CHAPTER 1

FIRST-ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

SECTION 1.1

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS AND MATHEMATICAL MODELING

The main purpose of Section 1.1 is simply to introduce the basic notation and terminology of differential equations, and to show the student what is meant by a solution of a differential equation. Also, the use of differential equations in the mathematical modeling of real-world phenomena is outlined.

Problems 1-12 are routine verifications by direct substitution of the suggested solutions into the given differential equations. We include here just some typical examples of such verifications.

3. If Y1 = cos2x and Y2 = sin 2x, then Y; = - 2sin2x and y; = 2cos 2x so

y; = -4cos2x = -4Y1 and y; = -4sin2x = -4Y2.

3x d -3x th 3 3x d 3 -3x

4. If Y1 = e an Y2 = e , en Y1 = e an Y2 = - e so

" 9 3x 9

Y1 = e = Y1

and

" 9 -3x 9

Y2 = e = Y2·

, 2 -x

y = y+ e .

2 -2x h ' 2 -2x "4 -2x , -2x 2 -2x d

6. If Y1 = e" x and Y2 = xe ,t en Y1 = - e 'Y1 = e 'Y2 = e - xe ,an

" 4 -2x 4 -2x H

Y2 = - e + x e . ence

and

Section 1.1

1

8. If Y1 =cosx-cos2x and Y2=sinx-cos2x, then y;=-sinx+2sin2x,

y; = -cosx+4cos2x, and y; = cosx+2sin2x, y; = -sinx+4cos2x. Hence

Y;+ Yl = (-cosx+4cos2x)+(cosx-cos2x) = 3cos2x

and

Y;+Y2 = (-sinx+4cos2x)+(sinx-cos2x) = 3cos2x.

x2y'" + 5x Y' +4 y = X2 (-5x-4 +6x-4lnx) + 5x( x-3 - 2x-3Inx) +4( x-2Inx) = (-5x-2+5x-2)+(6x-2-lOx-2+4x-2)lnx = O.

13. Substitution of y = e" into 3y' = 2y gives the equation 'sr e" 2erx that simplifies to 3r = 2. Thus r = 2/3.

14. Substitution of y = erx into 4 y'" = y gives the equation 4r2 e" = e" that simplifies to 4 r2 = 1. Thus r = ± 112.

15. Substitution of y = e" into y" + y' - 2y = 0 gives the equation r2erx + r e" - 2erx = 0 that simplifies to r2 + r - 2 = (r + 2)(r -1) = O. Thus r = -2 or r = 1.

16. Substitution of y = erx into 3 y" + 3 y' - 4 y = 0 gives the equation

3r2 e" + 3r e" - 4 e" = 0 that simplifies to 3r2 + 3r - 4 = O. The quadratic formula then

gives the solutions r = (-3 ± m) / 6.

The verifications of the suggested solutions in Problems 17-26 are similar to those in Problems 1-12. We illustrate the determination of the value of C only in some typical cases. However, we illustrate typical solution curves for each of these problems.

2

Chapter 1

17.

C=2

18.

C=3

19. If y(x) = C e' -1 then y(O) = 5 gives C - 1 = 5, so C = 6. The figure is on the left below.

20. If y(x) = C e-x + x -1 then y(O) = 10 gives C - 1 = 10, so C = 11. The figure is on the right above.

21. C = 7. The figure is on the left at the top of the next page.

Section 1.1

3

-5 '---'-_--'--L_--'--_..J...j__-'----_'-'-_L---'-'

-20 -10

10

22.

If y(x) = In(x + C) then yeO) = ° gives In C = 0, so C right above.

1. The figure is on the

23.

If y(x) = t XS + C X -2 then y(2) = 1 gives the equation t· 32 + C . t solution C = -56. The figure is on the left below.

1 with

30 30
20 20
10 10
>- 0
>- 0
-10 -10
-20 -20
-30
-30
0 0 0.5 1.5 2.5 3.5 4.5 24. C = 17. The figure is on the right above.

4 Chapter 1

20

25. If y(x) = tan(x2 + C) then yeO) = 1 gives the equation tan C = 1. Hence one value of C is C = Jr / 4 (as is this value plus any integral multiple of Jt).

26. Substitution of x = Jr and y = ° into y = (x + C) cos x yields the equation ° = (Jr+C)(-l), so C = -Jr.

10,---------~-----___,

27.

