

1 experimental
E2 4318 2574 1744 100 59,6 40,4
period
E3 5168 2545 2623 100 49,2 50,8
nd E1 3499 3499 - 100 100 -
2 experimental
E2 4258 2514 1744 100 59,0 41,0
period
E3 5063 2440 2623 100 48,2 51,8
rd E1 4033 4033 - 100 100 -
3 experimental
period E2 5542 3745 1797 100 67,6 32,4
E3 6475 3883 2592 100 60,0 40,0
Total E1 3699 3699 - 100 100 -
experimental E2 4688 2944 1744 100 62,8 37,2
period E3 5568 2946 2622 100 52,9 47,1

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

Regarding green mass consumability The differences for this parameter was
(Table 3), the highest consumer was obvious to the three experimental periods, the
recorded by lots E1 followed by lot E2 and causative enlightening as represented by that
lot E3. body weight is periodically amended with
The daily quantity of D.M. ingested for old.
the total experimental period to young cattle Satiety value of green mass was
of Brown breed (E1) was approxately 3565- calculated by the formula:
4033g/head which corresponds to 14,358 kg V.S.T. = 95 /(g SU x kg 0.75)(the volume of feed
consumed per kg 0.75)
green mass/head/day. [5] where 95 is taken as
Ingest capacity (CI) expressed in units of standard ingestibility (g SU normally
steers satiety (UST) was calculated by the consumed per kg 0.75).
formula: CI=0.219xG0,60.[5]

Table 3
Green mass consumability
Live weight (kg/head)

Green mass

Satiety value (V.S.T.)

Forage consumption

Metabolic weight

consumption

Ingest capacity
(kg.head/day)
Specification

C.I. (U.S.T.)
(G )
0,75
Lot

0,75
0,60
G
S.U./head/d

g S.U./kg
g

th
1 E1 15,240 133 39,16 3565 91,04 18,81 4,12 1,04
exper.
period E2 11,000 135 39,61 2574 64,98 18,98 4,16 1,46

E3 10,880 139 40,48 2545 62,87 19,31 4,23 1,51

nd
2 E1 14,700 138 40,26 4399 86,91 19,23 4,21 1,09
exper.
period E2 10,563 144 41,57 2514 60,48 19,73 4,32 1,57

E3 10,250 150 42,86 2440 56,92 20,21 4,43 1,67

rd
3 E1 13,140 143 41,35 4033 97,53 19,64 4,30 0,97
exper.
period E2 12,200 152 43,29 3745 86,51 20,38 4,46 1,10

E3 12,550 160 44,99 3833 86,31 21,01 4,60 1,10

E1 14,358 138 40,26 3699 91,88 19,23 4,21 1,03

Total
exper. E2 11,255 144 41,57 2944 70,82 19,73 4,32 1,34
period
E3 11,225 150 42,86 2946 68,74 20,21 4,43 1,38

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
CONCLUSIONS
The green mass administered as the sole
component of ration can provide only partial
energy requirements and nutritional
principles, let to different productive effects
depending on the quality green mass coming
the natural grass lands.
Added the concentrates in the daily ration
to young cattle of Brown breed among with
volume forage was contribute to the
reduction green mass ingestibility.
The results of this experiment showed that:
supplementing ration with concentrates we can
obtain an additional increase of weight gain
(326 g/head/day by lot E2 and 588 g/head/day
by lot E3) benefits consisting of a considerable
shortening of the fattening period.
REFERENCES
Books
[1] Bărbulescu C., Motcă Gh., Puia I., Moisuc A.,
Cultura pajiştilor şi a plantelor furajere, Editura
Didactică şi Pedagogică, Bucureşti, 1991.
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[2] Burlacu, Gh., Metabolismul energetic la
animalele de fermă, Editura Ceres, Bucureşti,
1985.
[3]Burlacu, Gh., Metode şi tehnici pentru
măsurarea valorii nutritive a nutreţurilor, Editura
Ceres, Bucureşti, 1991.
[4] Burlacu, Gh., Indicatorii noului sistem de
apreciere a valorii nutritive a nutreţurilor pentru
rumegătoare, IBNA & SIAT, Bucureşti, 1998
[5] Burlacu, Gh., Cavache A., Burlacu R.,
Potenţialul productiv al nutreţurilor şi utilizarea
lor, Editura Ceres, Bucureşti, 2002.
[6] Jarrice, R., şi col., Alimentation des bovins,
ovins et caprins, Editura INRA, Paris,1988.
[7] Pîrvu, Gh., şi col., Tratat de nutriţia animalelor,
Editura Coral Sanivet, Bucureşti, 2003.
[8] Stoica, I., Nutriţia şi alimentaţia animalelor,
Editura Coral Sanivet, Bucureşti, 1997.
[9] Stoica, I., şi col., Analiza nutreţurilor,
USAMV, Bucureşti, 1995.
[10] Stoica, I., Stoica, L., Bazele nutriţiei şi
alimentaţiei animalelor, Editura Coral Sanivet,
Bucureşti,2001.
 BACK

Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

THE EFFECT OF A MICROBIAL PRODUCT ON

PRODUCTION PERFORMANCES OF FATTENING STEERS:
PRELIMINARY RESULTS

Andreea Vasilachi, C. Dragomir, Aurelia Soare

National Research & Development Institute for Animal Biology

and Nutrition, Baloteşti, Ilfov, România
e-mail: secretariat@ibna.ro

Abstract
The effect of a bacteria-based product (Bovilact), on ruminants production performances was
studied on 32 fattening steers (150-250 kg weight category), randomly distributed in two groups
(control/experimental). Both groups were fed ad libitum a diet composed of 20% corn silage and 80%
compound feed (based on wheat and sunflower meal). For the experimental group, 10% of the
compound feed was enriched with Bovilact (inoculated with a polyculture of acilolactic bacterias and
yeasts and incubated until desired density of bacterial cells). Similar diets were fed to two fistulated
cows, organized in a Latin Square design, in order to assess the effect on postprandial ruminal pH
dynamics: average pH, minimum pH, maximum pH, duration of pH decrease under 6.2 threshold
(t<6.2; hours), intensity of pH decrease under 6.2 threshold (a<6.2; hours x pH units), area under pH
curve (auc; hours x pH units). pH was measured 10 hours after the morning meal, with a frequency of
sampling of two hours. After 36 days of experiment, inclusion of Bovilact tended to slightly improve the
daily weight gain: + 4.9% in experimental group, versus control. Bovilact had no clear effect on the
level of ruminal pH level but changed the shape of pH curves, suggesting an influence on microbial
populations involved in carbohydrates metabolism. Further studies on the end-products of
carbohydrate (VFA) are needed in order to clearly assess the effects of Bovilact at ruminal level.
Key words: steers, performance, probiotics, rumen, pH

INTRODUCTION been shown to improve daily gain

The term “probiotic” has been defined as
“a live microbial feed supplement, which
beneficially affects the host animal by
improving its intestinal microbial balance” [4]
and has been used to describe viable microbial
cultures, culture extracts, enzyme preparations,
or various combinations of the above [20]. The
original concept of feeding bacterial
supplements to man and livestock was based
primarily on the potential for beneficial
intestinal effects, including the establishment
of a desirable gut microflora and/or prevention
of the establishment of pathogenic organisms.
Supplementing diets on a daily basis with
lactate-producing and/or lactate-utilizing
bacteria has been shown to improve feed
efficiency and daily gain of feedlot cattle [17],
[5], [13], enhance milk production in dairy
cows, and improve health and performance of
young calves. In several experiments,
supplementing feedlot cattle with lactate-
utilizing and/or lactate-producing bacteria has
(approximately 2.5%), with little change in dry
matter intake (DMI). Ware et al. [19] was one
of the first to report that L. acidophilus
BT1386 increased daily gain and improved
feed efficiency in yearling steers fed a high-
concentrate diet compared with controls.
The objective of this study was to
evaluate the effects of microbial feed
supplement on production performances of
fattening steers.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
A number of 32 Romanian Spotted
fattening steers were used, weighing in
average 220 kg, with an average daily gain of
1200 g, assigned randomly to two groups
(control and experimental). Both groups were
fed on a diet consisting of 20% corn silage
and 80% ground compound feed (based on
wheat and sunflower meal) formulated
according to Burlacu [1].

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In the experimental group, 10% of the
compound feed was enriched with Bovilact
feed additive. This is a polyculture of
selected strains of lactic acid bacteria and
yeasts (Lactobacillus acidophilus,
Lactobacillus casei, Lactobacillus
plantarum, Enterococcus faecium,
Saccharomyces boulardi and Saccharomyces
cerevisiae), which, by numeric superiority,
production of lactic acid and some
bacteriocins, might prevent and control
Table 1
Structure of diets
Diet
Corn silage (kg/day)
Compound feed (kg/day):
- wheat
- sunflower meal
- corn
- CaCO3
- salt
- vitamin/mineral mix T3
Compound feed with Bovilact (kg/day)
C = control; E = experimental
Two fistulized Romanian Black Spotted
cows, with an average weight of 550 kg, set
up in a Latin square design, received similar
diets in order to determine the effect of the
studied product on postprandial ruminal pH
dynamics. The animals were kept in
individual digestibility stands and feed in the
same manner as the fattening steers.
Ruminal fluid samples were collected in
the morning, just before feeding, and then at 2,
4, 6, 8 and 10 hours after the animals have
consumed the entire amount of compound
feed. The samples were collected through the
ruminal cannula using a vacuum pump. The
ruminal content (about 100 ml) was filtered
through 4 layers of gauze and the pH was read
with a Beckman pH meter immediately after
sampling (2 readings/sample). A Visual Basic
script was used to calculate the following
parameters: average pH, minimal pH,
maximum pH, duration of pH decrease below
6.2 (t<6.2), intensity of pH decrease below 6.2
(a<6.2), area under the pH curve (auc).
The experimental data were recorded and
processed statistically, making an evaluation
of the dispersion parameters (average,
variance, standard deviation) to show the
following aspects:
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enterocolitis, might improve feed conversion
and animal performance. The product has
70% DM, acidity 83° T, colony density
3.0x109 CFU/g, sweet/sourish taste, specific
smell of lactic fermentation.
The diets were fed in one meal / day
(8:30 a.m.), the compound feed preceding the
silage and the animals had free access to the
water. The daily amounts of given feed and
the leftovers were recorded, to give the real
feed intake. Tabel 1 shows the diets structure.
Diet C Diet E
6 6
6.5 5.85
65.5% 65.5%
20% 20%
10% 10%
2% 2%
1% 1%
1.5% 1.5%
- 0.65
¾ representativeness of the average;
¾ comparison in time and space of two or
more samples to determine the level of
homogeneity;
¾ characterisation of sample variation;
¾ quantification of the influence of
different factors on the variation of the
specific characteristics.
We used a null hypothesis and an
alternative hypothesis for the significance
tests. Sample and variance homogeneity were
tested by ANOVA (for the bifactorial
experiments, to determine not just the
significance of the difference, but also of the
interaction between the factors of influence),
Student and Fisher.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The daily recording of the feed
administered and leftover by the steers
allowed determining the average daily intake,
shown in Table 2. The actual intake was lower
than the planned one in both groups. This may
be due to the acidic structure of the diet given
by the 8:2 ratio of concentrate to bulk forages,
susceptible to affect diet ingestibility.
 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

Table 2
Average daily feed intake
Control Group Experimental Group
Administered corn silage (kg/steer/day) 6 6
Consumed corn silage (kg/steer/day) 5.82 5.66
Administered CF (kg/steer/day) 6.5 6.5
Consumed CF (kg/steer/day) 5.71 5.68
Dietary nutrient supply:
DM (g/day) 6614.60 6544.78
mFU/ day 8.19 8.11
IDPN (g/ day) 654.03 648.95
IDPE (g/ day) 554.77 549.86
Ca (g/ day) 51.49 51.09
P (g/ day) 30.30 30.04
DM = dry mater; mFU = meat feed units; IDPN = intestinally digestible protein allowed by nitrogen
supply; IDPE = intestinally digestible protein allowed by energy supply

The diets were balanced in terms of evolution of the body weight, average daily
protein and energy, the differences between gain and feed conversion ratio.
groups being very small. Table 3 shows the

Table 3
Animal performance and intakes
Control Group Experimental Group
Initial weight (kg) 218.8 ± 39.2 226.7 ± 40.6
Final weight (kg) 264.5 ± 43.3 274.6 ± 39.8
Average daily weight gain (g) 1269.1 ± 269.0 1331.3 ± 214.7
Feeding efficiency:
Kg DM/kg weight gain 5.21 4.92
mFU / kg weight gain 6.45 6.09
g IDPN / kg weight gain 515.35 487.46
g IDPE / kg weight gain 437.14 413.02

According to the data shown in Table 3,
on the background of a high energy/protein
diet, the inclusion of Bovilact produced a
slight increase of the average daily gain
(+4.9%) in the experimental group compared
to the control group. The difference was not
significant and must be interpreted as trend,
further tests on a larger number of animals
being required. The experimental group used
5-6% less nutrients for one kg of gain
compared to the control group.
Because the diet had a high concentrate
to bulk forage ratio, with a high risk to
induce ruminal acidosis, we also investigated
the effects on the postprandial ruminal pH
dynamics, using two fistulized cows, set up
in a Latin square design (2x2).
Figures 1, 2 and 3 show the evolution of
the ruminal pH using the animal individuality
as constant factor and the diet as controllable
factor, while quantifying this influence on the
variation of the specific characteristic.
Figure 1 (showing pH postprandial
evolution independently on the factors of
influence, diet, period, environment) shows
that the pH displays a clear individual
variability (0.22 pH units difference between
the two cows). In both animals pH peaked in
the morning before feed administration (7.01
and 7.41), decreased fast during the first two
hours after the feed was consumed (to 6.38
and 6.37), reaching a minimum of 6.04 and
6.16 after 4 hours, increasing thereafter
between 6 and 10 hours, to 6.26 and 6.62, for
cow 1 and 2, respectively.
The change in the shape of pH curve
(Figure 2), determined by the addition of
10% Bovilact to the diet, suggest a positive
influence on the ruminal microbial
population, favouring improvement of
production performances, as found in the trial
on steers. However, no major influence on
the parameters describing ruminal pH was
detected (Table 4). Nocek et al. [10] reported
daily low ruminal pH was higher, and area
under pH 5.5 was reduced, for dairy cows
receiving Enterococcus and Lactobacillus,
compared to cows fed a control diet.

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7,5
7,3
Cow 1
7,1
Cow 2
6,9
pH units

6,7
6,5
6,3
6,1
5,9
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Hours

Figure 1. Individual variability of ruminal pH, postprandial evolution

7,6 Diet w ithout Bovilact

7,4
Diet w ith Bovilact
7,2
7
pH units

6,8
6,6
6,4
6,2
6
5,8
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Hours

Figure 2. Ruminal pH postprandial evolution without and with Bovilact

Although Bovilact generates lactic acid,
the decrease of pH was not too large. Figure 2
shows that the Bovilact supplementation to the
diet modified pH shape, maintaining it for a
longer period in the plateau stage around 6.2
threshold. In the absence of Bovilact, a clear
decrease of pH below the 6.2 threshold (down
to 5.95) occurred between 3-5 hours after
feeding, suggesting a potential onset of the
subacute rumninal acidosis, but the restoration
of pH to normal values was sharper.
Figure 3 shows the interaction animal-diet
on the ruminal pH. Cow 1 had an average
initial 6.0 pH (before feeding) during the
control day. After feeding of the Bovilact diet,
pH increased by 0.48 units and after Bovilact
was removed from the diet, pH decreased by
0.08 units. Cow 2 had an average initial pH of
6.90. It decreased by 0.33 units after feeding
the diet without Bovilact, and continued to
decrease by 0.4 units after Bovilact was
included in the diet. The phenomenon can be
put on the account of the individual pH
variation (Figure 1). We need to analyse the
final products of carbohydrates metabolism
(VFA) in order to fully assess the effects of the
product at rumen level.

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

7,80 v1 0 v1 + v1 -
7,50 v2 0 v2 + v2 -

7,20
6,90
pH units

6,60
6,30
6,00
5,70
5,40
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Hours

Figure 3. Ruminal pH postprandial evolution function of the animal – diet interaction

(v1 0, v2 0 = initial pH; v1 +, v2 + = pH due to dietary Bovilact; v1 -, v2 - = pH due to exclusion of the
dietary Bovilact)

Table 4 shows the effect of the individuals
and of the two diets on the synthetic
parameters (t<6.2, a<6.2) which express the
postprandial evolution of ruminal pH. The
duration of pH decrease below a level (6.2 in
this case) is a more reliable parameter, having
a biological signification, confirmed by in
vitro [15], [16], [12] and in vivo [9], [8]
studies. This is explained by the fact that pH
values higher than the threshold and,
consequently, with no relevant effect at the
ruminal level, are not taken into consideration.
For example, a pH value of 6.4 or 6.8 has the
same effect at the ruminal level.
As concerning the shape of pH curve, a
flattened pH curve may lead to a lower
average than a normal one, even if the period
and intensity of pH decrease below a relevant
level for the ruminal metabolism are identical.

Table 4
Effect of the individual and of the diets on ruminal pH parameters
Average Minimum Maximum t< 6.2 a< 6.2 auc
pH pH pH
Effect of the animal (individual variability):
Cow 1 6.34 5.95 7.01 3.81 1.05 62.76
Cow 2 6.56 6.09 7.41 2.96 0.69 64.63
Effect of Bovilact:
Diet with BVL 6.37 5.97 7.11 3.19 0.89 63.14
Diet without BVL 6.52 5.90 7.47 2.81 0.50 64.15
t<6.2 = duration of pH decrease below 6.2; a<6.2 = intensity of pH decrease below 6.2; auc = area
under the pH curve

The synthetic parameters shown in Table 4
confirm the individual variability of the
postprandial evolution of the ruminal pH
(between 2.96 – 3.81 hours for t<6.2, and
between 0.69 – 1.05 hours x pH units for
a<6.2). The addition of Bovilact tends to
increase the duration and intensity of pH
decrease below 6.2. However, these decreases
are in the range of individual variability
(animal effect) and their magnitude is not able
to affect the ruminal metabolism (the general
level of pH remaining thus high).
At our knowledge, no studies thus far have
evaluated the influence of different types of
direct-fed microbials on diurnal ruminal pH
variation on ruminal digestibility but there are
specific strains of microbials that, when
selected and combined, could strategically
manipulate and regulate ruminal metabolism.
It is possible that certain direct-fed microbials
combinations that synthesize lactic acid, when
incorporated into the diet, may sustain a tonic
level of lactic acid in the rumen that would be
higher and less variable. This would stimulate

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
lactic acid utilizing bacteria, which would
reduce total lactic acid available in the rumen
and total ruminal acidity.
CONCLUSIONS
On the background of a high
energy/protein diet, the inclusion of Bovilact
in fattening steers diet produced a slight
increase of the average daily gain (+4.9%) in
the experimental group (1331.3 g) compared
to the control group (1269.1 g) and a 5 – 6%
improvement of feeding efficiency.
No clear effects of Bovilact on the level
of ruminal pH level could be detected, but it
changed the shape of pH curves, maintaining
it for a longer period in the plateau stage,
suggesting an influence on microbial
populations involved in ruminal metabolism.
REFERENCES
Journal articles
[3] Dragomir C. şi col.,: The effect of replacing
dietary barley with dry corn gluten feed on the
dynamics of ruminal pH, Arhiva Zootehnică,
2008, 11:1, 16 – 23.
[4] Fuller R.,: A review: Probiotics in man and
animals, J. Appl. Bacteriol, 1989, 66:365–378.
[5] Galyean M. L., Nunnery G. A., Defoor P. J.,
Salyer G. B., and Parsons C. H.,: Effects of live
cultures of Lactobacillus acidophilus (Strains 45
and 51) and Propionibacterium freudenreichii PF-
24 on performance and carcass characteristics of
finishing beef steers, 2000.
[6] Ghorbani G. R., Morgavi D. P., Beauchemin
K. A., and Leedle J. A. Z.,: Effects of bacterial
direct-fed microbials on ruminal fermentation,
blood variables, and the microbial populations of
feedlot cattle, J. Anim. Sci., 2002, 80:1977–1986.
[7] Krehbiel C. R., Rust S. R., Zhang G., and
Gilliland S. E.,: Bacterial direct-fed microbials in
ruminant diets: Performance respponse and mode
of action, J. Anim. Sci., 2003, 81 (E. Suppl. 2):
E120 – E132.
[8] Martin C. and Michalet-Doreau B.,: Variations
in Mass and Enzyme Activity of Rumen
Microorganisms: Effect of Barley and Buffer
Supplements, Journal of the Science of Food and
Agriculture, 1995, 67 (3): 407 – 413.
[9] Mould F.L., Orskov E. R. and Mann S. O.,:
Associative effects of mixed feeds. 1. Effects of
type and level of supplementation and the influence
of rumen pH on cellulolysis in vivo and dry matter
digestion of various roughages, Animal Feed
Science and Technology, 1983,10 (1): 15 – 30.
[10] Nocek J. E., Kautz W. P., Leedle J. A. Z., and
Allman J. G.,: Altering diurnal pH and in situ
digestion in dairy cows with ruminal supplementation
- 558 -
of direct-fed microbials (DFM) and yeast, J. Dairy
Sci., 2000, 83 (Suppl. 1): 1242 (Absr.).
[11] Nocek J. E., Kautz W. P., Leedle J. A. Z.,
and Allman J. G.,: Ruminal supplementation
of direct-fed microbials on diurnal pH
variation and in situ digestion in dairy cattle,
J. Dairy Sci., 2002, 85: 429–433.
[12] Russell J. B. and Wilson D. B.,: Why are
ruminal cellulolytic bacteria unable to digest
cellulose at low pH?, J. Dairy Sci., 1996, 79:
1503 – 1509.
[13] Rust S. R., Metz K., and Ware D. R.,: Effects
of Bovamine rumen culture on the performance
and carcass characteristics of feedlot steers,
Michigan Agric. Exp. Stn. Beef Cattle, Sheep and
Forage Sys. Res. Dem. Rep., 2000a, 569:22–26.
[15] Shriver B. J., Hoover W. H., Sargent J. P.,
Crawford R. J., Thayne W. V.,: Fermentation of a
high concentrate diet as affected by ruminal pH and
digesta flow, J. Dairy Sci., 1986, 69: 413 – 419.
[16] Slyter I. L., Rumsey T. S.,: Effect of coliform
bacteria, feed deprivation and pH on ruminal D-
lactic acid production by steer or continuous culture
microbial populations changed from forage to
concentrates, J. Anim. Sci., 1991, 69: 3055 – 3066.
[17] Swinney-Floyd D., Gardner B. A., Owens F.
N., Rehberger T., and Parrott T.,: Effect of
inoculation with either strain P-63 alone or in
combination with Lactobacillus acidophilus
LA53545 on performance of feedlot cattle, J.
Anim. Sci., 1999, 77(Suppl. 1):77.
[18] Ware D. R., Read P. L., and Manfredi E. T.,:
Lactation performance of two large dairy herds fed
Lactobacillus acidophilus strain BT138 in a
switchback experiment, J. Dairy. Sci., 1988a,
71(Suppl. 1):219.
[19] Ware D. R., Read P. L., and Manfredi E. T.,:
Pooled summary of eight feedlot trials evaluating
performance and carcass characteristics of steers
fed Lactobacillus acidophilus strain BT138, J.
Anim. Sci. 1988b, 66(Suppl. 1):436.
[20] Yoon I. K., and Stern M. D.,: Influence of direct-
fed microbials on ruminal microbial fermentation and
performance of ruminants: A review, Asian-
Australas, J. Anim. Sci. 1995, 8:533–555.
Books
[1] Burlacu Gh., Cavache A., Burlacu R.,: The new
system of nutritive value appreciation and animals
feed requirements, Ed. Ceres, Bucharest, 1996.
[2] Burlacu Gh., Cavache A., Burlacu R.,:
Productive potential of feeds and their use, Ed.
Ceres, Bucharest, 2002.
[14] Rust S. R., Metz K., and Ware D. R.,:
Evaluation of several formulations of Bovamine
rumen culture on the performance and carcass
characteristics of feedlot steers, Michigan St. Univ.
Beef Cattle Res. & Ext., 2000b, Available:
http://beef.ans.msu.edu/ MSU Beef Research and
Extension 1999-2000.pdf. Accessed April 17, 2003.
 BACK

Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

SOME ASPECTS REGARDING PHOSPHOCALCIC

DISMETABOLIA AT THE DOG

M. Condrea

University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine

„Ion Ionescu de la Brad” Iasi, Romania
e-mail: mcondrea22@yahoo.com

Abstract
During 2007-2008 paraclinical tests were used to investigate some aspects regarding the
etiopathogenesis and diagnosis of phosphocalcic dismetabolia at the dog. Five cases were selected
out of 3: two of them with juvenile osteomalacia, one with osteomalacia, one with bone tumour and
one with hypocalcemic tetany. The results showed variations of calcemia, phosphotemia,
phosphatasemia and magnesiamia. The cases with juvenile osteomalacia and osteomalacia show a
hypophosphatemia, hypomagesemia and hyperphosphatasemia. In the bone tumour there is a
hypercalcemia with dicrease of phosphatemia, magnesemia and phosphatasemia. The results
obtained after administering vitamin D show the complexity of phosphocalcic dismetabolia
etiopathogenesis.
Key words: phosphocalcic dismetabolia, calcemia, phosphatemia, vitamin D

MATERIAL AND METHOD the variety of etiopathogenetic aspects which

Five cases were investigated clinically
and paraclinically, all represented by dogs of
different races and different ages, which were
presented at the vet clinic for diagnosis and
treatment.
The result of the clinical exemination
showed the suspicion of a phosphocalcic
disfunction. The paraclinical tests will
establish some aspects regarding the
etiopathogenesis of these disturbances.
The suspicion of bone chemodystrophy
was based on general clinical signals
represented by aplomb changes, consistency
changes at the level of the bones, sensitivity
changes at the osteoarticular level,
excitability changes etc.
The 5 cases were selected out of 31 cases
of phosphocalcic failure diagnosed in the
clinic during 2007 – 2008.
The selection was focused on catching
the most frequent phosphocalcic unbalances
(juvenile osteomalacia, renal osteodystrophy,
hypocalcemic tetany, tumour processes) and
based on this it was also focused on showing
are also the objectives of this research.
The paraclinical examination was focuesd
on confirming the existence of some
phosphocalcic metabolism disturbances and
it comprised: radiologic examination and
blood biochemical examination.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The five cases which were submitted to
clinical and paraclinical investigations were
selected out of 31 cases of phosphocalcic
unbalance disturbances which were
diagnosed during 2 years (2007-2008) in the
veterinary clinic (tables 1 and 2).
The statistic analysis regarding the
frequency of diagnosing phosphocalcic
disturbances at the dog shows that these
disturbances have a relatively small
percentage (5.07%) out of the total number
of cases the clinic had during 2007-2008.
Among the phosphocalcemic
disturbances the juvenile osteomalacia is the
most frequently diagnosed (67.74%).

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

Table 1
Statistic situation of the phosphocalcic malfunctions diagnosed for the total number of cases the clinic
had during 2007-2008

Total no of cases
From which:
Total no of with
Year
cases phosphocalcic Other phosphocalcic
malfunctions Juvenile osteomalacia
malfunctions
2007 599 14 (2.33%) 10 (71.42%) 4(0.66%)
2008 620 17 (2.74%) 11 (64.70%) 6 (0.96%)

Table 2
The values of the blood constants in the 5 cases investigated
No Specification UM Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4 Case 5
1. Calcemia mg/dl 8.0 10.0 13.2 8.8 10.2
2. Phosphatemia mg/dl 2.3 2.1 2.6 2.8 5.0
3. Magnesemia mg/dl 2.5 2.0 2.7 1.8 2.4
4. Alkaline UI/L 200.7 200.1 98.5 190.1 110
phosphatasis

Out of the two cases, two are with
juvenile osteomalacia (cases 2 and 4), one
with osteomalacia (case 1), one with a
tumour process (case 3) and one with
hypocalcemic tetany (case 5).
In the cases with juvenile osteomalacia,
the values of total calcium, 10mg/dl and
8.8mg/dl, were between the normal variation
limits. The normal values of calcemia at the
dog are between 8.7-11.7mg/dl. (5)
Generally, in juvenile osteomalacia, total
calcemia is not modified but for certain
periods of time. During the periods when
calcemia decreases, tonicoclonic accesses
may appear and they are not caused so much
by calcium failure but more by acid-basis
balance disturbance, which stops the calcium
ionization and its usage by the neuro-
muscular system. (2, 4).
Phosphatemia shows the most important
and characteristic changes in juvenile
osteomalacia. In the cases under discussion
the inorganic phosphorus decreases from 2.9-
6.2 mg/dl, that is between the normal
variation limits at the dog, down to 2.1mg/dl
and 2.8 mg/dl.
As specialty literature shows (1, 3, 4), in
carential juvenile osteomalacia and in the
vitamin D – resistent one there is a
hypophosphatemia, especially if the value of
phosphatemia is compared to the physiologic
one of the young dogs, which is superior to
the one of adult dogs.
Generally hypophosphatemias are usually
associated to variations of calcemia and they
are visible both under certain pathologic
conditions and as a result of anti-acids
exccesive usage.
The values of seric magnesium were of
2.0mg/dl and 1.8mg/dl. These values are
between the normal variation limits 1.7-2.7
mg/dl
In juvenile osteomalacia the alkalines
increase especially once with the desease
onset. In the cases under discussion the
values of alkaline phosphatasis, 200.1UI/l
and 190.1UI/l, were much over the superior
physiologic limit, 100.7mg/dl.
In the case with osteomalacia there are
decreases in the values of calcemia (8mg/dl),
phosphatemia (2.3mg/dl) and increase of
phosphatesemia (207UI/l).
It is well known that hypocalcemias
accompany several dimineralized
osteopathies. They can be consequence of a
poor contribution, of some excessive
digestive or renal eliminations or increase of
phosphatemia. Nevertheless the most
frequent cause is hypoparathyroidism.
Hypophosphatemias are usually associated
to variations of calcemia and they are
visible both under pathologic conditions and
as a consequence of anti-acids excessive
usage (2, 4).
In the case with bone tumour the value of
calcemia (13.2mg/dl) exceeds the superior

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physiologic limit (11.8mg/dl); the values of
phosphatemia 2.6 mg/dl and phosphatasemia
(98.5UI/l) are around the inferior variation
limits.
The osteolysis intensification with
generation of hypocalcemias is frequent in
malignant bone neoplasies or bone
metastases of other neoplasies (carcinoma,
especially mammary and bronchic, malignant
lymphoma, accute leukemias etc). They
determine hypercalcemias trough the
stimulation of osteolysis; the stimulation is
the consequence of the direct neoplasic
invasion of the bone (2).
In the case with hypocalcemic tetany all
the values of the biochemical indicators
studied were between the normal limits. The
clinical expression was the result of changes
at the ionic level, as a consequence of a
respiratory alkalosis on the background of
hyperventilation.
The result analysis shows that the notions
of osteomalacia and juvenile osteomalacia
inglobe a series of etiopathogenetic situations
characterized by disturbances of the
phosphocalcic metabolism, which have an
impact on the osteoid’s mineralization. Both
in the cases with juvenile osteomalacia and in
those with osteomalacia there is a shortage of
phosphates and a slight decrease of the
calcemia’s values. The fact that vitamin D
administration highly contributed to the
improvement of the installed disfunctions
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
draws the attention towards the importance of
this metabolit in the phosphocalcic balance at
the investigated dogs.
CONCLUSIONS
1. In four of the investigated cases there
was a change in the processes of osteogenesis
and osteolysis with bone demineralization.
2. Hypophosphatemia, hypophosphatasemia
and relative hypocalcemia oriented the
etiopathogenesis of the cases with
phosphocalcic dismetabolia.
3. The radiologic examination offered
information on the disfunctions at the bone
balance level.
REFERENCES
Journal articles
[1] Condrea M., Ana Chelaru,– Researches on
Modifications of Phosphocalcic Metabolism at
Layer Hens. Lucr.st. USAMV Iasi, Zoot, vol. 43-
44, 620-621, 2000-2001.
[3] Hagiu N.,Beschea-Chiriac S.,Hriţcu Diana
Lumuniţa- Unele modificări biochimice sanguine
la tineretul canin cu dismetabolie fosfocalcică.
Lucr şt UAMV Iaşi, 40, 118-122, 1997
Books
[2] Cucuianu M., Rus HG, Niculescu D, Vonica -
Biochimie, aplicaţii biochimice, Ed. Dacia Cluj
Napoca, 1991
[4] Saragea M.- Tratat de Fiziopatologie, vol. II,
III. Editura Academiei, 1987, 1994.
[5] The Merck Veterinary Manual – Eighton
Edition, 1998
 BACK
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

RESEARCH ON SOME CHEMICAL ANALYSIS METHODS

FOR EVALUATING THE SOYBEAN MEAL QUALITY

Rodica Căpriţă, A. Căpriţă

Banat University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Timisoara

e-mail: rodi.caprita@gmail.com

Abstract
Heat treatment of soybeans can reduce the activity of trypsin inhibitors and thereby improve the
digestibility of protein. Overheating, however, may destroy or reduce the availability of certain heat
sensitive amino acids and reduce the nutritional value of soy protein. The objective of our study was
to compare three different chemical analysis methods for evaluating the soybean meal quality, and
to establish the most suitable for evaluating over processing. Commercial SBM and raw soybean
(granulation 200µ) were heated in a forced air oven at 120 ºC for varying periods: 5, 10, 15, 20, 25,
and 30 minutes. The urease index (UI), the KOH protein solubility and the Protein Dispersibility
Index (PDI) were determined. Protein was determined by the burette method. We observed that the
UI is useful to determine if the soybean meal has been heated enough to reduce the antinutritional
factors, but it is not very useful for determining if soybean meal has been over-processed. A UI
value of zero does not necessarily indicate over processing of SMB. KOH protein solubility is not a
sensitive index for monitoring under processing of soybean meal. The KOH protein solubility
changed very little up to first 10 minutes of heating and then decreased to a solubility of 65.20%.
The PDI is the best method of evaluating these soybean ingredients for both under heating and over
heating. PDI decreased incrementally from 78% to 20% for the heating times from 0 to 30 minutes.
PDI is also the simplest measurement procedure of those that were evaluated.
Key words: urease index, protein solubility, soybean meal, protein digestibility

INTRODUCTION and cystine that is not destroyed [4]. These

Among plant protein sources, SBM has a
high level of tryptophan and the highest
digestible lysine content which complements
the lysine deficiency of cereal grains used in
animal feeds. Use of soybean products in
animal feeds is limited due to the presence of
a number of antinutritional factors (ANF).
Most critical ANFs such as protease
inhibitors and lectins are heat labile and are
destroyed during the manufacture of SBM.
While mild heating (~90ºC) improves the
nutritional value of SBM by denaturing the
proteins and exposing new sites for
enzymatic hydrolysis as well as inactivating
heat labile ANFs, overheating results in
undesirable changes to the chemical structure
of many essential amino acids lowering the
nutritive value of SBM. The reduction in
protein quality of soybean meal as the result
of over processing is due primarily to the
combination of destruction of lysine and
cystine and reduced digestibility of the lysine
effects on lysine may be explained by the
Maillard reaction in which free amino acids
bond to free carbonyl groups. Therefore,
feed manufacturers require methods to
distinguish adequately processed SBM from
under- or over-processed meals. The
destruction of the enzyme urease present in
soybeans is highly correlated with the
destruction of trypsin inhibitors and other
ANFs. The primary purpose of the urease
assay is to determine if soybean meal has
been sufficiently heated to destroy most of
the antinutritional factors. The objective of
our study was to compare three different
chemical analysis methods for evaluating the
soybean meal quality, and to establish the
most suitable for evaluating over processing.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The urease assay is based on the pH
increase from ammonia released from urea by
residual urease enzyme in a soybean meal.

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The protein solubility was determined
according to the procedure of Araba and
Dale [1]. The KOH protein solubility test is
based on the solubility of soybean proteins in
a dilute solution of potassium hydroxide. The
procedure involves the incubation of a
sample with a 0.2% KOH solution for 20
min at room temperature. Following this
incubation, the sample is centrifuged and the
supernatant is analyzed for the protein
concentration. The solubility of the protein,
expressed as a percentage was calculated by
dividing the protein content of the KOH-
extracted solution by the protein content of
the original soybean sample.
The Protein Dispersibility Index assay is
also based on the solubility of soybean
protein. For this test the solubility is in
water. The PDI method uses ten minutes of
high speed mixing in distilled water at 8,500
rpm [2].
SBM (granulation 200µ) was heated in a
forced air oven at 120 ºC for varying periods
of time: 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 and 30 minutes.
Protein was determined by the biuret
method.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Most soybean meal is produced today by
the solvent extraction process whereby the
soybeans are cracked, heated and flaked
before the oil is extracted with the solvent
hexane. Once the oil has been removed, the
flakes are toasted and ground into meal.
During this production process, temperature
is critical in order to deactivate the anti-
nutritional factors naturally present in raw
soybeans. However, to maintain optimal
nutritional value, the meal must not be
subjected to excessive heat, as this will
denature the protein, making it less soluble
and less digestible. Excessive heat or heating
time reduces the availability of amino acids
due to the Maillard reaction [3] and tends to
destroy certain amino acids [6].
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
Soybean meal processors and their
customers in the animal feed industry need
reliable, rapid and cost-efficient methods to
control the quality of their soybean meal.
Protein quality of soybean meal depends on
two parameters, the reduction of anti-
nutritional factors and the optimization of
protein digestibility [5].
Table 1 shows the effects of overheating
on a commercial sample of soybean meal, to
accomplish additional heat treatment.
Additional heat treatment decreased KOH
protein solubility, and the urease activity
index rapidly approached zero.
KOH protein solubility remains high,
during initial heat treatment. The urease
index is useful to determine if the soybean
meal has been heated enough to reduce the
anti- nutritional factors, but it is not very
useful for determining if soybean meal has
been over-processed.
Table 2 shows the effect of heating of
raw soybean on urease index, KOH protein
solubility and PDI. The urease index values
remained nearly constant up to 5 minutes of
heating and then dropped to 0.02 and less.
The KOH protein solubility changed very
little up to 10 minutes of heating and then
decreased to a solubility of 65.20%.
The urease index is approaching to zero
after 15 minutes of heating, so
supplementary heating time has no effect on
the urease index, showing that this test is
unuseful in detecting over processing. The
urease index value of zero does not
necessarily indicate over processing of SMB.
In marked contrast the PDI index decreased
incrementally from 78% to 20% for the
heating times from 0 to 30 minutes.
These results show that KOH protein
solubility usually remains high during initial
heat treatment. While KOH solubility is a
good index for determining over processing
of soybean meal, KOH protein solubility is
not a sensitive index for monitoring under
processing of soybean meal.
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

Table 1
Effect of heating time on UI and KOH protein solubility
Heating time Urease index, units KOH protein
(minutes) of pH increase solubility %
0 0.03 87.40
5 0.02 78.20
10 0 71.20
15 0 69.95
20 0 59.95
25 0 58.19
30 0 53.20

Table 2
Effect of heating time on UI, KOH protein solubility and PDI
Heating time Urease index, units KOH protein PDI %
(minutes) of pH increase solubility %
0 2.0 89.65 78
5 1.8 87.40 65
10 0.02 87.00 62
15 0.01 80.15 51
20 0 72.20 38
25 0 68.25 25
30 0 65.20 20

The experimental data suggest that PDI is a better indicator of minimum adequate heating
of soybean meal than either the urease index or the KOH solubility index.
The results of the three methods of chemical analysis are graphed in Figure 1.
Protein solubility %

Urease index
100 2.5

80 2

60 1.5

40 1

20 0.5

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
time (minutes)

KOH solubility % PDI Urease index

Figure 1. Variation of UI, PDI and KOH protein solubility with the heating time

CONCLUSIONS specifications is difficult in routine

Protein quality of soybean meal is linked operations. It is therefore replaced with
to both the reduction of antinutritional indirect tests such as urease index, PDI and
factors, and the optimization of protein KOH protein solubility.
digestibility. Direct analysis of both

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The urease index is useful to determine if the
soybean meal has been heated enough to
reduce the antinutritional factors, but it is not
very useful for determining if soybean meal
has been over-processed.
While KOH solubility is a good index for
determining over processing of soybean
meal, KOH protein solubility is not a
sensitive index for monitoring under
processing of soybean meal.
The Protein Dispersibility Index (PDI) is the
best method of evaluating these soybean
ingredients for both under heating and over
heating. The PDI is also the simplest
measurement tool of those that were
evaluated.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT: This work
was supported by PN II-IDEI project,
CNCSIS code 894.
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
REFERENCES
Journal articles
[1] Araba M, Dale N. M.,: Evaluation of protein
solubility as an indicator of over processing
soybean meal, Poultry Sci., 1990, 69:76-83.
[2] Batal A.B., Douglas M.W., Engram A.E.,
Parsons C.M.,: Protein dispersibility index as an
indicator of adequately processed soybean meal,
Poultry Science, 2000, 79:1592-1596.
[3] Del Valle, F. R.,: Nutritional qualities of soya
protein as affected by processing, J. Am. Oil
Chem. SOC., 2000, 58:419.
[4] Dudley-Cash W. A.,: Methods for determining
quality of soybean protein important, Feedstuffs,
1999,71:10-11
[5] Parsons C.M., Hashimoto K., Wedeking K. J.,
and Baker D. H.,: Soybean Protein Solubility in
Potassium Hydroxide: An in Vitro Test of Vivo
Protein Quality, Animal Science, 1991, 69:2918-
2924.
[6] Shede A., Krogdahl A.,: Heat affects
nutritional characteristics of soybean meal and
excretion of proteinases in mink and chicks, Nutr.
Rep. Int., 1985, 32:479.
 BACK
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

RESEARCH REGARDING THE INFLUENCE OF LEAD

IN FODDER PLANTS

Lucica Nistor, Camelia Hodoşan, Andra Suler, Daniela Ianiţchi,

Victoria Gratziela Bahaciu

University of Agronomical Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Bucharest

Abstract
The biological material used was a mixture of fodder perennial plants of three species:
Cocksfoot Grass or Orchard Grass (Dactylis glomerata), fescue (Festuca pratensis) and alfalfa
(Medicago sativa). Analysis has been perfomed on fresh plants resulted from each harvest in order
to determine the content of the lead poulluting element. This study was done on 12 experimental
variants of three series each. Lead was incorporated in the soil before sowing through a solution.
Key words: pollution factors, perennial plants

INTRODUCTION The experiments were carried out over a

The analyses were carried out at the
house of vegetation of UDAMV Bucharest.
The biological material used was a mix of
evergreen plant fodder composed of three
specific species: graminaceae: orchard grass
(Dactylis glomerata), meadow fescue
(Festuca pratensis), and alfalfa or lucerne
(Medicago sativa).
Lead was included before the plants in
the form of a solution with 250 ml per dish,
in concentrations of 100 ppm and 200 pm
respectively lead acetate
(CH3COOH)3.7H2O.
period of 2 years.
MATERIALS AND METHOD
The dose of soluble lead was added
directly to the plant extract obtained earlier
through using spectophotometric method of
atomic absorption with PZE UNICAM. The
method's selectivity is 0.02 µg/ml. The
contents of the plants in the lead were dosed
after the humid mineralization of the vegetal
material.

Table 1
Plant content of lead (ppm) in soluble form in the first year of the experiment. (Variant: Series 1, Series
2, Series 3; nonfattened control)
Variant Series I Series II Series III
V1 Nonfattened control 1,25 1,25 1,25
V2 N50K200 1,25 1,25 1,25
V3 N 150K200 2,50 1,25 1,25
V4 N 250K200 2,50 2,50 2,50
V5 N0K0Pb100 5,00 1,25 3,75
V6 N50K200Pb100 3,75 3,75 3,75
V7 N150K200Pb100 6,25 3,75 3,75
V8 N250K200Pb100 5,00 5,00 5,00
V9 N0K0Pb200 7,50 5,00 5,00
V10 N50K200Pb200 8,75 5,00 6,25
V11 N150K200Pb200 10,00 6,25 3,75
V12 N250K200Pb200 7,50 6,25 5,00

The content of Pb in the first variants V1- in small quantities in the fodder plants
V4 shows that it was absorbed from the soil between 1.25-2.50 ppm Pb at all times during

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

the analysis. The variants V5-V8, to which
100 ppm Pb were added to the substratum,
show that this was absorbed by the plants in
greater quantities, the content being greater
in the first series, with variations of 3.75 ppm
and 6.25 ppm Pb and yet keeping constant
the other two series of analysis. With the
variations with 200 ppm Pb added to the
substratum can be observed an increase in the
amount of lead, touching in the first period of
analysis between 7.50-10 ppm Pb, while
during the last period values between 3.75-
6.25 ppm were recorded.
With all variations, the lead content
dectected in the plants did not pass the
allowed threshold of 14 ppm mentioned in
the relevant specialized literature.

Table 2: The plant content of lead (ppm) in soluble form in the second year of the experiment.
Variant Series I Series II Series III
V1 Nonfattened control 0,626 0,626 1,25
V2 N50K200 0,625 0,625 1,25
V3 N 150K200 0,625 0,625 1,25
V4 N 250K200 0,625 0,625 2,50
V5 N0K0Pb100 0,750 0,750 2,50
V6 N50K200Pb100 0,875 0,750 2,50
V7 N150K200Pb100 0,750 0,750 3,75
V8 N250K200Pb100 0,875 0,750 3,75
V9 N0K0Pb200 0,750 0,750 2,50
V10 N50K200Pb200 0,750 0,750 3,75
V11 N150K200Pb200 0,875 0,875 2,50
12 N250K200Pb200 1,000 0,875 3,75

The content of Pb assimilated in the RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

second year of the experiment has dropped
compared to the first year through the fact
that in this year there was no more polluting
metal added to the substratum. Compared to
plants that did not receive the initial lead
(variants 1-4), which over the period of
vegetation had a constant content level of
0.625 ppm Pb in all series of the analysis,
with the exception of series II, the variations
V5-V8 with 100 ppm Pb added to the soil
varied between 0.750-0.875 ppm at the first
harvest and gradually recorded the growth in
the chart of the other harvests, with the
maximum being 3.75 ppm Pb with variants 7,
8, and 10.
For the group of variants 9-12, which
received 200 ppm Pb in series 3, it can be
remarked there occurred an intensification of
the lead absorption which reaches values
between 2.50 and 3.75 ppm. These high
values can be explained through the
intensification of the plants' metabolism in
the assurance of optimal conditions relating
to the factors of vegetation (light, water,
heat).
The experiment desired to establish the
behavior of fertilized plants that received
during their growth period a charge of
polluting lead in two specific concentrations,
100 and 200 ppm Pb. Added in the
substratum of growth during the first year of
the experiment this element was absorbed
differently by plants from each variant. Thus,
compared to the control variant in which the
detected lead had a value of 1.25 ppm, in
variants with 100 ppm added, the content
grew to 3.30 ppm with variant V5, 3.75 with
variant 6, 4.60 with variant 7, and 5 ppm with
variant 8.
At a doubled concentration of lead (200
ppm) the plants absorbed a variable quantity
of Pb between 5.80 ppm and 6.60 ppm with
variants 10 and 11.
The values of the plant contents in Pb did
not however pass the maximum allowable
limits of 14 ppm Pb, mentioned in the
relevant specialized literature.
In the second year of the experiment the
lead quantity absorbed by the plants dropped
because in the substratum new quantities of
this element were not added.

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
The results obtained show that plants did
not absorb through their roots quantities of
lead added in concentrations of 200 ppm over
LMA, the root structure constituting a
biological barrier that impeded the
penetration of this element in a concentration
of greater than 1.25 ppm absorbed by the
plants from the control group, lead which is
found among a multitude of other elements
found naturally in soil.
The polluting danger represented by lead
deposited by forage plant leaves cultivated in
limitrophe zones near intense auto traffic
arteries or in the neighborhood of industrial
locations that can be a source of pollution.
CONCLUSION
1. The research followed the rhythm of
absorption and assimilation of lead in forage
plants, with the proposed objective that there
is the danger of pollution with this element in
pastures located near roads with intense auto
circulation.
2. The presence of polluting lead during
the time of growth in concentrations of 100
ppm Pb, influences the production of green
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mass, contained in the dry substance, of all of
the variants and their values recorded in
comparison to the control group were higher.
3. The shock dose of 200 ppm Pb applied
during the growth period led to the
accumulation of Pb in plants of 3.6 times
more, compared to the control group.
REFERENCES
Journal articles
[1] Goering H. K., şi P.J. Van Soest. 1970. Forage
fiber analysis: Apparatus, reagents, procedures, and
some applications. USDA-ARS Agric. Handb. 379.
U.S. Gov. Print' Office, Washington, DC.
[2] Ignat Al. (1972) – The influence of sowing age
and the fertilization system on the quantitative and
qualitative production on some mixtures from
gramineous perennial plants and alfalfa. Rev. of
zootechny and vet. Med. nr. 9.
[4] Kamatali, P., Teller, E., Vanbelle, M.,
Wavreille, J., Effet du prefanage sur la valeur
nutritive de l'ensilage d'herbe chey les bovins.
Revue de l'agriculture, nr. 4, Bruxelles. 1989.
Book
[3] Ionescu A – The phenomen of pollution and
anti pollution measures. Ed. Ceres, 1982.
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

THE IMPROVEMENT OF THE DEGRADED GRASSLANDS

THROUGH RADICAL RECOVERY

Fl. Călin

D.A.D.R. Brăila

Abstract
Grasslands, through their productions, contribute to the fodder supplies with a forage rich in
digestible nutritive substances, well consumed by the ruminants and horses. The grasslands’
functions are complex and they balance multiple ecological, economical and social aspects. The
permanent grasslands degraded by the lack of improving measures’ application and by an
irrational use present a destroyed vegetal carpet, with a low covering percentage and an improper
floristic composition, which conduct to small and low qualitative productions. These grasslands can
be improved by radical recovery (plough and seeding a mixture of valuable graminee and
leguminous species). By establishing temporary grasslands as a replacement of the degraded
permanent ones, we obtained in the southwestern area of Brăila County production increases of 25
– 82%. The fodder obtained from the temporary grasslands is high qualitative and can provide the
necessary supplies for the fodder base.
Key words: grassland, degradation, fertilization, temporary, improvement

INTRODUCTION MATERIAL AND METHOD

The permanent grasslands from
Romania, spread on 4.87 million hectares,
represent one of the sources for providing
succulent and rich fiber fodder, required in
the ruminants’ and horses’ nutrition [2].
When grasslands are used through
pasturing, the animals receive a succulent
fodder, rich in nutritive salts and take benefit
from the positive action of the climate factors
that fortify their organisms [3]. The
grasslands from the S-V part of Brăila
County present a low productive potential (3-
5 t/ha green mass), with dominant xerophytes
graminee species, with low fodder value.
Because of the long periods of drought, the
lack of improving measures’ application and
an irrational use, the vegetal carpet is mostly
destroyed, the floristic composition becomes
improper and the permanent grasslands are
degraded. The improvement of these
grasslands can be realized through radical
recovery works, consisting of plough,
seeding a mixture of valuable, perennial
graminee and leguminous grassland species,
specific to the area and organizing the
rational use [1].
During 2004-2006, we established a
single factor experiment, on a degraded
Festuca valesiaca grassland in Şuţeşti
community, Brăila County, in order to
improve it, by transforming it in a temporary
grassland, through plough, seeding and
fertilization. We used as fertilizers cattle
manure and complex chemical fertilizers (12-
22-0), in different doses:
1. Unfertilized control
2. Manure 20 t/ha applied annually
3. Manure 40 t/ha applied once at two
years
4. Complex fertilizer 12-22-0 – 100 kg/ha
annually
5. Complex fertilizer 12-22-0 – 200 kg/ha
annually
6. Manure 20 t/ha + complex fertilizer 100
kg/ha annually
7. Manure 20 t/ha + complex fertilizer 200
kg/ha annually
8. Manure 40 t/ha + complex fertilizer 100
kg/ha once at two years
9. Manure 40 t/ha + complex fertilizer 200
kg/ha once at two years.
The cattle manure, with a chemical
composition of N = 0.82%, K2O = 0.54%,

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P2O5 = 0.98%, humidity 72.4%, was applied
in the fall and the complex fertilizers, in the
spring, along with the mixture of perennial
graminee and leguminous grassland species’
seeds. The mixture of perennial graminee and
leguminous grassland species’ seeds used for
seeding consists of: Bromus inermis 35% (17
kg/ha); Dactylis glomerata 15% (5 kg/ha);
Agropyron pectiniforme 10% (4 kg/ha);
Onobrychis viciifolia 25% (30 kg/ha) and
Medicago sativa 15% (4 kg/ha). We
expressed the production yield in dry
substance and the statistic calculus implied
the variance analysis.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
In order to accomplish the objectives
proposed in the experimental protocol, we
chose to plough a degraded grassland, with
low productions, dominated by Festuca
valesiaca; we prepared the field with
mechanical devices and in the spring of 2005
we seeded the mixture. We observed the
influence of the plant species and of
fertilization on production, vegetal carpet's
biodiversity and on the obtained fodder's
quality.
The influence of fertilization on
production yield for the temporary
grassland
The fertilization with cattle manure lead
to production yields of 5.5 – 5.6 t/ha, with
increases of 25 – 26 % compared to control;
when complex fertilizers were applied,
production yields were of 5.8 – 6.2 t/ha, with
increases of 32 - 41%, and when manure and
complex fertilizers were applied together,
production yields were of 6.0 – 6.9 t/ha for
the doses of 20 t/ha manure anually, with
increases of 36 - 57% and when 40 t/ha
manure once at two years were used,
production yields were of 7.1 – 8.0 t/ha, with
increases of 61 – 82 % (tab. 1).

Table 1
The influence of fertilization on production yield for the temporary grassland (mean values 2004-2006)
No. Production d.s. Differences Signifi-
Fertilization
Crt. t/ha % (t/ha) cance
1. Unfertilized control 4.4 100 -
2. Manure 20 t/ha applied annually 5.5 125 1.1 **
3. Manure 40 t/ha applied once at two years 5.6 127 1.2 **
4. Complex fertilizer 12-22-0 – 100 kg/ha annually 5.8 132 1.4 ***
5. Complex fertilizer 12-22-0 – 200 kg/ha annually 6.2 141 1.8 ***
Manure 20 t/ha + complex fertilizer 100 kg/ha
6. 6.0 136 1.6 ***
annually
Manure 20 t/ha + complex fertilizer 200 kg/ha
7. 6.9 157 2.5 ***
annually
Manure 40 t/ha + complex fertilizer 100 kg/ha
8. 7.1 161 2.7 ***
once at two years
Manure 40 t/ha + complex fertilizer 200 kg/ha
9. 8.0 182 3.6 ***
once at two years
DL 5% = 0.7 t/ha; DL 1% = 0.9 t/ha; DL 0.1% = 1.3 t/ha;

The effect of fertilization on the vegetal with 2 – 3% when 20 t manure/ha + complex

carpet's biodiversity
By seeding the perennial graminee and
leguminous mixture, the participation of the
graminee species in the vegetal carpet
reached 54 - 60% in 2004, the leguminous
species’ one of 25 – 35% and the various
species’ one of 5 – 18%. After three years we
observed small changes in the biodiversity:
the graminee ratio increased with 1 – 5%
with the complex fertilizers’ application and
fertilizers were applied; the graminee ratio
decreased with 3% when 20 – 40 t manure
/ha were applied and with 1-2% for the
fertilization with 40 t manure /ha + complex
fertilizers; the participation of the
leguminous species decreased with 1-2%
when 20 – 40 t manure /ha + complex
fertilizers 100 kg/ha were applied and
increased with 1-3% for the other fertilization
variants (tab. 2).

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

Table 2
The influence of fertilization on vegetal carpet's biodiversity
No Graminee % Leguminous % Various species %
Fertilization
Crt 2004 2006 2004 2006 2004 2006
1. Unfertilized control 60 58 30 28 10 14
2. Manure 20 t/ha applied annually 58 55 25 23 17 22
Manure 40 t/ha applied once at 56 53 28 27 16 20
3.
two years
Complex fertilizer 12-22-0 – 100 60 61 35 34 5 5
4.
kg/ha annually
Complex fertilizer 12-22-0 – 200 57 62 33 34 10 4
5.
kg/ha annually
Manure 20 t/ha + complex fertilizer 59 61 25 28 16 11
6.
100 kg/ha annually
Manure 20 t/ha + complex fertilizer 55 58 26 29 19 13
7.
200 kg/ha annually
Manure 40 t/ha + complex fertilizer 57 55 25 28 18 17
8.
100 kg/ha once at two years
Manure 40 t/ha + complex fertilizer 54 55 29 30 17 15
9.
200 kg/ha once at two years

The influence of fertilization on fodder’s
content in raw protein and raw cellulose
The fodder’s high content in protein was
conditioned by the high participation
percentage of the leguminous species in the
mixture (40 %). In 2004, the fodder’s content
in protein was of 18.5 – 22.82 % and in
cellulose of 19.2 – 21.1 %; in 2006, the
protein content decreased for the fertilization
with 20 – 40 t manure/ha (17.8 – 18.82 %)
and increased for the other variants (21.25 –
22.92 %); the cellulose content decreased for
the fertilization with 20 t manure/ha +
complex fertilizers 100 kg/ha (19.7 –
19.85%) and with 40 t manure/ha + complex
fertilizers 200 kg/ha (19,85 %) (tab. 3).

Table 3
The influence of fertilization on fodder’s content in raw protein and raw cellulose
No. Raw protein Raw cellulose
Fertilization
Crt. 2004 2006 2004 2006
1. Unfertilized control 18.5 17.80 21.10 21.35
2. Manure 20 t/ha applied annually 19.25 18.82 19.25 20.10
Manure 40 t/ha applied once at 20.53 19.65 20.05 20.75
3.
two years
Complex fertilizer 12-22-0 – 100 21.25 19.92 19.70 20.15
4.
kg/ha annually
Complex fertilizer 12-22-0 – 200 22.40 22.53 19.20 20.05
5.
kg/ha annually
Manure 20 t/ha + complex fertilizer 20.15 21.25 20.25 19.85
6.
100 kg/ha annually
Manure 20 t/ha + complex fertilizer 20.83 21.65 20.30 19.70
7.
200 kg/ha annually
Manure 40 t/ha + complex fertilizer 22.62 22.92 20.10 20.25
8.
100 kg/ha once at two years
Manure 40 t/ha + complex fertilizer 22.82 22.86 20.15 19.85
9.
200 kg/ha once at two years

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
CONCLUSIONS
1. The permanent grasslands from the
southwestern part of Brăila County, degraded
by the climate factors and the irrational use
can be improved through radical works and
the replacement with temporary grasslands;
2. For the dry area from Romanian
Field, in order to establish temporary
grasslands it is required to use perennial
graminee and leguminous species adapted to
the local conditions (Bromus inermis,
Dactylis glomerata, Agropyron pectiniforme,
Onobrychis viciifolia, Medicago sativa);
3. The fertilization of the temporary
grasslands with organic and mineral
fertilizers, applied single or together,
contributes to the production increase with 25
– 82 % compared to the unfertilized control;
4. The vegetal carpet’s biodiversity for
the temporary grasslands suffered small
changes under the influence of fertilization in
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all three experimental years: it increased the
graminee ratio with 1 – 5 % and decreased
the leguminous species’ participation with 1
– 3 % for the complex fertilizers application;
5. The content in raw protein maintains
high for all fertilization variants and the
cellulose content, relatively low, due to the
high percentage of leguminous species in the
seed mixture used for seeding.
REFERENCES
Books
[1] Dumitrescu N. and cowork., 1979 – Pajişti
degradate de eroziune şi ameliorarea lor, Ed.
Ceres, Bucureşti
[2]. Iacob T. and cowork, 2006 – Pajişti şi plante
furajere, Editura PIM, Iaşi
[3]. Vântu V. and cowork, 2004 – Cultura
pajiştilor şi a plantelor furajere, Ed. Ion Ionescu de
la Brad, Iaşi
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

RESEARCHES REGARDING THE AGE INFLUENCE

ON CHINCHILA FEMALE RABBITS BREEDING
PERFORMANCES

Elena Costăchescu, G. Hoha, Angela Gavrilaş

Faculty of Animal Sciences, University of Agricultural Sciences

and Veterinary Medicine „Ion Ionescu de la Brad” Iasi, Romania

Abstract
Our researches were made on 3 groups of Chinchila female rabbits with ages between 7 and 12
months old. We had in view their age on their breeding performances as well as on the breeding of
young rabbits after 2 bringing in succession. We also computed the correlation coefficient between
the characters we had in view. We noticed differences among the experimental groups, although
they were not significant. Good results were noticed at the 7 month-old female rabbits and at
the second bringing. The correlation between the age of the females and their characters noticed
by us had negative values for the weight of the nest at the moment of bringing forth(r =0.453 and
positive for the number of the weaned young rabbits( r = +0657) .
Key words: rabbits, age, performances, bringing

INTRODUCTION between 7 and 12 months. The reproductive

Characteristics of reproductive age females
breed of chinchilla influence their performance
and the growth of young rabbits, constituting
an important criterion for selection.
The reproductive age use a female rabbits
formed a ground for discussion contradictory
in speaciality literature, considering the fact
that selection is working to decrease it.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Researches were conducted in a private
farm in Iasi, in the period March-July 2008.
The biological material was composed of
three lots of chinchilla breed of female aged
performance obtained at birth were followed
during two consecutive parturition. It were
pursued reproductive performance and growth
process during the whole period of lactation.
In the final we calculated the coefficient of
variance for each indicator pursued.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The results showed that reproductive
performance is influenced by age, although
differences are not significant results.
The data obtained after the research are
presented in table 1.

Table 1
The performes of reproduction of the females depending of age for the first bringing
Lot one the age of 7 Lot two the age of 10 Lot thre the age of
mounth mounth 12 mounth
Specification
X ± sx V% X ± sx V% X ± sx V%
Body weight at the
4372.8±21,80 14,9 4316,2±30,20 17,8 4433,0±41,21 19,1
first mount
Age of te females of
214.6±10,70 11,2 304,2±17,10 15,8 365,7±21,22 17,1
the first mount (days)
The weight of the
336,8±2,44 15,9 315,6±12,11 19,2 242,8±9,12 13,2
nest
The prolificity
6,4±0,48 9,2 6,3±0,18 7,7 5,1±0,25 5,2
(number)
The numbers of the
5,1±0,29 7,4 5,0±0,23 5,9 3,60±0,33 7,7
young rabbit
351,6±16,80 10,6 315,6±25,3 17,1 291,7±14,20 11,6

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Analyzed the data presented in table 1 that
is found, the age used in reproductive females,
in the 3 groups, was between 7 and 12 months.
Body weight in the first month was different,
with values that have oscillated between
4433g and 4316.2 g, but the differences are
statistically insignificant registered.
It noted differences in the number of
offspring birth and wean. It was 6.4 in female
offspring that had the age of 7 months, and
5.1 female offspring at age 12 months.
Differences between the two lots are a
young rabbits. At weaning (30 days) between
the two groups the differences become more
apparent, so the first lot of young rabbits was
5.1 and in the third 3.6 wean offspring.
Average weight at weaning, even
between different lots, but they are specific
breed chinchilla.
The results of growth are presented in
table 2.

Table 2
The growthis performes of the young rabbits
The medium
The weight of The weight of
The medium of weight to
Specication the young the rabbit
of the growth the rabbit
rabbit weanded
weaded
The lot one the
first bringing the 52,63 3793,10 24,13 351,65
age of 7 mounth
The lot one the
first bringing the 50,06** 3373,51 22,49 315,64
age of 10 mounth
The lot one the
first bringing the 47,61*** 1204,22 11,15 219,73
age of 12 mounth
The lot one the
53,25 4719,36 24,58 389,32
secound bringing
The lot two the
53,01n.s. 4252,56 24,44 332,10
secound bringing
The lot theree
52,63** 1528,21 14,15 312,56
secound bringing

Average weight of young rabbits at birth
was different from the three lot had the
smallest weight, 47.61 g, there is between it
and the first lot of significant differences. At
second parturition weight of of young rabbits
was higher and the differences recorded were
not significant.
Increase average growth was different,
the lowest was recorded in the third group,
11.15 g of the first calving and 14.15 g at
second parturition.
Was calculated by the correlation
coefficient between the characters pursued.
Data are presented in table 3.

Table 3
The corelatins between of the caracters
The corelation The value The value of r̂
The weight of the females x the prolificity 0,08 2,008
The weight of the females x the weight of the nest 0,778 2,047
The weight of the females x the numers of the young rabbit weanded 0,607 2,005
The age of the females x prolificity -0,353 3,19
The age of the females x the weight of the nest -0,453 2,73
The age of the females x the numers of the young rabbit weanded -0,435 1,19

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It noted that there is strong positive
correlation between female weight and the
weight of of young rabbits, the value of ,,r” is
0.778. Also the weight of the female and the
young rabbits wean, the value coefficient of
the correlation de 0,607.
Correlations between age and prolificity
weight at farrowing nest and the number of
of young rabbits wean are negative and
significant middle. These pairs of characters
are influenced by different genes and their
effect is negative.
CONCLUSIONS:
By the made researched have resulted some
practic observation regarding the using at
reproduction of female rabbits from
Chinchila breed:
A. belonging to the medium breeds the
first pairing is at 7 mounths, the
exceeding of this age creates
reproductive problems.
B. The reproductive performance were
different in function of the age and
weight of the females. The obtained
results were unregistrated at the first lot
and in the first and second observed
periods.
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
C. The positive corelatin beetween the
weight, prolificity and the number of
cubs evidentiate the pleiotropic effect of
the involved females in the exprimated
of the rememberd characters.
D. Making the females selection after the
corporal weight we manage to
ameliorate the number of ablactated
cubs and the weight of the nest.
E. The age of the females influences
negatively the prolificity, the nest’s
weight at the birth an the number of
ablactated cubs, the effect of the
involved females is antagonistic.
REFERENCES
Books
[1] Bud Ioan, Anca Boaru, Vlad Vlădău, 2003 –
Animale de blană şi vânat, Editura Academica
Pres Cluj Napoca
[2] Costăchescu Elena, 2000 - Iepuri creştere
valorificare si patologie, Editura Moldogrup Iaşi
[3] Rebreanu Liviu, 2002 - Creşterea iepurilor de
casă, Editura de Vest Timişoara
[4] Xxx Simpozion Naţional “ Creşterea si
valorificarea iepurilor animalelor de blana si vânat,
Lucrari ştiinţifice, Editura Mirton Timişoara –
1998
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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

THE STUDY OF THE EVOLUTION REGARDING

THE ROMANIAN SPORTS HORSE
AND THE MANAGEMENT OF EQUINE SPORTS
FROM ROMANIA IN THE EUROPEAN AREA

I. Dulugeac

Academia Ecvestră Mogoşoaia

Abstract
The study of the Romanian Sports Horse is part of an ample scientific specialty paper, which
approaches the issue of exploiting the horses for the equestrian sports and equine courses, the
dynamics and distribution of clubs, stud farms and institutes specialized on this type of sports in the
national territory, and also the place occupied by Romania in this international movement with a
volume and a number of horses for all the branches of equestrian sports, movement named by
several researchers and specialists– the equestrian industry.
From the total of 312 horses for obstacles, mastership and complete riding contest, existent in
2004 in the possession of the 28 clubs and equine associations registered at the Equine Federation
of Romania, 211 horses were taken in the study, representing 67.6% of the national figure.
The biological material was identified through direct inspection and inquiry within the owners, data
completed with primary records from the selection centers and A.N.A.R.Z, and from the Romanian
Equestrian Federation.
We estimated the average values and the variability of morphological characters at the studied
population, the body indexes and the genetic parameters (heritability, phenotypic and genetic
correlations, the improvement value of the nursery stallions), the data being synthesized in tables,
completed with graphic representation and photographs, in the majority of cases original.
Key words: horses, equestrian, equine, sports, entertainment

Biological studied material. The
research studies on the race horses of
Romania were conducted on 379 horses used
in horse race disciplines and belonging to the
following thoroughbred: Romanian Race
Horse, German Race Horse, French Race
Horse, Hungarian Race Horse, English
Thoroughbred Horse, and Lipitzaner.
Material and method. The biological
material was investigated in Romanian
private studs and equine clubs, as well as in
the Republic of Serbia and Montenegro,
country where measurements were made on a
sample horse, in order to get a comparative
basis for the physico-morphological
characteristics of the horses under study. The
method used consisted in the study and
analysis of the subject horses selected by the
research team who was in charge of
measuring and recording of the found values
in scientific tables for each of the respective
horses.
The utilised research methodology. The
work method utilised for this research
consisted in studies at the macroeconomic level
and studies based on samples taken at the level
of equine clubs and associations, using different
sources of information.The selective work
method based on samples consisted in
interviews with each and every owner, looking
for complete information which, generally,
cannot be found in the primary zootechnical
registrations, nor in the current statistics
The collected information was registered
down on a record card which laid at the basis
of this study, the data being completed with
direct determinations and own observations.
The primary data, while still in an incipient
stage, were ranked by equine clubs and
associations, by thoroughbred and by the entire
equine population, taking into account the type

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of aptitude: obstacle race, breaking in, full
equine event, pairs of horses, endurance etc.
The avarage values and the variation of the
morphological characteristics of the studied
population, as well as the body indexes were
estimated; the data were synthesized in tables,
completed with graphic presentations and
photos, most of them in original.
The wide variety of the broached theme
imposed the diverification of the research,
processing and interpretation of the data, in
accordance with their specificity. To
establish the scientific truth, we combined
the ananlysis with the synthesis, the
induction with the deduction, the general
with the particular, the simple with the
% 25
20
15
10
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Fig. 1. Age structure of the equine population in the Romanian equine sports
Mention should be made of the fact that,
since the latest years, the horse owners have
resorted to importation of race horses from
traditional countries (Germany, France,
Hungary, Ireland), who, due to their high
genetic value, contributed to the
improvement of the performances of the
autochthonous horses.
Referring to the sex ratio, there were
50,7% males and 49,3% females within the
studied equine population . Further to the
ananlysis of the age presented in tbl. 2 şi
fig.1, several significant aspects resulted.
Thus, the horses over 10 years old represent
10,3%. With respect to the Romanian Race
Horse, the English Thoroughbred Horse, and
Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
complex. All the rersults of the research were
analysed from biological, technological,
managerial and marketing point of view.
Obtained results. Structure of
thoroughbred and age of the studied
equine population. Seven thoroughbred
types were included in the structure of the
equine population under this study, the main
share referring to Anglo-Arab Race Horse
(44,3%) and the German Race Horse
(19,3%). The English Thoroughbred,
Lipitzaner and the Romanian Race Horse
have an approximatively equal share
(10,8%), and the French and Hugarian Race
Horse represents only 2,4% each.
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Vârsta (ani)
the German Race Horse, the predominant
aged is from 1 to 4 years, while the Anglo-
Arab Race Horse, the French and the
Hungarian Race Horse were predeominantly
from 5 to 10 years old. The investment made
in the obstacle race horse and in the breaking
in horse justifies the use of the horse till an
advanced age, up to 16-18 years for obstacle
horses and 20-24 years for break in horses. .
Mention should be made of the fact that the
male sex is predominant with the Romanian
Race Horse, the English Thoroughbred Horse
and the sports horses imported from France
and Hungary, while the female sex is
predominant with the Lipitzaner, the Anglo-
Arab and the German Race Horse.
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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

Table 2.
Sex ratio within sports equine population in Romania

Total din care: Masculi Femele

Rasa
n % N % n %
Cal de Sport Românesc 41 10,8 26 63,4 15 36,6
Cal de Sport Germania 73 19,3 31 42,5 42 57,5
Cal de Sport Franţa 9 2,4 5 55,6 4 44,4
Cal de Sport Ungaria 9 2,4 6 66,7 3 33,3
Pur Sânge Englez 38 10,0 25 65,8 13 34,2
Lipiţan 41 10,8 20 48,8 21 51,2
Anglo-Arab 168 44,3 79 47,0 89 53,0
Total Cai de Sport 379 100,0 129 50,7 187 49,3

Colours and colour peculiarities
Fig.3 şi tbl. 4 present the colour
frequency and the colour characteristics of
the sports equine population in Romania.
Further to the registered outcomes, it results
that the highest frequency in colour refers to
the dark bay (62,8%), followed by the sorrel
(14%), bluish grey (10,5%) and black (9%),
while the deres (2,4%) and the white (1,3%)
have a reduced frequency. This order is
approximatively the same within the
thoroughbred types, with special mention that
the dark bay with much more frequent with
the Anglo-Arabian Horse (78,6%), and the
bluish grey with the Lipitzaner (48,8%).
Sorrel is much more frequent with the
German and Hungarian Race Horse (13,7%).
Colour peculiarities are very frequent at
the head level (13,7%) and at the members
level (97,1%), while at the body level the
frequency is reduced (13,2%). Among the
colour peculiarities at the head level, the
most frequently met ones are: star (34%),
blaze (11,2%), sneeze (7,1%), frog mouth
and lamp each with 6,9%.

2,4 9
10,5

14

1,3

Neagră
Roibă
Albă
Murgă
62,8 Vânătă
Dereşă

Fig. 3. Colour frequency, in percentage, within the sports equine population in Romania

Mention should be made of other existing
colour peculiarities of a more reduced
frequency (3 - 4%), as well as of the fact that
only 12,4% of the ananlysed subjects do not
present colour peculiarities at the head level.
Within the various thoroughbred types, the
„star” colour peculiarity has a frequency of
43,8% with the German Race Horse and
42,1% with the English Thoroughbred Horse.
The colour peculiarities at the members
level cover a rather wide range, but the most
frequently met were withe fetlock (gr. I –

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

16,6%; gr. II – 22,7%; gr. III – 26,5%) and
coronet (21,6%). As a rule, the fetlock and
the coronet colour peculiarities are associated
with the white hoof (5,3%), which represents
an important deficiency, since the lack of the
white melanine pigment at the level of the
hoof horn leads to the diminution of its
strength. As it results from the data presented
in table 4, the colour peculiarities at the body
level have a reduced frequency, only of
13,2%. The coal spots present a higher
frequency: 8,5% within the total equine
population and 30% within the German Race
Horse population. The highest frequency of
the colour pecularities was registered at the
members level (97,1%), which means that
only 2,9% did not present any peculiarity.

Table 4
Colour frequency within sports equine population in Romania

Cal de Cal de Cal de Cal de Pur

Total
Sport Sport Sport Sport Sânge Lipiţan
Specificare populaţie
Românesc Germania Ungaria Franţa Englez
N % n % n % n % n % n % n %
Culori de bază, din care:
• Neagră 5 12,2 3 4,1 6 44,5 - - 1 2,6 7 17,1 34 9,0
• Roibă 9 21,9 10 13,7 1 11,1 4 44,4 13 34,2 - - 53 14
• Albă 2 4,9 - - - - - - - - 3 7,3 5 1,3
• Murgă 18 43,9 56 76,7 3 33,3 4 44,4 20 52,6 5 12,2 238 62,8
• Vânătă 6 14,6 3 4,1 - - 1 11,2 4 10,6 20 48,8 40 10,5
• Dereşă 1 2,4 1 1,4 1 11,1 - - - 6 14,6 9 2,4

The most reduced frequency was
registered with the white and deres colours ,
in a percentage of 7,3% and 4,9% with the
white colour for Lipitzaner bred and the
Romanian Race Horse, respectively 14,6%
deres colour for Lipitzaner. The colour
peculiarities at the members level cover a
rather wide range, but the most frequently
met were whitefetlock (gr. I – 16,6%; gr. II –
22,7%; gr. III – 26,5%) and coronet (21,6%).
As a rule, the whitefetlock and the coronet
colour peculiarities are associated with the
white hoof (5,3%), which represents an
important deficiency, since the lack of the
melanine pigment at the level of the hoof
horn leads to the diminution of its strength.
Phenotypical parameters within the
Romanian Race Horse population
Scientific remarks regarding the body
conformation, constitution and harmony
Knowing the phenotypical parameters of
the Romanian Race Horse represents an
actual problem, if we take into account that
similar studies are inexistent and that the
scientific substantiation of the selection and
of the genetic amelioration should be based
on the analysis of the average values and of
the variability of the morphological
characteristics of the equine population used
in equine performance and pleasure sports.
The problem is even more important, as the
economic and market necessities require ever
more the horse for equine sports. The genetic
amelioration of the Race Horse aims at a
certain standard of the used thoroughbred,
who should possess specific morphological
characteristics, in accordance with which the
selection.is made.
The selection criteria are based on other
elements as well, such as:
• economnic importance of the
characteristics, in the sense of their
specially proved efficiency in animal
reproduction;
• stronger heredity (as much as
possible),of the morphological
characteristics, but which is relatively
small with the Race Horse, in respect of
some important characteristics;
• possibility to easily but efficiently
determine the morphological
characteristics, by means of body

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

measurements or moving time The development of the characteristics

measurements; representing criteria of selection for the Race
• knowledge of the correlations among Horse leads to new genetic constructions and
different morphological characteristics, to the obtaining of phenotypes with good
as well as of the aptitudes proved in capacity of the body to get adapted to efforts,
sports races; during the equine training and races, to food
• existance of a large quantity of conditions and to environment work
phenotypical and genetic variation, in conditions.
order to have a wide basis of selection
necessary to obtain the desired type.