,

y

x+y

28. The slope of the line through (x,y) and (x/2,O) IS y' = (y-O)/(x-x/2) = 2y/x, so the differential equation is x y' = 2 y.

Section 1.1

5

29. If m = y' is the slope of the tangent line and m' is the slope of the normal line at (x,y), then the relation mm'=-l yields m' = lIy' = (y-l)/(x-O). Solutionfor y' then gives the differential equation (1- y) y' = x.

30. Here m = y' and m' = D/X2 + k) = 2x, so the orthogonality relation mm' = -1 gives the differential equation 2x y' = -1.

31. The slope of the line through (x,y) and (-y,x) IS y' = (x-y)/(-y-x), sothe differential equation is (x + y) y' = y - x.

In Problems 32-36 we get the desired differential equation when we replace the "time rate of change" of the dependent variable with its derivative, the word "is" with the = sign, the phrase "proportional to" with k, and finally translate the remainder of the given sentence into symbols.

32. dP I dt = kJP

33. dv I dt = k v2

34. dvldt = k(2S0-v)

35. dN Idt = k(P-N)

36. dN Idt = kN(P-N)

37. The second derivative of any linear function is zero, so we spot the two solutions y(x) == 1 or y(x) = x of the differential equation y" = o.

38. A function whose derivative equals itself, and hence a solution of the differential equation y' = y is y(x) = e",

39. We reason that if y = kx", then each term in the differential equation is a multiple of x2• The choice k = 1 balances the equation, and provides the solution y( x) = x2•

40. If y is a constant, then y' == 0 so the differential equation reduces to l = 1. This gives the two constant-valued solutions y(x) == 1 and y(x) == -1.

41. We reason that if y = ke", then each term in the differential equation is a multiple of e",

The choice k = t balances the equation, and provides the solution y(x)

= .lex

2 •

6

Chapter 1

42. Two functions, each equaling the negative of its own second derivative, are the two solutions y(x) = cosx and y(x) = sinx of the differential equation y" = -yo

43.

(a)

We need only substitute x(t) = lI(C - kt) in both sides of the differential

equation x' = kx' for a routine verification.

(b) The zero-valued function x(t) == 0 obviously satisfies the initial value problem

x' = kx", x(O) = O.

44.

(a)

The figure on the left below shows typical graphs of solutions of the differential

• I J 2

equation x = 2" x .

o~----~----~------~----~ o

(b) The figure on the right above shows typical graphs of solutions of the differential equation x' = -tx2. We see that - whereas the graphs with k = t appear to "diverge to infinity" - each solution with k = -t appears to approach 0 as t ~ 00. Indeed, we see from the Problem 43(a) solution x(t) = lI(C -tt) that x(t) ~ 00 as t ~ 2C. However, with k = -t it is clear from the resulting solution x(t) = lI(C +tt) that x(t) remains bounded on any finite interval, but x(t) ~ 0 as t ~ +00.

45. Substitution of P' = 1 and P = 10 into the differential equation p' = kP2 gives k = 160, so Problem 43(a) yields a solution of the form P(t) = 1 I( C - til 00). The initial conditiou+P(O) = 2 now yields C = t, so we get the solution

1 100

pet) = 1 - --

t 50-t

2 100

Section 1.1

7

We now find readily that P = 100 when t = 49, and that P = 1000 when t = 49.9. It appears that P grows without bound (and thus "explodes") as t approaches 50.

46. Substitution of v' = -1 and v = 5 into the differential equation v' = kv' gives

k = - 215' so Problem 43(a) yields a solution of the form vet) = lI(C + t /25). The initial condition v(O) = 10 now yields C = 1~' so we get the solution

1

vet) = -:--- = 1 t -+-

10 25

50 5+2t

We now find readily that v = 1 when t = 22.5, and that v = 0.1 when t = 247.5.

It appears that v approaches 0 as t increases without bound. Thus the boat gradually slows, but never comes to a "full stop" in a finite period of time.

47.

(a)

y(10)=10 yields 10=1/(C-IO), so C=101110.

(b) There is no such value of C, but the constant function y(x) == 0 satisfies the conditions y' = y2 and yeO) = o.

(e) It is obvious visually (in Fig. 1.1.8 of the text) that one and only one solution

curve passes through each point (a,b) of the xy-plane, so it follows that there exists a

unique solution to the initial value problem y' = y2, yea) = b.