%
25,00

20,00

0
,7
19
5
15,00
,1

4
15

,6
8
,8

13
12

6
,3
10,00

11
85
9,

33
8,

82
6,
5,00

52
76

1,
0,00
0,

,8

,7

,6

,5

,4

,3

,2

,1
9

76
9,

52

55

58

61

64

67

70

73

-1
14

-1

-1

-1

-1

-1

-1

-1

-1

11
7-

91

81

71

61

51

41

31

21

3,
Clase
14

9,

2,

5,

8,

1,

4,

7,

0,

17
14

15

15

15

16

16

16

17

Fig. 5. Variation of the Race Horse stature

We will present, in conformity with fig.5, scientistic value. Determination

the phenotypical parameters of the Romanian measurements concerning the transmission
Race Horse, subject to thoroughbred and of the main morphological characteristics
origine, wishing thus to contribute to the were recorded on scientific cards and
knowledge of the genetic value of these analysed, based on the study of 21 stallions
horses, as well as to the proper management who had at least three descendents and who
of the performant equine sports. As were kept under observation during the
mentioned, the population under study research work. Thus, the above figure clearly
counted 379 horses belonging to the shows the amelioration value achieved with
following thoroughbred:Romanian Race the imported stallions, due to the scientific
Horse, German Race Horse, French Race research which played a decisive role both in
Horse, Hungarian Race Horse, English the reproduction selection within the sports
Thoroughbred Horse, Lipitzaner Horse and equine thoroughbred, as well as in the
Anglo-Arab Horse. increase of the genetic level of the offsprings,
due to the genetic value of the parents. Out of
CONCLUSIONS the total number of stallions that produced
The horse effectives that were studied sports descendants, there are only 3
within the frame of our research work, at Romanian stallions ranked among the top 10,
private Romanian studs, equine clubs, during the other stallions belonging to private studs
the training of race horses at Ploiesti and having been imported after 1990. This
hippodrome, led to the finalization of a points out the care of the private investor
practical research, based on statistics of real with respect to capital investment, proving
the existance of an elaborated market

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strategy, through an European system type of
management.
REFERENCES
Journal articles
[1] Bodo, I., Nemeth, C., 1993 – The breeding and
performance registration system in Hungary. 43-th
Annual Meeting of the EAAP, Aarhus.
[2] Călinescu, E., Velea, C., Marcu, N., Ujică, V.,
David, V., 1984 – La fondamentation des certains
critères de sélection utilisés aux races de chevaux
de Roumanie. Bulletin de l’Academie des Sciences
Agricoles et Forestières, nr. 11, Bucureşti.
[3] Cothran, E. G., MacCluer, J.W., 1987 –
Genetic differentation associated with gain within
American Standardbreed horses. Animal Genetics,
18, p.2.
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
[4] Dorofeev, V.N., 1982 – The methods of early
estimation of sportive abilities in saddle horses. A
paper presented at 33st Annual meeting,
Leningrad, USSR.
Books
[5] Dulugeac, I. 2006 – Sports Horses, Arena
Printing House, Bucharest.
[6] Filip, N., 1915 – Zootehnie specială – Caii
(form II), Imprimeria Statului, Bucureşti.
[7] Général Decarpentry, 1991 – Equitation
Académique, Édition Lavauzelle, Paris.
[8] Onslow, R., 1994 – Royal Ascot, Crowood
Printing houde Edinborough.
[9] Ujică, V., Lungulescu, Gh., Marcu, N., 1982 –
Tehnologia creşterii cabalinelor şi echitaţi. Ed.
Didactică şi Pedagogică, Bucureşti.
[10] Warren, E.J., 1992 – Horse Breeding and
Management.Elsevier, Amsterdam.
 BACK

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

THE PHENOTYPIC PARAMETERS AT THE POPULATION

OF SPORTS HORSES FROM ROMANIA

I. Dulugeac1, V. Ujică2, M. Doliş2, Rodica Dănăilă2, M. Burlică2

1
Academia Ecvestră Mogoşoaia
2
Faculty of Animal Sciences, University of Agricultural Science and Veterinary Medicine
„Ion Ionescu de la Brad” Iasi, Romania

Abstract
Knowing the phenotypic parameters of the sports horse of Romania represents an actuality
issue, if we take into account that such studies are inexistent, and the scientific substantiation of the
genetic selection and improvement must be based on the analysis of the average values and of the
variability of morphologic characters at the horse populations used in the equestrian, performance
and recreation sports.
The problem is even more important as the economic necessities of life solicit more and more
the horse for the equine sports. In the genetic improvement of the Sports Horse, the aim is a
standard of the races used, which have some morphological characteristics, after which the
selection is made.
The sports horse must by a pleasant partner for the horse rider, no matter whether it is a
performance sportsman or an amateur looking for recreation or who travels during his free time.
All the horse races represent populations with own characters, obtained through the conscientious
selection by people.
The existent differences refer not only to certain morphological characters (waist, weight, etc.)
but also to the performances obtained in the equine contests. This imposes the determination within
each population of the characters and traits that relate to the performance sports and genetic
improvement.
Key words: horses, equestrian, equine, sports, entertainment

INTRODUCTION made (Arnason, 1980, Hartley, 1993, Ott,

Knowing the phenotypic parameters of
the sports horse of Romania represents an
actuality issue, if we take into account that
such studies are inexistent, and the scientific
substantiation of the genetic selection and
improvement must be based on the analysis
of the average values and of the variability of
morphologic characters at the horse
populations used in the equestrian,
performance and recreation sports (Binder,
1997, Flade, 1974, Ujică, 1981).
The problem is even more important as
the economic necessities of life solicit more
and more the horse for the equine sports
(Georgescu, Ujică,1982, Dulugeac, 2005).
In the genetic improvement of the Sports
Horse, the aim is a standard of the races used,
which have some morphological
characteristics, after which the selection is
1991).
The development of characters that
represents selection criteria of the Sports
Horse leads to genetic constructions and to
obtaining phenotypes with a good adaptation
capacity of the body to the effort during the
preparation, training and equine contests and
also to the feeding conditions and of the
exploitation environment (Warren, 1992).
The sports horse must by a pleasant
partner for the horse rider, no matter whether it
is a performance sportsman or an amateur
looking for recreation or who travels during
his free time. All the horse races represent
populations with own characters, obtained
through the conscientious selection by people.
The existent differences refer not only to
certain morphological characters (waist,
weight, etc.) but also to the performances
obtained in the equine contests. This imposes

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the determination within each population of
the characters and traits that relate to the
performance sports and genetic improvement.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
From the 312 of horses for obstacles,
dressage and complete contest, existent in
2004 in the property of the 28 equine clubs
and associations registered at the Romanian
Equine Federation, 211 horses were taken in
the study, representing 67.6% of the national
percentage.
On the identified biological material we
carried out studies regarding the
morphological characters, conformation
constitution and temperament, the colours
and colour particularities, the qualities and
faults from the exterior, the aptitudes and
results obtained in the equine competitions
thy participated to.
The selective work method based on
sample was achieved interviewing each
owner, aiming at obtaining complete
information that is not usually found in the
primary zootechnical records or in the current
statistics.
60
50
40
% 30
20
10
0
Fig. 1. The structure of breed and age of the populations
The analysis of this data shows us that in
the studies population there existed 10.3%
horses with the age between 10 and 20 years,
successfully used in the internal and
international competitions and then as
reproducers. It is the case of the English Pure
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
The information picked was registered in
an own conception sheet which was at the
basis of this study, the data being completed
with direct determinations and personal
observations.
The electronic processing of the data was
made according to a program elaborated
based on the calculation algorithms by V.
Ujică and V. Maciuc from the Faculty of
Zooetechny of the University of Agricultural
Sciences and Veterinary Medicine from Iaşi.
The average values and the variability of
morphological characters and the body
indexes were estimated, the data being
synthesized in tables.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The structure of breed and age of the
studied populations. In the breed structure of
the horse populations, we comprised 6
breeds, among which the English Pure Blood
and the Romanian Sports Horse have an
approximately equal predominance (10.8%).
From the analysis of the age structure
presented in figure 1, it results that the young
animals (1-4 years) represent 57.5%, those
between 5-10 years have 32.3% and the
horses over 10 years only 10.3%.
1-4 years
5-10 years
over 10 years
Blood, with a performant product even at the
age of 20 years old, but also of the producer
Tam Tam, from the Romanian Sports Horse
race, owner Florin Codre, presently
reproducer in a private stud farm in France
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
In using the horses for the equine sports,
age has an especially important role. Thus,
for the obstacle horse and especially for the
dressage horse, the training lasts several
years, and the use in competitions occurs at
the age of 4-5 years old or 9-10 years old, in
the case of dressage tests.
The money invested in a horse for
obstacles and for the dressage tests justifies
their use at a mature age, which can reach 16-
18 years for the obstacle horse and 20-24
years for the dressage horses.
70
60
50
40
%
30
20
10
0
Fig. 2. Frequency colors in the population
The chestnut colour presents a higher
frequency with the Romanian Sports Horse
(13.7%).
The colour particularities have a high
frequency at the level of the head (87.6%)
and limbs (97.1%) while at the level of the
trunk the frequency is reduced (13.2%).
The average values and the variability of
the main morphological characters. The
analysis of the average values and the
variabilities of the main body dimensions at
the horse populations belonging to the Sports
Horse of different proveniences, indicates a
body development similar to the standard of
breeds they belong to, expressing well the
type of the sports horse for obstacles,
dressage and complete test.
The Romanian Sports horse represents an
intermediary type of the populations of other
proveniences, having the average waist of
160,32 ± 0,98 cm and the weight of 10.08 kg,
and the variability of morphological
characters is sufficiently big, this population
being in course of genetic consolidation.
- 584 -
Regarding the relation between the sexes,
in the studied population there existed 50.7%
males and 49.3 % females.
The colours and colour particularities.
From the analysis of the outcomes obtained
(fig. 2), it results that the highest frequency is
represented by the bay colour (62.8%),
followed by the chestnut colour (14%),
aubergine (10.5%) and black (9%) and with a
reduced frequency, the colours roan (2.4%)
and white (1.3%).
murgă roibă vânătă
neagră derşă albă
Analyzing the variability of the waist, we
ascertain that the studied population is
divided in two subpopulations, one with
waist between 147 cm and 162 cm,
representing 47.77% and another one with
the waist between 163 and 176 cm,
representing 59.23 of the population.
The estimates of the variability present a
high heterogeneity within the studied
population, the variation coefficient having
high values, with limits between 4.22% for
the croup height and 17% for the length of
the posterior fetlock.
Assessing the conformation - constitution
and body harmony. For characterizing the
body conformation and harmony, we
calculated the main body indexes, from
whose analysis the following result:
The Sports horse from the analyzed
population has a small head (135.75%) with a
straight profile and rarely concave.
The forehead is large (13.53%), the eyes
are big, expressive, the ears are small and
mobile, the nostrils are rather large, the

mouth is small and well closed, with more or
less thick and sufficiently mobile lips.
The neck is long (45.74%) with oblique
direction, muscular and strong, well attached
to the head and trunk. The crest is thin and
beautifully worn during movement.
The withers is well emphasized,
continuing rather aesthetically the superior
line of the neck and unseemingly interlacing
with the horseback line.
The horseback and loins are relatively
short (36.05%) the horseback and 14.14 %
the loins.
The croup is rather lower than the withers
(99.45%), short (31.94%), large at the
shoulders (32.65%) and ischia (22.30%).
The croup format is slightly rectangular
in the transversal sense (106.12%). The croup
direction is slightly prone (92.54%), the tail
beautifully worn during walking.
The chest is sufficiently large (25.12%),
the thorax is deep (43.48%), rather large and
profound, and the abdomen is supple.
The limbs are tall (62.46%), favourable to
the movement speed (the speed index
131.88%), rather solid, scrawny with large
and clean joints, strong tendons, well
detached from the cannon bone. The skeleton
is compact and thin (12.73%), with resistant
cannon bone and dense structure. The cannon
bone load index (4.41%) has an inferior value
compared to other sports breeds.
The limbs generally have correct aplomb.
The aplomb flaws “under it forward” and
“under it backwards” are more often
encountered. The bone flaws are very rare.
The skin is thin, smooth and pigmented
with melanin pigments at most of the
individuals.
The body hair is thin, short, smooth and
shiny.
The predominant colour is bay, after
which follows the chestnut, the aubergine,
black colour and very rarely other colours.
The colour particularities are very frequent,
both for the head and for the limbs.
The smooth-robust constitution is
frequently encountered, and the temperament
is lively, favourable to the brave approach of
obstacles of different forms and sizes.
The sports horse has a good body
massiveness (114.52%), with a good body
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
robustness (115.69%) and great effort
capacity in the tests it is used for.
CONCLUSIONS
The analysis of average values and of the
variability of morphological characters and
conformation-constitution at the Romanian
Sports Horse indicates a body development
similar to the standards of other breeds from
Europe, expressing well the type of the sports
horse for obstacles, dressage, teams, and
complete test.
Thus, a waist of 160.25 cm and an
average body weight of 437 kg, values that
indicate an intermediary type of populations
of other proveniences, characterize the
population of the Sports horse studied by us.
The studies achieved have a great
professional interest, but especially, of
scientific presentation with good and real
results in the research practise of the horse, in
the selection plan, so necessary in the much
performant field of equine genetics.
REFERENCES
Books
[1]. Arnason T., Genetic studies of the Icelandic
Toelter Horse, 31-th Annual Meeting of the
EAAP, Műnchen, 1980.
[2]. Binder L.S., Reiten Fűr Einsteiger, Falken
Verlag, Niederenhausen.
[3]. Călineescu E., Ujică V., 125 de ani de
existenţă a Hergheliei Lucina, Revista de Creşterea
animalelor, Bucureşti, 1981.
[4]. Dulugeac I., Contribuţii la studiul Calului de
Sport Românesc şi managementul sportului hipic
din România, Teză de doctorat, USAMV Iaşi, 2005.
[5]. Enoft P., Le nouveau manuel du cavalier,
Edition Solar, Paris, 1994.
[6]. Flade J.E., Phänotypische und genetische
Merkmals variation bei Sport-pferden,
Internationales Symposium Fűr
Sportpferdezűchtung, Vol. I, Leipzig, 1974.
[7]. Georgescu Gh., Ujică V., Lungulescu Gh., Marcu
N., Tehnologia creşterii cabalinelor şi echitaţie, Ed.
Didactică şi Pedagogică, Bucureşti, 1982.
[8]. Hartley E., Horses, D.K. Publising, New York,
1993.
[9].Ott E.A., Horses breeding management, Ed.
Elsevier, Amsterdam,1991.
[10].Ujică V., Curs de tehnologia creşterii
cabalinelor, Inst. AgronomicIaşi 1981.
[11].Warren E.J., Horse Breeding and
Management, Ed. Elsevier, Amsterdam,1992.
 BACK
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

RESEARCH CONCERNING THE POSSIBILITY OF

SPECTROPHOTOMETRIC METHODS FOR DETERMINING
THE URIC ACID LEVELS IN BIRD FECAL DISCHARGE

Camelia Hodoşan, Lucica Nistor, Andra Suler, Daniela Ianiţchi,

S. Barbuica

University of Agronomical Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Bucharest

Abstract
With animals, the nitrogen coming from amino acids is primarily eliminated through one of three
ways: free ammonia, urea with animals (ureotelic species), and uric acid with birds (ureotelic species).
The urea that is found in urine comes from the breakdown of arginine. In the nutritional design,
arginine is indispensable for birds because, unlike mammals, it is not possible for them to
regenerate starting from ornithine and carbamoyl phosphate.
In bird urine, uric acid represents the primary method for eliminating nitrogen, and the most
important constituent (80%) next to ammonium salts, urea, creatine, and free amino acids.
Its design is for the purine bases where the molecule's four atoms of nitrogen come from glycine,
glutamine, and aspartic acid.
In this paper, a spectrophotometer method of determining uric acid from bird fecal discharge is
described, adapted from the HEILMAYER spectrophotometer method for uric acid from blood serum.
Key words: uric acid, spectrophotometer, fecal discharge

INTRODUCTION TYPES OF TYPES OF METHODS

The breakdown of purine nitrates, TESTS
components of nucleic acids, is the metabolic BIRD FECAL VOLUMETRIC METHOD
path for forming uric acid in humans, DISCHARGE
primates, birds and reptiles. BLOOD SERUM SPECTOPHOTOMETRY
METHOD
Uric acid is bisynthesized in the liver –
MILK, URINE, ELECTROCHEMICAL
this function is called uricopoezing – and is BLOOD SERUM METHOD
eliminted through the renal system. Other URINE CHROMATOGRAPHIC
mammals produce allantion with a purine METHOD
base, with uric acid being an intermediary
product. Uric acid is not very soluble in water (0.4
In the case of birds, uric acid comes from mmol/l); the plasmatic concentration in uric
both the breakdown of proteins and also the acid evolves in function of the nutritional
amonium resulting from the proteic state between 40-100 µg/ml.
catabolism. The renal excretion must be permanent to
In birds uric acid contains over 80% of avoid endogenous deposits.
urinary nitrogen. Uricemia falls as well as excretion. The
In the case of bird nutrition studies, the urine composition is also modified; amonium
necessity of studying the nitrogen balance salts represent the most important proportion
imposes the need to determine with great of excreted nitrogen (25%).
precision the exact level of uric acid in fecal
discharge.
EXPERIMENT
In the relevant literature a series of
With birds, urine and feces are mixed, so
methods is presented for determining the uric
separating them requires chemical methods
acid levels from different biological tests:
that allow the scientist to differentiate
between fecal and urinary nitrogen.

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

In order to quantify the fecal nitrogen, According to the test t-TEST and the
indispensible amino acids are primarily in the ANOVA text for p≤0.01 the differences
form of undigestable proteins. between the array of data obtained from the
The chemical method begins by determination of uric acid from the same test
separating the uric acid from the excretion
using the volumetric method TREPSTRA
using a formaldehyde solution with an acid
agent (pH=4.7). The fecal proteins are and HART and the spectophotometric
precipitated with lead acetate or uranyl, method are insignificant.
before being dosed. The volumetric methods TREPSTRA and
The primary method for this work has at HART for determining uric acid from bird
its base the oxidization of uric acid with fecal discharge present an increased slope of
allantion in an alkaline agent, in the presence toxicity, requiring boiling with formaldehyde,
of phosphorophramic acid, with the but the effective time frame for the work is
formation of a blue-coloured composition approximately 26 hours between each test.
whose intensity is proportional with the uric Because of this it was considered necessary to
acid concentration of the test and the perfect a new method to determine the uric
spectophotometric determination of 665 mm. acid from bird fecal discharge.
Through the spectrophotometric method
the interpretation errors can be avoided that CONCLUSION
are inherent in volumetric determinization as The spectrophotometric method for
well as sometimes avoiding the use of
determining uric acid from bird fecal
formaldehyde and its toxic effects.
The reactions that have been used are: discharge obtains analytical results
boric acid solution – borax pH=9; sodium comparable with those obtained through the
carbonate solution 15%; uric acid solution volumetric method for determining uric acid
from stock (100 mg/100ml); uric acid from bird fecal discharge.
solution from work (dilation 1/5 from stock The spectophotometric method of
solution). The standard curve is drawn determining uric acid from bird fecal
following the concentration of uric acid (mg discharge is faster and uses a descreased
uric acid /100 ml) and on the obliteration number of reactive substances.
abscissa of 665 mm following table 2. The spectophotometric method of
determining uric acid from bird fecal discharge is
Standard uric acid Obliteration of 665 finalized through the instrumental determination
solution (mg/100ml) mm that avoids personal interpretation errors such as
0 0,001 those found in volumetry.
5 0,094 The spectophotometric method of
10 0,175
determining uric acid from bird fecal
15 0,259
20 0,429 discharge is much less toxic than the
volumetric methods TREPSTRA and HART
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION that use boiling in formaldehyde.
For this test chicken fecal discharge was
used, and the following results were REFERENCES
obtained for the determination of uric acid Journal articles
presented in table 3: [1] KAYAMORI Y. KATAYAMA Y. (1994),
Sensitive determination of uric acid, Talanta, vol 41 (3)
[2] CAI X., KALCHER K., NEUHOLD C. (1994)
Test Uric acid (g%, Uric acid (g%, g Improved voltametric method for the
Nr. g dry test), dry test), determination of trace amounts of uric acid with
volumetric spectophotometric electrochemicaly pre-treated carbon paste
method method electrodes; Talanta, 41(3).
1A 5,61 5,98
[3] Alumot E., Bielorai R., (1979) – Colorimetric
1B 5,91 5.65
1C 6.08 5.33 determination of uric acid in poultry excreta and in
1D 5.79 5.96 mixed feeds, J. Assoc. Off. Anal. Chem., Val 62(6)
1E 6.31 5.97 [4] Li K. (1993) – Direct determination of uric
1F 6.30 6.59 acid and creatinine in urine by HPLC: Sepu, 11(3).

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

ALTERNATIVES TO BROILER CHICKENS BREEDING

IN PEASANT HOUSEHOLDS

L.C. Stafie

The Professional Association of Poultry Breeders in Iasi County

e-mail: leonard@revista-ferma.ro
web: www.leonardstafie.blogspot.com

Abstract
At the moment, in Romania, there are three hybrids frequently used in poultry industry: Cobb
500, Ross 308 and Hubbard Flex. Basicly, these hybrids have similar productive characteristics and
needs. Hybrid meat Cobb 500 has been designed so as to obtain higher performance with low costs.
It is not choosey about nutritional requirements, so in terms of protein, start discussing about the
recipe (the percentage of protein in feed prices in general affect the finished feed), the hybrid needs
meat are 21% 22.5% PB ( Gross protein), unlike Ross 308, which needs to vary between 22 and
25% PB Hubbard Flex 21 22% PB. For the types of farm we have studied, we followed the rules
published in the Directive 2007/43/EC, which sets minimum standards of protection and welfare of
chickens for meat production. Shelter used in practice to increase the number of 300 chicks were
used two types of housing: a disabled worker's car and a bed of corn turned into a shelter for birds.
According to this study results, a broiler chicken with a weight of 1.9-2.2 kg costs 7.06 lei, the initial
investment is not particularly large and amortized by increasing the first series of chickens, which
shows economic efficiency of an actual 300 broiler chickens in a household agro- industrial. If we
take into account that a broiler chicken at a weight of 1.9 to 2.2 kilograms live can sell at a price
about 12 lei/chicken, produces a net income of 4.94 lei/chicken. It results a total value of 1447.42
lei/series in each production cycle. Breeding broiler chicken in small herds will bring additional
incomes in household/small farmers and the forages made by the breeders in their own farms are
higher capitalized.
Key words: broiler chicken, profitable, household, investment, fodder, hybrid, cost

INTRODUCTION minimum level of technology, machinery and

If we consider that the most research
studies and debates are directed to big
exploitations and producers in poultry
industry (both eggs and meat production),
who have the financial possibilities to
employ specialists and who have a wide
variety of poultry tools and equipments, then
we may say that the middle and small
producers are kind of deprived of accessing
high technologies in this field. Lack of
money, the economical incapacity to contract
long-term credits, as well as the internal
instability on our markets, are the main
category of reasons which cause the lower
investments in these type of farms, no matter
of production direction. That’s why I’ve
considered extremely necessary to study and
to write articles and papers about improving
the specific works in poultry farms, about a
equipments, presenting in the same time
some offers for inputs and biological sources.
Due to the diversity of hybrids for meat
that are currently on the market, we have to
make an overview of them, in order to give
the breeders the right informations and
proper technologies.
Thus, in addition presentation parameters
of technical guidelines, and present some
details of practice growth and exploitation of
meat chickens. At the moment, in Romania,
there are three hybrids frequently used in
poultry industry: Cobb 500, Ross 308 and
Hubbard Flex. Basicly, these hybrids have
similar productive characteristics and needs.
Hybrid meat Cobb 500 has been
designed so as to obtain higher performance
with low costs. It is not choosey about
nutritional requirements, so in terms of

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protein, start discussing about the recipe (the
percentage of protein in feed prices in general
affect the finished feed), the hybrid needs
meat are 21%-22,5% PB (Gross protein),
unlike Ross 308, which needs to vary
between 22 and 25% PB Hubbard Flex 21-
22% PB.
Table 1 show the comparative needs of
protein and energy metabolized for each of
the three hybrids in your question.

Table 1
The requirement of protein and energy metabolized
hybrids Cobb 500 Ross 308 Hubbard Flex
recipe start growth Fini- recipe start growth Fini- recipe start
shing shing
PB% 21- 19- 17,5- PB% 21- 19- 17,5- PB% 21-
22,5 20,5 19 22,5 20,5 19 22,5
Em 2976- 3035- 3155- Em 2976- 3035- 3155- Em 2976-
kcal/kg 3150 3200 3250 kcal/kg 3150 3200 3250 kcal/kg 3150

Source: ******COBB, 2003: Cobb, Broiler Nutrition Guide, ****** ROSS, 2002: ROSS 508, Broiler
Performance Objectives, ******Hubard Isa, 2002: Broilers Management guide.

Cobb 500 resistance to the microclimate. Is found

In terms of microclimate conditions,
Cobb 500 is fastidious, requiring special care
to maintain the parameters in accordance
with the guidelines of operation. Because a
high-speed growth, it presents both an
increased sensitivity and the fact that
increasing the permanent bedding, litter
should be maintained in optimal conditions.
Presents a high capacity feed intake, so that,
in terms of time of light, can be applied
programs light with a long dark. As hybrid,
Cobb 500 has been created especially for the
production of the chest and has a high yield
at slaughter. As a major disadvantage of this
hybrid of meat, because high speed of growth
include the emergence of sudden death
syndrome of chickens.
Ross 308
Ross 308 hybrid has been created for the
production of the chest and legs are quite
shapely. Requires a more expensive feed to
gain performance, but presents a better
widely in our Romania due that parents of
hybrids Ross meat had a higher percentage of
parents lay against the Cobb 500 and the fact
that the hatching percentage is higher.
Hubbard Flex
Hubbard meat Hybrid Flex is a hybrid
that is well adapted to conditions of food and
microclimate empirical but not to expect
great performance if you are not providing
the necessary point of view of technology. In
comparison, Cobb 500 requires exacting
management technology with a prescription
cheap fodder, Ross 308 requires a well
balanced feed, and more expensive but in
terms of management do not pose special
problems. Hubbard Flex is a hybrid that does
not raise any claim in terms of management
and technology in terms of feeding.
In Table 2 we compared body weights of
each hybrid and feed consumption for a kg of
live meat.

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Table 2
Body weights of each hybrid and feed consumption
Hybrid Age in Body Feed
days Weight Consumption
in grams kg feed/kg live
Cobb 500 7 175,4 0,856
14 486,6 1,059
21 931,8 1,261
28 1467,3 1,446
35 2049,2 1,611
42 2633,7 1,760
Ross 308 7 167 0,880
14 429 1,098
21 820 1,304
28 1316 1,460
35 1882 1,590
42 2474 1,721
Hubbard 7 164 -
Flex 14 432 1,25
21 809 1,36
28 1328 1,46
35 1852 1,59
42 2208 1,71

Source: ******COBB, 2003: Cobb, Broiler Management Guide, ****** ROSS, 2002: ROSS 508, Broiler
Performance Objectives, ******Hubard Isa, 2002: Broilers Management guide.

MATERIAL AND METHOD For the types of farm we have studied, we

This study was held in several
householdings in Iasi county, in different
villages, under financial limitations, but
where the peasants were intending to
improve and make more profitable the
existing broiler chickens’ breeding system.
The three broiler types presented in
“Introduction” chapter were the biological
material offered to the owners. I explained
them the meat production advantages and
financial capitalization for each type of
broiler chicken. In the end, the farmer’s
option for one of the three hybrids was the
result of his own wish, relayed on the
existing conditions in that household but also
a scientific choise, considering the
documentation I’ve presented.
The researched was relied on some
minimum but essential measures:
- actual birds specialized on a specific
production (broilers in our case);
- minimum number of 300 head;
- compliance with a minimum of technical
operating and maintenance;
- compliance with minimum health
requirements.
followed the rules published in the Directive
2007/43/EC, which sets minimum standards
of protection and welfare of chickens for
meat production.
By analytic method of efficiency
calculating and based on the zootehnic
patterns in this study, I analysed the available
materials in every household, observing,
identifing and adjusting them to breeding
systems that I determined and I sdecided to
be the best solution for that medium or small
farm. All the steps I made together with these
breeders/peasants were relied on the existing
rules and reglementations for broilers rising
and wellness.
The results and economic values for
efficiency were determined by some
formulas and efficiency index from
specialized scientific papers.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The shelter
Shelter used in practice to increase the
number of 300 chicks were used two types of
housing: a disabled worker's car and a bed of
corn turned into a shelter for birds. Wagon

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used not require large investment, it was
necessary to achieve the just and the location
of electrical sources of light, system of feed
and drinking. Bed maize required more
Foto 1. Shelter poultry workers wagon
• The temperature was provided by two
flow controlled radiators, used for heating
homes, with a power of 1800 w/h/radiator.
Maintain the required temperature was achieved
by two thermostats products company Siemens.
• Ventilation tunnel type, ie, forced
evacuation and admission free. For evacuation
were used two fans use type endeavor.
• Lighting was provided by two
fluorescent light sources with a low 20
W/h/lamp. The program of light was done
with a digital timer time.
Feeding and watering system
• Feeding system
For feeding as the operating principle and
constructive type of wholesome we used in
Figures 1, 2. In terms of manufacturing such
system of feed is relatively simple and does
not require too large an investment. These
can be wooden or galvanized sheet, just
respecting the principles of operation. A
nutritious type it provides a front for feeding
chicken to 37.5 for age over 21 days, so for a
number of 300 head will be used 8 nutritious.
As advantage, using this model does not
involve the use of nutritious during starting, 1
7 days, other types of nutritious.
A disadvantage to be clear is reduced
handling time of depopulation in the
production hall. You must specify that these
schemes are not specified the height
adjustment depending on the age of chicks.
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
investment for the walls, ceiling and
insulation plus equipment. For walls and
ceiling was wood, and as insulating the
building were used textile waste, bevatex.
Foto 2. The heating outfit
This factor remains to be explored and
developed by each producer in terms of
material available. We can only point out that
it may fix an adjustable suspension system, it
may have achieved that supports individual
adjustable height. In terms of loss of feed,
with this model are minimum losses. system
of feed above will apply a cap to protect the
feed from the inside. By the storage bunker
to store system of feed 37 chickens for a
period of approximately 1 3 days.
• Watering system
Watering system must ensure a clean
water and discretion, to be distributed
uniformly in the shelter, to provide front
drinking under age and production class.
Model constructive watering system presents
to us is very simple. Principle of operation is
shown in Figure 3, the water comes from the
main water pipe in a tank bursting pressure
with a float to maintain a constant level in the
basin. Before the pool can put a filter for
retaining the natural impurities in water.
From the pool leaving a conduit provided
with a valve closure, the horse pond. System
drinking is provided with a floater to ensure a
constant level of water in the horse pond.
System drinking will make sheets of
galvanized for corrosion protection against
water and chemical agents in the existing
shelter. The dimensions listed below provides
the front 150 for feeding birds will therefore
use two watering.
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

APPENDIX - CONSTRUCTION ELEMENTS

Fig. 1. Draft feeding system

Source: Stafie, C., Leonard şi col., 2006: Ghid de mecanizare şi automatizare
a adăposturilor de păsări, Ed. Waldpress, Timişoara.

Fig. 2. Feeding system, side view

Source: Stafie, C., Leonard şi col., 2006: Ghid de mecanizare şi automatizare
a adăposturilor de păsări, Ed. Waldpress, Timişoara.

Fig. 3. Scheme and principle of operation of the drinking

Source: Stafie, C., Leonard şi col., 2006: Ghid de mecanizare şi automatizare
a adăposturilor de păsări, Ed. Waldpress, Timişoara

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Fig. 4. Shelter outline

Source: Stafie, C., Leonard şi col., 2006: Ghid de mecanizare şi automatizare
a adăposturilor de păsări, Ed. Waldpress, Timişoara.

Fodder consumption
Consumption of feed and feed consumption body weight obtained in a herd of 300 chicken
meat in hybrid FF Hubbard Flex application in technology presented so far.

Table 3
Feed consumption and body weights obtained
Age in Weight gr / Total feed Feed
weeks chicken consumption consumption
(kg) Actual g/chicken/week
300 chicken
0 42 - -
I 120 42 140
II 361 123 410
III 795 231 770
IV 1327 294 980
V 1723 303 1010
VI 2340 349,5 1165
TOTAL 2340 1342,5 4475

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Economic calculations

Table 4
Recipe forage and consumption for the starting period

Type fodder Participation Quantity Lei / quantity

in consumed kg consumed
feedingstuff%
Maize 60 237 71,1
Wheat 1 3,96 1,188
Concentrate 10 39,6 91,8918
Type Atico start
Soy grist 29 114,84 184,49
Pulvivit 1 3,96 12,73
TOTAL 101* 399,36 361,3998
1 kg added vitamin pulvivit * 1 kg feed starting 0.905 lei

Table 5
Recipe and forage consumption for growth

Type fodder Participation Quantity Lei / quantity

in consumed kg consumed
feedingstuff%
Maize 54 322,38 96,714
Wheat 10 59,7 17,91
Concentrate 10 59,7 136,403
Type Atico start
Soy grist 25 149,25 239,8
Pulvivit 1 5,97 19,182
TOTAL 100 597 510,009
1 kg increase in forage 0.8543 lei

Table 6
Recipe consumption and forage for finishing

Type fodder Participation Quantity Lei / quantity

in consumed kg consumed
feedingstuff%
Maize 65 227,175 68,153
Wheat 10 34,95 10,49
Concentrate 10 34,95 72,75
Type Atico start
Soy grist 15 52,425 84,221
Pulvivit 1 3,495 11,23
TOTAL 101* 352,995 246,844
1 kg added vitamin pulvivit 1 kg feed start 0.6993 lei

Prices for feed ingredients:

1. Atico start focusing type 2.3205 lei/kg
2. Atico type growth focused 2.2848 lei/kg
3. Atico concentrated type finishing 2.0813 lei/kg
4. grain maize 0.3 lei/kg
5. wheat 0.3 lei/kg
6. 1.6065 soy grist flower lei/kg
7. pulvivit 3.2130 lei/kg

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Table 7
Total expenditure for a number of 300 heads of chicken meat*

Cost Quantity Lei /unit Lei/ total Lei/ Lei/300

type product quantity chicken effectively
ends
Feed Start 399,36 kg 0,905 361,3998 1,204666 361,3998
Growth 0,8543 kg 0,883524 510,009 1,70003 510,009
Finishing 352,995kg 0,6993 246,844 0,822813 246,844
Total 1349,355 kg - 1118,2528 3,727509 1118,2528
1 day chicken 300 buc 1,72 516 1,72 516
buying and
transport
Electricity 720 kw 0,45 324 1,08 324
Medicated - - 60 0,2 60
- decontaminate
Mortalities 2,2 % - 50,27736 0,1675912 50,27736
TOTAL herd 293 chop - 2068,53016 7,059829 2068,53016
delivered
*the owner’s work was not calculated

CONCLUSIONS [6] Stafie, C., Leonard şi col., 2006: Ghid de

From the data presented above shows that
a chicken meat with a weight of 1.9 2.2 kg
costs 7.06 lei / Chicken, the initial investment
is not particularly large and amortized by
increasing the first series of chicken, which
shows economic efficiency of an actual 300
chicken meat in a household agro- industrial.
If we take into account that a chicken meat at
a weight of 1.9 to 2.2 kilograms live can sell
at a price about 12 lei / chicken produces a
net income of 4.94 lei / so put a total value
1447.42 lei / effectively in a production cycle
of 9 weeks from 6 weeks to 3 weeks
production and veterinary vacuum. Raising
broiler chickens in small herds can bring
additional income household, and a critical
value are higher forage resources obtained by
them (eg maize).
REFERENCES
Books
[1] Decun, Mihai, 2006: Amplasarea judicioasă a
feremelor zootehnice, Referat Revista Ferma.
[2] Duţă, Gheorghe şi col., 1976: Instalaţii de
ventilare şi climatizare, Ed. Didactică şi
Pedagogică, Bucureşti.
[3] Huţu, Ioan şi col. 2006: Creşterea puilor pentru
Carne, ediţia a III-a revăzută şi adăugită, Ed.
Mirton, Timişoara.
[4] Popescu Băran, Mircea şi col. 1966: Creşterea
industrială a păsărilor.
[5] Stafie, C., Leonard şi col., 2005: Ghid de
Creştere a Puilor de Carne, Ed. Waldpress,
Timişoara.
mecanizare şi automatizare a adăposturilor de
păsări, Ed. Waldpress, Timişoara.
[7] Ştefanescu, Gheorghe si col., 1999: Creşterea
păsărilor în fermele mici şi mijlocii, Ed. Ceres,
Bucureşti.
[8] Vacaru-Opriş, Ioan şi col., 2002: Tratat de
Avicultură, vol. II. Ed. Ceres, Bucureşti.
[9] Vacaru-Opriş, Ioan şi col., 2004: Tratat de
Avicultură, vol. III. Ed. Ceres, Bucureşti.
[10] Vacaru-Opriş, Ioan şi col., 2005: Sisteme şi
Tehnologii de Creştere a Puilor de Carne, Ed.
Ceres, Bucureşti.
[11] ***Asociaţia Oamenilor de Afaceri Iaşi,
2006: Implementarea acquisului comunitar în
avicultură.
[12] *** Big Dutchman, 2005,2004: Echipamente
avicole.
[13] *** COBB, 2003: Cobb, Broiler Nutrition
Guide.
[14] *** COBB, 2004: Cobb, Broiler Management
Guide.
[15] *** Naukra, 2006: Hale producţie.
[16] *** Nutreco Company, 2002: Hybro PN,
Tehnical information PN Broilers.
[17] *** ROSS, 2002: ROSS PM3, Broiler
Performance Objectives.
[18] *** ROSS, 2002: ROSS 508, Broiler
Performance Objectives.
[19] *** ROSS, 2002: ROSS Broiler Management
Manual.
[20] *** Roxell, 2005: Innovative System four
Poultry.
[21] *** Hubard Isa, 2002: Broilers Management
guide.
[22] *** Hubbard Isa, 2005-Management guide
Parent Stock.

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

ALTERNATIVES TO LAYING HENS BREEDING

IN PEASANT HOUSEHOLDS

L.C. Stafie

The Professional Association of Poultry Breeders in Iasi County

e-mail: leonard@revista-ferma.ro
web: www.leonardstafie.blogspot.com

Abstract
This study was held in several householdings in Iasi county, in different villages, under financial
limitations, but where the peasants were intending to improve and make more profitable the existing
laying hens’ breeding system. The researched was relied on some minimum but essential measures:
actual birds specialized on a specific production (eggs in our case), minimum number of 300 head,
compliance with a minimum of technical operating and maintenance, compliance with minimum
health requirements. Following the calculation of estimated investments for a number of 300 laying
hens, it results that an egg costs 0.143 lei (under references values). The price of wholesale will be
approximately 0.25 lei, which means a net income of 0.107 lei/one egg. The total income achieved
in 77 weeks is 8,784.7856 lei. A holding of this type provide an additional income producer.
Besides, after applying this study results, one more very important problem is solved: the higher
capitalization of forage resources obtained in their own individual farms (eg maize).
Key words: laying hens, profitable, household, investment, fodder

INTRODUCTION birds in these “farms” to discuss effective up

If we consider that the most research
studies and debates are directed to big
exploitations and producers in poultry
industry (both eggs and meat production),
who have the financial possibilities to
employ specialists and who have a wide
variety of poultry tools and equipments, then
we may say that the middle and small
producers are kind of deprived of accessing
high technologies in this field. Lack of
money, the economical incapacity to contract
long-term credits, as well as the internal
instability on our markets, are the main
category of reasons which cause the lower
investments in these type of farms, no matter
of production direction. That’s why I’ve
considered extremely necessary to study and
to write articles and papers about improving
the specific works in poultry farms, about a
minimum level of technology, machinery and
equipments, presenting in the same time
some offers for inputs and biological sources.
We are two years after Romania joins the
European Union and the peasant households
is the same. If we refer to populations of
to 100 head, low productive birds, lack of
application of sanitary veterinary rules, lack
of technology and a feeding defect. Under
these conditions, and negative economic
profitability of these farms is reflected
directly in the living standard of “farmers”.
As a possible improvement of farm
households, especially given that no financial
resources for development of large farms, the
first step to be done is to make upwards of
existing farm with a minimum investment.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
This study was held in several
householdings in Iasi county, in different
villages, under financial limitations, but
where the peasants were intending to
improve and make more profitable the
existing laying hens’ breeding system.
The researched was relied on some
minimum but essential measures:
- actual birds specialized on a specific
production (eggs in our case);
- minimum number of 300 head;

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- compliance with a minimum of technical
operating and maintenance;
- compliance with minimum health
requirements.
Minimum standards of maintenance and
operation of laying hens are governed by
Rule of 28/11/2001 Published in the Official
Gazette, Part I no. 113 of 12/02/2002 and the
Council Directive 1999/74/EC of 19 July
1999 laying down minimum standards for the
protection of laying hens. Provisions of these
rules shall not apply to holdings with fewer
than 350 laying hens, farms growing youth
replacement for laying hens.
By analytic method of efficiency calculating
and based on the zootehnic patterns in this study, I
analysed the available materials in every household,
observing, identifing and adjusting them to breeding
systems that I determined and I sdecided to be the
best solution for that medium or small farm. All the
steps I made together with these breeders/peasants
were relied on the existing rules and reglementations
for laying hens rising and wellness.
The results and economic values for
efficiency were determined by some
formulas and efficiency index from
specialized scientific papers.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
To manage food systems can be used for
feeding linear or circular but they face to
ensure feeding of at least 10 cm/bird (feeding
linear system) or 4 cm/bird (feeding system
of circular). (1. System Photo - drink and
feed, source: www.flytesofancy.co.uk) If the
drink is water use plants with continuous
drinking linear system (front watering the
minimum 2.5 cm/bird) circular drinking
system (front to drink minimum 1 cm/bird)
and when using the drinking cup or pipe tip,
will provide a cup or pipe up to 10 hens. To
lay a nest is used for up to 7 hens (2. Photo. 2
model nest, source, Hubbard ISA Parent
Stock Management Guide, 2005) and nests in
the group to have at least one m2 for a
maximum of 120 hens. Perches rest will be
no sharp edges and allocate at least 15
cm/bird. They will not be placed above the
litter, the distance between the perch at least
30 cm distance between the wall and the
perch of 20 cm and the bedding should be at
least 25 cm2/bird.
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
For the operation of laying hens with
access to paddock (Photo 3, 4 paddock
source model, www.chicken house.co.uk,
2007) breeder should take into consideration
the following:
• Access birds in paddock is made by trap
size 35 cm high and 40 cm wide arranged
throughout the length and shelter as a general
rule should be for 1000 chickens an opening
of at least 2 m;
• bird density should not exceed 9 laying
hens/usable area in m2.
Farmers’ duties
• The number of birds will be viewed as
obligatory at least once a day
• You will avoid sudden noises, and noise
level should be reduced to the minimum
possible, feeding facilities, air conditioning
and other equipment will be used so as to
produce as little noise;
• Lights will be uniform and at a level at
which birds can be seen in the case of using
natural light, admission of light must be
located so as to ensure uniformity of light
distribution;
• All parts and equipment shelters that
are in contact with poultry should be cleaned
and decontaminated effectively.
Livestock buildings, shelters poultry must
meet the following general criteria:
- satisfaction of conditions imposed by the
specific biological process poultry
populations;
- making microclimate conditions of the
specific activity of growth and
exploitation of birds (humidity, chemical
factors, variations temperature, etc..)
- resistance in construction time, the
possibility of rehabilitation of the profile
for which the building was designed;
- construction costs as lower.
Shelters for poultry, livestock are designed
to increase the construction and operation of
meat or poultry laying hens. Analyzing the
data presented, set design parameters for the
production halls: spaţiiile for birds, buffer
chamber, the inside of the shelter,
microclimate conditions (temperature,
humidity, air speed, lighting, etc..), The
feeding, watering, etc.. In the case of new
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
developments to increase farm birds should be
considered a set of rules to be followed to
maintain good health staff to comfort the
people of the area and last for conducting the
optimum technological processes .
Thus for calculating the surface shelter,
that we need to herds of laying hens, are
taken into account:
1. The overall
2. chick /m2
3. Area occupied by machinery (plus
wholesome drinking).
Formula for calculation is applied to the
following:
St = Su + SNP Where: St.
• is the total area of the shelter should be
ensured for the growth and operation of
poultry and existing machinery required for
the production;
• Su area is occupied by machinery for
feeding and watering equipment for, which
calculates the relationship with Su = Nru ×
Sut where Nru represents the total number of
machines placed in the hall and Sut m2 area
is occupied by a single machine;
• SNP - is effectively used by the birds
obtained by the relationship SNP = Et : Dp/m2
where Et represents the overall population and
for holding Dp/m2 mean density per m2.
From the town hall production for laying
hens category appear nest, rest and Perches
lane access for harvesting eggs. To maintain
a state of good health for poultry and
recommend arranging a paddock to be very
grass have bower. Access to the paddock is
made freely access via hand or mechanically.
They have size 50/50 cm. In case of cold or
wet paddock access is prohibited. As a
surface for paddock must provide at least 6
square feet for a bird.
Raising youth replacement (0-19 weeks)
On the arrangement livestock equipment,
shelters for youth category replacement are
identical as for chicken meat.
Growing and operation of laying hens
(20-77 weeks)
For a shelter with a capacity of 300 heads
laying hens, density of 6.9 birds/m2 we need
the following areas:
- 598 -
St = 58.925m2 where Su = 8.925m2 and
SNP = 50m2
Shelter capacity of 300 heads laying hens,
must have the following dimensions: length
11.12 m and 5.3 m in width and height of 2.2
m. From the town hall production for laying
hens category appear nest, rest Perches
passage and access for harvesting eggs. To
maintain a state of good health for poultry and
recommend arranging a paddock to be very
grass have bower. Access to the paddock is
made freely access via hand or mechanically.
They have size 50/50 cm. In case of cold or
wet paddock access is prohibited.
The numinous to ensure front feeding is 8
pieces and drinking 2 pieces and 50 nest (6
laying hens on a nest). In draft 1 - a model
for organizing shelter for laying hens is
presented an overview of the equipment
arrangement.
You mentioned that the dimensions shown
above are indicative, they may change
depending on the density of birds per square
meter of surface area and equipment used. In
terms of density is considered that a density of
5 7 laying hens/m2 is sufficient. Problems
occurred due to overloading density. Density
too high can cause uneven growth of the
number of birds, unable to ensure front
feeding and watering, low percentage of lay.
and rapid deterioration of permanent litter.
Standing litter deterioration leads to a
precarious state of health of herds of birds. For
this reason had to be very careful in
calculating the optimal use of space used by
birds as failing this goal leads to important
economic losses. If small number of birds (300
head) can use existing spaces in households,
but must meet criteria on the optimal size,
height (2 2.5m), is well insulated and heat to
be easily cleaned and decontaminated.
Perches rest
Perches rest are placed in the halls of
exploitation of laying hens, but the name you
can tell by their role. Construction and
dimensions as in photo 5 is played the
necessary details. Perches rest are built of
wood or other materials, but must be resistant
to the weight carried by birds, are resistant to
chemical corrosion factors of shelter and
easily washable.
 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