48.

(b)

Obviously the functions u(x) = - X4 and vex) = + X4 both satisfy the differential

equation xy' = 4 y. But their derivatives u' (x) = - 4 x3 and v' (x) = + 4 x3 match at x = 0, where both are zero. Hence the given piecewise-defined function y(x) is differentiable, and therefore satisfies the differential equation because u(x) and vex) do so (for x ~ 0 and x 2 0, respectively).

(e) If a 2 0 (for instance), choose C+ fixed so that C+ a4 = b. Then the function

if x ~ 0, if x 20

satisfies the given differential equation for every real number value of C_.

8

Chapter 1

SECTION 1.2

INTEGRALS AS GENERAL AND PARTICULAR SOLUTIONS

This section introduces general solutions and particular solutions in the very simplest situation - a differential equation of the form y' = f(x) - where only direct integration and evaluation of the constant of integration are involved. Students should review carefully the elementary concepts of velocity and acceleration, as well as the fps and mks unit systems.

1. Integrationof y'=2x+I yields y(x) = j(2x+I)dx = X2+X+C. Thensubstitution of x = 0, y = 3 gives 3 = 0 + 0 + C = C, so y(x) = x2 + X + 3.

2. Integrationof y'=(X-2)2 yields y(x) = j(X-2)2dx = t(X-2)3+C. Then substitution of x = 2, y = 1 gives 1 = 0 + C = C, so y(x) = t(x - 2)3.

3. Integration of y' =.j"; yields y( x) = J.j"; dx = 1- X3/2 + C. Then substitution of x=4, y=O gives O=I~+C, so y(x) = 1-(X312_8).

4. Integration of y' = x -2 yields y( x) = j X -2 dx = - 1 I x + C. Then substitution of x = 1, y = 5 gives 5 = -1 + C, so y(x) = -II x + 6.

5. Integrationof y'=(x+2fI/2 yields y(x) = j(x+2fI/2dx = 2.Jx+2+C. Then substitutionof x=2, y=-l gives -1=2·2+C, so y(x) = 2.Jx+2-5.

6. Integrationof y'=x(x2+9)II2 yields y(x) = jx(x2+9)1/2dx = t(x2 +9)3/2 + C, Then substitution of x = - 4, y = 0 gives 0 = 1(5)3 + C, so

y(x) = t[ (x2 + 9)3/2 -125 J.

7. Integrationof y'=10/(x2+1) yields y(x) = jIO/(x2+1)dx = l Gtan v x +C. Then substitution of x = 0, y = 0 gives 0 = 10·0+ C, so y(x) = 10 tan " x.

8. Integrationof y'=cos2x yields y(x) = jcos2xdx = tsin2x+C. Thensubstitution of x = 0, y = 1 gives 1 = 0+ C, so y(x) = tsin2x+ 1.

9. Integrationof y'=1I.J1-x2 yields y(x) = jll.J1-x2dx = sinvx+C. Then substitutionof x=O, y=O gives O=O+C, so y(x) = sin-1 x.

Section 1.2

9

10. Integration of y' = xe-x yields

(when we substitute u = - x and apply Formula #46 inside the back cover of the textbook). Then substitution of x = 0, y = 1 gives 1 = -1 + C, so

y(x) = -(x+l)e-x+2.

11. If aCt) = 50 then vet) = f 50dt = 50 t + Vo = 50 t + 10. Hence

xCt) = f(50t+1O)dt= 25t2+lOt+xo = 25t2+lOt+20.

12. If aCt) = - 20 then vet) = f( -20)dt = - 20t + Vo = - 20t -15. Hence

xCt) = f(-20t-15)dt= -10t2-15t+xo = -lOt2-15t+5.

13. If ait) = 3t then vct) = f3tdt = tt2 +vo = tt2 +5. Hence

14. If aCt) = 2t+l then vet) = f(2t+l)dt = t2+t+VO = t2+t-7. Hence

15. If aCt) = 4Ct+3)2. then vet) = f4(t+3)2dt = 1Ct+3)3+C = 1(t+3)3_37 (taking C = -37 so that v(O) = -1). Hence

16. If aCt) = 1I.Jt+4 then v(t) = fll.Jt+4 dt = 2.Jt+4+C = 2.Jt+4-5 (taking C = -5 so that v(O) = -1). Hence

(taking C = - 29/3 so that x(O) = 1).

10

Chapter 1

17. If aCt) = (t+1)-3 then vet) = J(t+1)-3 dt = -t(t+1)-2+C = -+(t+lr2+t (taking C = + so that v(O) = 0). Hence

(taking C = - t so that x(O) = 0 ).

18. If aCt) = 50sin5t then vet) = J50sin5t dt = -10cos5t+ C = -10cos5t (taking C = 0 so that v(O) = -10). Hence

x(t) = J(-lOcos5t)dt= -2sin5t+C = -2sin5t+1O

(taking C = -10 so that x(O) = 8).

19. Note that vet) = 5 for 0::; t::; 5 and that vet) = 10- t for 5::; t::; 10. Hence x(t)=5t+CJor 0::;t::;5 and x(t)=10t-tt2+C2 for 5::;t::;1O. Now C, =0 because x(O) = 0, and continuity of x(t) requires that x(t) = 5t and

x(t) = lOt _+t2 + C2 agree when t = 5. This implies that C2 = - z,;, and we get the following graph.

Section 1.2

11

20. Notethat v(t)=t for 0~t~5 and that v(t)=5 for 5~t~10. Hence x(t)=tP+Cj for 0 ~ t ~ 5 and x(t) = 5t+ C2 for 5 ~ t ~ 10. Now Cj = 0 because x(O) = 0, and continuity of x(t) requires that x(t) = tt2 and x(t) = 5t+ C2 agree when t = 5.

This implies that C2 = - 2.], and we get the graph on the left below.

40'--~--~---.----r---~

21. Note that vet) = t for 0 ~ t ~ 5 and that vet) = 10- t for 5 ~ t ~ 10. Hence x(t)=tt2+Cj for 0~t~5 and x(t)=1Ot-tt2+C2 for 5~t~10. Now Cj =0 because x(O) = 0, and continuity of x(t) requires that x(t) = tt2 and

x(t) = lOt -tt2 + C2 agree when t = 5. This implies that C2 = -25, and we get the graph on the right above.

22. For 0~t~3: v(t)=~t so x(t)=it2+Cj' Now Cj =0 because x(O) =0, so x(t) = it2 on this first interval, and its right endpoint value is x(3) = 7 t.

For 3~t~7: v(t)=5 so x(t)=5t+C2. Now x(3)=7t implies that C2 =-7t,

so x(t) = 5t -7 t on this second interval, where its right endpoint value is x(7) = 27 t·

For 7~t~10: v-5=-~(t-7), so v(t)=_~t+5~. Hence x(t)=-it2+~~t+C3' and x(7) = 27 t implies that C3 = - 2~O. Finally, x(t) = t( -5t2 + lOOt - 290) on this third interval, and we get the graph at the top of the next page.

12

Chapter 1

40.---,----r---~-___,--_,

23. v = -9.8t + 49, so the ball reaches its maximum height (v = 0) after t = 5 seconds. Its maximum height then is y(5) = -4.9(5)2 + 49(5) = 122.5 meters.

24. v = -32t and y = -16t2 + 400, so the ball hits the ground (y = 0) when t = 5 sec, and then v = -32(5) = -160 ftlsec.

25. a = -10 mls2 and vo = 100 kmlh ;0; 27.78 mis, so v = -lOt + 27.78, and hence x(t) = _5t2 + 27.78t. The car stops when v = 0, t ;0; 2.78, and thus the distance traveled before stopping is x(2.78) ;0; 38.59 meters.

26. v = -9.8t + 100 and y = -4.9t2 + lOOt + 20.

(a) v = 0 when t = 100/9.8 so the projectile's maximum height is

y(100/9.8) = -4.9(100/9.8)2 + 100(100/9.8) + 20 ;0; 530 meters.

(b) It passes the top of the building when yet) = -4.9t2 + lOOt + 20 = 20,

and hence after t = 100/4.9 ;0; 20.41 seconds.

(c) The roots of the quadratic equation yet) = -4.9t2 + lOOt + 20 = 0 are

t = -0.20, 20.61. Hence the projectile is in the air 20.61 seconds.

27. a = -9.8 mls2 so v = -9.8 t - 10 and

y = -4.9l- 10 t + Yo.