Economic calculations

Table 1
Recipes used forage consumption and feed for a herd of 300 heads laying hens, for 0 to 16 weeks
Period Type Prescription In total Lei/total
feed % partici- consumption feed
pation actually
Maize 61 218,62 65,586
0 starting Wheat 0 0 0
-6 weeks Concentrate Atico 10 35,84 81,887232
type chicks 0-7 wk.
Soy grist 28 100,35 161,212275
Pulvivit 1 3,6 11,5668
Maize 59 403,8 121,14
Growth Wheat 10 68,442 20,5326
7-12 weeks Concentrate Atico 10 68,422 156,33058
type chicks 7-18 wk.
Soy grist 20 136,884 219,90414
Pulvivit 1 6,85 22,00905
Maize 60 332,64 99,792
Development Wheat 15 83,16 24,948
13-16 Concentrate Atico 10 55,44 126,66931
weeks type chicks 7-18 wk.
Soy grist 14 77,616 124,69010
Pulvivit 1 5,544 57,2327577
TOTAL - 2151,6 1293,6

Price finished feed: 6 weeks starting weeks 2.2848 lei/kg Conc. Atico type chicks
0:0.878422 lei/kg, 12 weeks Growth 7: 7-18 weeks 2.2848 lei/kg Soy grist 1.6065
0.77819 lei/kg, 16 weeks and Development lei/kg Pulvivit 3.2130 lei kg.
13: 0.703016 lei/kg.
Ingredients’ price: Maize 0.3 lei/kg,
wheat 0.3 lei/kg Conc. Atico type chicks 0-7

Table 2
Cost of a herd of 300 heads laying hens 16 weeks period 0
Lei/ Lei/ Lei
Lei/
Cost’s type Amount product entire /300
chicken
unit amount chickens
Fodder Starting 358,41 0,878422 314,84 1,05 314,84
Raising 684,398 0,77819 532,6 1,78 532,6
Growing 554,4 0,703016 389,76 1,3 389,76
total 21516,6 - 1293,6 4,13 1293,6
Buying 1 day chickens 300 buc 2,9 870 2,9 870
- transport
Electricity 1200 kw 0,45 540 1,8 540
Medicated - - 80 0,27 80
- decontaminate
Mortalities 3% - 81,9 0,273 81,9
TOTAL/herd 291 chop - 2865,5 9,85 2865,5

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

Table 3
Recipes fodder used for the consumption of feed a herd of 300 heads laying hens, 17 to 77 weeks
Period Type Prescription In total Lei/total
feed % partici- consumption feed
pation actually
Maize 61 188,215 56,4645
Pre-lay Wheat 15 46,2825 13,88475
period Concentrate Atico 10 30,855 64,2185115
17-18 Soy grist 13 40,1115 64,43912475
weeks Pulvivit 1 3,0855 9,9137115
I Maize 50 169,125 50,7375
10-50 laying Wheat 28 94,71 28,413
percent Concentrate Atico 10 33,825 70,3999725
19-20 weeks Soy grist 11 37,2075 59,77384875
Pulvivit 1 3,3825 10,8679725
II Maize 49 1186,878 356,0634
70-94 laying Wheat 25 605,55 181,665
percent Concentrate Atico 10 242,22 504,132486
21-32 Soy grist 15 363,33 583,689645
weeks Pulvivit 1 24,222 77,825286
III Maize 50 1367,19 410,157
93-90 laying Wheat 26 710,9388 213,28164
percent Concentrate Atico 10 273,438 569,1065094
33-44 Soy grist 13 355,4694 571,0615911
weeks Pulvivit 1 27,3438 87,8556294
IV Maize 59 1603,549 481,0647
90-85 laying Wheat 20 543,576 163,0728
percent Concentrate Atico 10 271,788 565,6723644
45-55 Soy grist 10 271,788 436,627422
weeks Pulvivit 1 27,1788 87,3254844
V Maize 50 2526,48 757,944
85-74 laying Wheat 31 1566,418 469,9254
percent Concentrate Atico 10 505,296 1051,6725648
56-77 Soy grist 8 404,2368 649,4064192
weeks Pulvivit 1 50,5296 162,3516048
TOTAL - - 13574,22 2756

Price finished feed: Pre lay 17-18 weeks:
0.670137 Euro/kg I, 10-50% lay, 19-20 weeks:
0.645079 Euro/kg, II, 70% lay 94, 21, 32
weeks: 0.695195 ROL/kg, III, 93% lay 90, 33,
44 weeks: 0.670137 Euro/kg, IV, 90 85% lay
45, 55 weeks: 0.63255 Euro/kg, V, 85% lay
74, 56, 77 weeks: 0.607492 Euro/kg.
Ingredients’ price: Maize 0.3 lei/kg,
wheat 0.3 lei/kg Conc. Atico type Layer
2.0813 lei/kg soybean groats 1.6065 lei/kg,
Pulvivit 3.2130 lei/kg.

Table 4
Cost of a herd of 300 heads laying hens, 77 weeks from 17
Cost’s type Amount Lei/ Lei/ Lei/ Lei
product entire chicken /300
unit amount chickens
Prelay 358,41 0,878422 314,84 1,05 314,84
I 684,398 0,77819 532,6 1,78 532,6
II 554,4 0,703016 389,76 1,3 389,76
Furaje III 2743,38 0,670137 1838,5 6,13 1838,5
IV 2717,88 0,63255 1719,2 5,74 1719,2
V 5052,96 0,607492 3069,64 10,24 3069,64
Total 12111,428 - 7864,54 26,22 7864,54
Electricity 1200 kw 0,45 540 1,8 540
Medicated - - 150 0,5 150
- decontaminate
Mortalities 3% - 235,98 0,7866 235,98
TOTAL/herd 291 chop - 8790,52 29,3066 8790,52

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Table 5
Total costs for 0 to 77 weeks/owner
Period of Costs/ Costuri/
time hen efectiv
0-16 9,85 2865,5
Weeks
16-77 29,3066 8790,52
Weeks
Total 39,1566 11656,02
CONCLUSIONS
This model is a top holding for
development peasant household at the
moment in a continuous decline. Respecting
minimum standards, the products obtained
can be traded legally, which means more
income and higher capitalization of existing
feed resources. The first step you should do
"farmer" is holding and making effective use
of human and material resources. We have no
claim that all breeders to become laying hens
or chicken meat and that is a solution for
some people in rural areas.
Following the presentation of data on
expenditure on a number of 300 laying hens
that an egg costs 0143 lei. The price of
wholesale will be approximately 0.25 lei,
which means a net income of 0107 lei / or
total income achieved in 77 weeks is
8784.7856 lei. A holding of this type provide
an additional income producer. One thing
very important: they are valued higher forage
resources obtained by them (eg maize).
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
Eggs/ Eggs/ Costs/
hen herd egg (lei)
0 0 0
274 82100,8 0,107
274 82100,8 0,143
REFERENCES
Books
[1] Decun, Mihai, 2006: Amplasarea judicioasă a
feremelor zootehnice, Referat Revista Ferma.
[2] Peştişanu, Constantin şi col., 1981: Construcţii
civile, industriale şi agricole, Ed. Didactică şi
Pedagogică, Bucureşti.
[3] Stafie, C., Leonard şi col., 2005: Ghid de
Creştere a Găinilor Ouătoare, Ed. Waldpress,
Timişoara.
[4] Stafie, C., Leonard şi col., 2006: Ghid de
mecanizare şi automatizare a adăposturilor de
păsări, Ed. Waldpress, Timişoara.
[5] Ştefanescu, Gheorghe si col., 1999: Creşterea
păsărilor în fermele mici şi mijlocii, Ed. Ceres,
Bucureşti.
[6] Stoica, I., 1997: Nutriţia şi Alimentaţia
Animalelor, Ed. Coral-Sanivel, Bucureşti.
[7] Vacaru-Opriş, Ioan şi col., 2002: Tratat de
Avicultură, vol. II, Ed. Ceres, Bucureşti.
[8] Vacaru-Opriş, Ioan şi col., 2004: Tratat de
Avicultură, vol. III, Ed. Ceres, Bucureşti.
[9] Vacaru-Opriş, Ioan şi col., 2005: Sisteme şi
Tehnologii de Creştere a Puilor de Carne, Ed.
Ceres, Bucureşti.
[10] *** Hubbard Isa, 2002: Babcock 300,
Management guide.
[11] *** Hubbard Isa, 2000: Babcock 380,
Performance Standars.
[12] *** Hubbard Isa, 2005: Management guide
Parent Stock.
[13] *** HY-Line Brown, 2004: Tehnologie de
exploatare a găinilor ouătoare.
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

ILLUSTRATIONS APPENDIX

2. Hatches patterns
1. Watering and Nutritious source: Hubbard ISA-Management
source: www.flytesofancy.co.uk guide Parent Stock, 2005

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

3. Paddock model 4. Paddock model

source: www.chicken-house.co.uk, 2007 source: www.chicken-house.co.uk, 2007

5. Perches rest
(source: Hubbard ISA-
Management guide
Parent Stock, 2005)

Sketch 1 - a model for

organizing shelter for
laying hens

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 BACK
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

INFLUENCE OF RAW MILK QUALITY ON

LACTOBACILLUS ACIDOPHILUS MULTIPLICATION AND
PROBIOTIC YOGHURT PRODUCTION

Eva Csutak

University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Cluj-Napoca, Romania

e-mail: szkkeva@yahoo.com

Abstract
Considering that the quality of raw milk is a prerequisite condition to obtain a good quality
probiotic yoghurt, our studies aimed the measurement of milk factors which can affect the
multiplication of probiotic lactic acid bacteria (LABs) Lactobacillus acidophilus (LA-5. The
probiotic strains Bifidobacterium BB-12 and Lactobacillus acidophilus LA-5-we used for trials- are
tested probiotics by Christian Hansen company. We studied comparatively raw and pasteurized
milk, their chemical composition and the correlations between the spontaneous microbial flora
(NTG) found in milk samples and the impact of this flora on the multiplication of LABs. We
investigated as well the effect milk proteins, added prebiotics( lactose, molasses) on pH and LAB
development, the influence of NTG (number of total germs), NCS (somatic cells number) in raw milk
before and after pasteurization, on lactic fermentations and LA-5( Lactobacillus acidophilus)
Generally multiplication of LA-5 strains was reversely correlated with NTG values. There is a
direct correlation between presence of prebiotics and probiotic bacteria activity.
Key words: yoghurt, probiotics, lactic acid, NTG, pasteurization

INTRODUCTION prevent the adherence, establishment,

Yoghurt is a long time known and
appreciated dairy product, obtained
traditionally by the spontaneous or induced
lactic fermentation of milk. The
microbiology of lactic-producing bacteria
and the fermentation biochemistry and
technology of yoghurt is well documented
[1], [2], [3], [6], [13].
The term “probiotic” is known since 1903
when the benefic actions of Lactobacillus
acidophilus strains were observed in human
intestine, and the term of “prebiotic” is
known since 1961, and define the substances,
generally natural ingredients or
microorganisms which improve the intestinal
equilibrium and defense against pathological
bacteria [4], [7], [11], [15].
Yoghurt, by its high content in lactic acid
bacteria (LABs) possesses antimicrobial
activity in vitro against a wide variety of
Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria,
as well as some fungi. The exact cause of
inhibition is not known, but may be due to
the antagonist action of LAB species which
replication, and/or pathogenic action of
certain enteropathogenes. To improve
continuously the quality of yoghurts,
preservation of probiotic characteristics and
the shelf-life of live LABs, with improved
capacity of fermentation, are needed [9],
[10], [12], [17], [18].
Among many strains, Lactobacillus
acidophilus is best candidates to be used,
alone or in combinations as lactic fermenting
microorganisms with high probiotic activity
(Kailaspathy, 1997). An important factor
which influence the development and survival
rate of probiotic LAB is the milk quality and
its bacterial flora. It is known that the quality
of raw milk in Romania is still an unsolved
problem, since the number of total germs and
of somatic cells found in milk is higher than
the permitted level in European Union (NTG
<100000/ml, NCS<400000/ml) [2], [3].
Considering that the quality of raw milk is
a prerequisite condition for obtaining a good
quality probiotic yoghurt, our studies aimed
the measurement of main milk factors which

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can affect the multiplication of probiotic-
forming bacteria Lactobacillus acidophilus
(LA-5) We studied comparatively the raw and
pasteurized milk, the correlations between the
spontaneous microbial flora found in milk
samples and the impact of this flora on the
multiplication of probiotic bacteria. Added
prebiotics are influencing the multiplication of
LA-5, and in this way may be decreased raw
milk qualities effects.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The samples of cow milk originated from
the region of Harghita county and the tests
were made at NIZO, Netherlands and at S.C.
Gordon Prod company’s authorized lab. For
experiments we used Lactobacillus
acidophilus (LA-5) strain provided by
Christian Hansen company. The media used
for the storage and determinations of
bacterial multiplication were MRS agar for
LA-5 the nutritive, sorbitol agar (Sanimed)
used for the determination of NTG .
To make measurements, the raw milk,
after cooling, was inoculated with both
bacterial strains at three dilutions (10-1, 10-2
and 10-3) and incubated for 72 hrs. The
counting of bacteria was made after 48 and
72 hrs of incubation. For LA-5 the incubation
was made at 43°C. All samples were done in
duplicate. For preparing of probiotic yogurt
pasteurized milk on 95°C was cooled to
43°C, and inoculated with LA-5 probiotic
strain. After 3 hours of incubation were
measured the parameters presented in results.
To determine the NTG we used the
bacterial counter IBCM Bactocount and to
count the NCS, we used the Somatos tester
NCS. Somatos tester used for NCS
determination is an equipment, based on
difference of viscosity of milk with different
number of somatic cells. The equipment was
bought from Viola company, from Bucharest.
The pH was determined using the lab pH
meter WTW315i. PH meter WTW 315i is
imported by Viola company, produced by
WTW company. By photometry we
determined the lactic acid and lactates from
our samples (yoghurt, yoghurt with molasses).
With added phosphoric acid the lactates
are transformed to lactic acid.
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
Form the prepaired samples we obtain a
dilution 10-2, and from this diluated sample
with a pipette we measure 50 µl to a test-tube
with bung. To the diluated yoghurt sample we
add 4 ml 3:1 H2SO4: H2O, and 100µl hydro-
kynon solution with etanol 12.5%.The test-
tube must be agitated ( shaked), and boiled in
a water-bath about 20 minutes (together with
an etalon and a standard sample), until the
color of sample will become yellow.
After cooling the content of test-tube, by
photometry-on 405 nm- we determine the
lactic acid content.
Etalon sample is prepaired from 50µl of
distillated water, and the standard solution
from 50-50 micro-liter of standard.The lactic
acid content of product was tested a University
of Kaposvar, and at Gordon Prod’s lab.
Bactocount IBCm is an automated
instrument using flow cytometry (FCM) for
the rapid enumeration of individual bacteria
in raw milk. The milk is sampled and
dispensed into individual vials manually. An
incubation reagent made up with a
clarification buffer, a proteolytic enzyme, and
a fluorescent marker are then added in
manually in order to lyse the somatic cells,
solubilize the fat globules and proteins,
permeabilize the bacteria and stain their
DNA. The vials are then placed on an
incubator at 50 °C. The fluorescence marker
intercalates rapidly and selectively into all
the bacteria double-stranded nucleic acid.
The mixture is then sonicated manually
during the incubation on two different
occasions. The sonication process is used to
help the chemical breakdown of the
interfering particles, disrupt die remaining
bacteria colonies to improve the detection of
individual bacteria and reduce the
background fluorescence. The cell debris,
devoid of nucleic acid, are excluded from the
analysis.
After the incubation period the mixture is
then transferred manually from the
incubation plate to the sample intake pipette.
The mixture is then transferred to the flow
cytometer where the bacteria are aligned and
exposed to an intense laser beam and
fluoresce. The fluorescence signal is
collected by the optics, filtered, and detected
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

with a photo multiplier. The fluorescence
pulses intensity and height are recorded and
used as gating parameters. The sorted pulses
are dien translated into individual bacteria
count after instrument calibration.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The composition of milk samples (raw
and pasteurized) before to be inoculated
with probiotic strains:
The main characteristics of raw milk
comparing with the pasteurized milk used in
experiments are presented in Table 1.and the
composition of native proteins found in whey
originating from raw and pasteurized milk
are presented in Table 2. The fat, protein,
lactose content of milk are measured in
percent, the microorganisms number in
CFU/ml(colony formating unit).

Table 1.
Main chemical parameters which characterize the milk samples (raw and pasteurized)
Aerobic
Total
Milk Lactose Fat Density psyhotrophic TSR9 Phosphatase
protein
samples % % Kg/l microorganisms (CFU/ml) activity
%
(CFU/ml)
7 4
Raw milk 3.28 4.41 3.80 1.029 1.4*10 1.7*10 positive
4 4
Pasteurized 3.27 4.53 3.77 1.029 9.6*10 1.3*10 negative
milk

No significant differences between density, proteins, lactose and fat contents were
observed for raw vs pasteurized milk, but a significant decrease of aerobic psyhotropic
microorganims, TSR9 density.

Table 2.
Analysis of native protein fractions found in native whey originating from raw and pasteurized milk.
De-
α- ß-
Native whey BSA Immuno Total whey natured
lactalbumin lactoglobulin
Proteins (g/l) globulin (g/l) protein (g/l) whey-
(g/l) (g/l)
protein %
Raw milk 0.97 3.19 0.29 0.50 4.96 0
Pasteurized milk 0.95 2.96 0.18 0.27 4.35 12.2

Regarding the native whey proteins,
significant decreases in BSA (bovine serum
albumin), immunoglobulin and total protein
were observed for pasteurized milk, as well
the increase of denatured proteins (up to
12.2%) (Table 2).
Relations between the NTG found in
raw and pasteurized milk and their effects
on the multiplication probiotic strain of
LA-5:
We observed that the initial milk NTG,
and as well NCS influenced significantly the
probiotic bacteria evolution (Table 3). We
found out that pasteurization at 95°C was not
enough efficient and even after 95°C
pasteurization, the presence of
microorganisms can affect the probiotic
development.
Samples of raw milk we used for trials
are presented in table 3.
The influence of the NTG found in raw
and pasteurized milk and their effects on the
multiplication (expressed in % ) of LA-5 at
concentrations of 0.025g/l is presented on fig.
1. and table 4. Incubation temperature of
milk: 43ºC.

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

Table 3.
Determination of raw milk parameters used for evaluation of NTG influence on probiotic bacteria
multiplication

Fat
Nr. of Name of collector or NCS, Protein Lactose content,
content,
sample collecting center CFU/ml content, % %
%
1 Torok Antal 76300 3.42 4.14 4.69
2 Turdeni 103000 3.46 4.08 4.71
3 Gordon’s Farm 92000 3.38 4.08 4.67
4 Hadnagy Antal 116000 3.44 4.09 4.69
5 Dobeni 96000 3.45 4.11 4.71
6 Farm 3 13200 3.42 4.16 4.72
7 Cobatesti 84000 3.41 4.08 4.68
8 Kiss Antal 123000 3.39 4.09 4.71

Table 4.
Influence of raw milk NTG on LA-5 bacteria multiplication
NTG of Number of LA-
NTG of milk saple by Titrable
Nr. of pasteurized Lactic acid 5, by
IBCm BactoCount, acidity, pH,
sample milk, content, % inoculation on
CFU/ml Th°
CFU/ml MRS agar
1 10621099 10200 71 0.69 2360000 4.79
2 1589781 8100 78 0.72 2640000 4.68
3 357856 6400 84 0.78 2730000 4.56
4 1702388 7600 81 0.73 2620000 4.65
5 989569 6350 82 0.76 2700000 4.59
6 91392 4850 88 0.88 2830000 4.55
7 272785 6100 76 0.72 2690000 4.67
8 114321 5150 84 0.87 2838000 4.61

Influence of raw milk total bacteria number on LA-5

multiplication

120

100
NTG of milk saple by
IBCm BactoCount,
80 CFU/ml/100000
NTG of pasteurized milk,
60 CFU/ml/10000

40 Titrable acidity, Th°

20
Lactic acid content,
%*100
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
pH*10
Variables value mentioned in
legend

Fig.1. Influence of raw milk total bacteria number on LA-5 multiplication

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

Lactic acid content of probiotic yogurt with LA-5 is in direct relation with number of LA-5
bacteria, how it is presented on fig.2.

Relation betw een lactic acid content and

bacteria*100000 num ber of LA-5 from probiotic yoghurt

30
Number of

20
10
0
0.69 0.72 0.78 0.73 0.76 0.88 0.72 0.87 0.68
Lactic acid, %

Fig.2. Relation between lactic acid content and number of LA-5 from probiotic yoghurt

For determining of total bacteria number
bacteria number influence on LA-5
multiplication it was important selecting of
raw milks with different total bacteria
number. It was important that chemical
properties of milk ( fat content, protein
content, lactose content) and its somatic cell
number to be similar and low (lower than
200000 CFU/ml). For inoculation we used
pure probiotic strains of LA-5. Influence of
total bacteria number on LA-5 multiplication
was measured off by determining of acidity,
pH,NTG, lactic acid content of final product.
Raw milk’s NTG influences directly total
bacteria number of pasteurized milk. Acidity
,NTG, pH, lactic acid content of probiotic
yoghurt obtained from raw milk with high
NTG will be lower. Samples with NTG >
500000 CFU/ml after pasteurizing process
will have a total bacteria number > 6000
CFU/ml, and this concurrent microflora will
affect the multiplication of LA-5 probiotic
strains.
Generally, the NTG in raw milk at the
beginning of experiments were around 20
times higher than in pasteurized milk (where
even after pasteurization at 95ºC, not all
microorganisms were destroyed). In time,
after inoculation with LA-5 the NTG
decreased significantly, around 23 times (for
raw milk) and 5 times (for pasteurized milk).
It is obvious the competition between the
initial contamination of milk and the
effectiveness of LA multiplication.
CONCLUSION
The quality of raw milk in Romania
needs to be improved, in order to obtain
higher quality probiotic yoghurts. At his
moment the number of total germs (NTG) is
over the limits accepted by EU legislation,
and it can induce technological problems
during production.
In this context, the Gordon Prod company
where our experiments were done, tried to
investigate the impact of existing NTG and
NCS in raw and pasteurized milk on LAB
probiotics (Lactobacillus acidophilus ). We
found out that pasteurization at 95°C was not
enough efficient and even after 98°C
pasteurization, the presence of
microorganisms can affect the probiotic
development. Small increases of milk protein
content seem not to influence the LABs
development.
We investigated as well the effect milk
proteins on pH and LAB development, the
influence of NTG, NCS in raw milk before
and after pasteurization, on lactic
fermentations and LA activities.
Our further studies will be directed on the
addition of milk powder (industrial), alone or
in combination with other prebiotics such as

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inulins, or mono-and oligo-carbohydrates
from molasses.
REFERENCES
Journal articles
[4] Bengmark,S., Martindale, R:Prebiotics and
Symbiotics in Clinical Medicine. Nutrition in
Clinical Practice, 20, 244-261., 2006
[8] Gibson, McCartney and Rastall,R.A.:
Prebiotics and resistence to gastrointestinal
infection. Br. J. of Nutrition, 93, S31-S34 , 2005
[9] Gopal,R.: Amylolitic bacterial lactic acid
fermentation. Biotechnology Advances, 26, 22-34
[10] Kleerebezem, M., E.J.Smid (2006). New
probiotics, Food Eng. and Ingredients, 2007, 245-
257
[12] Shah, N.P. (2Functional cultures and health
benefits. International Dairy J., 17, issue 11,, 2007,
p: 1262-1277
[15] Tomasik, P.J., Tomasik,P. : Prebiotics and
Probiotics. American Association of Cerial
Chemists 80, 2006, 113-117.
[16] Walker, W.: Diet and bacterial colonization:
role of probiotics and prebiotics. The Journal of
Nutritional Biochemystry, 2006, 668-675
[17] Reid, G.: The scientific basis for probiotic
strains of Lactobacillus, Appl Environ Microbiol. ,
1999, 65, 3763- 6.
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
[18] Reid, G.: New scentific paradigms for
probiotics and prebiotics, J Clin. Gastroenterol.,
2006, 37, 105 - 18.
[19] Kailaspathy, K., Rybka, S.: Lactobacillus
acidophilus and Bifidobacterium spp. Their
therapeutic potential and survival in yogurt, Austr.
J Dairy Technol., 1997, 52, 28 - 35.
Books
[1] Apostu, S., Barzoi, D.: Microbiologia
produselor alimentare, Ed. Risoprint, Cluj, 2002
[2] Banu, C. ,Moraru, C.: Biochimia produselor
alimentare, Ed. Tehnica, Bucuresti, 1972
[3] Banu C. : Manualul inginerului in industrie
alimentara, Editura Tecnica, Bucuresti , 2002
[5] Chintescu, Gh., Grigore St. (1982). Indrumator
pentru tehnologia produselor lactate , Ed. Tehnica
Bucuresti
[6] Costin, M.: Produse lactate fermentate,Ed.
Academica, Galati, 2005
[7] Costin, Segal,R. Alimente pentru nutritie
speciala, Ed. Academia, Galati, 2001
[11] Macovei, V.M., Costin, M.:Laptele- aliment
medicament, Ed.Academia, Galati, 2006
[13] Socaciu, C. :Chimia alimentelor, Ed.
Academicpres, Cluj- Napoca, 2001
[14] Stoian, C. , Scortescu, Gh. , Chintescu, Gh.:
Tehnologia laptelui si a produselor lactate , Ed
Tehnica, Bucuresti, 1981
 BACK
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

INFLUENCE OF STARCH ADDING ON THE MEAT

COMPOSITIONS VISCOSITY

Daniela Ianiţchi, Cristiana Diaconescu, Lucica Nistor,

Camelia Hodoşan, L. Urdeş

Faculty of Animal Sciences, Bucharest, Romania

e-mail: dianitchi@yahoo.com

Abstract
Animal raw material processing is directly influenced by the physical and chemical
characteristics of their. The various combinations and status of the raw materials used in the food
industry determine specific behaviours that may influence the processing equipment performance
and construction. The study on meat composition viscosity depending upon the added components,
temperature and mixing time length, has shown that viscosity is increasing with lower mixing
temperature , higher mixing time length and higher added starch percentage.
Key words: meat composition, viscosity, pork, mixing

INTRODUCTION increase then decrease in the crystalline

In order to study the behaviour of meat
under the action of external forces, it is
important to know its initial structure. From a
physical point of view, meat structure is
predominantly aggregate, and has two phases:
solid and liquid. The solid phase consists in
the proteins that are the basis for the muscle
fibers and fascicles; the liquid phase consists
in the cell juice while the fibers and fascicles
make up a multiple-phase system.
The solid-liquid meat system is not stable
as it is influenced by external conditions.
Thus, the water in the meat freezes at low
temperatures and the meat has the
characteristics of a solid body. When minced,
it turns into a colloidal system which,
macroscopicall speaking, partially behaves
like a liquid.
According to Gorbatov and others, the
products and semi-products present in the
meat product technology have the following
structure: coagulated – weak viscosity,
thixotropy, plasticity, characteristics of the
finely minced meat; crystalline – absent
thixotropy, thermodynamic instability,
characteristic of fatness; condensed – high
stability, typical of fried and baked meats, and
boiled salami compositions; mixed structure.
The linking forces increase (develop in
time) in the coagulated structure; they
structure; they increase then remain constant
at a certain level in the condensed structure.
These forces influence the meat composition
viscosity and their behaviour under the action
of external forces.
The compositions of meat viscosities cited
literature are varied, depending on the type and
means of investigation. Thus, the composition
of beef and pork were recorded between 18-22
Pas [1], and the compositions of turkey and
starch investigated by Brookfield-R7 were
found between 66-97 Pas[2].
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The study made use of a composition
consisting in pork haunch, fatness, water, salt,
polyphosphates and starch. Gammon, bacon
and cooled water were finely minced and
mixed with the other components. Mixtures
were based on the starch as variation factor
(1%, 2% and 3% starch), whereas the other
components remained constant (50,7% muscle
tissue, 27,3% fat tissue, 22% water, 2.5% salt
and 0.5% polyphosphates).
The parameters that varied during
processing were: mixing temperature (5°C,
10°C, 15°C) and mixing time (2,5 min., 5 min.).
For the laboratory measurements, a
Brookfield DVII equipment was used,

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

withand viscosity was expressed in Pas. The
vascosity was measured with sprindl R7 and
different revolutions (1 rpm- 12 rpm).
The experiments led to different
behaviours in the dynamic viscosity of the
meat compositions.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
To measure viscosity, in the first stage of
the study, chemical composition was constant
while the technological parameters, i.e.
mixing temperature, mixing time length,
varied. The compositions consisting in 50,7%
muscle tissue and 27,3% fat tissue were
finely minced and mixed with 22% water;
after the addition of sodium chloride and
polyphosphates, they were mixed for 2,5
minutes at temperatures of 5°C, 10°C, 15 °C.
Figure 1 shows that the dynamic viscosity of
the compositions varies inversely
proportional with the mixing temperature and
revolutions of the viscosimeter axle. Thus,
for the same chemical composition (1%
starch) and mixing time length, the following
results were obtained: 220 Pas for a mixing
temperature of 5°C and axle revolution of 6
rot/min, 203 Pas for t = 10°C and rpm = 6,
and 191 Pas for t = 15°C and rpm = 6.

Table 1.
Viscosity variation depending upon mixing temperature
Revolution, Viscosity*10-³, [Pas
[rot/min] t=5°C t=10°C t=15°C
1,00 0,79 0,76 0,76
2,00 0,48 0,46 0,45
3,00 0,36 0,33 0,33
4,00 0,30 0,27 0,26
5,00 0,25 0,23 0,23
6,00 0,22 0,20 0,19
10,00 0,15 0,14 0,13
12,00 0,13 0,13 0,11

Figure 1. Vicosity variation depending upon mixing temperature

0,90

0,80

0,70
Viscosity*0.001,[Pas]

0,60
A
0,50
B
0,40
C
0,30

0,20

0,10

0,00
1,00 2,00 3,00 4,00 5,00 6,00 10,00 12,00
Revolutions,[rot/m in]
A- Viscosity variation at 5°C
B- Viscosity variation at 10°C
C- Viscosity variation at 15°C

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

The variation in the added starch
percentage and constant muscle tissue, fat
tissue and water, at the same temperature and
mixing time length resulted in higher
viscosity at higher starch content (fig. 2). The
compositions had 1%, 2% and 3% much
starch, the mixing temperature was 5°C and
time length 2,5 minutes. Viscosity increased
from 220 Pas for 1% added starch and axel
revolution of 6 rpm, 249 Pas for 2% added
starch and 6 rpm, and 271 Pas for 3% added
starch and 6 rpm, respectively.

Table 2.
Viscosity variation depending upon the starch content of the composition
Revolution, Viscosity*10-³, [Pas
[rot/min] 1% starch 2% starch 3% starch
1,00 0,79 0,83 0,86
2,00 0,48 0,59 0,62
3,00 0,36 0,41 0,43
4,00 0,30 0,34 0,37
5,00 0,25 0,29 0,28
6,00 0,22 0,25 0,27
10,00 0,15 0,18 0,17
12,00 0,13 0,15 0,15

Figure 2. Viscosity variation depending upon the starch content of the composition

1,00

0,90

0,80

0,70
Viscosity*0.001,[Pas]

0,60
A
0,50 B
C
0,40

0,30

0,20

0,10

0,00
1,00 2,00 3,00 4,00 5,00 6,00 10,00 12,00
Re volutions,[rot/m in]

A- Composition of 1% added starch

B- Composition of 2% added starch
C- Composition of 3% added starch

For the same chemical composition (1%
added starch) and varied mixing time length,
figure 3 shows that viscosity is increasing
together with the mixing time length, i.e.220
Pas for 2,5 minutes of mixing at rpm = 6, and
240 Pas for 5 minutes of mixing and rpm = 6.
For the composition of 2% added starch,
viscosity is increasing from 249 Pas for 2,5
minutes of mixing , to 287 Pas for 5 minutes
of mixing and for the composition of 3%

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

added starch, viscosity is increasing from 271

Pas for 2,5 minutes of mixing , to 291 Pas for
5 minutes of mixing and .

Table 3.
Viscosity variation depending upon mixing time length
Viscosity*10-³, [Pas]
Revolution, 1% starch, 1% 2% 2% 3% 3%
[rot/min] mixing starch, starch, starch, starch, starch,
2,5 min. mixing mixing mixing mixing mixing
5 min 2,5 min 5 min 2,5 min 5 min
1,00 0,79 0,85 0,83 0,94 0,86 0,97
2,00 0,48 0,56 0,59 0,69 0,62 0,72
3,00 0,36 0,42 0,41 0,50 0,43 0,51
4,00 0,30 0,34 0,34 0,40 0,37 0,42
5,00 0,25 0,27 0,29 0,34 0,28 0,37
6,00 0,22 0,24 0,25 0,29 0,27 0,29
10,00 0,15 0,16 0,18 0,19 0,17 0,20
12,00 0,13 0,14 0,15 0,17 0,15 0,18

Figure 3. Viscosity variation depending upon mixing time length

1,20

1,00

0,80

A
Vascosity*0.001,[Pas]

B
C
0,60 D
E
F

0,40

0,20

0,00
1,00 2,00 3,00 4,00 5,00 6,00 10,00 12,00
Re volutions ,[rot/m in]

A1 Composition of 1% added starch, mixed for 2,5 mins

A2 Composition of 1% added starch, mixed for 5 mins
B1 Composition of 2% added starch, mixed for 2,5 mins
B2 Composition of 2% added starch, mixed for 5 mins
C1 Composition of 3% added starch, mixed for 2,5 mins
C2 Composition of 3% added starch, mixed for 5 mins

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

CONCLUSIONS induced by the hydration and distension

Research shows that the variation in
chemical composition results in changes of
the structural and mechanic characteristics,
while more starch added leads to higher
viscosity of the meat mixtures.
The variation in the forces operating on
the materials generates changes in their
behaviour, the increased number of
revolutions of the viscosimeter leading to
lower viscosity.
Also, the technical parameters applied
have their own influence, as higher mixing
temperature results in lower viscosity due to
decreased fat viscosity, whereas longer
mixing time length leads to higher viscosity
starch particles and decrease the free water.
REFERENCES
Journal article
[2] Dexter D.R., Sofos J.N., Schmidt G.R.: Quality
characteristics of turkey bologna formulated with
carrageenan, starch, milk and soy protein, Journal
of Muscle Foods, 1993, 4: 207-223.
Books
[1] Banu C., Mircea C., Bejan D. : Unele
caracteristici fizice ale cărnii, Universitatea
‘‘Dunărea de Jos ‘‘, Galaţi, 1982.
[3] Panţuru,D., Palade V., Birsan I. G., Diaconu
N.: Reologia curgerii fluidelor vâscoase, Editura
Evrika, Brăila, 2004.

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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

DETERMINATION OF VITAMIN A IN COW MILK

THROUGH HPLC

Vioara Mireşan, Camelia Răducu, Aurelia Pece, C. Coroian

University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine,

Faculty of Animal Science and Biotechnologies, Cluj-Napoca
e-mail: aureliapece@yahoo.com

Abstract
Absorption spectrum record for vitamin A and absorbency reading at 450 nm was conducted
with the help of spectrophotometer. The quantitative analysis of retinol was conducted employing a
standard curve of retinol-trans-total solutions (sigma) of concentrations between 10-80 µg/ml.
Key words: milk, cow, vitamin A, HPLC

MATERIAL AND METHOD Vitamin A was analysed after extraction

In order to quantify vitamin A, a volume
of 20 cow milk was necessary, which was
treated with 5 ml ammonia solutions 25%
and 20 ml ethanol 96%. All extractions were
conducted at environment temperature.
through the HPLC method. For retinol
extraction, a mixture of 40 ml ethyl ether was
added (containing 0.0025 % BHT) and 40 ml
petroleum ether and stirred for 5 minutes.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Vita min A

40

30 37.6 36.5

20

10

0
er

r
te
m

in
um

W
S

Figure 1.1 HPLC chromatogram for Figure 1.2 Average values

retinol separation in cow milk for cow milk retinol content

In figure 1.1. the separation chromatogram differences according to season, so that: in

for vitamin A in cow milk is presented, while
fig 1.2. represents average values for the retinol
content in cow milk. In order to determine
vitamin A in cow milk through the HPLC
technique, studies conducted by Paul J.M., 2006
are useful, as he employed the same technique
in determining retinol and carotenoids in cow
milk. Also, in order to identify vitamin A
profile, data presented by Paolo, B. et.al (2003)
who determined retinol, tocopherols and
carotenoids in different dairy products.
CONCLUSIONS
Following determinations on vitamin A from
cow milk, it was proven that there are
the summer season, the average for vitamin
A is 37.6, compared to the winter season
when the content is lower, namely 36.5.
REFERENCES
Journal articles
[1] Paolo, Bergamo, Elena Fedele, L. Iannibelli
and G. Marzillo, 2003, Fat-soluble vitamin
contents and fatty acid composition in organic and
conventional Italian dairy products, Food
Chemistry , 82, 625-631.
[2] Paul, J.M., F. Hulshof, R., Tineke, P.V.
Bovenkampy, E. Clive, 2006, West Variation in
retinol and carotenoid content of milk and milk
products in The Netherlands Journal of Food
Composition and Analysis, 19, 67-75.