The ball hits the ground when y = 0 and

v = -9.8 t-10 = -60,

so t;o;5.10s. Hence

Yo = 4.9(5.10)2 + 10(5.10);0; 178.57 m.

Section 1.2

13

28. v = -32t-40 and y = -16t2-40t+555. The ball hits the ground (y = 0) when t "'" 4.77 sec, with velocity v = v(4.77) "'" -192.64 ftlsec, an impact speed of about 131 mph.

29. Integration of dv/dt = 0.12 P + 0.6 t, v(O) = 0 gives vet) = 0.3 P + 0.04 P. Hence v(10) = 70. Then integration of dx/dt = 0.3 P + 0.04 P, x(O) = 0 gives

x(t) = 0.1 t3 + 0.04 t4, so x(10) = 200. Thus after 10 seconds the car has gone 200 ft and is traveling at 70 ftlsec.

30. Taking Xo = 0 and vo = 60 mph = 88 ftlsec, we get

v = -at + 88,

and v = 0 yields t = 88/a. Substituting this value of t and x = 176 in

x = -at?/2 + 88t,

we solve for a = 22 ft/sec". Hence the car skids for t = 88/22 = 4 sec.

31.

If a = -20 mlsec2 and Xo = 0 then the car's velocity and position at time t are given by

v = -20t+ VO,

x = -10t2+vot.

It stops when v = 0 (so vo = 20t), and hence when

x = 75 = -10 t2 + (20t)t = 10 P.

Thus t = 55 sec so

Vo = 20m"'" 54.77 mlsec "'" 197 kmlhr.

32. Starting with Xo = 0 and Vo = 50 kmlh = 5x104 mlh, we find by the method of Problem 24 that the car's deceleration is a = (25/3)x107 m/h'', Then, starting with Xo = o and Vo = 100 kmlh = 105 mlh, we substitute t = vola into

2

X = -at + vot

and find that x = 60 m when v = O. Thus doubling the initial velocity quadruples the distance the car skids.

33. If Vo = 0 and Yo = 20 then

v = -at and y = -+ at2 + 20.

14

Chapter 1

Substitution of t = 2, y = 0 yields a = 10 ft/sec/. If vo = 0 and yo = 200 then

v = -lOt and y = _5t2 + 200.

Hence y = 0 when t = .J4O = 200 sec and v = -2000 :::; -63.25 ft/sec.

34. On Earth: v = -32t + vo, so t = vo/32 at maximum height (when v = 0).

Substituting this value of t and y = 144 in

2

Y = -16t + vot,

we solve for vo = 96 ft/sec as the initial speed with which the person can throw a ball straight upward.

On Planet Gzyx: From Problem 27, the surface gravitational acceleration on planet Gzyx is a = 10 ft/sec ', so

v = -lOt + 96 and y = _5t2 + 96t.

Therefore v = 0 yields t = 9.6 sec, and thence Ymax = y(9.6) = 460.8 ft is the height a ball will reach if its initial velocity is 96 ft/sec.

35. If vo = 0 and Yo = h then the stone's velocity and height are given by

v = -gt, Y = -0.5 gP + h.

Hence y = 0 when t = ~2h/ g so

v = -g~2h/ g = -~2gh .

36. The method of solution is precisely the same as that in Problem 30. We find first that, on Earth, the woman must jump straight upward with initial velocity Vo = 12 ft/sec to reach a maximum height of 2.25 ft. Then we find that, on the Moon, this initial velocity yields a maximum height of about 13.58 ft.

37. We use units of miles and hours. If Xo = vo = 0 then the car's velocity and position after t hours are given by

v = at,

X- .lt2 - 2 •

Since v = 60 when t = 5/6, the velocity equation yields a = 72 mi/hr'. Hence the distance traveled by 12:50 pm is

x = (0.5)(72)(5/6)2 = 25 miles.

Section 1.2

15

38. Again we have

But now v = 60 when x = 3S. Substitution of a = 60/t (from the velocity equation) into the position equation yields

3S = (0.S)(60/t)(t2) = 30t,

whence t = 7/6 hr, that is, 1:10 p.m.

39. Integration of y' = (9/vs)(1 - 4x2) yields

and the initial condition y(-1/2) = 0 gives C = 3/vs. Hence the swimmer's trajectory

is

y(x) = (3/vs)(3x - 4x3 + O.