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

RESEARCHES REGARDING THE DECREASE OF THE

OXIDATIVE LEVEL OF CAW MILK AFTER THE ACTION
OF DIFFERENT ANTIOXIDANT AGENTS

P. Savescu, A. Dunoiu, L. Giurgiulescu

Universitatea din Craiova, Romania

e-mail: psavescu@gmail.com

Abstract
In this paper we tested the capability of antioxidants agents (alone or in combination) to reduce
oxidation (measured by the size of reports coenzimelor oxidoreductazelor anaerobic NAD + / NADH
+ H + and aerobic FMN / FMNH + H + milk cow).
Protecting dairy cows at risk of oxidative - after entering the action of oxidants agents - has
been highlighted through the study of molecular absorption spectra with the maximum recorded
aborbţie for coenzimele oxidoreductazelor anaerobic and aerobic in this milk.
The study of redox processes of the cow's milk can lead to improved technology classical
processing milk consumption, both by extending the duration of preservation of milk and food by
eliminating the risk due to toxicity of hydrogen peroxide.
Key words: oxidative level, cow milk, coenzymes of oxidoreductases, antioxidants

INTRODUCTION MATERIAL AND METHOD

Cow's milk immediately after calving,
colostrum, is much different from normal
milk. With its more rich in proteins and salts,
milk at the end of January - early February
are different compositional versus normal
milk from summer time due to fodder for
animal feed and immobility of animal [6].
Milk is an easily perishable product. His
conservation depend by the temperature of
storage, transport (heat being a negative
factor), depend by the diversity and number
of microorganisms contained in particular,
those contributing to the degradation of
lactose, thereby contributing to increasing
acidity by increasing the concentration of
lactic acid [5].
In order to prolong of storage time and
transportation may be used successfully redox
processes in milk. The results of analysis can
be registered on the block diagram of the
technology of normalized milk, thus achieving
a new technology, in economic performance,
by eliminating the technological chain of the
cooling tank from the collection points (or at
the collection centers milk) but also in terms
of food security.
There are many manufacturers that still
use to extend the duration of conservation,
hydrogen peroxide (2 - 4 cm3 peroxide
solution 3% per liter of milk), which
influence redox processes that exist normally
in balance in the milk.
This experience has targeted achieving
the following objectives:
- Determining the best antioxidant able to
protect milk against oxidative fermentation;
-introduce this antioxidant in to
technology of the normalized milk.
-study the influence of hydrogen peroxide
on the concentration of vitamins and
oxidoreductase from milk, in order to
determine the effect of extending the storage
time of milk. Hydrogen peroxide has the
effect of inhibition of pathogenic micro-
organisms for a period of up to 7 hours [4],
but after this period must be eliminated,
because of toxic effects that may occur.
Lactic bacteria are not capable to develop the
enzymes that can degrade hydrogen peroxide,
for this reason a number of experimental
variants test the ability to eliminate of
hydrogen peroxide by using antioxidants.

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Like as antioxidants that have been used
is a number of vitamins (variants V1-V4 and
V7) and selenium (V5).
For all variants used the same fresh cow
milk (from 2 hours of milking), fat 3.5%
(determined by the Gerber method), density
(at 200C) of 1.029 g/cm3 (determined by
thermo-densitometer), 180 Thörner acidity
(determined by the titration method with
solution of NaOH 0.1 N) with a coefficient of
impurification 1 (value determined using filter
of milk), looking, color, taste, smell, like as
fresh milk without sensorial changes [1].
For dilution (1:40) and cleaning vats,
preparation of water samples was used two-
distilled water.
Samples were previously prepared at a
Sigma centrifugal machine at 7800 rotations
per minute during 5 minutes.
For analysis was used a spectophotometer
UV / VIS type UNICAM2 with band width of 2
nm. We scan the nearly UV range (190-400nm)
and visible range (400-700 nm). At the value of
325 nm wavelength, the Deuterium lamp
change automatically with a Wolfram lamp.
The used hydrogen peroxide
concentration was 3%, ultra pure (with
concentrations of Al, As, B, Ba, Co, Cd, Co,
Cr, Cu, Fe, K, Li, Mg, Mn, Na, Ni, Pb, Sn,
Mn at 1 ppm maximally, the dry residue
10ppt max.
The used L (+)-ascorbic Acid was as
aqueous solution 5%, with a density of 1.65
g/cm3, molecular weight 176.13 g / mol,
without smell, white color.
The used E vitamin (DL - alpha-tocopherol
acetate) and A vitamin (retinol) were as a local
prepared solution. The used concentrations
were 0.5 mg / 100 mL milk for A vitamin and
30 mg / 100 mL milk for E vitamin.
The E Vitamin was used for to protect the
fatty acids, polyunsaturated, to protect the
carotenoid and A vitamin from milk and thiolic
groups of enzymes and for synergism of
function for ubiquinone (Q10 coenzyme) [10].
The Q10 Coenzyme (soluble in fat
compounds of each cell metabolic pathways,
essential for energy production, powerful
antioxidant) has been introduced in a
concentration of 15 mg/100 mL milk [8].
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
The Selenium (used in to milk for its
antioxidant action, to increase of the milk
consumer resistance to the free radicals) [2],
was used in a dose of 50 µg/100 mL milk.
The redox agents from the experimental
variants who had major differences of
absorption compared with the simile of the
witness caused imbalances in redox systems
and it is not recommended like as protectors.
We took all the specific measures to
minimize the variations of temperature
(constant temperature by providing reagents,
the environment, using spectrophotometer
with thermostat). It is  limited to a maximum
influence for the interfering substances by
removing lipids interference through
defecation other organic compounds from the
category of proteins, using the unique
addition through verifying the molecular
spectra in the literature cited in the new
working conditions. Frameworks high
repeatability of results was ensured by
rigorously maintaining the same environment
and working time and the same human
operator. For two consecutive tests of
absorption at same experimental variant on
the same wavelength were admitted
differences of up to ± 0003.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
It was analyzed the variation of molecular
absorption spectra of the maximum wave
length in the near UV (200-400nm) and
Visible (400-700nm).
Were traced graphics functions change
for experimental variants, grouped by type of
antioxidant used by the order of addition of
peroxide and antioxidant.
From the study of molecular absorption
spectra presented in graphs in Figures 1 and 2
results that the some experimental variants
have major differences to reference witnesses
(V1-V6, V9-V12, V16).
Analyzing on the experimental variants
the report of the oxidized and reduced forms
of coenzymes Flavine Mono Nucleotide
(FMN-dependent specific for the aerobic
oxidoreductases) have obtained appropriate
values inserted in Table 1 and represented in
Figure 1. The ratio of FMN/FMNH2 forms
was determined as the ratio of absorption of
oxidized / reduced forms at A445 / A570.
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

Table 1
The ratio of the concentrations of oxidized/reduced forms of FMN/FMNH2 registered at the
experimental variants that try the biggest differences from the witness variant

The experimental The ratio of the oxidized/reduced The differences (±) from the
variant forms of FMN/FMNH2 at A445/A570 witness variant Mt
V8 1,555 -0,344
V13 1,833 -0,066
V14 1,712 -0,1869
V15 1,760 -0,1394
Mt 1,899 0

1. 6

1. 4

1. 2
Absorbance

0. 8

0. 6

0. 4

0. 2

0
V1 V3 V5 V7 V9 V 11 V 13 V 15 Mt

T he exp er iment al var i ant s

FM N 4 4 5 nm FM N H 2 5 7 0 nm

Figure 1 - Changes of absorbance for the oxidized and reduced forms of FMN to the experimental variants

Besides the fact that the FMN/FMNH2 is
best to V13 (being the least difference to the value
of a witness), have been almost identical values
and concentrations of FMN (the molecular
spectra of absorption at 445 nm) for V13 and Mt
(figure 1). Thus, at 445nm were obtained 0.526
units of absorbance for the V13 and 0,528 units
of absorbance at Mt, which means that the
concentration values of oxidized forms FMN at
V13 and Mt are almost identical, the V13 has a
surplus of slightly reduced form (at-570nm
which have only the maximum reduced forms
FMNH2-V13 presented a absorbed by 0.287
compared to 0.278 to witness).
Analyzing on the experimental variants the
oxidized and reduced forms of coenzyme
Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide NAD-
dependent (specific of anaerobic
oxidoreductases) were obtained corresponding
values, values inserted in Table 2 and Figure 2.
The ratio of NAD/NADH + H + forms was
determined as the ratio of oxidized/reduced
forms at A270/A340.

Table 2
+
The ratio of the concentrations of oxidized/reduced forms of NAD/NADH+H registered at the
experimental variants that try the biggest differences from the witness variant
The ratio of the oxidized/reduced The differences (±) from the
The experimental variant +
forms of NAD/NADH+H at A270/A340 witness variant Mt
V8 2,2576 -0,3144
V13 2,660 +0,088
V14 3,160 0,588
V15 2,964 0,392
Mt 2,570 0

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

As can be seen from Table 2 and Figure 2, the recorded values at V13 are the closest to the
basic variant, Mt. In addition, in the case of reduced forms of NADH + H +, the V13 proved the
smallest difference from the Mt (a difference of negative insignificant -0003).

3.5

2.5
Absorbance

1.5

0.5

0
V1 V2 V3 V4 V5 V6 V7 V8 V9 V10 V11 V12 V13 V14 V15 V16 Mt

The experimental variants

NAD 270nm NADH 340 nm

Figure 2 - Changes of absorbance for the oxidized and reduced forms of NAD to the experimental
variants

Following the analysis of experimental but after adding the peroxide is very close to
variants [3] could be easily observed that that of witness.
ascorbic acid (from V13) prove the best In case of V8 (milk fat 3.5% + A Vitamin
protection for the redox systems in which A + hydrogen peroxide) the A vitamin are
vitamin is involved (ensuring in particular the oxidized and act on redox systems from milk
reduced forms of A vitamin can therefore and can increased the concentrations of
protect these redox systems of milk and any reduced forms, the difference on the
oxidation). Although variant V15-using E concentrations of oxidized / reduced forms at
vitamin like as protective agent in to case of witness to being the largest.
hydrogen peroxide attack prove the very The molecular absorption spectra of the
small differences from those of similar samples did not vary significantly according
witness (+0.001 units) at the oxidized form of to the order to introducing the antioxidant
A vitamin, the reduced form recorded and hydrogen peroxide in case of A vitamin,
significant negative differences against selenium and Q10 coenzyme, but shows
witness (-0.128). greater variation in ascorbic acid and E
vitamin.
CONCLUSIONS Form analyze of concentrations for the
The molecular absorption spectra of the oxidized and reduced forms of
experimental variants taken study in the 2 oxidoreductases of milk (xanthine oxidase,
ranges of wavelength fall more in the near superoxide dismutase, lactate peroxidase, a
UV and less in to visible, the absorption is total Lactate Dehydrogenase cyt-P450
different depending on the type of introduced reductase), a flavoproteins, cytochrome a, b,
antioxidant compared with the witness. c, c1 of coenzymes FMN, NAD and
There are significant differences between riboflavins [9] shows that V13 is the best
absorption of samples containing only the experimental variant. This variant used as
antioxidants and the samples containing antioxidant ascorbic acid 5%, solution put
antioxidants and hydrogen peroxide like as before the conservation agent (hydrogen
conservation agent. Thus, V1 (with A peroxide). In this variant of the oxidized form
vitamin) has a molecular absorption spectrum of FMN and reduced form of NADH + H+
much different from simile of the witness, proved the concentrations were closely
similar to those of the witness. The

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
differences in values recorded at the
maximum absorption of each enzyme similar
to those of untreated witness are smaller, the
experimental version is better, being closer to
natural redox systems in milk.
From the study of V13 result that the milk
with 3.5% ascorbic acid solution 5% prove
the best protection for the redox system
consisting of reduced and oxidized forms of
coenzymes. Thus, the variant has been the
closest values of the concentrations of
oxidized and reduced forms with simile of
reference.
Of tests [7] result that ascorbic acid can
protect highly the redox system which is
involved in A vitamin and A provitamins (β-
carotene, lycopene) in milk. And in this case,
the ascorbic acid acting as a reducing power,
it oxidizes priority and can protect the work
environment to oxidation;
The study of redox processes of the cow's
milk can lead to improved technology
classical processing milk, both by extending
the duration of preservation of milk and by
eliminating the risk due to toxicity of
hydrogen peroxide. Although V15 has very
close to those of the witness-rate on
degradation of hydrogen peroxide, the V13
remains the best experimental variant,
managing to keep almost all redox systems at
the nearest level of natural variant, like as the
witness.
Therefore recommend the application of
ascorbic acid-according V13, for efficient the
technology of milk, by extending the
duration of storage until processing of milk.
REFERENCES
Journal articles
[1] Adams, M.W.W.,: Novel Iron-Sulfur Centers
in Metalloenzymes and Redox Proteins from
- 620 -
Extremely Thermophilic Bacteria, Adv. Inorg.
Chem., 1992, 38:341-396.
[2] P. Cappelli and V. Vannucchi: Chimica degli
Alimenti, Zanichelli (Ed.), Bologna, Italia, 1999,
626–628.
[3] Dave R.I., Shah N.P.,: Effectiveness of
ascorbic acid as an oxygen scavenger in improving
viability of probiotic bacteria in yoghurts made
with commercial starter cultures. Int Dairy J 7,
1997, 7:435-443.
[4] Durfor, C.N., Wetherbee, P.J., Deaton, J.C. &
Solomon, E.I., - Characterization and
Spectroscopic Properties of Reduced Mo and W
Formate Dehydrogenase from Clostridium
thermoaceticum, Biochem. Biophys. Res.
Commun., 1983, 115: 61-67.
[5] Petre Săvescu: Studies concerning the reaction
mechanisms for the main redox agents from cow’s
milk, in: AgroPrint (Eds.), Scientifical Researches
Agroalimentary Processes and Technologies,
Vol.XI, Nr 2, Timisoara, 2005, 345-350.
[6] Petre Săvescu, Mircea Preda: Study concerning
influence of the added antioxidants about redox
equilibrium from the natural milk of cow, in
Universitaria (Eds), Annales of the University of
Craiova, Vol. X (XLVI)-2005, 279-284.
[7] Petre Săvescu, Ion Toma, Rahela Marcu, Liviu
Chirigiu, Bogdan Toma, Gabriel Bunescu: The
Ascorbic Acid Use For Monitoring The Hydrogen
Peroxide From Cow Milk in: The III-rd
International Congress on Preventive Medicine, S
IV- Food safety and nutrition - risk assessment and
management, Book of Abstracts from the
Macedonean Congress, Ohrid, Macedonia,2006,
108.
[8] Stewart, L.J., Bailey, S., Bennet, B., Charnock,
J.M., Garner, C.D. & McAlpine, A.S.,2000 -
Dimethylsulfoxide Reductase: An Enzyme Capable
of Catalysis with Either Molybdenum or Tungsten
at the Active Site, J. Mol. Biol. 299, 593-600;
[9] Urbach G.,: Contribution of Lactic Acid
Bacteria to Flavour Compound Formation in Dairy
Products, Int. Dairy J.5, 1995, 877-903.
[10] Weiss, W.P.,: - Requirements of fat-soluble
vitamins for dairy cows: J. Dairy Sci, 1998,
81:2493;
 BACK

Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

STUDY REGARDING THE CHANGES OF COW MILK

REDOX POTENTIAL AND pH FOLLOW THE ADDITION
OF SPECIFIC MICRORGANISMS

P. Savescu, A. Dunoiu, I. Stan

Universitatea din Craiova, Romania

e-mail: psavescu@gmail.com

Abstract
In this paper to pursue the monitoring of the changes that the milk of cows suffering during
processing at acidic dairy products - means using electrochemistry combined mathematics and
statistical analysis.
Have been pursued thus correlations are established between the redox potential, pH of cow's
milk during fermentation and after sowing to determine the optimum fermentation time for each
milk product lines.
Study variation redox potential and pH of cow's milk after sowing some microorganisms can
provide specific information - the costs - about the conduct of fermentation processes.
Key words: the redox potential, pH, cow milk, microorganisms

INTRODUCTION , anaerobic optionally, in the form of bacillus

Cow's milk has a pH of 6.5 and an rH of
12 - 18 (field work favorably for the activity
of optional anaerobic microorganisms).
These organisms have an optimal activity in
a lower redox potential.
If the cow's milk to store a certain period
of time, due to the difference in weight
between the emulsions compounds, at the
surface can be accumulated a milk fat, which
prevents access of air. Is thus decreasing
redox potential and anaerobic bacteria can
grow. With a varied chemical composition,
milk is an excellent environment for
developing microorganisms, especially for
the development of lactic bacteria.
From the multitude of lactic bacteria used
in dairy industry are selected the genus of
Lactococcus bacteria (constantly present in
milk) and bacteria genus of Lactobacillus
(rarely seen).
The number of microorganisms in milk
arriving from internal sources may vary
between 1000 and 3000 cells/cm3 [1].
Very important for the dairy industry are
the A Class bacteria (Bacteria CLASS), II-
EUBACTERIALES Order, Family
Lactobacillaceae-unsporulated lactic bacteria
(thin rod) or in a coccus (small spheres called
cocs) . They have as common feature the
ability to ferment lactose with the formation
of lactic acid. [5]
The lactic fermentation is the most
important process - used in the manufacture
of dairy acid to find reliable methods for
monitoring this process to constitute a
challenge for the technologist.
It is knowning the importance of these
microorganisms in controlling redox
reactions in milk subjected to processing and
their influence on the development of flavors
in dairy products [2].
Therefore, we proposed to study the
variation of redox potential, the rate of
reduction, the pH and the rate of acidification
in time after the action of microorganisms in
milk.
Eh changes occurring in the cheese
sulphhidril activation clusters, the
responsible groups for production of specific
aromas expressing the relationship between
variation of Eh  and form the flavors[3]. The
dysulphuric’s bridges are reduced to clusters
sulphidrilyc by lactic bacteria [5],
participated in the development of flavors in
cheese [6].

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
MATERIAL AND METHOD
For study the redox potential change in
time was used fresh cow's milk (at a
maximum of 2 hours of mechanical milking),
normalized (homogenized and brought to the
same percentage of fat 3.5%).
For this study the variation of Eh  after the
inoculation of cultures of starter lactic
bacteria were used the microorganisms of
Lactococcus lactis type (with optimal
temperature at 26oC), Helveticus
lactobacillus and Streptococcus
thermophillus (both with the optimal
temperature 42oC). The microorganisms
originated from the EZAL company and were
MA011 type (mesophylic) for Lacococcus
lactis subspecies, TA 061 type for
Streptococcus thermophillus and the LH100
for Lacobacillus helveticus. All cultures of
microorganisms were as "Direct Vat
Inoculates" (set to direct inoculation).
Bacteria were inoculated into nutrient
medium of lactose MRS type (lactobacills
and lactococcus) and nutrient medium M17
type (streptococcus). The preparation for
inoculation and the inoculation of
microorganisms in milk under study are
described under 'technology standards in
force [7] .
For determinations of pH and Eh, used a
cell measuring analyzer Multitester Consort
C535 type which have an measure electrode
like as the glass electrode with the outer
Platinum ring SP60X type and the reference
electrode is made according to the normal
hydrogen electrode. The compensation of
temperature it is realized in automatly mode.
For calibrate of pH it is used the standard
solutions (4.0 and 7.0 value of pH). For the
purpose of cleaning pH electrode, after use, it
is used a solution of pepsin / HCl. The redox
electrodes were clean with fine powdered
aluminum oxide to recover the platinum.
The samples of sowned milk with pure
cultures of microorganisms (at an level of 1.4
mL of inoculation medium containing lactic
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bacteria for 250 mL milk) were kept in
specific sterile conditions. The samples have
met all the conditions for repeatability were
met even sowing microbiological technique
for milk with starter cultures. Each analysis
was repeated 5 times. In terms of
repeatability of results  it were defined as
differences between them in just over 0.01
pH units and 1 mV from Eh. It was taken into
account the influence of temperature, for the
fermentation and the pH and Eh
measurements.
The measurements of pH and Eh were
made during a period of 14 hours after the
start of fermentation. Moment of time "0"
was the moment of starting lactic
fermentation (at 2 hours after inoculation).
The rate of acidification (Va) of
environment has been given to changes in pH
difference, the reported difference in time
(dPH/dt) and expressed in pH units / hour.
The lowest curve of acidification can be
obtained at the time that will be the
maximum (ta).
The rate of reduction-Vr-environment (for
the inoculated milk with starter bacteria) was
determined from the variation of the
difference in Eh reported time difference
(dEh/dt) and expressed in mV / h. From the
minimal of reduction curve results the time at
which the environment is the lowest (tr).
After the rate of acidification Va and the
rate of reduce Vr of the environment, the
maximum period shall be determined in each
fermentation product lactate. For each type of
milk product (more or less acidophil, more or
less fermented) it corresponds to a time of
acidification or reduction, time may be
determined by calculation, by the
technologist before the inoculation of starter
cultures.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The results from this study are presented
in Tables 1-4 and graphs in Figures 1 a, b, 2
a, b.
 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

Table 1
Changes in pH and Eh's time to milk inoculated with microorganisms like Streptococcus thermophyllus

TIME (h) pH Eh (mV)

0,00 6,70 235
1,00 6,67 225
2,00 6,50 208
3,00 6,40 188
3,45* 5,89 148
4,00 5,90 148
4,37** 5,50 141
5,00 5,60 135
6,00 5,35 130
7,00 5,25 132
8,00 5,00 133
9,00 4,90 135
10,00 4,87 137
11,00 4,78 142
12,00 4,66 145
13,00 4,62 144
14,00 4,61 145
* **
- ta, tr - (analysis of graphics)

Table 2
Changes in pH and Eh's time-at milk inoculated with microorganisms like Lactobacillus helveticus

TIME (h) pH Eh (mV)

0,00 6,70 235
1,00 6,50 232
2,00 6,40 231
3,00 6,30 228
4,00 6,20 220
5,00 5,80 210
6,00 5,50 195
7,00 5,30 186
7,56* 4,66 166
8,00 4,50 162
9,00 4,50 161
9,58** 4,18 149
10,00 3,90 147
11,00 3,60 149
12,00 3,48 154
13,00 3,47 156
14,00 3,46 154
* **
- ta, tr - (analysis of graphics)

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

Table 3
Changes in pH and Eh's time-at milk inoculated with microorganisms like Lactococcus lactis

TIME (h) pH Eh (mV)

0,00 6,70 235
1,00 6,62 233
2,00 6,50 225
3,00 6,50 185
*
3,22 6,17 0
4,00 6,15 -150
5,00 6,05 -180
6,00 5,85 -160
7,00 5,50 -155
**
8,15 5,14 -148
8,00 5,12 -145
9,00 4,75 -130
10,00 4,50 -120
11,00 4,47 -117
12,00 4,43 -108
13,00 4,42 -106
14,00 4,41 -101
* **
- ta, tr - (analysis of graphics)

Table 4
Changes in pH and Eh's time to raw milk *

TIMPUL (h) pH Eh (mV)

0,00 6,70 286
1,00 6,62 291
2,00 6,54 296
3,00 6,51 299
4,00 6,41 315
5,00 6,25 322
6,00 5,85 317
7,00 5,50 310
8,00 5,12 321
9,00 4,74 332
10,00 4,51 341
11,00 4,47 351
12,00 4,43 368
13,00 4,42 371
14,00 3,42 385

- to decrease the pH solution was used for lactic acid 5% and to increase the pH  used 0.1 N NaOH
solution.

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

Eh Streptococcus Eh Lactobacillus
Helveticus
thermophyllus
(a) (b)

V
5m
= 14 m V
inim 54
Eh m Eh maxim = 235 mV im
=1
min Eh maxim = 235mV
Eh [mV] Eh
Eh [mV]

14 80000
14
150000 6,7 60000
6,7
100000 40000
50000 Timpul [h] 20000
Timpul [h] pH 0 pH 0
-50000 -20000
0 4,61 0 3,46

Fig 1 a, b-Calculus Eh depending on pH and time for the milk attacked by Streptococus
thermophillus (a) and Lactobacillus helveticus (b)

Eh Lapte brut
Eh maxim = 385 mV
Eh Lactococcus (b)
lactis
(a)

Eh maxim 235 mV

m V
101
=-
im
min
Eh
Eh [mV]

14
Eh minim = 286 mV

14
6,7 250000
200000
timpul [h] 800
150000
pH 100000 3,42 400
50000 0 0
0 6,70 -400
0 4,41

Fig 2 a, b - The Eh calculation based on pH and time for the milk attacked by Lactococcus lactis (a)
and raw milk-witness variant (b)

From those presented in tables and graphs Following the analysis of experimental
above it can be seen that each microorganism variants was found that variants that have
used in lactic and propionic fermentation it used Streptococcus thermophyllus recorded a
corresponds to a rate of acidification of the time of acidification (ta) of 3.45 hours and a
environment and a specific rate of reduction of reduction time (tr) of 4.37 hours. The variants
the environment. The used microorganisms are that have used Lactobacillus helveticus had
indispensable for achievement of certain milk time to reduce acidification and higher (ta =
products obtained by lactic and propionic 7.56 hours and tr = 9.58 hours) while variants
fermentation (acidophile milk, fermented that use Lactococcus lactis had the higher
cream, cheese Schweizer type). capacity to reduce environmental at least for
From the graphs of the pH/Eh and Eh acidification (ta = 3.22 hours and tr = 8.15
/time can be obtained - by interpolation, at hours). The stronger decreasing (and faster)
normal temperature and pressure-time at to use environment for microorganisms of the
which the rate of acidification and the rate of Streptococcus thermophyllus genus is specify
reduction is maximum. These ta, tr times can for the increased capacity to liberation of SH
be very important in the used technologies groups in the fermentation media.
for the fermentation of milk. Knowing the The achieving of 4.65-4.75 units (optimum
time of acidification and reduction, an pH) it is made with Streptococcus thermophyllus
technologist can eliminate a number of other in 11 hours and 30 minutes (Eh = 143 mV) and
physical-chemical and sensorial analysis that using the microorganisms of the Lactococcus
is used today for determining the end of lactis genus in the 9 hours (very low Eh = -
fermentation. This is very important for the 130mV). The best time of fermentation was
reduce costs and production time. when it is used microorganisms of the

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
Lactobacillus helveticus genus in 7 hours and 30
minutes (Eh = 175mV).
If you would use as a fermentation media
the pasteurized milk, that surely this time would
be reduced substantially. This is corect because
the pasteurization of milk improves the
hygienic quality of milk used as a medium for
the development of lactic bacteria. By
pasteurization process, the peroxidase was
inactivated, is eliminated the oxygen and is
favored the formation of compounds with
reducing action (in particular forms of enzymes
oxidoreducteses).
For a more detailed analysis of the variation
in the Eh function of pH and time we used three-
dimensional graphics surface. Three-dimensional
surface graphs were constructed using Statistica
6.0 software and equipment they used to level the
corresponding data series values of axes Ox, Oy,
Oz. Thus, three-dimensional response surface in
each case resulting from inoculation with
bacteria was corresponding Eh values represented
on the axis Oz. Depending on the scope of
changing values and the number of levels used to
define the contours of each 3D graphic surface
were established specifications surface. The
"Three-dimensional surface" graphs were like
"square" (Quadratic)-in order to highlight the
points that make up the polynomial of 2degree
Eh = f (time, pH).
Follow the analyze of "3D surface" graphs
from the figures 1 a, b and 2a was observed
that where we have used the lactic micro flora
currently used in production of dairy acid, the
redox potential Eh has decreased, the time was
increased and the pH has decreasing .
From figure 2b can to see that the redox
potential Eh for the raw milk has increased,
while pH of the environment has decreased.
All this occurred over time and were due to
increased concentrations of oxidized forms.
Over time, the raw milk to ferment a part of
lactose to lactic acid, and for this reason
increasing the concentration of oxidized
forms and the environmental acidity.
From the analysis of figures 1a,b and 2
a,b could see that there were different levels
of the Eh depending on pH and time. These
levels Eh ranged depending on the nature of
used micoorganisms: 7 levels of Eh - if it was
used Streptococcus thermophillus, 6 levels Eh
- where we have used Lactobacillus
helveticus or Lactococcus lactis and only 4
Eh-levels in raw milk.
For a more detailed analysis of data, to
appeal to the study of correlations between Eh
of the raw milk (EHLB) and Eh's milk has
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been added Streptococcus thermophyllus
(EHST), Eh of the milk has been added
Lactococcus lactis ( EHLL), Eh of the milk
has been added Lactobacillus helveticus
(EHLH). For a better analysis were
established the correlations of Eh map
depending on pH and time.
For this calculation was used the
statistical software SPSS 11.5 for Windows
and some acronyms:
PHLB = the pH for raw milk;
PHST = the pH for inoculated milk with
Streptococcus thermophillus;
PHLL = the pH for inoculated milk with
Lactococcus lactis;
PHLH = the pH for inoculated milk with
Lactobacillus helveticus;
TLB = time in which the measured
variations of Eh and pH in raw milk;
TST = time of measured variations of Eh
and pH of milk with Streptococcus
thermophillus;
TLL = time of measured variations of Eh
and pH of milk with Lactococcus lactis;
TLH = time of measured variations of Eh
and pH of milk with Lactobacillus helveticus.
Using statistical software SPSS 11.5 for
Windows has facilitated the calculation and
selection of only the actual nonparametric
correlations to be set between these sizes.
Results of parametric correlations
Pearson type and non-parametric correlations
τ (Kendall type) and ρ (Spearman type) they
try more differences are summarized in the
conclusions[8].
CONCLUSIONS
Between the pasteurization of milk, the
reduction degree of sowing environmental to
attack of various microorganisms used in the
manufacture of milk and the acidification of
the environment is a direct link;
The Eh-can be treated as a polynomial
function of pH and time where it uses
statistical analysis of data from monitoring
sowing with different microorganisms
(especially the statistical graphs of the "three
areas of response");
Under the three-dimensional surface
analysis to experimental variations taken into
account (fig. 1a, b and 2 a, b) the potential of
small changes in Eh and variable pH for the
recorded version which use in cultures
Streptococus thermophyllus;
The largest variations of the Eh depending
on the time and pH at seeding with
microorganisms has been registered to the

variant that uses Lactococcus lactis, where the
issue of SH groups in the environment is very
strong - under normal temperature (25-28oC);
The best time of fermentation was
registered when it used microorganisms of
the genus Lactobacillus helveticus in 7 hours
and 30 minutes (Eh of 175mV);
Both Lactococcus lactis and
Streptococcus thermophyllus can produce
significant quantities of hydrogen peroxide in
the media, peroxide which at one time is an
inhibitor of their development;
From the analysis of reduction time
(average, in the case of Lactococcus lactis
cultures), appear on the knowledge of variation
in redox potential (ranging from + 235 mV
when the milk is used as a culture media to -150
mV for yoghurt - when the small groups of -SH
being in the environment towards the end of
bulk fermentation) can be detached easily
conclude that measurement of these redox
parameters (Eh, tr) is extremely important in the
technology of yoghurt and other dairy products;
Follow the knowing the acidification and
reduction time, an technologist can eliminate
a number of other physical-chemical and
sensorial analysis that is used today for
determining the end of fermentation, a study
of this kind can be a model for calculating
the times for milk 3.5% beef fat and
organisms of this kind;
The Pearson more negative correlation,
was established between Eh of the raw milk
and the Eh of milk that was inoculated with
Lactobacillus helveticus;
The largest positive correlation (0.962)
was recorded between the Eh and pH of milk
that was inoculated with Lactobacillus
helveticus, this microorganism was the best
protector for the environment in the oxidation
conditions and the decreased pH;
The Pearson lowest negative correlation it
has been established between Eh of the raw
milk and the Eh of milk that was inoculated
with Lactococcus lactis;
The lowest positive correlation (0.624)
was recorded between the Eh and pH of milk
that was inoculated with Lactococcus lactis,
thus explaining the lowest recorded in
acidification in the inoculation conditions
with the microorganism and the much greater
reduction time;
The largest negative correlation (-0.944)
was among the Eh of the milk inoculated with
Lactobacillus helveticus and time of analysis
for this type of milk, which shows a
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
reduction for the environment than in the
other experimental variants;
The lowest negative correlation (-0.683)
for Eh and time was in the case of milk
inoculated with Lactococcus lactis (milk that
had the greatest decrease of Eh because
reducing free SH groups released by the
bacteria in the environment);
The Kendall and Spearman coefficients
of correlation were established between
EHLB and EHLH are negative and the
largest Kendall and Spearman coefficients of
correlation were established between EHLB
and EHLL and are negative and smaller.
From all these considerations result the
importance of knowledge the electrochemical
potential Eh, the pH, the acidification time (ta)
and time reduction (tr).
REFERENCES
Journal articles
[1] Beal C., Corrieu G.,: Viability and
Acidification Activity of Pure and Mixed Starters
of Str. Salivarius 404 and Lactobac. Delbrueckii
398 at the Different Steps of their Production,
Lebensmittel. Wiss. Technol. 1994, 27: 86-92.
[2] Dias B., Weimer B.,: Conversion of
Methionine to Thiols by Lactococci, Lactobacilli
and Brevibacteria, Appl. Environ. Microbiol.
1998, 64:3320-3326.
[3] Law B.B., Castanon M., Sharpe M.,: The
Contribution of Starter Streptococci to Flavour
Development in Cheddar Cheese, J.Dairy Res.
1976, 43:301-311.
[4] Manning D.J.: Sulphur Compounds in
Relation to Cheddar Cheese Flavour, J.Dairy
Res.,1994, 61:81-87.
[5] Scarinci H.E., Carrasco M.S., Simonetta A.C.,:
Technological Properties of Strains of Lactic Acid
Bacteria for Cheese Starter: Acidifying activity,
Microbiol. Aliments Nutr., 1994, 12:437-442.
[6] Urbach G.,: Contribution of Lactic Acid
Bacteria to Flavour Compound Formation in Dairy
Products, Int Dairy J. 1995, 5: 906-923.
[7] Săvescu P., Giurgiulescu L., Ţurcan N.,: Study
concerning decrease the oxidative risk for raw
milk according to the European Standard (QMS
ISO 9000:2000) applied to dairy factories, in:
International Workshop on Quality On Food And
Beverages In The Frame Of Eu Standards, Balkan
Environmental Asociation (BENA), Journal of
Environmental Protection and Ecology (JEPE),
Bucureşti, 2006, 780-784.
Book
[8] Săvescu P.: Contribuţii la îmbunătăţirea
eficienţei proceselor redox care apar la prelucrarea
unor produse agroalimentare (lapte de vacă, lapte
de soia), Teza de Doctorat. Universitatea din
Craiova. Facultatea de Chimie.2006.
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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

BIOLOGICAL HONEY AND ITS ATTAINMENT

PRINCIPLES

Şt. Lazăr1, O.C.Vornicu2

1
Faculty of Animal Sciences, University of Agricultural Science and Veterinary Medicine
„Ion Ionescu de la Brad” Iasi, Romania
2
O.C. Beekeeping Bases, Iasi, Romania

Abstract
In order to obtain biological beekeeping products, some safety principles are required:
- the environmental quality;
- the biological material and beehive quality;
- the gathering conditions and bee feeding;
- the use of some adequate technology in order to obtain honey, its harvesting and
packaging;
- the use of prophylactic measures and the specific treatment used in order to obtain
ecological products, and the application of some technological processes and
curative actions that will not influence the ecological properties of the honey;
- the use of some quality regulations regarding the organoleptical and fizico-chemical
properties of honey;
Key words: biological honey, regulations, quality, ecological products, properties

At this stage, there is a greater concern
for obtaining ecological agro-alimentary
products that require very precise regulations
to obtain natural products, unpolluted.
The technologies used in this purpose are
usually the known ones, but they have to
respect some principles related to the
surrounding environment in the obtaining of
biological beekeeping product, using some
adequate technologies to obtain, harvest and
package honey, respecting some quality
regulations of honey regarding the contents
of a series of chemical composition elements,
prophylactic measures and treatment specific
to obtaining ecological products and applying
some technological processes and cleaning
actions that will not influence the ecological
quality of the honey.
To ensure the success in obtaining some
ecological products, the use of some
integrated technologies that will not affect in
any way the tropic chain soil-plant-bees-
beekeeping product is necessary. For
example – ecological honey will not be
obtained through the participation of bees
that harvest plants that have been pesticide
treated, or other chemically treated plants or
soil etc.
1. Regarding the apiary spot choice
The apiary must be placed in an area that
has to ensure some minimal distances
necessary to ensure the conditions of obtaining
ecological beekeeping products. On a 1.5 km
range, no treatment to the agricultural crop
(biological agricultural area or “wild”) is
allowed. Placing the apiary at a distance
smaller than 3 km towards any polluted risk
area is not permitted, and for the crop in this
area that ensures the nectar and pollen sources
for bees, technologies specific to obtaining
ecological products have to be used.
The inspection and certification
organizations can establish supplementary
measures to insure these conditions.
2. Regarding the biological material
When choosing the biological material,
we have to take into account its adaptation
capacity to the local environment conditions,
its vitality and resistance to diseases. The
best choices are the European breeds and
their local varieties.

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The new families have to be constituted
by dividing the best families or by
acquisition of swarms or families from
institutions that respect the methodological
regulations to obtain ecological honey. If not,
a conversion period of one year has to the
covered, period in which the beeswax is
replaced, and naturally, the bees are replaced
too. The queens and the respective swarms
will be placed in beehives with beeches
acquisitioned from the ecological production
units. If this is respected, the conversion
period is not necessary.
3. Regarding the beehives and the
other beekeeping equipment
The beehives have to be manufactured
from wood. Some annexes of the hives or
other beekeeping equipment have to be
manufactured from natural or neutral
material, according to environment or the
beehive products.
Treating the beehives for protection with
substances based on carbonyl or creosols is
not allowed, but impregnation with
microcrystalline beeswax is accepted at a
temperature between 135-150ºC.
Impregnates and vegetal paints, vegetal,
animal and mineral oils and wax, natural and
mineral pigments, mineral salts not toxic for
the environment and for the products of the
hives, natural and calcined earth can be used.
In the interior of the beehives only natural
products are used, as: propolis, beeswax and
vegetal oils.
For the artificial honeycomb bought from
the outside, the buyer has to guarantee the
strict conditioning specific of the biological
wax. So, in order to rebuild the necessary
honeycomb, the beekeeper can use wax from
lids or from the frames bought from the stores
in the ecological production units and only in
special situations, when on market there is no
ecologically produced beeswax, the approval
of the inspection and certification institutions
is necessary with the condition that this is
from the wax lids resulted from the honey
comes towards extraction.
Only recommended products will be used
for removing pests, and for cleaning and
disinfecting the beekeeping inventory. For
the protection of deposits and of honeycomb
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
against moth, sulfuric acid in the form of
bands for burning and escape of SO2 can be
used; for the disinfection of the inventory
acetic acid or sodium hypochlorite can be
used in the case of Nosema Apis infestation.
An efficient method of destroying the spores
of Nosema Apis is the sterilization of the
corpses. Sodium lye, potassium lye and
sodium hypochlorite can be used for cleaning
the inventory.
4. Regarding the bee feeding conditions
Bee feeding has to be done with honey
and pollen. Honey and pollen left in the
beehive as food is preferable to be from the
respective family and to be given in
sufficient quantities to ensure the survival of
the colony during the winter period.
Artificial feeding of the bees has to be
done with honey obtained from the
ecological apiculture and, if possible, from
the same apiary. In exceptional situations,
when there is no biological honey that could
confer enough sanitary guarantees, the
feeding with bio replacements is accepted.
The inspection and certification institutes
may authorize, in artificial feeding through
derogation from the before mentioned
stipulations, the use of sugar syrup or
molasses obtained from ecological
agriculture instead of the ecologically
produced honey. Artificial feeding of the
bees is allowed between the last harvesting of
honey and 15 days before the start of the
harvesting in the next year. Bee feeding with
approved products through derogation will be
registered in apiary books regarding the
product type, the dates, the quantities and the
hive in which they are used. Bio
replacements can be used too, produced in a
centralized mode, 7 kg S.U. replacement for
each family is recommended, distributed for
two winters, and in particular cases, such as
coniferous manna areas, 10 kg S.U. can be
administered. In the areas with continental or
mountain climate, families that are unified
may benefit of about 10 kg S.U. bio
replacements.
5. Regarding the prevention of diseases
and applying treatments to bees
Special attention will be granted to the
prevention of disease appearance at bees
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

through measures of organizational, In the period with allopathical chemical

biological and hygienic order.
After these preventing measures are
taken, if the families get sick, they will be
immediately treated or moved in isolation
hives. Medicines that will be used have to
correspond to the ecological production
methods. Phytotherapeutical and
homeopathic products are recommended in
obtaining ecological products. If these
products do not prove to be effective in
treating some diseases, allopathical chemical
substances of synthesis can be used, under
the responsibility of authorized personnel,
without harming the principles of obtaining
the ecological products.
The use of allopathical chemical
substances of synthesis in a preventive
purpose is not allowed. By derogation, the
formic acid, lactic acid, acetic acid and oxalic
acid, and other substances as: menthol,
thymol, eucalyptol, camphor will be used
only in case of Varroa jacobsoni infestation.
Other treatments applied to bee families will
be authorized by the inspection and
certification institutions in conformity with
valid regulations.
substances of synthesis treatment, the
colonies have to be treated in isolation hives
and all the wax has to be replaced with wax
got in conformity with the ecological
production regulations. After that, a one year
conversion period will be applied.
All the treatments, diagnosis and
posology details, administration mode,
treatment duration and legal waiting period,
will be registered in books and will be
communicated to the inspection and
certification institutions before
commercializing the product as being
ecological.
6. Regarding the quality standard and
antibiotic residues, pesticides, heavy
metals and honey contamination level
For the honey marketed in the world the
Codex Alimentarius Standards are
considered, while the European Regulations
for honey foresees the European Norms,
generally close to the first. In the
Alimentarius Codex there are specific
paragraphs about honey examination, its
hygiene and specious honey glucides (tab. 1).