Substitution of y(1/2) = 1 now gives Vs = 6 mph.

40. Integration of y' = 3(1 - 16x4) yields

y = 3x - (48/S)x5 + C,

and the initial condition y(-1/2) = 0 gives C = 6/S. Hence the swimmer's trajectory

is

y(x) = (l/S)(lSx - 48x5 + 6),

so his downstream drift is y(1/2) = 2.4 miles.

41. The bomb equations are a = -32, v = -32, and S B = S = -16t2 + 800, with t = 0 at the instant the bomb is dropped. The projectile is fired at time t = 2, so its corresponding equations are a = -32, v = -32(t - 2) + vo' and

for t ~ 2 (the arbitrary constant vanishing because sp(2) = 0). Now the condition SB(t) = -16t2 + 800 = 400 gives t = S, and then the requirement that speS) = 400 also yields "o = S4413,::: 181.33 ft/s for the projectile's needed initial velocity.

42. Let x(t) be the (positive) altitude (in miles) of the spacecraft at time t (hours), with

t = o corresponding to the time at which the its retrorockets are fired; let v(t) = x'(t) be

16 Chapter 1

the velocity of the spacecraft at time t. Then Vo = -1000 and Xo = x(O) is unknown. But the (constant) acceleration is a = +20000, so

vet) = 20000t -1000 and x(t) = 10000t2 -1000t+ xo'

Now v(t) = 20000t -1000 = 0 (soft touchdown) when t = 2~ hr (that is, after exactly 3 minutes of descent. Finally, the condition

yields Xo = 25 miles for the altitude at which the retrorockets should be fired.

43. The velocity and position functions for the spacecraft are vs(t) = 0.0098t and xs(t) = 0.0049t2, and the corresponding functions for the projectile are vp(t)=,bc=3x107and xp(t)=3xl07t. Theconditionthat xs=xp when the spacecraft overtakes the projectile gives 0.0049 t2 = 3 x 107 t, whence

t = 3x107 ::::; 6.12245x109 sec 0.0049

::::; 6.12245x109 ::::; 194 ears.

(3600)(24 )(365.25) Y

Since the projectile is traveling at ,b the speed of light, it has then traveled a distance of about 19.4 light years, which is about 1.8367 x 10'7 meters.

44. Let a > 0 denote the constant deceleration of the car when braking, and take Xo = 0 for the cars position at time t = 0 when the brakes are applied. In the police experiment with Vo = 25 ft/s, the distance the car travels in t seconds is given by

1 2 88

x(t) = --at +-·25t

2 60

(with the factor ~~ used to convert the velocity units from mi/hr to ft/s). When we solve simultaneously the equations x(t) = 45 and x'(t) = 0 we find that a = ,~~o ::::; 14.94 ftls2. With this value of the deceleration and the (as yet) unknown velocity Vo of the car involved in the accident, it position function is

Section 1.2

17

The simultaneous equations x(t) = 210 and x'(t) = 0 finally yield "o = l~O.J42 ::::: 79.21 ft/s, almost exactly 54 miles per hour.

SECTION 1.3

SLOPE FIELDS AND SOLUTION CURVES

The instructor may choose to delay covering Section 1.3 until later in Chapter 1. However, before proceeding to Chapter 2, it is important that students corne to grips at some point with the question of the existence of a unique solution of a differential equation - and realize that it makes no sense to look for the solution without knowing in advance that it exists. It may help some students to simplify the statement of the existence-uniqueness theorem as follows:

Suppose that the function f (x, y) and the partial derivative af / ay are both continuous in some neighborhood of the point (a, b). Then the initial value problem

dy

dx = f(x,y),

yea) = b

has a unique solution in some neighborhood of the point a.

Slope fields and geometrical solution curves are introduced in this section as a concrete aid in visualizing solutions and existence-uniqueness questions. Instead, we provide some details of the construction of the figure for the Problem 1 answer, and then include without further comment the similarly constructed figures for Problems 2 through 9.