Table 1
Honey quality standard in conformity with the C.L. Regulations 1998/12 – S from
Alimentarius Codex and European Union Regulation 96/0114 (C.N.S.)
Codex E.U.
Quality criterion
regulations regulations
General humidity ≤21g/100g ≤21g/100g
Black grass, clover ≤23g/100g ≤23g/100g
Pastry honey ≤25g/100g ≤25g/100g
General reducing sugars ≥65g/100g ≥65g/100g
Mildew, mixtures of mildew and floral ≥45g/100g ≥60g/100g
Xanthorrehoea pr. ≥53g/100g ≥53g/100g
General sacchorose ≤5g/100g ≤5g/100g
Robinia, Lavandula, Hedysarum, Trifolium, Banksia gr., mildew and
mildew mixture, Medicago, Eucalyptus cam, Banksia men, ≤10g/100g ≤10g/100g
Rosemarinus
Calothamnus san, Eucalyptus scab, Banksia gr., mildew and
≤15g/100g
mildew mixture
General materials insoluble in water ≤0.1g/100g ≤0.1g/100g
Pressed honey ≤0.5g/100g ≤0.5g/100g
General mineral elements (ashes) ≤0.6g/100g ≤0.6g/100g
Mildew, mildew mixture, chestnut honey ≤1.2g/100g ≤1.2g/100g
Acidity ≤50mlg/kg ≤40mlg/kg
Diastase activity (on Schade scale) after conditioning and mix ≥8 ≥8
General (E.U. retail commerce) with low content of enzymes ≥3 ≥3
HMF after conditioning and/or homogenizing (regulations) E.U.
≤60mlg/kg ≤40mlg/kg
detailed

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Starting from 200 for the food and other
products in European Union which are to be
commercialized the changing of some
maximum limits of the residues (M.R.L.) has
become necessary, paying more and more
attention to the negative effects made by the
residues or their metabolites which can be
found in the products consumed by people.
Firm Standard 150/1-2001 stipulates the
acceptance of the maximum limits of
antibiotics such as: streptomycin 20 ppb
(µg/kg) by Eliza and H.P.L.C. methods;
tetracycline 10 ppb by Eliza and
microbiological; sulfonamides 10 ppb by
chromatography in thin layer method.
For pesticides the accepted maximum
limits are: αHCH 0.01ppm (mg/kg);
βHCH 0.01 ppm; Lindan 0.01 ppm; DDT
total 0.05 ppm; PCB 0.20 ppm; other
organochlormate 0.20 ppm; residues of
organo-phosphoric pesticides 0.02 ppm.
For heavy metals, the maximum limits
accepted are: lead 0.20 ppm; arsenium 0.10
ppm; copper 0.50 ppm; cadmium 0.20 ppm;
zinc 3.00 ppm; mercury 0.01 ppm.
The maximum level of radioactive
contamination accepted is of 10 Bq/kg.
RECOMMENDATIONS:
- to establish methods of evaluating the
level of environment pollution and its
impact on the quality of beekeeping
products;
- to create a protocol on the national level
regarding the methods of testing the
beekeeping products, compatible to the
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
ones in the E.U. and the other
international forums (Alimentarius
Codex, F.A.O., Honey International
Commission);
- the necessity of creating some zone
centers for testing the beekeeping
products and for diagnosing the biologic
material used in the ecological
beekeeping;
- the necessity of mentioning the zone
where the honey and the beekeeping
products come from in order to avoid the
possibility of being falsified on the basis
of the characteristics of the respective
zone;
- To produce new technologies or
improve the existing ones in order to
maintain the health of the colonies and
obtain harmless products.
REFERENCES
Books
[1] Bura and colab. – 2005 – Beekeeping
Technology, Solness publishing house, Timisoara,
Romania.
[2] Lazǎr Şt. and Vornicu O.C. – 2007 –
Beekeeping, Alfa publishing house, Iasi, Romania.
[3] Mǎrghitaş L.A. – 2002 – Bees and their
products, Ceres publishing house, Bucharest,
Romania.
[4] Xxx – CEE 2377/90 regulations of the council
from 26/06/90; the official diary of the European
committee L. 125/18.08/90.
[5] Xxx – Extract from the enterprise standard
150/1-2001 and STAS 784/1 from 1989.
[6] Xxx – Alimentarius Codex.
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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

RESEARCH CONCERNING THE EFFECTS

OF OXIDIZING AGENTS USED IN THE MILLER'S
AND BAKING INDUSTRY

Lucica Nistor, Camelia Hodoşan, Andra Suler, Daniela Ianiţchi,

Victoria Gratziela Bahaciu

University of Agronomical Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Bucharest

Abstract
In the milling and baking industry, the oxidizing agents are used to improve processes of dough
rheology coming from weak gluten flour. These have the capacity to retain gases, allows to
maintain dough shape after being modeling, and also the structure and the color of the inside bread.
In this work, the effects of oxidizing agents on dough, has been plained.
Key words: oxidizing agents, dough rheology, gluten

INTRODUCTION dough. True to this, the oxidizing agent

Oxidizing agents are used to improve the
rheological quality of dough coming from
wheat with little gluten. This increases the
retention capacity for gases and allows the
dough to maintain its form after shaping,
with the end result having an increased
volume, porousness, structure, and superior
interior colour.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The research that was carried out allowed
the formulation of a reaction mechanism that
explains the effects of oxidizing agents on
determines the oxidization of the SH groups
that belong to protein molecules, with the
formation of disulphidic points.
The two relevant proteins can be either
nonglutenous proteins, in which case they
come from sulphydryl-disulphide exchanges
in favor of glutenous proteins, which bring
about a dough that is more elastic and resists
more to being rolled out. There can also be a
molecule of nonglutenous protein and one
that is glutenous, which causes an increase in
the elasticity of the dough.

Diagram 1: The mechanism by which the oxidizing agents affect dough

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Another mechanism is based on the direct
oxidization of SH-groups in sulphonatic
acids, being a considerably more desirable
path for the oxidization to occur in conditions
of extremely elevated levels of oxidants.
Both reactions affect the rheological
Diagram 2: Oxidization of the SH groups in sulphonatic acids
Research has shown that the oxidizing
action of ascorbic acid on the remains of
cysteine from the dough's proteinic
molecules is brought about due to the L-
dehydroascorbic acid in which the ascorbic
acid is transformed through oxidization.
According to the research, the improving
action of the ascorbic action is due to an
enzymatic mechanism in which this is
oxidized through dehydroascorbic acid, in the
presence of oxygen and ascorbic ozydase.
This reaction is followed by the reduction
of dehydroascorbic acid through ascorbic
acid in the presence of dehydroascorbant
reductase and of a hydrogen donor
represented by the redused gluthathione.
This mechanism is contined by the
system of redused gluthathione – oxidized
gluthathione and the gluthathione reductase
enzyme. The reaction is finalized through the
SH-group oxidization through proteins in the
presence of specific dehydrogenases and of
the NADH + H+ ↔ NAD system.
The effect of ascorbic acid could be due
to intermediary products of the nonenzymatic
oxidization such as superoxidant radicals.
In this way the oxidization of ascorbic
acid through dehydroascorbant acid would
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
quality of the dough. The added dose of
oxidant is dependent on the quality and
extraction of the flour, of the process by
which the dough is prepared, and also of the
mechanics of the intensity of the kneading
action.
happen through the release of an electron
towards the molecular oxygen and the
intermediary roamtion of an
monodehydroascorbic acid and of a
superoxidant radical (O2-.). This radical is
quickly reduced to hydrogen dixoide through
an enzymatic reaction of displacement,
helped by the formation of a hydroxiperoxil
radical. This oxidizes the thiolane radical
(RS.), forming disulphidic bonds. The
reaction is mediated by copper and iron ions.
In bread manufacturing
azodicarbonamide is used in doses of 5-20
ppm; larger quantities are used for wheats
with larger extractions or for technological
processes that require a large rate of
oxidization, such as those that use frozen or
refrigerated dough.
A series of studies has shown the
existence in baking products, obtained
through the use of flour treated with
azodicarbonamide, a larger quantity of
urethan (a carcinogen) compared to products
obtained from untreated flour. Based on this
research, it has been established that the
maximum dose of azodicarbonamide should
not exceed 45 ppm.
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

The chlorine is used in a gaseous form to
whiten and ripen the flour destined for cookie
factories as well as flour to be used in pastry
making, which contains a large quantity of
sugar.
Experiments have shown that only a part
of the chlorine used in flour is retained by
that flour and that the proportion of retained
chlorine is dependent on the total quantity of
chlorine added to the flour.
It has been ascertained that doses smaller
than 1250 ppm of chlorine increase the
dough's stability, while large doses reduce it,
increasing its softness. These effects are
considered to be due to the oxidizing and
hydrolytic action of chlorine on flour
proteins.
Chlorine doses of 650-1250 ppm are
capable of improving the volume, texture,
and colour of the pastry's center, while doses
that are larger than these parameters make it
poorer.

Tabel 1
The primary chemical additives used in the miller's and baking industry.
Names Allowed Quantities Observations
Ascorbic acid 10-100 ppm -
Potassium iodate 0,003 % -
Potassium bromate 10-40 ppm Not allowed in Romania
Nitric oxides - brings about a slight colour
lightening
Calcium iodate 10-75 ppm mild oxidant
Mix of (NH4)2S2O8 and Ca 0,04% -
(H2PO4)2
Mix of chlorine with nitrous 1-20 g/100 kg -
chloride and nitric trichloride

RESULTS
The effect of ascorbic acid is dependent
on the dough's temperature, the intensity of
kneading, and the presence of certain
oxidants. Thus, the maximum effect of
ascorbic acid is reached at the 25-260 C in
case of intensive kneading along with the
simultaneous addition of potassium bromate.
Both reactions effect the dough's
rheological quality. The added dose of
oxidant is dependent on the quality and
extraction of the flour, the procedure used to
prepare the dough, and also on the
mechanical intensity of the kneading action.
Treatment with chlorine increases the
flour's hydration capacity, probably due to
the increased capacity of the grains of flour
to absorb water.
Chlorine is an efficient whitening agent
up to doses of 1250 ppm, acting on the flour's
carotenoidic pigments. The optimal level of
added chlorine depends on the destination,
quality, and graininess of the flour. Chlorine
can be used in doses of 25-500 ppm.
REFERENCES
Journal articles
[1] Bettge, A., Rubenthaler, G.L., Pomeranz, Y.,
1989, Alveograph Alghoritms to Predict
Functional Properties of Wheat in Bread and
Cookie Baking, Cereal Chem, vol. 66, No. 2, 81-
86.
[2] Gaines, C.S., 2. Fregeau Reid, J., Vander Kant,
C., Morris, C.F., 2006, Comparision of Methods
for Gluten Strenght Assessment, Cereal Chem.,
83(3):284-286.
[3] Koppel, Reine, Ingver, Anne, 2004,
Investigation of components of baking quality of
wheat in Estonia, International Workshop on
Modelling Quality Traits and their Genetic
Variablity for Wheat: A satellite meeting of the
VIII ESA Congress, INRA; Clermont-Ferrand,
France. 18-21 July.
[4] Kostyukovsky, M., Zohar, D., 2004, Sunn Pest
Eurygaster integriceps Put. And Wheat Quality in
Israel, International Quality Grains Conference
Procedings

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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

MONITORING THE MILK ACIDIFICATION

BY THE CONDUCTOMETRIC METHOD

Rodica Căpriţă, A. Căpriţă

Banat University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Timisoara

e-mail: rodi.caprita@gmail.com

Abstract
Milk has conductive properties because it contains charged compounds, especially mineral
salts. The determination of the electric conductivity of individual milk components allowed the
identification of individual contributions to overall conductivity. The addition of NaCl to milk
caused an increase in conductivity that was only 77.78% of that in aqueous solutions, due to the
equilibrium between soluble and colloidal salts, and other soluble substances, which interfere with
the salts and decrease its conducting power. Milk acidification and the decrease of pH are due to
the lactose fermentation when lactic acid is formed. The phosphoric acid, the citric acid, and their
acid salts have a buffering role in milk, so that the incipient milk acidification is at first buffered.
Lactic acid added to fresh milk decreased the pH and increased the electrical conductivity of milk.
The increase in electric conductivity for addition of lactic acid to raw milk is from 5.2 mS/cm to 5.7
mS/cm, and for addition of lactic acid to deionized water is from 0 mS/cm to 0.56 mS/cm. We
observed that when the same quantity of lactic acid is added to milk the curve for electrical
conductivity increase is parallel to that of aqueous solutions, but with lower absolute values. The
lower incrementally increase in conductivity is due to the uptake of protons by the buffers present in
milk. HPO42- changes into H2PO4- as pH decreases, which has a lower molar conductivity. The
variation of the electrical conductivity incrementally with variation of lactic acid concentration
makes possible the use of this biophysical parameter for monitoring milk acidification.
Key words: pH, electric conductivity, lactose, milk, lactic acid

INTRODUCTION good conductors, are negligible in fresh milk

Milk has conductive properties because it
contains charged compounds, especially
mineral salts. The electrical conductivity of
milk is determined primarily by sodium and
chloride ions but also by other ions [2].
Particularly important is the distribution
of salt fractions between soluble and
colloidal forms [5]. Such distribution
depends on an equilibrium modified by pH
and temperature changes in milk [3]. The
acidification and cooling increase the soluble
salts. Basic and acidic free amino acids are
conductors. The contribution of milk proteins
to overall conductivity is difficult to quantify
but it is assumed to be small, considering
their molecular size. Lactose, an uncharged
sugar, cannot conduct electrical current. Fat
is a nonconductor and hinders the conduction
of electricity by occupying volume and by
impeding the mobility of ions. Lactic acid
and short-chain free fatty acids, which can be
[4]. Reports of studies on conductivity
changes associated with fat metabolism
apparently do not exist.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The electrical conductivity (σ) was
measured with the conductivity meter type
OK-102/1 (Radelkis). The instrument was
standardized with KCl solutions of known
conductivity before use. The cell was washed
with 0.01 M KCl followed by two rinses with
the sample prior to measurement.
Temperature corrections were made, as the
samples were not analyzed at 25°C. The pH
of the solutions was determined using a
digital pH-meter.
The following solutions were prepared
using analytical grade reagents: 5000
mg/100mL of lactose, 30 mg/100mL of urea,
and 100 mg/100 mL of NaCl, KC1, sodium

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
lactate, sodium citrate, and K2HP04. A
solution containing 10% (wt/wt) lactic acid
was prepared, and 0.2 mL of this solution
was progressively added to milk and
deionized water. After each addition of lactic
acid, electrical conductivity and pH were
determined.
The biochemical and biophysical
parameters were assayed with the
standardized analytical methods [1].
Table 1.
Electrical conductivity of milk, milk fractions and components
Concentration
Component
mg%
Raw milk
Milk after 48 hours
Milk + NaCl 100
Milk + Sodium lactate 100
Lactose 5000
Urea 30
KCl 100
NaCl 100
K2HPO4 100
Sodium citrate 100
Sodium lactate 100
A combination of conductivities of the
salt solutions yielded a conductivity that was
higher than that of milk because this
combination represented only the rough
composition of the salt fraction of milk,
because in milk it’s a equilibrium between
soluble and colloidal salts and the mineral
fraction of milk contains also other soluble
substances, which interfere with the salts, and
therefore decrease its conducting power. For
example, addition of NaCl to milk caused an
increase in conductivity that was 77.78% of
that in aqueous solutions. Also, the increase
in conductivity caused by addition to milk of
sodium lactate was 76.92% of that in
aqueous solutions (Table 1).
The pH decreased from 6.48 to 5 when
lactic acid was added to fresh milk. The
electric conductivity increase for addition of
lactic acid to raw milk is from 5.2 mS/cm to
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The determination of the conductivity of
individual milk components allowed
identification of individual contributions to
overall conductivity.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The role of milk components was
confirmed by conductivity measurements on
pure solutions of the components present in
milk (Table 1).
Electrical conductivity
mS/cm
5.22
5.80
1.26
0.40
0.02
0.003
1.64
1.62
1.20
0.85
0.52
5.7 mS/cm, and for addition of lactic acid to
deionized water is from 0 mS/cm to 0.56
mS/cm. Lactic acid and its salts are important
conductors. Although these molecules are
present in small amounts in fresh milk, they
are the major products of fermentation by
lactic acid bacteria.
Lactic acid added to fresh milk decreased
pH and increased electrical conductivity of
milk. We compared the conductivity curves
for addition of lactic acid to raw milk and to
deionized water. Figure 1 shows that when
the same quantity of lactic acid is added to
milk and water, the curve for electrical
conductivity increase is parallel to that of
water, but with lower absolute values (Figure
2). Acidification of milk caused changes in
salt equilibrium. The lower incrementally
increase in conductivity is due to the uptake
of protons by the buffers present in milk.
 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

1 6

El. cond. mS/cm

El. cond. mS/cm

0,8 5,8
5,6
0,6
5,4
0,4
5,2
0,2 5
0 4,8
0 20 40 60 80 100

Lactic acid (mg)

Water Milk
Figure 1. Variation of electric conductivity with lactic acid concentration in water and milk

0.6
0.5
El. cond. mS/cm

0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 20 40 60 80 100

Lactic acid (mg)

Water Milk

Figure 2. The incrementally increase of electric conductivity as a function of progressive addition of

lactic acid

The monophophate ion (HPO42-) changes CONCLUSIONS

into diphophate ion (H2PO4-) as pH
decreases. H2PO4- has a lower molar
conductivity (36 S cm2/mol) than HPO42-
(114 S cm2/mol) [5], and the addition of
lactate only partially compensates for the
decrease in conductivity.
HPO42-(aq) + H+(aq) ↔ H2PO4-(aq)
Water electrical conductivity increased with
0.5 mS/cm which is similar to the
conductivity during fermentation.
Milk has conductive properties because it
is rich in charged compounds, especially
mineral salts.
Milk acidification and the decrease of pH
are due to the lactose fermentation when
lactic acid is formed.
The variation of the electrical
conductivity incrementally with variation of
lactic acid concentration makes possible the
use of this biophysical parameter for
monitoring milk acidification.

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT: This work was thermophilic lactic fermentations. J. Ferment.

supported by CNCSIS grant No. 96 Bioeng., 1992, 74, 32–38.
GR/11.06.2008 [4] Mucchelti G., Galti M., Erasmo N.: Electrical
conductivity changes in milk caused by
acidification: Determining factors, J Dairy
REFERENCES Sci,1994, 77:940-944.
Journal articles [5] Owens, J. D.: Formulation of culture media for
[2] Căpriţă R., Căpriţă A., Bencsik, I.: The electric conductometric assays: theoretical considerations.
conductivity as a parameter for milk quality J. Gen. Microbiol., 1985, 131:3055.
appreciation, Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica, Book
Suppl., 2003, 98:264. [1] Căpriţă R.: Principii şi tehnici biochimice, Ed.
[3] Latrille E., Picque D., Perret B., Corrieu G.: Gutenberg, Arad 2001, ISBN 973-8096-41-3
Characterizing acidification kinetics by measuring
pH and electrical conductivity in batch

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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

THE HYDRO AND BIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTIC

OF WATER FROM AN ORNAMENTAL LAKE

Valerica Macovei, I. Gîlcă

Faculty of Animal Sciences, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine

„Ion Ionescu de la Brad” Iasi, Romania
e-mail: m_valerica_univagro@yahoo.com

Abstract
The researchers was done at The Research Station for Aquaculture and Aquatic Ecology Iasi in
the vegetation period of 2008 and had as an objective the identification of phyto and zooplanctonic
formations from the ornamental lake populated with two species of fish, Cyprinus carpio şi
Ctenopharyngodon idella, and the abundance of systematic groups.
The collecting of material realized in the period July-September 2008. The planctonic samples
obtained throw filtration of 10 litters of water with the planctonic net. The material which was
filtered was remake, quantitative and qualitative, in laboratory.
The remaking in laboratory consists in the sedimentation of the samples in time of 21 days,
centrifugalization in time of 5 minutes. The numerical evaluation and the identification of species
were done in laboratory with the microscope HC 1 using the counted camera. We established the
qualitative components of every sample and, at the end, the frequency of phyto and zooplanktonic
organisms.
The hydro biological analyze of water from the ornamental lake indicated an equilibrium
between the main phyto and zooplanktonic groups developed in the sweet stagnant waters. Thus, the
systemic phyto planktonic groups were represented of 18 taxons, the chlorophyll groups with 6
taxons and the cyanophiceae groups with 3 taxons.
The systemic zoo planktonic groups were represented by 8 taxons from witch 4 taxons for
rotifers, 3 for crustaceans and 1 for insects. We observed that the best represented is the group of
rotifers, especially in July and the purest represented is the group of crustaceans
Key words: ornamental lake, fish, aquaculture

INTRODUCTION which was filtered was remake, quantitative

The researchers was done at The
Research Station for Aquaculture and
Aquatic Ecology Iasi in the vegetation period
of 2008 and had as an objective the
identification of phyto and zooplankton
formations [2,3,4,7,8,12] from the
ornamental lake populated with two species
of fish, Cyprinus carpio and
Ctenopharyngodon idella, and the abundance
of systematic groups [1,5,6,9,11].
MATERIAL AND METHOD
The collecting of material realized in the
period July-September 2008. The plankton
samples obtained throw filtration of 10 litters
of water with the plankton net. The material
and qualitative, in laboratory.
The remaking in laboratory consists in
the sedimentation of the samples in time of
21 days, centrifugalization in time of 5
minutes. The numerical evaluation and the
identification of species were done in
laboratory with the microscope HC 1 using
the counted camera. We established the
qualitative components of every sample and,
at the end, the frequency of phyto and zoo-
plankton organisms.
The hydro biological analyze of water
from the ornamental lake indicated an
equilibrium between the main phyto and
zooplankton groups developed in the sweet
stagnant waters. Thus, the systemic phyto
plankton groups were represented of 18

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

taxon, the chlorophyll groups with 6 taxon
and the cyanophiceae groups with 3 taxon.
The systemic zoo-plankton groups were
represented by 8 taxon from witch 4 taxon
for rotifers, 3 for crustaceans and 1 for
insects. We observed that the best
represented is the group of rotifers, especially
in July and the purest represented is the
group of crustaceans.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Table 1 is presented results of the hydro-
biological analysis. After the plankton’s
deposit measured (seston volume) resulted that
water in the ornamental fish’s lakes in which
we done the experiments ranged within the
waters rich in plankton (15 - 30 ml/l).
Systematic phytoplankton groups were
represented in the total of 18 taxon, the most
represented group being the cloroficeea with
7 taxon, followed by the group of
bacilarioficeea with 6 taxon. We noted as a
general feature, at the beginning of the
experiment, an explosive development of
diatomeae, respectively the abundance of
bacilarioficeae. Blue algae were more
abundant towards the middle of summer
(July). Worthy of note is the presence of the
green algae as a number of taxon as well as
their frequency. In generally, the
Phytoplankton which was determined has
small size.
It was found the development and
relatively frequent development of
cianoficeea which is linked to water
temperature (values between 20-26°C) and
its contents in organic substances, and the
source of water. Thus, during July and
August 2008, when water temperature was
between 20-26°C is an exponential
cianoficeae development, which led to the
phenomenon of "eutrophication" with
negative influences of the level oxygen in
water and aquatic organisms. From the class
of Euglenofitae the largest development have
the Rhyzosolenia, presence can be explained
by the high temperature of water and reduced
consumption of this species by zooplankton.
From the group of cloroficeae a strong
development observed at the Scenedesmus
species in July and August, species that
reproduce mostly at temperatures above 20
°C. Dominance of this species can be
explained by reduced number of zooplankton
that is a source of food

Table 1
Phytoplankton dynamics within the aquatic pool
Data collection
Taxon name 30.07. 05.08. 12.08. 19.08 26.08. 03.09 20.09. 27.09
2008 2008 2008 2008 2008 2008 2008 2008
CYANOPHYCEAE
Anabaena *** *** **** **** *** *** ** **
Mycrocystis ** ** ** * * * * **
Gloeocapsa * * * * *
BACILLARIOPHYCEAE
Asterionela ** *** *** *** ** ** **** ****
Navicula ** ** * * * * *** **
Cymbella *
Synedra *** ** * ** **
Rhyzosolenia *** *** *** *** ** ** **** **
Pinularia * * * * * *
CLOROPHYCEAE
Ulotrix *
Pediastrum ** ** ** ** * * ** **
Scenedesmus *** *** ** *** ** *** *** ***
Fragillaria * * * *
Eudorina ** ** * * * **
Closterium ** ** * * * ** **
Pandorina * * * * *
*rarely; ** relatively rare, *** often, **** very frequency

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

Table 2
Zooplankton dynamics within the aquatic pool

Data collection
Taxon name 30.07. 05.08. 12.08. 19.08. 26.08. 03.09. 20.09. 27.09.
2008 2008 2008 2008 2008 2008 2008 2008
ROTIFERA
Brachionus *** ** ** ** * * **** ***
Keratella *** ** * * * *** **
Trichocerca **** *** ** ** ** * **** ***
Rrotiferae’s **** *** ** ** ** * *** **
eggs
CRUSTACEA
Bosmina * * * *
Cyclops ** ** * * **
Daphnia *** ** ** * * * *** **
Crustaceae’s ** ** * * * ** **
eggs
INSECTA
Insects’ larva * * * * *
Notonecta * *
*rarely; ** relatively rare, *** often, **** very frequency

Qualitative analysis of zooplankton cladocerae while in depth the rotiferae are

(Table 2) was to determine the main
taxonomic groups of zooplankton such as
protozoa, rotiferae, copepodae, cladocerae
Systematic zooplankton groups were
represented in of 8 taxon, 4 of which taxon to
rotiferae 3 for crustaceans and 1 for insects.
It is noted that the group is well represented
by rotiferae, especially in July. Group of
crustaceans is poorly represented, the taxon
appearing with a very low frequency
The results we presented in Table 2 show
that in July and the first half of August,
frequent and relatively frequent are the
species belongs to the group of rotiferae,
predatory species. Rotiferae feed in particular
bacteria and protozoa which indicates the
presence in water of a rich phytoplankton and
bacteria-plankton.
The presence of frequent and relatively
frequent from the cladocerae species of a
Daphnia is explained by reproduction at
temperatures between 16-26 °C and a pH
value between 6-8.5, characteristics of
temperature and pH recorded in our
experiment. Is uneven spread of zooplankton
on the vertical of water, being is influenced
by environmental factors and seasonal trends.
Thus in epipelagial are several zooplankton
species, being dominant copepodae and
dominant.
The Copepodae is a valuable food for
rearing larvae, size range (between 80-200
micrometers at naupliu and between 1-3 mm
in adults) providing full set of nutritional
needs during the development of larvae and
juveniles of fish, but slow reproduction (20
days to adult stage) explains the relatively
common presence of these species.
The frequent and very frequent of
rotiferae is largely determined by the rate of
reproduction, which depends on the
individual diet and relatively high water
temperature
CONCLUSIONS
Hydro-biological analysis of water from
the aquatic basin in which was conducted the
experiments showed the existence of a
balance between the main phytoplankton
groups and zooplankton, which develops in
stagnant fresh water.
- Systematic phytoplankton groups were
represented in the total of 16 taxon; the group
of cloroficeae was the best represented with 7
taxon, followed by the group of
bacilarioficeae with 6 taxon, and 3 taxon for
cianoficeae group;
- From the group of cloroficeae a strong
development registered at the Scenedesmus

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
species in July and August during which
reproduce mostly at temperatures above
20°C;
- Systematic zooplankton groups were
represented in total of 8 taxon, 4 of which
taxon to rotiferae 3 for crustaceans and 1 for
insects;
- It was found that the most represented
group is rotiferae, especially in July, while
crustaceans group is less represented;
- From the group of crustaceans was
frequent and relatively frequently the
presence of Daphne species, frequency which
is explained by the reproduction of this
species at temperatures between 16-26°C and
a pH value between 6 -8.5;
The frequent and very frequent presence
of rotiferae is largely determined by the rate
of reproduction, which depends on the
number of individuals, diet and relatively
high temperature (20°C).
REFERENCES
Journal articles
[1] Macovei Valerica, Leonte Doina, Leonte C.,
2006, Cercetări privind valorificarea hranei de
către unele specii de peşti de apă dulce,
International, scientific symposium “European
achievements and expectations in animal
production”, Facultatea de Zootehnie, Iaşi, pag.
63;
[2] Battes K, Măzăreanu C., Pricope F., Cărăuşu I.,
Marinescu Virginia, Rujinschi Rodica, 2003,
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Producţia şi productivitatea ecosistemelor
acvatice, Editura “Ioan Borcea”, Bacău, pag.29-
285;
Books
[3] Battes K., 1985, Probleme de nutriţia peştilor,
Cosfătuirea pe probleme de piscicultură, Galaţi,
1985;
[4] Barnabe G., 1991, Bases biologiques et
ecologiques de l aquaculture, Editura Lavoiser,
Tec et Doc, Paris;
[5] Boişteanu Taisia, 1980, Hidrobiologie, Editura
Univ. “Al. I. Cuza”, Iaşi, pag. 34-253;
[6] Curtean-Bănăduc Angela, 2001, Practicum de
hidrobiologie, Editura Mira Design, Sibiu, pag.
145;
[7] Nagy-Toth Fr., Barna Adriana, 1998, Alge
verzi unicelulare (Clorococcales), Determinator,
Presa Universitară, Cluj Napoca;
[8] Negrea Şt., 1983, Fauna R.S.R., Crustacea-
Cladocera, vol.IV, Editura Academiei Române
Bucureşti;
[9] Pricope F., Battes K., Petrovici Milca, 2007,
Hidrobiologie- lucrări practice, Editura Alma
Mater, Bacău, pag. 23-70;
[10] Pişotă I., Zaharia Liliana, Diaconu D., 2005,
Hidrobiologie, Editura Universitară Bucureşti,
pag. 22-31;
[11] Stan Tr., Păsărin B., 1999, Acvacultură, curs,
Editura Univ. de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină
Veterinară, Iaşi, pag. 7-120;
[12] Vasilescu G., 1986, Hidrobiologie curs,
Universitatea Galaţi, 1986;
[13] Verdu M.A. 1991, La aquiculture en el
mundo, Xunta de Galicia, Espagna;
 BACK

Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

TECHNOLOGIC PERFORMANCES OF CARP BREEDING

(CYPRINUS CARPIO) IN GROUND BASINS OF SMALL
DIMENSIONS

Nicoleta Dobrota1, Mioara Costache1, Soare Stancioiu2,

Gh. Dobrota1
1
Research Development Centre for Pisciculture Nucet, Dambovita county
e-mail: scp_nucet@yahoo.com
2
„Dunărea de Jos” University Galaţi, Fishing and Aquaculture Department, Galaţi

Abstract
Once, with the development of pisciculture was sought the introduction of new technologies,
with high breeding rhythm and the realization of bigger quantity of fish on the surface unit. The
authors of this work proposed an experiment of breeding of the Cyprinus carpio species, in ground
basins of small dimensions, using exclusively granulated fodder. The Cyprinus carpio species was
chosen because it is the traditional species of the Romanian pisciculture and the most valuable
species from the economical point of view. The experiment was realized in the conditions of an
intensive system, in ground basins of small dimensions, at the experimental Base no. 1 Nucet, within
CCDP-Nucet, in 2007, to obtain one output between 8640-19800kg/ha, given that one weight of
material apart 64g/ex and to get to in one weight final included between 1500-2100g/ex.
Key words: carp, granulated fodder, small spaces.

INTRODUCTION In this sense we propose the elaboration

The aquaculture is the field which
registered the most rapid evolution
worldwide, of all the branches of the
agriculture. Presently this sector of activity
supplies almost 20% of the aquatic
consumable products [5].
Considering the fact that during the last
years the level of the captures in the natural
environment registers a diminution due to
over-fishing, it is more and more obvious the
fact that only by fishing in fresh water, seas
and oceans there can no longer be covered
the global demand of aquatic animals. That is
why the perspectives of development of the
aquaculture are very high, it being an
alternative for the insurance of the necessary
of animal proteins of superior quality [5].
The production supplied by the
aquaculture in our country is realized
exclusively in classical settlements of the
ponds and lakes type, where there are applied
extensive and semi-intensive breeding
technologies. The technical potential of these
types of settlements is limited, reason for
which they cannot be a solution for the
alignment of the Romanian aquaculture to the
European and global standards [2].
of a breeding technology in intensive system
of the carp, in ground basins of small
dimensions.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
The breeding experiment of the carp in
ground basins of small dimensions was
realized in three types of basins: 1000m²,
2000m² and 5000m² at the experimental Base
no. 1 - Nucet, of CCDP-Nucet (photo1).
All the three types of basins have
independent alimentation and evacuation,
with monk type installations and considering
the great density of population the water
depth is of 1,4-1,8 m.
The works of preparation of the basins for
the population were done according to the
classical [3], technology:
- verification and distribution of the dams,
canals and hydro technical installations;
- mobilization of the bottom of the basins in
the shallow areas and elimination of the harsh
vegetation;
- administration of the amendments (500
kg/ha quick lime) by uniform distribution on
the entire surface of the basins;

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
Photo 1 Basin of earth of little dimension
The inundation of the basins was done by
filters of nytal fabric, with the side of 1.125
mm, to avoid the entrance of species of
predatory fish or species without economic
value. The inundation of the basins was
effectuated on the 15.04.2007 and the
population was done after 5 days.
The alimentation with water of the basins,
during the entire breeding periods was
maintained, in an optimal rhythm for the
development of the fish material
Monitoring of the environment conditions
The fish production depends greatly on
the physical and chemical quality of the
water. At the intensive breeding the
parameters taken for study are the following:
temperature, dissolved oxygen, pH, content
of essential mineral elements, turbidity and
color.
The monitoring of these parameters was
done as it follows:
● the temperature of the water was measured
daily, in the morning, at noon and in the
evening, with the mercury thermometer;
● the dissolved oxygen was measured daily,
in the first hours of the morning, before the
sunrise, using the portable oxygenometers
OxiGuard;
● the turbidity was measured with the Secki
disk.
The other parameters, pH, alkalinity,
hardness were analyzed weekly. They are
determined after the lab analyses based on
the water samples.
The feeding of the fish material was done
with two types of granulated fodder, at
foddering tables (established according to the
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surface of the basins), in two stages / day,
during the entire foddering period.
The feeding of the fish material was done
until the date of 24.10.2007, (total foddering
days – 145 days).
Population of the basins
The material necessary for the population
was from the proper production, with the age
of one year, each basing being populated
differently according to the surface, quantity
and quality of the material that we want to
obtain. From the sanitary point of view the
material was clinically healthy, brought and
populated in good conditions on the date of
20.04.2007.
The population of the fish material in the
experimental basins was done as it follows:
► for the basin with the surface of 1000m²
were populated 1500 exemplars, with the
average weight/ exemplar of 62g, total
weight of 93 kg.
► for the basin with the surface of 2000m²
were populated 1750 exemplars, with the
average weight/ exemplar of 66g, total
weight of 115.5kg.
► for the basin with the surface of 5000m²
were populated 2500 exemplars, with the
average weight/ exemplar of 63g, total
weight of 157.5 kg.
Foddering of the material
The necessary of protein for the fish is
higher than at the terrestrial animals,
especially for the fact that the fish are
animals with rapid growth [1].
The foddering in the three experimental
basins began on the 01.05.2007, in the first
week the daily ration being of 10% of the

weight of the populated fish material, for the
realized experiment, this meaning:
● 9.3 kg of fodder for the basin with the
surface of 1000m²;
● 11,5 kg of fodder for the basin with the
surface of 2000m²;
● 15,7 kg of fodder for the basin with the
surface of 5000m²;
After the first week the ration was
gradually increased, according to the
consumption capacity of the populated
material, the feeding being done “ad
libitum”.
The feeding of the fish material in the
realized experiment began with the ALLER
CLASSIC 3mm, which has the following
content: fish flour, soya grit, blood flour,
rape, wheat, fish oil and vegetal oils.
The biochemical characteristics of the
fodder were the following: protein 30%, fats
7.0%, NFE 43%, cellulose 5%, ashes 7,0%,
active urease 0,3% and as minerals N and P.
The fodder also contains the vitamins: A, D3
and E.
From the date of 25.08.2007 was
switched to another type of fodder
SOPROFISH 25/12 STANDARD SP, which
has the following content: fish flour, soya
grit, corn, minerals and vitamins, with a
smaller raw protein, considering the fact that
the fish material at that date had an average
weight of 1000-1500 kg.
The biochemical characteristics of the
fodder were the following: protein 25%, fats
12,0%, water 8,0%, cellulose 3,0%, ashes
5,0%, active urease 0,3% and as minerals Ca
and P. The mixture also contains the
vitamins: A, D3, E and C and the essential
amino-acids Lizina şi Metionina + Cisteina.
The energetic value of this type of fodder is
18,7 MJ/kg raw energy, respectively 15,2
MJ/kg metabolizing energy.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Even if in the intensive breeding system
the natural food has a reduced influence, the
preparation of the basin must be done
according to the classical technology.
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
The breeding technology of the culture
carp, in intensive system, in ground basins of
small dimensions, is adequate to the current
requirements of production of the fish with
high economic value, the carp being the
traditional species of the Romanian
pisciculture.
The breeding of the culture carp, in
intensive system, in ground basins of small
dimensions, gives the possibility of providing
for the markets also outside the fishing
seasons.
Analysis of the physical chemical factors
The experiment basins are alimented with
water from the same alimentation canal,
which comes from the Ilfov river. As the
basins are close to each other, and the
alimentation source is common, the physical
chemical factors will naturally have close
values.
The temperature of the water in the
experiment basins was comprised between
17-27ºC. During the interval June-August the
temperature of the water was favorable (22-
27 ºC) [3], for the pisciculture activity, and
during the months of May and September
were registered lower temperatures 17-21ºC.
The dissolved oxygen has registered
optimal values during the entire studied
period 5.5-7.6mg/l, as well as the values of
the pH 7.2-8.5.
The turbidity had values comprised
between 15 and 30 cm.
The other physical chemical factors (total
hardness, alkalinity, chlorines, organic
substance) have oscillated around the optimal
values, without any dangerous evolutions for
the fish population.
The fodder quantity distributed for
months, for the entire feeding period, is
rendered in table no. 1.
During the period of the warm season, on
the date of 15 of each month, was effectuated
a trial fishing, watching: growing and
sanitary state of the fish material, etc.
The dynamic of breeding of the fish
material, in the three experimental basins, is
presented in chart no. 1.
 Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

Table no. 1
Quantity of forage to manage and to tell off on lunar
ALLER CLASSIC SOPROFISH
Basin
May June July August Total August September October Total
No.
(kg) (kg) (kg) (kg) (kg) (kg) (kg) (kg) (kg)
Basin
no.1 162.5 406 893 1029 2490.5 242.5 857.5 360 1478
(1000m²)
Basin
no.2 236 570 1520 1592.5 3918.5 377.5 1472.5 580 2430
(2000m²)
Basin
no.3 328 725 1805 2072.5 4930.5 491 1877.5 740 3108.5
(5000m²)
Total 726.5 1701 4218 4693 11338. 1111 4207.5 1680 6998.5

2500

2000

1500 1000m
1000
2000m
5000m
500

0
pop. iunie august oct.

Chart no.1 Dynamics rhythmic of increase flax the three basin experimental

The more accentuated growing rhythm This way the carp has grown in foddered
registered in the first part of the season is regime, in intensive system and has
explained by the fact that the food multiplied its weight with 24-32 times.
administrated in the first period was richer in The final results registered in the crop
protein. fishing which began on the date of
30.10.2007, are centralized in table no. 2.
Table no. 2
Data of output acquired in fishing of autumn
W
W(g) W(kg) W(g)
No. of No. of (kg) Conversion
environment total Sv environment
Basin populates harvested total Kg/ha coefficient
at at (%) at
pieces pieces at K
population population crop
crop
1000m² 1500 62 93 88 1320 1500 1980 19800 2,09
2000m² 1750 66 115.5 91 1592 2100 3344 16721 1,96
5000m² 2500 63 157.5 96 2400 1800 4320 8640 1,96

The difference of the growing rhythm by
basins is explained by the different
population density.
The sanitary state of the fish material in all
three experimental basins was generally good,
during the entire breeding period. We mention
that, at the fist trial fishing was signaled the
presence of ectoparasites Lernaea sp. (the
intensiveness of the parasites being low, 1-2
parasites / exemplar) and Dactylogyrus sp. At
the second trial fishing the Lernaea sp.
ectoparasite was encountered only at the

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

signaling level, and for Dactylogyrus sp. the
situation was remedied by bathing the fish with
a solution of ammonia, 30%,flax dose of 1ml/l,
exposure time 30sec. [4].
We can say that, the survival was good
due to the quality of the fodder that the fish
material was fed with, but also due to the
quality water and the volume that disposed of
and that we transited in the basins.
This way the basin with the surface of
1000m² where the biggest production of
approximately 20000kg/ha (19800kg/ha) was
obtained, the individual growth of
1500g/exemplar was lower than at the basin with
the surface of 2000m², where the production was
of 16721 kg/ha, at an individual growth of
2100g/exemplar. At the basin with the surface of
5000m² the production was of 8640 kg/ha, the
individual growth being of 28,5 times reaching
an average weight of 1800g, as compared to the
basin with the surface of 2000m² where the
growth was 31 times, but at the same time, very
high was the production on the surface unit. The
highest production was at the basin with the
surface of 1000m², but the individual accretion
was lower compared to the other basins.
The growing differences at the three
experimental basins can also be observed in
the following photos (photo 2, photo 3 and
photo 4):

Photo 2. Carp from the basin of 1000 m²

Photo3. Carp from the basin of 5000 m²

Photo 4. Carp from the basin of 2000 m²

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
CONCLUSIONS
► By the elaboration of the breeding
experiences, we observe that the species that
have experienced with (Cyprinus carpio), has
an intense growing rhythm when the food is
of superior quality and the life conditions are
optimal.
► By the results obtained in this
experiment we can assert that, in the case of
obtaining a qualitative spawn in the I
summer, in the following year we obtain
fishing material which can be delivered on
the market at the dimensions requested by it.
► As means of increase of the carp
production on a small surface, that we have
or that we can build at a small price, can be
realized by using the quality fodder and the
monitoring of the environment conditions,
this being a manner of adjustment at the
conditions of our country.
► The difference of the conversion
coefficient K, between the basin with the
surface of 1000m² and the other two basins is
explained by the population density, but also
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by the fact that at the basin of 2000m² and
5000m² the water volume was greater, due
also to the big surface.
REFERENCES
Journal articles
[1] Bogatu D.,: Proteinele în alimentaţia peştilor,
Simp. Piscicultura şi pescuitul în faţa economiei de
piaţă, 1991, p. 24-26, Galaţi.
[2] Cristea V., Ceapă C., Răuţă M., Ştefănescu V.,:
Oportunitatea şi condiţiile introducerii sistemelor
superintensive în acvacultura României,
AQUAROM ´98, International Symposium,
Galaţi, România, 1998.
[4] Munteanu G., Bogatu D.,: Tratat de
ihtiopatologie, Editura Excelsior Art, 2003, p. 383-
388.
Books
[3] Gheracopol O.,: Piscicultura, Universitatea
Galaţi, 1981.
[5] Oprea L.,: Teză doctorat, Cercetări privind
utilizarea furajelor granulate in alimentaţia
peştilor, în diferite sisteme de cultură,
Universitatea Galaţi, 1996.
 BACK

Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

THE COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF FISH RESOURCES

IN THE DANUBE NEAR BRĂILA, WITHIN THE PERIODS
1972-1986 AND 2006-2008

Luiza Florea

„Dunărea de Jos” University of Galaţi

e-mail: luizafloreagl@yahoo.com

Abstract
The purpose of this paper is to propose a new indicators for assessing the health of fish
population in the Danube River, near Brăila. In this way we analyzed the available data sets
provided by industrial fishing from this area, for two different periods: present period (2006-2008)
and previous period (1972-1986). Between 1972-1986 the environmental conditions in the Danube
River were highly affected by direct and indirect anthropogenic activities. In 2006-2008 the human
impact on fish populations was diminished because fishing was banned in floodplain areas,
economic activities decreased and new legislation on environmental protection came into force. The
proposed indicators describing the status of the freshwater fish community from the Danube River,
near Brăila are: (1) the total capture (TC, tonnes/year); (2) the total capture per unit area (TCA,
tonnes/year x km2); (3) the total number of fish species (TNF, number of species/year); (4) the
number of valuable fish species (NVF, number of species/year); (5) the number of ruling fish species
(NRF, number of species/year); (6) the abundance of flow preference guilds (AFPG , % / guild).
This comparative analysis highlights a highly unbalanced structure of the fish community in both
periods, but in 2006-2008 the fish community structure come out to be in a changing process due to
increase of rheophilic species.
Keywords: Danube, fish, captures, present, past

INTRODUCTION early stage [11]. New EU water policy

Freshwater fish capture are an important
source of animal protein, at global level that
accounted 6.1 % of the total fish global
production in 2001 year (the other parts
come from marine capture, 59.8 % and from
aquaculture, 34.1% [6]. An important guiding
principle for freshwater fisheries
development should be that of maximizing
benefits from all activities for as many
stakeholders as possible while maintaining a
healthy environment.
There is a long tradition in which fishes
have been used as indicators for environment
assessment. Various methods were
subsequently developed [7, 8, 10]. Due to
their complex requirements as specific
habitat [3], habitat connectivity conditions
[9,14], specific food [15], fishes are sensitive
indicators for ecosystem integrity. In Europe,
the development of new and the adaptation of
existing fish-based methods is still in the
(Water Framework Directive) specifies fishes
as one of the four biotic elements which are
decisive for assessing water ecological
statute. Future efforts of researchers should
aim to standardize fish-based assessment of
the ecological integrity of running waters.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
The investigated area is the Danube River
between Brăila town (rkm170) and Giurgeni
village (rkm 238). In this area the Danube
River canal has a total length of 118 km and a
total surface of 616o ha and the floodplain
areas has a total terrestrial surface of 14914 ha
from which the aquatic surface is 4465 ha.
A suitable way of monitoring and
analyzing the trends of the freshwater
ecosystems is by comparing the qualitative
and quantitative structure of freshwater fish
populations of the present with that of the
reference situation. In this purpose were

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found two suitable data sets that are
comprehensive enough to enable ecological
analysis of fish community structures. The
former fisheries society, SC Vermatta SA,
provided the official capture from industrial
fishing for 1972-1986 and the actual fisheries
authority, National Agency for Fishing and
Aquaculture, provided the official capture
for 2006-2008. The reference structure of
freshwater fish populations is taken over
from different bibliographic sources [1,5]. In
these analyzed periods the gillnet fishing was
used in the running water of Danube River
and trapping methods were used in lentic
water of floodplain area.
The study highlight the changes of six
indicators describing the status of the
freshwater fish community by analyzing the
captures from industrial fishing, both, in
Danube River canal and its floodplain area,
in the two different periods. The analyzed
indicators are: (1) the total capture; (2) the
total capture per unit area; (3) the total
number of fish species; (4) the number of
700
valuable fish species (5) the number of
ruling fish species; (6) the abundance of flow
preference guilds.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
(1) The total annual capture of freshwater
fish species - TC (tonnes/year) shows a long-
term fluctuation of fish caught in the Lower
Danube, near Brăila. It is obvious that the
biggest catch was recorded, in all these years,
in floodplain areas, the highest catch
recorded in 1978 was about 631 tonnes, that
means 10.6, respectively 12 times higher than
the biggest catch from Danube River canal
between 1972-1986, respectively 2006-2008.
The average catch calculated for floodplain
areas was 8.3, respectively 8.5 times higher
than in the Danube River canal between
1972-1986, respectively 2006-2008. The TC
(tonnes/year) recorded in the Danube River
canal seems to be similar between 1972-
1986 and 2006-2008 (figure 1).

600

500
tones / year

400

300

200

100

0
72

73

74

75

76

77

78

79

80

81

82

83

84

85

86

06

07

08
19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

20

20

20

Flodplain Danube River canal

Figure 1. Total annual capture of freshwater fish species (tonnes/year)

During 1972-1986 (15 years) there was 1
year with poor fish catch (1974), 3 years with
mediocre fish catch (1972, 1983, 1984), 6
years with good fish catch (1973, 1975, 1976,
1977, 1980, 1982) and 5 years with very
good fish catch (1978, 1979, 1982, 1985,
1986) (figure 1). This sequence, 1-3-6-5, is
very close to findings of Antipa from
reference period, 1880-1910, in the same
area, the reference sequence being 1-2-5-7
[1].
(2) The total annual capture of
freshwater fish species per unit area - TCA
(tonnes/year x km2) is an alternative to the
first indicator (1) used to compare the
productivity of freshwater ecosystems or the
efficiency of inland fisheries all round the
world. After FAO statistics, the highest
capture in 2001 year was around 4.7
tonnes/km2 in Bangladesh, 2.0 tonnes/km2
in Cambodia, almost of countries range from
0.5 to 0.2 tonnes/km2 [6].

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

16.00

14.00

12.00

tones / year x kmp

10.00

8.00
6.00

4.00

2.00

0.00
72

73
74

75

76
77
78

79
80
81

82
83
84

85
86
06

07
08
19

19
19
19

19
19
19

19
19
19

19
19
19

19
19
20

20
20
Floodplain Danube River canal

Figure 2. The total annual capture of freshwater fish species per unit area
2
(tonnes/year x km )

The average catch calculated for Danube areas, that being a very good management
River canal of 0.6 tonnes/km2 is comparable decision for fish community structure and
with the FAO statistic of inland fisheries, stock restoration.
instead of it the average catch calculated for (3) The total annual number of freshwater
floodplain areas of 6.9 tonnes/ km2 in 1972- fish species - TNF (number of species/year)
1986 period demonstrate that the fishing is generally an indicator of fish biodiversity,
activity in floodplain areas is total, without but in this case of industrial fishing in an
chance to escape for fish. The actual indicator of fish availability for fishing.
legislation forbidden the fishing in floodplain
25

20
number of fish species

15

10

0
72

73

74

75

76

77

78

79

80

81

82

83

84

85

86

06

07

08
19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

20

20

20

Flooplain Gura Garlutei Flooplain Navodari

Flooplain Fundu Mare Danube River canal

Figure 3. The total annual number of freshwater fish species (TNF)

The figures 3 shows that the diversity of In the present period, the TNF in the
freshwater fish species was higher in the Danube River canal has been increased and
Danube River canal capture, thus in 8 years reach the maximum for all periods as 20 fish
from all 13 years, when captures was species. This situation may be due to a few
recorded, the TNF in the Danube River canal running water fish species not characteristic
was higher or equal than the TNF in for this sector which get down with the high
floodplain area. This situation is due to flow happened in the last years.
pointed out in captures of a few strict A similar indicator proposed for
rheophilic species (Chondrostoma nasus, ecological purpose is number of river-type-
Abramis sapa, Aspro streber), which live specific species (NRTS) [13], that reflects
only in running water. the indigenous fish fauna naturally occurring

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

in the specific type of a river, excluding higher the better. The analyze made in all
species not native in a given area and not these three periods highlight that the better
autochthonous in the specific river. fish community structure is between 2006-
(4) The number of valuable freshwater fish 2008, when the average of this indicator of 11
species - NVF (number of species/year). The is 1.4, respectively 1.8 times higher than in the
valuable species are those with relative Danube River canal, respectively in floodplain
biomass (RB) bigger than 1%. This is an area between 1972-1986 (figure 4).
indicator of fish community structure, the
14

12
number of valuable fish species

10

0
72

73

74

75

76

77

78

79

80

81

82

83

84

85

86

06

07

08
19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

20

20

20
Flooplain Gura Garlutei Flooplain Navodari
Flooplain Fundu Mare Danube River canal

Figure 4. The annual number of valuable freshwater fish species (NVF)

(5) The number of ruling freshwater fish number of ruling fish species was 4
species - NRF (number of species/year). The comparative with 2.3 respectively 1.99 in the
ruling species are those with relative biomass previous period in the Danube River canal,
(RB) bigger than 10%. This is also an respectively in floodplain area (figure 5). The
indicator of fish community structure, the occurrence and number of ruling fish species
higher the better. The better fish community is a good indicator of diversity of
structure is between 2006-2008, the average economically important fishes.
9
8
number of ruling fish species

7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
72

73

74

75

76

77

78

79

80

81

82

83

84

85

86

06

07

08
19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

20

20

20

Floodplain Gura Garlutei Floodplain Navodari

Floodplain Fundu Mare Danube River canal

Figure 5. The annual number of ruling freshwater fish species (NRF)

(6) The abundance of flow preference of the depauperate state of the present
guilds - AFPG (% / guild). Freshwater fish ichthyofauna of most large rivers in Europe
species can be grouped into guilds (functional [4]. Fish species was grouped into feeding
groups) of species that exploit a resource (food guilds [15], reproductive guilds [2], flow
or habitat) in a similar fashion. Guilds are preference guilds [12].
suitable for ecological analysis of fish data sets Because the fish fauna mainly consists of
underlying causes and ecological mechanisms generalist feeders, the analyses of fish

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

populations structure based on feeding guilds
were not very discriminating. Instead, flow
preference and reproduction ecology of river
fish are closely linked, therefore in many
studies the flow preference guilds are most
generally used for assessing the ecological
integrity and functioning of large river systems.
The freshwater fish species caught by
industrial fishing in the Lower Danube River,
near Brăila, are put together according to the
flow preference [12] into three guilds:
eurytopic species (E), rheophilic species (R)
and limnophilic or lentic species (L) (table1).

Table 1.
The flow preference guilds of freshwater fish species from the Danube River, Brăila area ( after [12]
2
and after author)
Characteristic of flow
preference guilds
Eurytopic species (E):
All stages of life history can
occur in both lotic and lentic
waters
Rheophilic species (R)
A: All freshwater stages of
life history are confined to
the main river channel.
B: Some stages of life
history are confined to well
connected backwaters or
tributaries
Limnophilic species (L)
All stages of life history are
confined to lentic waters with
macrophytes
1
Species: scientific name (common name)
1 1
Cyprinus carpio (common carp); Silurus glanis (wels catfish);
1 1
Stizostedion lucioperca (pike-perch); Abramis brama (common
1 1
bream); Blicca bjorkna (white bream); Alburnus alburnus (bleak);
1 1
Aspius aspius (asp); Carassius auratus (goldfish); Perca
1 1
fluviatilis (european perch); Esox lucius (northern pike); Rutilus
1
rutilus (roach)
1 1
Barbus barbus (barbel); Acipenser ruthenus (sterlet);
1 1
Aristichthys nobilis (bighead carp); Hypophthalmichthys molitrix
1 2
(silver carp); Chondrostoma nasus (sneep); Abramis sapa
2
(white-eye bream); Aspro streber (Danube streber); Vimba
2 2
vimba (vimba); Pelecus cultratus (ziege)
1
Leuciscus idus (ide)
1 1
Carassius carassiu (crucian carp); Tinca tinca (tench);
1 2
Scardinius erythrophthalmus (rudd); Acerina cernua (ruffe)

The AFPG analyse (figure 6) highlight a
high occurrence of eurytopic species, both in
the past and present period, and a significant
increase for rheophilic species which are well
represented in the present period. In Brăila
area, the presence of floodplains with
stagnant ecosystems and the decrease in
current velocities in the main canal is
traditionally reflected in well occurrence of
limnophilic and eurytopic species and in poor
occurrence of rheophilic species. The
increase of rheophilic species abundence in
the present period may be a consequence of
high flow happend in the last years.

Danube River canal

2006-2008

Danube River canal

1972-1986

Floodplain
1972-1986

0 20 40 60 80 100
% Eurytopic species (E) % Rheophill species (R)
% Limnophilic species (L) % Other species

Figure 6. The abundance of flow preference guilds (%) in Danube River, near Brăila

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
CONCLUSIONS
The data on fish catch recorded in the
Danube River canal and its floodplain areas
in the previous periods represent an
extremely valuable reference to study fish
community changes. The informational value
of fish catch data can be enhanced by
application of fish-based assessment of the
ecological integrity of running waters.
The analyses of the six indicators based
on fish catch show a highly unbalanced
structure of the fish community both for the
previous periods and for the present period.
The climate changes with its consequence as
flow increase may be a cause of actual
increase of rheophilic species.
The new legislation on environmental
protection for this area (Danube River and its
floodplain with a surface of 21074 ha
obtained the statute of Natural Park
according to Low 5/2000 and HG 230/2003),
which forbidden the industrial fishing in
floodplain area and permit the industrial
fishing only in Danube River canal is just,
that offer chances both to fishes and to
fisherman.
The proposed indicators of freshwater
fish populations can be use both in fisheries
management and in environment
management. Responsible management
should take into account regional research, an
adaptive management is considered more
suitable than following strict guidelines and
regulations.
REFERENCES
Journal articles
[2] Balon E. K., Additions and amendments to the
classification of reproductive styles in fishes,
Environ. Biol. Fish. 6: (1981), pp. 377–389.
[3] Bayley P. B., H. W. Li,. Riverine Fishes, Petts,
G. & P.Calow (eds), River Biota. Blackwell
Science, Oxford: (1996), pp.92–122.
[4] Bram G.W. Aarts, Piet H. Nienhuis, Fish
zonations and guilds as the basis for assessment of
ecological integrity of large rivers, Hydrobiologia,
Kluwer Academic Publishers, (2003), pp.157–178.
- 654 -
[5] Buşniţă, Th., Ihtiofauna, Limnologia sectorului
românesc al Dunării studiu monografic, Editura
Academiei Republicii Socialiste România, 1967,
pp. 325-369.
[6] FAO Inland Water Resources and Aquaculture
Service, Fishery Resources Division.Review of the
state of world fishery resources: inland fisheries.
FAO Fisheries Circular. No. 942, Rev.1. Rome,
2003.
[7] Fausch K. D., C. L. Hawkes, M. G. Parsons,.
Models that predict standing crop of stream fish
from habitat variables, U.S. Forest Service
General Technical Report PNW-GTR-213,
Portland, OR, 1988.
[8] Jowett I. G., Models of the abundance of large
brown trout in New Zealand rivers, N. Am. J. Fish.
Manage. 12: (1992), pp.417–432.
[9] Jungwirth M., S. Muhar & S. Schmutz,.
Fundamentals of fish ecological integrity and their
relation to the extended serial discontinuity
concept, Hydrobiologia, 422/423, (2000), pp. 85–
97.
[10] Karr J. R., Assessment of biotic integrity
using fish communities, Fisheries 6, (1981) pp.
21–27.
[11] Oberdorff T., Pont D., Hugueny B., Porcher
J.P., Development and validation of a fish-based
index (FBI) for the assessment of “river health”in
France, Freshwater Biology 47, (2002), pp. 1720-
1734.
[12] Quak J., De visstand in stromende wateren,
Raat, A.J. P. (ed.), Vismigratie, Visgeleiding en
Vispassages in Nederland.Organisation for the
Improvement of Inland Fisheries, Nieuwegein,
(1994), pp.59–84
[13] Schmutz S., Kaufmann M., Vogel B.,
Jungwirth M., Muhar S., A multi-level concept for
fish-based, river-type-specific assessment of
ecological integrity, Hydrobiologia 422/423,
Kluwer Academic Publishers, (2000), pp.279–289
[14] Schmutz S., M. Jungwirth, Fish as indicators
of large river connectivity: the Danube and its
tributaries, Arch. Hydrobiol. Suppl. 115/3, (1999),
pp. 329–348.
[15] Van den Brink F. W. B., Van der Velde G.,
Buijse A. D., Klink A. G, Biodiversity in the
Lower Rhine and Meuse riverfloodplains: its
significance for ecological management, Neth. J.
Aquat. Ecol. 30, (1996), pp. 129–149.
Book
[1] Antipa Gr., Regiunea inundabilă a Dunării
starea ei actuală şi mijloace de a o pune în valoare,
Inst de arte Grafice Carol Gobl, Bucureşti, 1910.
 BACK

Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

THE AFFECT OF DENSITY ON BESTER

(H.HUSO × A. RUTHENUS) LARVAE REARED
IN A SUPERINTENSIVE SYSTEM

D. Oprea1, L. Oprea2
1
Research and Development Center for Fish Culture Nucet – Dambovita
e-mail: scp_nucet@yahoo.com,
2
“Dunarea de Jos” University from Galati

Abstract
The experiment was come off in a flow-through super intensive system, sturgeon larvae being
reared in spun glass troughs. Experiment duration was 20 days. Biological material, bester larvae
was gained by artificial breeding of breeders, beluga female (H. huso Brandt, 1869) and sterlet
males (A. ruthenus, Linné, 1758) respectively, catch from natural environment. The experiment was
going off with three variants and three replications each, rearing densities were as follow: in
variant I – 300 ex/tank, in variant II – 400 ex/tank, and in variant III – 500 ex/tank. In all three
experimental variants, the feeding of larvae was achieved in the same way, namely the same number
of daily intakes, delivery in the same time for all variants and it was used the same type of meal,
namely Daphnia species, Tubifex species and fodder. At the end of experiment, the results were: in
variant I, the survival rate was 70 %, and final average body mass of larvae 3 g/ex, in variant II,
survival rate was 66 %, and final average body mass 2.3 g/ex, and in variant III, survival rate was
48 %, and final average body mass 1.4 g/ex.
Key words: flow-through system, troughs, sturgeons, larvae.

INTRODUCTION 22 0C, the fish reach 1 – 2 kg body weight by

Production of sturgeons from aquaculture
presents a special importance for those
countries wherein the natural stocks are
declined or were disappeared. Currently,
some sturgeon species are being considered
interesting candidates to produce them in full
cycle [9].
The first trials in sturgeon farming were
carried out almost simultaneously in mid 19th
century in Russia, Germany and North
America to compensate for declines in the
harvest for wild sturgeon [10].
As a result of the investigations in
sturgeon propagation, the commercial
production of bester, started in the 1960s in
the former URSS (Burtzev, 1999), this being
the first hybrid produced in large quantities
in a controlled environment. Currently, bester
contributes with 20 % in sturgeon meat
production and 5 % in caviar production
from Russia [1].
Remarkable results have been gained
with worm water bester production. When
the water temperature is kept between 18 and
the end of the second year, and 2 – 4 kg in
three years (Steffens et al. 1990).
On sturgeon aquaculture, larval rearing is
probably the most difficult part of the
hatchery process. Fry survival depends on
having a proper culture system and a
complete nutritional program [2].
The present study was undertaken to
determine the growth rate, survival rate and
behavior of bester larvae reared in a
superintensive flow-through system, at three
different stoking densities.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
The experiment was come of inside of
private sturgeon rearing farm S.C. Beluga
Farm Group from Calarasi County. The
rearing system is flow-through and is
emplaced into an enclosure as hall type.
Sturgeon larvae were reared in spun glass
troughs with a capacity of 0.167 m3.
Feed water for the system come from
Mostistea dam whence is gravitationally
bring into the rearing enclosure. Water is

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

pump into two mechanical filters with send
under pressure which present a system for
self cleaning of filtration surface. From
filters, water ascends into a pendent tank
which is fitted with an air engine for aerating
the water and with oxygen battles for
emergency cases. Water supply of troughs
for larvae rearing is making gravitationally
from the pendent tank.
Tanks (troughs) for larvae rearing have a
rectangular form, fitted with bolters disposed
at both ends, perpendicular to bottom of
troughs in order to maintain the larvae in the
middle part of the tank so that larvae can’t
escape or be annoy by the water flow.
Water supply of troughs goes through
pipes fitted with stop valves, disposed at one
abut of the trough. Discharge of water from
troughs is going through across the supplying
pipe through another pipe that penetrates
vertically the bottom of trough and also
determines the level of water inside of trough
according to the level that is ascended.
During the experimental period, the water
supply debit in troughs was between 0.2 – 3
l/minute, and temperature of water oscillated
from 14 to 16 0C. During the experiment
were monitoring the main quality parameters
of technological water, namely: pH,
dissolved oxygen, total ammonia nitrogen,
nitrite, nitrate and hardness.

Table 1
Mean value of physico-chemical parameters of water in experimental variants
Parameters Variant I Variant II Variant III
pH 7,42 7,48 7,54
Dissolved oxygen (mg/l) 6,2 5,65 5,12
Ammonia nitrogen (mg/l) 0,019 0,024 0,031
Nitrite (mg/l) 0,235 0,284 0, 345
Nitrate (mg/l) 9,9 10,54 11,37
Hardness (dGH) 10,95 11,25 11,84

The value of physico-chemical The biological material used for

parameters of water were situating inside of
normal limits for rearing of sturgeon larvae.
Dissolved oxygen was monitoring by
means of WTW oxymeter, pH with WTW
pHmeter, and water temperature with a
thermometer. The other forenamed
parameters for water quality had been
monitoring by means of the FF-1 Complete
kit for Aquaculture, that use the colorimetric
method for determination, the samples being
set beside of a Hach check gauge disc.
experimentations was represented by
sturgeon larvae, namely bester (H. huso B. ×
A. ruthenus L.) at the age of 6 days post
hatch. The experiment was carried out in 20
days. At the beginning of the experiment the
average body mass of larvae was 0.14 g/ex.
During the experiment, larvae were feed
(Table 2) with live diet, represented by
zooplankton (Daphnia sp.) and worms
(Tubifex sp.) as well as with Perla Larva
fodder.

Table 2
Biochemical structure of delivered feed
Feed Crude protein Lipids Ash
(g %) (g %) (g %)
Perla Larva 62,00 11,00 10,00
Tubifex 10,50 2,86 1,50
Daphnia 46,56 3,90 25,85

The rearing experiment was carried out in exemplars/tank. At the end of the
three variants with three replications: experiment, survival rate was 70 %, and
- Variant I – larvae were populated in final average body mass of larvae 3 g/ex.
rearing tanks at a density of 300

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

- Variant II – bester larvae were During the 20 days of experiment in order

populated in rearing tanks at a density
of 400 exemplars/tank. At the end of
rearing period, survival rate was 66 %,
and final average body mass 2.3 g/ex.
- Variant III – stocking density was of
500 exemplars/tank. At the end of the
20 days of the experiment, the survival
rate of bester larvae was 48 %, and final
average body mass 1.4 g/ex.
The conditions for rearing were identical
for all experimental variants: the same type
of tanks for larvae rearing (troughs), the same
water supply debit, namely 0.2 – 3 l/minute.
In all three experimental variants, delivery of
feed was carried out in the same way, namely
the same number of daily feedings; deliver in
the same time for all variants. Daily ration of
feed was gradually changed according to
feeding intensity of larvae.
to determine the growth rate of biological
material, 60 larvae were sampled from each
experimental variant at every 5 days for
biometric measurements.
In order to determine the weigh of larvae
it was used an electronic analytical balance
KERN ALJ 220-4NM.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
During the experiment it was observed
that bester larvae did not show a marked
cannibalism [6], this behavior being slightly
emphatic in variant III.
At the end of experiment were enlisted
some differences between experimental
variants, reflected on average body mass
(table 3), growth rate (table 4), specific
growth rate and survival rate.

Table 3
Biotechnological indexes
Vârsta Masa medie
(zile) (g/ex)
Varianta I Varianta II Varianta III
6 0,14 0,14 0,14
10 0,45 0,38 0,30
15 0,95 0,78 0,55
20 1,60 1,25 0,84
25 3,00 2,30 1,40

Table 4
Daily growth rate of bester larvae in the three experimental variants
Vârsta Sporul de creştere
(zile) (mg/zi/ex)
Varianta I Varianta II Varianta III
10 62,0 48,0 32,0
15 81,0 64,0 41,0
20 97,3 74,0 46,7
25 143,0 108,0 63,0

For assessment of acquired results in the system, charts were draw up for
three experimental variants for rearing of biotechnological indexes (Figure 1) and for
bester larvae in flow-through superintensive daily growth rate (Figure 2).

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

Figure 1 Chart of growth rate of bester larvae

3.5
3
y = 0.687x - 0.833
2.5
average mass

y = 0.519x - 0.587
2
y = 0.306x - 0.272
(g/ex)

1.5
1
0.5
0
-0.5 6 10 15 20 25
Age (days)
Variant I Variant II Variant III
Linear (Variant I) Linear (Variant II) Linear (Variant III)

Figure 2 Chart of daily growth rate of bester larvae in all three experimental variants
350
300
250
Growth rate
mg/day/ex

200
150
100
50
0
6 10 15 20 25
Age (Days)

Variant I Variant II Variant III

It’s can be observed that the best growth comparatively with variant III where the
rate of bester larvae (Table 3, Figure 1) was ascent of daily growth rate was almost linear.
accrue on variant I where was apply the The gained results approve that initially
smallest density. In variant II the final average the specific growth rate (Table 5, Figure 3) of
biomass of larvae was 24 % smaller then larvae describe abatement in all experimental
biomass of larvae from variant I and 39% variants, starting with age of 20 days, the
higher then biomass of larvae from variant III. curve follow an ascendent wiring.
In variants I and II, the daily growth rate
(Figure 2) presented a concurrent ascent
Table 5
Specific growth rate percentage on day of bester larvae
Vârsta Ritmul specific de creştere
(zile) (%/zi/ex)
Varianta I Varianta II Varianta III
10 0,23 0,20 0,15
15 0,15 0,14 0,12
20 0,10 0,09 0,08
25 0,13 0,12 0,10

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The specific growth rate [4], was determined on the base of formula:
ln wt − ln w0
SGR =
t
where:
w0 and wt – initial and final mass;
t – time period.
Figure 3 Chart of specific growth rate
0.25
Specifig Growth Rate
0.2
(% /day/ex)
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
10 15
Variant I
This situation appear mainly because of
the fact that during the experiment, bester
larvae started to be feed also with
commercial fodder (Perla Larva) mixed with
live food, and larvae needed for some period
of time to adapt at the new type of food. This
situation was mentioned also by other authors
([3], [7], [8], [5]) on sturgeon rearing in
different growing systems and different
density formulas.
For drawing up of charts from this paper
it was used the computer program Microsoft
Office – Excel.
CONCLUZIONS
The rearing experiments achieved in 20
days of bester larvae follow for two aspects:
the effect that different stocking densities
may have on the behavior, survival and
growth of larvae and the economical aspect
that relieve the feasibility of a technology for
growth of sturgeons in the first development
stage.
On the intensive post hatch development
technologies for sturgeons, determination of
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
× 100 ;
20 25
Age (days)
Variant II Variant III
stocking densities must to be made
concordantly with the possibility to maintain
the environment parameters at optimum
limits for growth and also to act on the effect
of density on behavior of biological material
in order to reduce technological loses.
After the accomplished studies it is can be
assess that in case of first two experimental
variants, the stocking densities used did not
get to very large differences of survival and
growth rate (Table 3). In variant III, was
observed that because of stocking density
used, start to appear size differences in larvae
stock, thing that increase the exhibition of
cannibalism occurrence, which was rarely
observed in first two variants. This angle
conducted in variant III to achievement of a
much smaller survival rate comparatively with
first two experimental variants.
Generally, size differences in a group
should not exceed 20 % from the average
value. In order to reduce the rate of
cannibalism and facilitate proper feeding, in
case of using high stoking densities it is
necessary that periodically to make a grading
of larvae.
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
REFERENCES
Journal articles
[1] Bronzi P., The potential for sturgeon
aquaculture: current situation and prospects, Profet
Policy Workshop – Warsaw, 13 – 14, 2007
[3] Koksal G., Rad F., Kindir M., Growth
Performance and Feed Conversion Efficiency of
Siberian Sturgeon Juveniles (Acipenser baeri)
Reared in Concrete Raceways, Turk J Vet Anim
Sci, pp. 435 – 442, 2000
[5] Mims S., Lazur A., Shelton W., Gomelsky B.,
Chapman F., Species profile, Production of
sturgeon, SRAC Publication No. 7200, 2002
[6] Oprea D., Oprea L., Comparative research
considering rearing of beluga (Huso huso –
Brandt, 1869) and bester (Huso huso × Acipenser
ruthenus – Linne, 1758) larvae in a superintensive
system, International symposium of scientific
communications on aquaculture, Edition I,
Bucharest, pp. 44 – 51, 2008
[7] Oprea D., Oprea L., Research concerning
feeding of Russian sturgeon fry (Acipenser
guldenstaedti – Brandt, 1833), reared in a
- 660 -
superintensive system, Lucrarile stiintifice,
U.S.A.M.V.B., Seria A, Vol. LI, pp. 1034 – 1041,
2008
[8] Palteanu E., Talpes M., Pecheanu C., Patriche
N., Eficienta Bioproductiva a furajelor utilizate in
cresterea intensiva a sturionilor, Lucrarile
simpozionului international «Euro aliment«, pp.
674 – 687, 2003
[9] Ronyai A., Varadi L., The Sturgeons, in: Nash
C.E., Novotny A.J., Production of aquatic animals,
Fishes. World Animal Science, C8, 1995, 95 – 106
[10] Williot P., Sabeau L., Gessner J., Arlati G.,
Bronzi P., Gulyas T., Berni P., Sturgeon farming
in West Europe: Recent developments and
perspectives, Aquatic Living Resources, pp. 367 –
374, 2001
Books
[2] Coppens International, Manual on Sturgeon
Reproduction, Helmond, Netherlands, 2007
[4] McKillap S., Statistics Explained, An
Introductory Guide for Life Scientists, Cambridge,
2006
 BACK

Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

PRELIMINARY ASPECTS CONCERNING STRUCTURE

ZOOPLANKTON IN THE BALTA MARE –
CARJA 1 FISH FARM

Adina Popescu (Sirbu), M. Fetecau, I. Metaxa, A. Docan

Aquaculture, Environment Science and Cadastre Departament, Faculty of Food Science

and Engineering, Galati “Dunarea de Jos” of University, Galati, Romania
e-mail: adina.popescu@ugal.ro

Abstract:
The present paper presents information on the structure and the dynamics of the water
ecosystem’s zooplankton of the Carja 1 fish farm - Vaslui county where they grow carps and Asian
ciprinides as common fish.
To establish the structure and the dynamics of the zooplankton, two samples where taken, (in the
spring and in the autumn) from 6 stations with the help of a Garmin GPS 7- type navigation system.
When analysing the number of individuals and the species present in the zooplankton’s
structure, one can notice the low development level of the animal zooplankton. From the quantity
point of view, one can notice the numerical abundance of the rotifers in all the analysed samples.
The small number of species and algae specimens determined in the zooplankton’s structure
emphasizes the reduced level of trophicity and biodiversity of the analysed ecosystem.
Key words: zooplankton, species, density, abundance and ecosystem

INTRODUCTION To establish the zooplankton’s structure

The zooplankton, represents an important
link of the aquatic ecosystems trophic chain,
being the primary producer of organic
substance for the planktonophag fish species.
The presence of some zooplanktifer 's
species in animal plankton could offer
indications regarding the fish basin water
quality. Therefore, various species of
zooplankton represent the pointers of
trophicity and polluant level of the aquatic
ecosystems water.
The development of zooplankton was
analyzed in Balta Mare of Carja 1 fish farm, in
the area of Murgeni village, Vaslui county, as
mark DNE 581.
The fish basin has a 297 ha surface with a
depth between 90 -140 cm.
The water is taken over the supply source,
the Prut river, in autumn after the angle of
biological materiel was done when 20% of
water was bail out.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
In 2008 they analysed the biological
characteristics of the Balta Mare ecosystem.
and dynamics they prelevated two sets of
biological samples, in spring (26th of May)
and in autumn (13th of October) from 6
stations established with the help of a Garmin
GPS 72- type navigation system, numbered
C1-C5, C6A-E (feeding and evacuation),
figure 1.
The zooplankton samples were prelevated
with the planctonic net, filtering
approximately 10 l for water mass, were fixed
in the ground with alcohol and glycerin (2
parts of alcohol solution 90% + 1 part
glycerol + 1 part distilled water, or 2 parts of
alcool 70% + 1 part glycerin), in a ratio of
1:100 (1 ml of solution for 100 ml of sample).
The processing was done after a previous
concentration through sedimentation.
The animal plankton was analysed from a
qualitative (the number of individuals and
species) and quantitative (the density and the
numerical abundance) point of view.

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

Figure 1. Points of prelevation from Balta Mare of Carja 1 fish farm

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The microscopic analyse of the zooplankton
samples has distinguished some aspects:
From a qualitative point of view the
zooplankton has registrated 22 species in both
samples, being this way weak represented. The
numerical weight was represented by the
rotifers (Asplanchna priodonta, Brachionus
angularis (fugure 2), Brachionus rubens,
Filinia longisaeta, Trichocerca tigris, Keratella
quadrata) so in the spring like in the autumn.
Cladocers were distinguished in the
samples of C3 –C6 stations in the spring
season with the species like Chidorus piger, C.
sphaericus, Ceriodaphnia reticulata, Bosmina
longirostris, Alonella nana juvenile and adult
stage, and in the autumn they were noticed in
all the stations.
Copepods appear in all the stations as in the
spring like in the autumn with the Cyclops
strennus species in the nauplien stage (figure 3).
From a quantitative point of view, the
numerical density varies between 582-1635 ex/l
in the first samples (in spring) and 415-1737 ex/l
in the autumn samples (graphic 1). In the first set
sample, the numerical abundance of rotifers
varies between 0-91%, that of cladocers varies
between 0-81 % and that of the copepods varies
between 9-52 %. Regarding the second set
samples the numerical abundance of rotifers
varies between 69-100% that of cladocers varies
between 0-15 % and that of the copepods varies
between 0-15 % (table 1, graphic 2 and 3).

Figure 2. Brachionus angularis (original photo)

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

Figure 3. Nauplien stage of copepods (original photo)

Table 1
The structure of Balta Mare-Carja zooplankton
The relative numerical
abundance %
Station Data Nr. ex/l The dominant species
Rotiferi Cladocere Copepode
% % %
C1 26.05 800 94 0 6 Brachionus rubens, Metanauplien
stage of copepods
13.10 981 53 26 22 Brachionus angularis, Nauplien
stage of copepods
C2 26.05 582 70 0 30 Brachionus rubens, Metanauplien
stage of copepods
13.10 415 59 18 23 Brachionus angularis, Nauplien
stage of copepods
C3 26.05 1010 61 8 31 Brachionus rubens, Chidorus
piger, juveniles
13.10 921 43 30 27 Brachionus angularis, Alonella
nana, Nauplien stage of
copepods
C4 26.05 784 81 10 9 Brachionus rubens, Chidorus
piger, juveniles
13.10 1345 56 17 27 Brachionus angularis, Alonella
nana, Nauplien stage of
copepods
C5 26.05 621 83 7 10 Trichocerca tigres, Nauplien
stage ofcladocers, Metanauplien
stage of copepods
13.10 1709 62 12 26 Brachionus angularis, Alonella
nana, Nauplien stage of
copepods
C6-A-E 26.05 1635 89 3 8 Trichocerca tigres, Nauplien
stage of cladocers, Metanauplien
stage of copepods
13.10 1737 59 20 21 Brachionus angularis, Alonella
nana, Nauplien stage of
copepods

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

Numerical density (ex/l) 2000 1737

1709 1635
1500 1345

981 1010 26th may

921
1000 800 784
582 621 13th october
415
500

0
C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 A-E
Station

Graphic 1. The zooplankton numerical density (ex/l)

C6-A-E
89

3
8
C5
83

10
C4 7
81

10
Station

9
C3
61

31
8

C2
70

30
0

C1
94

0
6

0 20 40 60 80 100 120

Rotifera Copepoda Cladocera

Graphic 2. The zooplankton's numerical abundance (%) in 26.05.2008

C6-A-E
59

20

21

C5
62

12

26

C4
56

17

27
Station

C3
43

30

27

C2
59

18

23

C1
53

26

22

0 20 40 60 80 100 120

Rotifera Copepoda Cladocera

Graphic 2. The zooplankton's numerical abundance (%) in 13.10.2008

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From graphs analyse one can notice that
the zooplankton is present in all the analysed
stations during the vegetative season,
manifesting a certain proportionality as far as
the numerical density in all the studied
stations is concerned. In the first set samples,
zooplankton predominates at C6 station level,
and in the second set samples it predominates
at C5 station level.
From numerical abundance point of view,
the taxonomic group of rotifers predominate
in both samples sets, but with a certain
proportionality of the cladocers and
copepoders in the second sample set.
CONCLUSIONS.
- The quantity and quality studies of Balta
Mare zooplankton - Carja 1 fish farm have
showed that a reduced specific diversity was
registered.
- The density of species is relatively
constant and proportionally in all of the
analysed samples.
- From a quantitative point of view, one
can notice the numerical abundance of the
rotifers in all the analysed samples, this fact
showing that the water of the fish basin is a
poor (mild) productive water.
- The small number of species and
exemplary determined in the zooplankton’s
structure emphasizes the reduced level of
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
trophicity and biodiversity of the analysed
ecosystem.
REFERENCES
Books
[1] Boyd C.E.,: Water quality in ponds
aquaculture. Birmingham, Ala.: Auburn Univerity
Press, 1990.
[2] Descarpentries A., Villiers A.,: Petits animaux
des eaux douces, Editura PolitikensForlag,
Copenhaga, 1973.
[3] Dussart B., Limnologie, l.,: etude des eaux
continental, Gauthier –Villars, Paris, 1966.
[4] Hindak FR.,: Sladkovodne riasy, Slovenske
Pedagogiske Nacladetelstvo, Bratislava, 1978.
[5] http://www.uv.es/~ciros/zoopl_en.html
[6]http://www.cof.orst.edu/project/plankton/truittr
2.htm
[7] www.microscopy-
uk.org.uk/mag/wimsmall/crust.html
[8] www.glerl.noaa.gov/.../CladoceraGallery4.html
[9] Antonescu C. S.,: Biologia apelor, Editura
Didactica si Pedagogica, 1963.
[10] Battes K., s.a.,: Productia si productivitatea
ecosistemelor acvatice, Editura Ion Borcea, 2003.
[11] Florea L.,: Hidrobiologie,: Caiet de laborator,
Editura Cermi, Iasi, 2007.
[12] Godeanu, Stoica P.,: Diversitatea lumii vii:
Determinatorul ilustrat al florei si faunei
Romaniei, vol. I si II, Editura Bucura Mond, 2002.
[13] Papadopol M., Stanescu R.,: Hidrobiologie,
Lucrari practice, partea I-a,. Editura Universitatii
Bucuresti, 1980.
 BACK

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

INFLUENCE OF STOCKING DENSITY AND WATER

PARAMETERS ON GROWTH OF JUVENILE BELUGA
STURGEON (HUSO HUSO, LINNAEUS, 1758)

I. Vasilean, V. Cristea, Lorena Sfetcu

Dunarea de Jos University, Galati

e-mail: vasilean_ion@yahoo.com

Abstract
The main purpose of the present experiment consist in evaluation of growth performances of
beluga sturgeon juveniles (obtained from the artificial reproduction of mature sturgeons with
origins in the Danube-Pontic basin) reared in different stocking densities in a recirculating
aquaculture system .The influence of stocking density and water quality on the growth of beluga
fingerlings was studied during 30 days. The two experimental variants (V1 and V2) were formed by
two rearing units each with a different fish density: 30 exemplars (initial average weight -34g) in
first two aquaria (V1) and 10 exemplars (initial average weight -25g) in the following two aquaria
(V2). The fish were fed a 55% protein feed to a feeding rate of 3 % body weight/day. During
experiment water quality parameters (pH, O2, T, NH3-N, NO2-N, NO3-N) were recorded an a daily
basis and, every 2 weeks, the fish were weight individually, and weight gain was recorded. Beluga
growth performances were evaluated through analysis of various technological indicators: W
(weight gain), FCR (food conversion ratio), SGR (specific growth rate), PER (protein efficiency
ratio). The body profile was evaluated through allometric factor.
Key words: recirculating system, sturgeons, artificial feed.

INTRODUCTION MATERIALS AND METHODS

In the last years, beluga in Danube
registered an extreme depletion, in the
number and size as well excepting the last
two years when few exemplars were
desultory cached. In this context the rearing
in controlled environment problem is
becoming an imperative issue from an
economic and ecological point of view.
Rearing of fingerlings beluga, obtained
through artificial reproduction, in the specific
conditions of a recirculating system
represents an important technological
opportunity (Vasilean and Cristea, 2005).
The main purpose of the present
experiment consist in evaluation of growth
performances of beluga sturgeon juveniles
(obtained from the artificial reproduction of
mature sturgeons with origins in the Danube-
Pontic basin) reared in different stocking
densities in a recirculating aquaculture system.
The biological material proceeded from
the artificial reproduction of wild sturgeons
at Reproduction Station ISACCEA (S.C.
Kaviar House S.R.L. Bucuresti), where the
fry and fingerlings have been reared, now
have been transferred in the „Recirculating
aquaculture system engineering” laboratory
from the „Aquaculture and Fisheries”
Department, University Dunarea de Jos
Galati.
The influence of stocking density and
water quality on the growth of beluga
fingerlings was studied during 30 days. The
recirculating system has as experimental
rearing units four glass aquaria with an
individual volume of 300L.
The recirculating system where the
experiment was realized is presented in
figure 1.
Technical characteristics of the
recirculating aquaculture system:
From a constructive point of view the
recirculating system is compiled from:

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A. Rearing modules unit - represented by
4 rectangle aquariums made from glass with
10 mm, with a volume of approximately 300
liters/tank, resulting in the total breeding 1.2
m3 of water. The number of the rearing units
Fig. 1. Recirculating system
B. Water conditioning units has the
mission to control and maintain in optimal
range the main water quality parameters
(oxygen concentration, ammonia nitrogen
concentration, total suspended solids
concentration, pH and carbon dioxide
formed), formed by:
- Mechanical filtration unit - has a foot
plate with tronconic items of hard plastic
material where a number of long gaps are
realized; through those gaps the filtrated water
is passing without involving the filtration
material represented by the quartz sand;
- Biological filtration unit - use a trickling
filter (the nitrification process realizable
through a large surface area where the
nitrifiers grows to form a bacterial film over
which the water is flowing in sprinklings in
order to make possible the ammonia
oxidation), wos chosen a material with large
specific surface (300m2/m3) with a spherical
form called bactoballs;
- Water sterilization unit - is realized with
a UV installation mounted on the principal
supply flow of the rearing units (UV lamp,
TERA POND, Type UV-C 35000 is the
power -36Watt, that assures the right amount
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
assures a right flexibility regarding
biotechnological indicators as well as the
possibility of accomplishing the needed
experimental variants in order to have
conclusive results of technological approach.
of gamma radiation with optimal length wave
for the technological flow);
- Oxygenation unit - for oxygen
concentration supply dictated by the stocking
intensification degree, the recirculating
system was provided with one compressor
RESUN AIR-PUMP (model: ACO-018A
with a flow of 260l/min), sharing in each
aquarium.
C. Water distribution unit - consist in
three pumps, GRUNDFOS, type UPBASIC
25-6 180, max.10 bar, which assures the
technological flow necessary for each rearing
unit.
The inflow for the aquariums: 4×12=48
l/min.
The main parameters (temperature,
dissolved oxygen, and pH) from the
recirculating system were determinate with
oxy-meter - Oxi315i and pH-meter type pH -
315i, for nitrogen compounds measurements
have been used the photometer
PCMULTIDIRECT.
The experiment regarding beluga rearing
in diferent conditions of stocking density was
conducted over 30 days and was structured in
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

two experimental stages splited by an Bf, Bi – final and initial biomass.

intermediary weight evaluation followed by a
recalculated feedin rate.
The two experimental variants (V1 and
V2) were formed by two rearing units each
with a different fish density: 30 exemplars
(initial average weight -34g) in first two
aquaria (V1) and 10 exemplars (initial
average weight -25g) in the following two
aquaria (V2). The fish were fed a 55%
protein feed to a feeding rate of 3 % body
weight/.day. During experiment water quality
parameters (pH, O2, T, NH3-N, NO2-N,
NO3-N) were recorded an a daily basis and,
every 2 weeks, the fish were weight
individually, and weight gain was recorded.
Beluga growth performances were evaluated
through analysis of various technological
indicators: W (weight gain), FCR (food
conversion ratio), SGR (specific growth
rate), PER (protein efficiency ratio).
The food conversion ratio was calculated
with formula:
The specific growth rate was calculated
with the following formula:
SGR = [( ln Mf – ln Mi )/ T ]*100
where: Mf – final biomass;
Mi – initial biomass;
T – time interval (day).
Protein efficiency ratio was calculated
with:
PER = Wf-Wi/F·Pb
where: Wf – final biomass, g;
Wi – initial biomass, g;
F - quantity of feed ingested, g;
Pb - brute protein feed, %,
(Oprea and Georgescu 2000).
The body profile was evaluated through
allometric factor.

FCR = F / (Bf-Bi) RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

In table 1 are presented the initial
where: F – the amount of given food; technological parameters.
(Bf-Bi) – the gain biomass;

Table 1
Weight and length average of beluga
B1 B2 B3 B4
Weight (g) 35,46 32,84 24,4 22,4
Length (cm) 20,62 20,02 18,26 16,85

The fish had permanently an active In figure 2 is observed that specific

behavior and consumed integrally the amount
of administrated feed. Regarding the feeding
behavior we have observed that the beluga
fingerlings rather prefer taking granules from
the bottom of the tank then from the water
body mass, with onw the survival rate 100%.
Table two is painting on synthetic
indicators of technological performance of
beluga in different conditions intensivitate.
growth rate shows a trend similar to that of
FCR, in that aquarium with the stocking
density has higher values compared to
smaller ponds where the stocking density was
lower, this being more pronounced in stage II
of growth.

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

Table 2
Growth performance of the biological material
Growth performance
Stage I (1.08.07-15.08.07)
of fish
Experimental variant B1 B2 B3 B4 Total Average Dev.Std.
Total feed/ aquarium(g) 510,75 487,80 109,80 100,80 1209,15 302,29 197,18
Initial biomass (g) 1135,00 1084,00 244,00 224,00 2687,00 671,75 438,18
Exemplar number 32,00 33,00 10,00 10,00 85,00 21,25 11,26
Average initial weight 35,40 32,80 24,40 22,40 28,75 5,47
(g/ex)
Final biomass(g) 2157,00 2176,00 510,00 457,00 5300,00 1325,00 841,74
Average final weight 67,40 65,90 51,00 45,70 57,50 9,35
(g/ex)
Individual biomass gained 32,00 33,10 26,60 23,30 28,75 3,99
(g/fex)
Total biomass gained 1022,00 1092,00 266,00 233,00 653,25 404,68
(g)
Relative feeding rate - R 0,23 0,23 0,06 0,06 0,15 0,08
(g/kg/zi)
Specific growth rate SGR 4,29 4,65 4,91 4,75 4,65 0,23
(% BW/day)
Daily growth rate - 2,13 2,21 1,77 1,55 1,92 0,27
(g/kg/day)
FCR (g/g) 0,50 0,45 0,41 0,43 0,45 0,03
Protein / aquarium 234,95 224,39 50,51 46,37 556,21 139,05 90,70
Protein efficiency ratio - 4,35 4,87 5,27 5,03 4,88 0,34
PER (g)
Growth performance
Stage II (15.08.07 – 2.09.07)
of fish
Experimental variant B1 B2 B3 B4 Total Average Dev.Std.
Total feed/ aquarium(g) 970,65 979,20 229,50 205,65 2385 596,25 378,78
Initial biomass (g) 2157,00 2176,00 510,00 457,00 5300 1325 841,73
Exemplar number 32,00 33,00 10,00 10,00 85 21,25 11,25
Average initial weight 67,40 65,90 51,00 45,70 57,5 9,35
(g/ex)
Final biomass(g) 3920,00 3881,79 1020,0 926,00 9747,79 2436,94 1464,38
Average final weight 122,50 117,63 102,00 92,60 108,68 11,98
(g/ex)
Individual biomass gained 55,10 51,73 51,00 46,90 51,18 2,09
(g/fex)
Total biomass gained 1763,00 1705,79 510,00 469,00 1111,94 622,94
(g)
Relative feeding rate - R 0,26 0,27 0,07 0,07 0,17 0,09
(g/kg/zi)
Specific growth rate SGR 3,98 3,86 4,62 4,71 4,29 0,37
(% BW/day)
Daily growth rate - 3,67 3,45 3,40 3,13 3,41 0,19
(g/kg/day)
FCR (g/g) 0,55 0,57 0,45 0,44 0,50 0,05
Protein / aquarium 446,50 450,43 105,57 94,60 1097,1 274,27 174,23
Protein efficiency ratio - 3,95 3,79 4,83 4,96 4,38 0,51
PER (g)

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

Fig. 2 Food conversion ratio (FCR) and specific growth rate (SGR)
for experimental variants experimented in RAS

The stocking density in V1 variated from
3,75 kg/m2 to 12,75 kg/m2 in the first
aquarium (B1) and from the 3,64 kg/m2 to
12,89 kg/m2 in the second aquarium (B2). In
the second variant V2 the stocking density
was 0,81 kg/m2 (B3), respectively 0,76
kg/m2 (B4) in the beginning and 3,4 kg/m2
(B3), respectively 3,86 kg/m2(B4) in the end
of experiment.

Fig. 3. The growth curve and growth equation for Huso huso
specie in conditions of a recirculating aquaculture system

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Growth curve estimation was realized
with power model, the fish growth beeing
defined by equation W=aLb. The model was
checked with ANOVA test, the result
corroborated with high confidence level
against regression curve (R2=0.96),
confirming the estimation prediction.
CONCLUSION
• Specific growth rate proved to be
independent of initial weight of
exemplars studied, a result of increasing
the dynamic contrast to most species of
fish at the rate of growth is in negative
correlation with size and age of
specimens.
• Conversion factor of food sub unitary
recorded values for all variants and
experimental phases, which confirms the
potential of the species studied for
intensive systems recirculante.
• State of condition of exemplars studied
was not influenced by stocking density.
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
• Protein efficiency (PER) recorded values
slightly higher (statistically
insignificant) for density variations of
small folk, this may be due to lower
energy consumption in fish maintained
at low density, active swimming is more
obvious in the case of specimens
maintained in density high.
REFERENCES
Journal article
[2] Vasilean, I., Cristea, V.,: Preliminary Studies
Regarding Rearing of Sturgeon Fingerlings
(H.Huso-huso) in a Recirculating System. The
annals of ,,Dunarea de Jos,, University of Galati.
Fascicle VII Fishingand and Aquaculture, p. 9-12,
Galati-Romania, 2005.
Book
[1] Oprea, L., Georgescu, R.,: Nutriţia şi
alimentaţia peştilor, p. 23-25. Editura Tehnica
Bucuresti, 2000.
 BACK
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

RESEARCHES REGARDING THE CARP BREEDING IN

POLICULTURE WITH POLYODON SPATHULA

Elena Costăhescu, G. Hoha, Lenuţa Fotea

Faculty of Animal Sciences, University of Agricultural Sciences

and Veterinary Medicine „Ion Ionescu de la Brad” Iasi, Romania

Abstract
Our research had in view the improvement of summer carp (Cyprinus carpio) saplings
breeding with a species of acipenseride –Polydon spathula, improving in this way the production
per hectar. The biological stuff was bred in a 0.8 ha pond in order to provide preparations for
populating it in good conditions. At the end of our experiment the results were the following : 4326
kg/ha for carp and 389 kg/ha for Polydon spathula. The survival percentage was 60 per cent for
carp and 50 per cent for Polydon spathula. The most important limited agents of breeding were the
predators and the low oxygen content dissolved in water.
Key words: breeding, Cyprinus carpio, Polyodon spathula

Breeding the fish is used in people
nourishment in a different weight depending
on the area, clime and tradition.
This has the chance to represent over
23% from the whole animal nourishment
consumed in the world, due to a high content
in proteins, vitamins, mineral salts and
organoleptic and diet remarcable quality.
Modern man nourishment is more refined
and elaborate making frequent use of aditives
and conservants damaging health; the coming
back to a healthy nourishment has become a
necessity.
THE MAIN OBJECT OF THE PAPER
The main object was to improve the
breeding technology of summer one carp,
using breeding in policulture with an
acipenserid.
Researches were done under production
conditions using a breeding pond in Ţigănaşi-
farm, in the South-East of Moldavia Plane, in
the high tank of the middle Prut. The tank
had an area of 8000 m2, having a rectangular
shape (L = 150 m, w = 60 m) average depth
1,5 m, exposure to the main North-Winds is
on the longitudinal axe on the tank. The
water supply was made from Prut river
because the water flow and the quality of the
water are adequate. The carp larva were
obtained through naturally reproduction
directed in reproduction ponds which were
properly prepared.
The larvae fish are gathered at the age of
12-15 days within a maximum few hours or
sometimes a day. They are fed with fodders
characteristic to their age, beginning with day
5th since atching accured.
Polyodon larva are obtained through
artificial reproduction at SCP Nucet. The
post larva development is realized in concrete
tanks.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The experimental material used was
realized from native carp larva: Podu-Iloaie
and Frasinet carp, at the age of 15 days and
weighing 0,2-0,3 g/piece as well as Polyodon
larva, aged 2,5-4,5 g/piece.
Method
The pond population was made with
120.000 piece of carp larva/ha and 10.000
polyodon. Before the population of the tank
the following were accomplished:
- administration of completely fermented
organic manure;
- administration of grounded quick lime
weighing 1.000 kg/ha;
- repeted procedures for manure and soil
liming inclusion;
- the tank flooding 12-15 days before its
population. This procedure must be done

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

quickly so that the planctonic and benthonic
biomass could have optimal breeding
conditions until the population with
biological material;
- administration of hay in the seashore
area (100 kg/ha immediately after the
inundation);
- administration of fodder yeast (1
g/mc/day) or bread yeast (0,1 g/mc/day) until
the tank population with tadpoles;
- the fodders were administrated 3 time a
day. Te fodder consumption was controlled
every day at 7 a.m. and 6 a.m.;
The fodder was obtained from SC
SAPOFISH having a 1/005 protein report and
it was administred as moisten powders or
grains.
Polyodon spatula was raised with carp in
the same tank in order to permanently
superintensive and control the dissolved
oxygen and vegetation development.
The alvin and polydon tadpoles food
consisted in zooplancton and aquatic insects,
Cladeors and Daphnia being the favorite food
for this specie.
When they reach 7-8 cm length they
begin to feed through filtration with
copepodes and cladoceros. In order to
develop and maintain these populations, they
were used: organic manure, brewer’s grains
yeast applied in 20.000 kg/ha.
RESULTS
The growing percentage for the two
species was observed through the achieved
growth rhythm and sanitary state of the
above.
The monitoring of the growth was
completed through decade quality weining,
the obtained results were compared to some
standard scales.
In order to observe the rhythm of growth,
it was done the fishing control, when
tadpoles were determinated follows: 100
tadpoles from each species were taken sorted
on size (minus variants, plus variants).
Extremes are excluded and the average
weight of the remained is being calculated.
The decade growth progress is also
calculated and compared to some standard
scales.
In polyodon case the results are presented
in table and picture 1.

Table 1
The results regarding Polyodon spatula growth for the period of june-september
Weight per piece Standard scale
No. Dates of control
(g/piece) (g/piece)
1 23.06 2,5 5
2 30.06 15,6 30
3 10.07 32,1 60
4 20.07 57,3 90
5 30.07 89,2 120
6 10.08 102,6 150
7 20.08 142,8 180
8 30.08 187,7 210
9 10.09 221,3 240
10 20.09 259,4 270
11 31.09 397,8 300

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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

30.09 297.8 300

20.09 259.4 270

10.09 221.3 240

30.08 187.7 210

20.08 142.8 180

10.08 102.6 150

30.07 89.2 120

20.07 57.3 90

10.07 32.1 60

30.06 15.6 30

23.06 2.5
5

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700

g/piece standard scale

Analysis the rhythm of growth of After the first decade july it was recorded
Polyodon spathula larva, we notice the a significant growth of the rhythm of
variability depending on the period of time breeding atlaining 4,2 g/day/piece
when the fishing control was completed. corresponding to the end of august.
At the beginning of the experiment the For fishing polyodon tadpoles we used
average weight was 2,5g, smaller than gauze and the temperature of water had a
standard weight. The most difficult period range from 5 to 10°C. Concerning the carp
was that from the end of june and the first the rhythm of breeding in july recorded the
decade of july when the rhythm of growth values presented in picture 2.
was 1,7g/day/piece.

Table 2
Results concerning the carp breeding for the period of june-september
Weight per piece Standard scale
No. Dates of control
(g/piece) (g/piece)
1 23.06 0,2 0
2 30.06 4,0 10
3 10.07 9,2 20
4 20.07 16,3 30
5 30.07 26,2 40
6 10.08 31,5 50
7 20.08 37,2 60
8 30.08 43,6 70
9 10.09 54,9 80
10 20.09 65,7 90
11 31.09 72,1 100

Analyzing the above picture we observe a In august, the values of the rhythm of
0,38 g/day rhythm of growth during the first growth varied between 0,53-0,64g/day/piece
period. It is considered the most difficult and in september in the first decade it was
period from this interval. During the last 0,59 g/day/piece and at the end it was 0,99
decade of the month the rhythm of growth was g/day/piece.
0,57g/piece. During the all experimental period the
medium was 0,71g/day considered adequate.

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 Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie

The qualitative parameters of the aquatic the quality of oxygen in water, as well as the
medium, reprezentaded by temperature and quantity of fodder are presented in picture 3.

Table 3
Parameters of the quality of water and consumption of food for the analised period
Administred fodder
Temperature (°C) Oxygen (mg/l)
(kg/zi)
Month
X ± sX V% X ± sX V% X ± sX V%
iuly 25,14±0,29 5,17 3,36±0,12 24,19 100,3±0,84 5,11
august 27,66±0,23 4,69 3,23±0,16 28,17 124,56±0,91 4,01
september 23,05±0,48 10,97 3,66±0,33 29,63 202,2±15,1 8,3

Analyzing the presented in picture 3 we
observe a variation of the water temperature,
during the three mouths of observation. It
was recorded a minimum medium in
september of 23,05°C and a maximum of
27,66°C in august.
The disolved oxygen didn’t record the
difference for the analyzed periods. The
quantity of water was 3,23 mg/l in august and
3,66 mg/l in september. The quantity of
administrated fodder increased from 103
kg/month in june to 202,5 kg in september.
We also observed an increase in the
consumption of fodder depending in the age
of the carp with and being affected by the
temperature or the quantity of oxygen in
water. At the end of the experiment it was
obtained a production of 4326 kg/ha of carp
and 289 kg/ha of polyodon, with individual
weight of 72,1 g/piece in Cyprinus carpio,
and 297,2 g/piece in Polyodon spathula.
The survival percentage was 60% at carp
and 50% at the other species.
The results obtained are encoring,
intending to retake the experiences in order
to finish some aspects regarding post larva
period, the growth of survival rate through
reduction of predators, control of the
development of the blue algae and
establishment of adequate equation regarding
tadpole density, conditions of surrounding
and food, which permit the achievement of a
bigger production/ha (8-10.000 kg)
CONCLUSION
1. Breeding the Polyodon spathula with
Cyprinus carpio eau contribute to the
increase of productivity of te pisciculture
tank by using natural food adequately.
2. The breeding rhythm of the two
species was adequate even if after the
population, the difficulties were smaller than
the standard scale.
REFERENCES
Books
[1] Bud, I. Şi col., 2007 – Predator fish. Ed. Ceres,
Bucureşti
[2] László H., 2003 – Fish and fish breeding. Ed.
M.A.S.T. Bucureşti

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 BACK
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

MERCURY BIOACCUMULATION IN TISSUES

OF FRESH WATER FISH CARASSIUS AURATUS GIBELIO
(SILVER CRUCIAN CARP) AFTER CHRONIC MERCURY
INTOXICATION

Marioara Nicula1, P. Negrea2, I. Gergen1, M. Hărmănescu1,

I. Gogoaşă1, M. Lunca1
1
U.S.A.M.V.B. Timişoara, e-mail: mnicula@animalsci-tm.ro
2
Universitatea „Politehnica” Timişoara

Abstract
The objective of the present study was to determine the mercury bioaccumulation level in
various organs of a cyprinid fish, namely the silver crucian carp (Carassius auratus gibelio),
after a 21 days chronic mercuric chloride exposure. We used a mercury sublethal dose of 0.25
ppm from a ClHg2 stock solution. Mercury concentration in the tissue samples (gill, skin,
intestine, muscle, cord, brain, liver, kidney) was assayed with the aid of a Spectr AA atomic
absorbtion spectrophotometer, using the cool steam technique, and the results were given as
mg/kg wet weight. In order, mercury bioaccumulation was: gill>liver> intestine and
kidney>muscle>skin>brain>cord. High levels of mercury bioaccumulation in any tissues of the
intoxicated animals definitely relieve that, mercury contamination of the aquatic ecosystems
affect the life of the fish species, altering their metabolic functions. Hence, a scientific
detoxification method is essential to improve the health of economic species of fish in any
stressed environmental conditions (accidental or induced discharges of heavy metal.
Key words: chronic mercury intoxication, bioaccumulation, fresh water fish

INTRODUCTION MATERIAL AND METHOD

Chemical pollutants presence in water
may induce severe ecological consequences,
generating reorganizations of the biocenosis,
changing it and consequently affecting
aquatic ecosystems integrity ([3], [8], [21]).
Heavy metals are dangerous pollutants
for aquatic inhabitants by themselves or by
their toxic salts that have a great stability.
Heavy metals contamination (pollution) of
the surface waters happens widely by
discharge of mill effluents.
Mercury is one of the most hazardous
environmental pollutants. Mercury tends to
concentrate in various organisms including
fish due to reduced biodegradation of its
derivatives. Consequently, fish are widely
used as biomarkers for assessing heavy metal
contamination level of aquatic environment
and the health state of aquatic ecosystems.
The experiment was performed on two
groups of silver crucian carps (first group
serving as control and second group as test
group), with a body weight of 36.40 g ±1,2 g,
that were collected from Cornesti’ Fishfarm
(Timiş county) and acclimated 2 weeks in
laboratory conditions. Each group was
housed in a 120 l capacity glass aquarium
containing at a rate of 20 fishes/aquarium.
Siphoning three quarters aquariums was done
twice a week for replacing water by an equal
volume of containing stored dechlorinated
water with an adequate dose of contaminant
respectively. Fishes were feed twice a day
with commercial dry pellets and were starved
for 24 h prior to the experimentation. Test
specimens were selected to be ecologically
representative.
The physico-chemical parameters of the
laboratory water (during the experimental
period) were as follows: dissolved oxygen
8,28±0,10 mg/l, water temperature

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19.7±0.3oC, NO-2 0.2± mg/l, NO-3 3.5±0.5
mg/l, pH 8±0.5, hardness of water 6 dHo
(soft water) and a 12 h illumination was
maintained throughout the experiment. All
these parameters were measured daily: (water
temperature and dissolved oxygen - Hanna
Hi 9145 oxygen-meter with water resisting
microprocessor; pH, NO-2, NO-3, hardness of
water – Germany TERMATEST kits).
The tested group (20 fishes) was
exposed for 21 days to a chronic mercuy
intoxication in concentration of 0.25 ppm
from a HgCl2 stock solution. Mercury
concentration was obtained by following
formula: heavy metal salt/heavy metal =
molecular weigth/atomic weight = 1 g metal
+ 1 l distilled water = 1000 ppm stok
solution.
The sublethal treatment dose (25% of
LC50) was calculated from percentage
mortalities of fish as described by Veena et
al. [19]. Mercury circulation in the aquarium
was ensured by two AC 9904 air pumps.
Gill, kidney, intestine, skin, liver, brain,
muscle and cord specimens (from control and
tested group) were collected after stunning
the subjects by a blow to the head. Bratu`s
procedure [5] was used for tissue samples
digestion.
A SpectrAA atomic absorbtion
spectrometer was used to determine Hg
concentration in tissue samples of the fish
Table 1
Hg concentration in tissues of tested and experimental group and its magnitude of bioaccumulation
Tissue C group
(mg/kg ww)
Gill 0.0006
Liver 0.0005
Intestine 0.0007
Kidney 0.0022
Muscle 0.0005
Skin 0.0002
Brain 0.9949
Cord 0.0012
Hg concentration raised from 0.0005
mg/kg ww to 0.013 mg/kg ww in the hepatic
tissue, which means a 26 fold increase, liver
beeing a storage and detoxification organ for
metals (Avenant-Oldewage and Marx cited
by Wen-Bin Huang et al. [22]) and also acts
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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
and the results were given as mg/kg wet
weight.
Data analysis implied evaluation of
mercury bioacumulation magnitudine
between the experimental and control group
tissues.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Mercury concentration in control group
tissues had less values (<0.5 mg/kg)than
those allowed in the announcement of the
Romanian Ministry of Health No. 1.145/2005
for fish meat and fish products.
But spectrometer analysis revealed
increases of the mercury concentrations in
every tissue sampled from the tested group at
the end of the experimental period (table 1).
Thus, in gill tissue its concentration increased
36 fold towards control group (from 0.0006
mg/kg ww to 0.026 mg/kg ww). Shah and
Altindag, 2005 [18] and Houserova et al. [12]
instead, found that the lowest concentration
of total mercury accumulated in the gills of
chub. Nor Wen-Bin Huang et al. [22]
mention gills as predilect tissue for mercury
bioaccumulation. However gill represent not
only an important input site for heavy metals
access into fish organism but also, the site
where mercury induces structural lesions,
affecting their function; this fact was
signalized by Bols et al. [4] and Nicula et al.
[17].
E group Magnitude of
(mg/kg ww) bioaccumulation
0.022 x 36.66
0.013 x 26
0.005 x 7.14
0.014 x 6.36
0.003 x6
0.001 x5
0.013 x 2.65
0.002 x 1.66
as an active site of pathological effects
induced by contaminants. Actually, chronic
mercury intoxication leads to severe hepatic
damages ([10], [15], [17]) in fish. This is the
reason why liver is more often recommended
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
as an indicator of water pollution than any
other organs in fish ([1]).
Hg concentration in intestinal tissue of
experimental group exceeded 7 fold
aproximately that found out in the same
tissue of the unintoxicated group (from
0.0007 mg/kg ww to 0.005 mg/kg ww).
Relative high mercury concentration in fish
intestine were reported by Chen and Chen [6]
and Lundebye et al. [14]. According to Farrar
et.al. [9], it seems that intestinal mucosa
often contains high concentration of
inorganic mercury because excretion is
initially through the gastrointestinal tract,
howewer most mercury is eventually
excreted by the kidney.
The kidney and muscle accumulated 6
fold more Hg in the experimental group
versus its extremely low level in control
animals (from 0.0022 mg/kg ww to 0.014
mg/kg ww and from 0.0002 mg/kg ww to
0.003 mg/kg ww respectively). If gills has a
role in heavy metal acces in the fish body,
kidney apparently is at the bottom of their
„exit” control. Kidney being the main
excretory organ, is affected in all species by
all mercurials and generally contains high
concentration after exposure. But even
though approximately 50% of mercury in the
body is absorbed by the kidney, only 10% is
readily excreted (Markel et al., cited by
Farrar et al. [9]). This is due to
mtallothionein of renal tubular epithelium
that binds mercury causing it to accumulate
[9], with subsequent tubular damage ([13],
[16], [17]).
However muscle is the tissue that
usually has the lowest essential and non-
essential metal concentrations in fish [23], a
6 fold increase of Hg accumulation in the
muscular tissue of tested fish, advertises
about the danger of its biomagnification into
human beings (the last level of the trophic
chain) consuming contaminated fish. But
there are opposite cases as well; thus, Voigt
[20] found higher mercury concentrations in
muscle than in liver of smelt Osmerus
eperlanus and perch Perca fluviatilis, due to
the charactersitics of the fish habitat. Also,
the other authors ([2], [7], [12]) observed
high concentrations of total mercury in
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muscle tissues of various fish species, where
mercury is bound to cysteine rich proteins.
Metal concentration in skin increased 5
fold after chronic exposure (from 0.0002
mg/kg ww to 0.001 mg/kg ww). Generally,
this tissue accumulates less metals than
others – gill, liver, intestine or gonads ([23],
[12]).
Brain and cord have the least storage
level of Hg (x 2.65 and x 1.66 respectively);
but the function of these tissues is not less
disturbed. After absorbtion, mercury is
distributed throughout the body and tends to
concentrate in kidney and brain as well [11].
The brain retains mercury longer than other
organs, except kidney (David et al., 1976,
cited by Farrar et al. [9].
CONCLUSIONS
1. In ours experiment, mercury was readily
accumulated in every tissues sampled from
chronic intoxicated fish.
2. Magnitude of mercury bioaccumulation
was in following decreased order:
gill>liver>intestine and
kidney>muscle>skin>brain>cord
REFERENCES
Journal articles
[1] Al-Yousuf M H., El-Shahawi M. S., Al-Ghais
S. M., Trace metals in liver, skin and muscle of
Lethrimus lentjan fish species in relation to body
length and sex, Science of the Total Environment
(200) 256: 87-94.
[3] Ashraj, W., Accumulation of heavy metals in
kidney and heart tissues of Epinephelus microdon
fish from the Arabian Gulf. Environ. Monit.
Assess. (2005) 101 (1-3), 311-316.
[4] Bols, N. C., Brubacher, J. L., Ganassin, R. C.,
Lee, L. E. J., Ecotoxicology and innate immunity
in fish, Dev.Comp. Immunol. (2001) 25 (8): 853-
873.
[5] Bratu M. C., Noi metode şi aparat de analiză a
unor substanţe toxice din probe complexe, Teză de
doctorat 2006, pp. 100-101.
[6] Chen M.H., Chen C.Y., Bioaccumulation of
sediment-bound heavy metals in grey mullet Liza
macrolepsis, Marine Pollution Bulletin (1999)
39(1-12): 239-244.
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 BACK

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

ASPECTS REGARDING THE ASSESSMENT OF

OCTYLPHENOL EFFECT ON GROWTH AND
DEVELOPMENT IN COMMON CARP (CYPRINUS CARPIO)

Gabi Dumitrescu, S. Voia, Liliana Petculescu Ciochină, A. Grozea,

D. Dronca, T. Polen, Liliana Boca, Iuliana Creţescu, I. Banatean-Dunea

University of Agricultural Science and Veterinary Medicine, Timisoara, Romania

Faculty of Animal Science and Biotechnologies
e-mail: gdumitrescu@animalsci-tm.ro

Abstract
The present research has studied the common carp (Cyprinus carpio), which has been exposed
to 4 – tert-octylphenol (4-tOP) in the embrionary period until the age of 34 days. In this way were
realised 3 batches, each was two times repeated, as following: batch I – control group, in the
second batch in the water has been added 4 tert-octylphenol (4-tOP), in concentration of 1.5 µg L-1 ,
and in the third batch was added 60 µg L-1 of 4-tOP. To establish the effect of octylphenol over the
breeding and development of carp spawn, at the age 34 days we determined the following
biometrical parameters: total length, standard length, length of head, maximal height, minimal
height and the weight. The statistical analyses of the results show that there are no significant
differences between control group (batch I) and the batch II. There were significant differences
(p<0.05) between control group (batch I) and batch III, concerning the total length, the length of
head, maximal height, body weight and very significant differences (p<0.01) regarding minimal
height. Between batch II and III there were significant differences (p<0.05) concerning total length
and length of the head.
Key words: Cyprinus carpio, 4 – tert-octylphenol, growth, biometric parameters

INTRODUCTION accumulate and deposit predominantly in fat

A big part of the about 70,000 artificial
chemical substances resulting from different
industries enter the aquatic environment
(Metzler, M., 2001, Routledge, E.J., 1998).
Among them, there is a wide range of
chemical substances with effects that are
similar to natural or pharmaceutical
estrogens, alkiphenols, organo-chorinated
pesticides and phthalates, showing different
bondage affinities of the estrogenic receptors,
which are called endocrine disruptors
(Sumpter, P. J., 2002). The endocrine
disruptors may interact with estrogenic
receptors (Maitre J.L., 1985, Paris F. et al.,
2002) modifying the synthesis, secretion,
transportation, binding, action or release of
the estrogen hormones and, consequently,
they affect body homeostasis, development,
reproduction and behavior (Denslow et al.,
1999, Higashitani T., 2003). With their
lipophilic-nature quality, alkiphenols
tissues, liver, bile and kidneys, being possible
to become available for human consumption
(White, R., 1994).
A major consequence of endocrine
disruptors’ action on fish is represented by
the process of male effemination, caused by
the induction and increase of the release of
vitellogenin (Arukwe et al., 2000, Folmar
L.C. et al., 1996, Le Guellec et al., 1988).
MATERIAL AND METHOD
Under the context of the researches
performed in the world, the problems
approached by our team aims at the
assessment of growth and development of
common carp (Cyprinus carpio) exposed to
octylphenol starting with the embryo stage,
until the age of 34 days old. For this, we
made 3 batches of 30 individuals, namely:
batch I – control group, batch II – we added,
in water, octylphenol (OP) in concentration

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of 1.5 µg L-1 and batch III – we added a
concentration of 60 µg L-1 OP. The fish in the
three groups were bred in 30-litre aquariums
(30 fish/aquarium), endowed with
conditioners for a constant temperature
(240C), with illumination systems (neon
lamps), with vibrators to maintain the O2
concentration over 60% of the air saturation
volume and with filtering pumps. The
physical-chemical parameters of the water,
daily measured, were: pH-8, dH0 – 6.5. In
order to establish octylphenol effect on carp
growth and development, at the age of 34
days old, we killed 10 individuals from each
batch and determined the following
biometrical parameters: total length, standard
length, head length, maximal height, minimal
height and weight. The statistical analysis
was performed with the help of the test
Mann-Withney U Test.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The biometrical study showed the fact
that, between batches I (control) and II,
which was exposed to a concentration of 1.5
µg OP L-1, the differences were insignificant
for all biometrical parameters studied (table
1). There were significant differences
(p<0.05) between batches II and III only with
regards to the mean total length – 1.19 cm in
batch II and 1.05 cm in batch III, and to the
Table 1
Significance of the differences between batches I and II, for the main biometrical parameters
Batch I
control
Specification
Total length (cm) 1.18 ± 0.04
Standard length (cm) 0,93 ± 0,03
Head length (cm) 0,25 ± 0,01
Max height (cm) 0,27 ± 0,02
Min height (cm) 0,08 ± 0,01
Body weight (g) 0,030 ± 0,001 0,0209 ±0,001
Note: * p>0.05 ; NS = insignificant
Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 52 seria Zootehnie
mean head length – 0.26 cm in batch II and
0.19 cm in batch III. Table 2 leads to the
conclusion that, between batches I and III,
there are significant differences in most
biometrical parameters studied, excepting
standard length. So, the mean total length in
batch I was 1.18 cm, and in batch III 1.05
cm, head length in batch I was 0.25 cm, and
in batch III 0.19 cm, and the maximal height
had the mean value of 0.27 cm in batch I,
respectively 0.21 cm in batch III. Very
significant differences ( p<0.01) between the
two batches appear with regards to the
minimal height, too, which had a mean value
of 0.08 cm in batch I, while in batch III it
was 0.05 cm. The mean body weight was
0.030 g in batch I and 0.015 g in batch III,
meaning a significant difference (p<0.05).
Data analysis shows that carp exposure to a
concentration of 60 µg OP L-1 , starting with
the embryo stage and until 34 days old,
influences negatively the process of growth
and development, the differences between the
control batch and batch III being significant
with regards to all biometrical parameters
studied. The concentration of 1.5 µg OP L-1
does not influence the process of growth and
development, so that the differences between
the control batch and batch II are
insignificant in all biometrical parameters.
Batch II
-1
(1.5 µgL ) Differences
Significance tests
B I –B II
1,19 ± 0,04 - 0,01 0,76 NS
0,93 ± 0,04 0 0,85 NS
0,26 ± 0,01 - 0,01 0,42 NS
0,34 ± 0,10 - 0,07 0,52 NS
0,10 ± 0,02 - 0,02 0,67 NS
0,0091 0,16 NS
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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

Table 2
Significance of the differences between batches I and III, for the main biometrical parameters
Batch I Batch III
-1
control (60 µgL ) Differences
Specification Significance tests
B I-B III

Total length (cm) 1,18 ± 0,04 1,05 ± 0,03 0,13 0,02*

Standard length (cm) 0,93 ± 0,03 0,86 ± 0,02 0,07 0,08 NS
Head length (cm) 0,25 ± 0,01 0,19 ± 0,02 0,06 0,02*
Max height (cm) 0,27 ± 0,02 0,21 ± 0,01 0,06 0,03*
Min height (cm) 0,08 ± 0,01 0,05 ± 0,01 0,03 0,008**
Body weight (g) 0,030 ± 0,001 0,015 ±0,001 0,015 0,01*
Note: * p<0.05 ; ** p<0.01 ; NS = insignificant

Table 3
Significance of the differences between batches II and III, for biometrical parameters
Batch II Batch III
-1
(1.5 µgL )
-1
(60 µgL ) Differences
Specification Significance tests
B II-B III

Total length (cm) 1,19 ± 0,04 1,05 ± 0,03 0,14 0,03*

Standard length (cm) 0,93 ± 0,04 0,86 ± 0,02 0,07 0,13 NS
Head length (cm) 0,26 ± 0,01 0,19 ± 0,02 0,07 0,01*
Max height (cm) 0,34 ± 0,10 0,21 ± 0,01 0,13 0,09 NS
Min height (cm) 0,10 ± 0,02 0,05 ± 0,01 0,05 0,05 NS
Body weight (g) 0,0209 ±0,001 0,015 ±0,001 0,0059 0,13 NS
Note: * p<0.05 ; NS = insignificant

The data achieved by us with regards to 2. The concentration of 1.5 µg OP L-1

the negative octylphenol impact on the
growth and development of common carp is
concordant with the data presented in the
literature, in cyprinids, and also in other fish
species, including the viviparous ones
(Krisfalusi, M. and Cloud, J.G., 1996;
Gimeno, S. et al., 1998; Dreze, V. et al.,
2000; Tina, H. Rasmussen et al., 2002).
According to our observations, we mention
that octylphenol influences negatively the
viability during the embryo stage, when
mortality represented 30% at the
concentration of 60 µg L-1 (Dumitrescu G. et
al., 2008), and also during the first post-
eclosion stages, when mortality was 47%.
CONCLUSIONS
1. Data analysis shows that carp
exposure to a concentration of 60 µg OP L-1 ,
starting with the embryo stage and until 34
days old, influences negatively the process of
growth and development, the differences
between the control batch and batch III being
significant with regards to all biometrical
parameters studied.
does not influence the process of growth and
development, so that the differences between
the control batch and batch II are
insignificant in all biometrical parameters.
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