1. The following sequence of Mathematica commands generates the slope field and the solution curves through the given points. Begin with the differential equation

dy / dx = f(x, y) where

f[x_, y_] := -y - Sin[x] Then set up the viewing window

a = -3; b = 3; c = -3; d = 3;

The components (u, v) of unit vectors corresponding to the short slope field line segments are given by

u[x_, y_] := l/Sqrt[l + f[x, y]A2]

v[x_, y_] := f[x, y]/Sqrt[l + f[x, y]A2]

The slope field is then constructed by the commands

Needs ["Graphics' PlotField' "]

dfield = PlotVectorField[{u[x, y], v[x, y]}, {x, a, b}, {y, c, d}, HeadWidth -> 0, HeadLength -> 0, PlotPoints -> 19, PlotRange -> {{a, b}, {c, d}}, Axes -> True, Frame -> True, FrameLabel -> {"x", "y"}, AspectRatio -> 1];

18

Chapter 1

The original curve shown in Fig. 1.3.12 of the text (and its initial point not shown there) are plotted by the commands

xO = -1.9; yO = 0;

pointO = Graphics[{PointSize[0.025], Point[{xO, yO}]}];

soln = NDSolve[{Derivative[l] [y] [x] == f[x, y[x]], y[xO] == yO}, y[x], {x, a, b}];

soln[ [1,1,2]];

curveO = Plot[soln[[1,1,2]], {x, a, b},

PlotStyle -> {Thickness[0.0065], RGBColor[O, 0, 1]}];

The Mathematica NDSol ve command carries out an approximate numerical solution of the given differential equation. Numerical solution techniques are discussed in Sections 2.4-2.6 of the textbook.

The coordinates of the 12 points are marked in Fig. 1.3.12 in the textbook. For instance the 7th point is (-2.5, 1). It and the corresponding solution curve are plotted by the commands

xO = -2.5; yO = 1;

point7 = Graphics[{PointSize[0.025], Point[{xO, yO}]}];

soln = NDSolve[{Derivative[l] [y] [x] == f[x, y[x]], y[xO] -- yO}, y[x], {x, a, b}];

soln[[1,1,2]];

curve7 = Plot[soln[[1,1,2]], {x, a, b},

PlotStyle -> {Thickness[0.0065], RGBColor[O, 0, 1]}];

Finally, the desired figure is assembled by the Mathematica command Show[ dfield, pointO,curveO,

pointl,curvel, point2,curve2, point3,curve3, point4,curve4, pointS, curveS, point6,curve6, point7,curve7, pointS, curveS, point9,curve9, pointlO,curvelO, pointll,curvell, point12,curve12];

x

Section 1.3

19

2.

x

4.

x

6.

x

20

Chapter 1

3.

x

5.

7.

x

x

8. 9.
3
2
1
>. 0

-1
-2 x

10.

x

x

11. Because both f(x, y) = 2x2l and af I ay = 4x2y are continuous everywhere, the existence-uniqueness theorem of Section 1.3 in the textbook guarantees the existence of a unique solution in some neighborhood of x = 1.

12. Both f (x, y) = x In y and af lay = xly are continuous in a neighborhood of (1, 1), so the theorem guarantees the existence of a unique solution in some neighborhood of x = 1.

13. Both f(x,y) = y1l3 and af lay = (l/3)y-2/3 are continuous near (0,1), so the theorem guarantees the existence of a unique solution in some neighborhood of x = 0.

Section 1.3

21

14. I (x, y) = y1l3 is continuous in a neighborhood of (0, 0), but dl I dy = (l/3)y -2/3 is not, so the theorem guarantees existence but not uniqueness in some neighborhood of

x = 0.

15. I (x, y) = (x - y)1I2 is not continuous at (2, 2) because it is not even defined if y > x.

Hence the theorem guarantees neither existence nor uniqueness in any neighborhood of the point x = 2.

16. I(x, y) = (x - y)1I2 and df I dy = -(1I2)(x - yrl12 are continuous in a neighborhood of (2, 1), so the theorem guarantees both existence and uniqueness of a solution in some neighborhood of x = 2.

17. Both f t x, y) = (x - 1/y and df I dy = -(x - 1)li are continuous near (0, 1), so the theorem guarantees both existence and uniqueness of a solution in some neighborhood of x = 0.

18. Neither I(x,y) = (x-1)ly nor dlldy = -(x-1)1i is continuous near (l,0), sothe existence-uniqueness theorem guarantees nothing.

19. Both I(x, y) = In(1 + i) and df I dy = 2yl(1 + i) are continuous near (0, 0), so the theorem guarantees the existence of a unique solution near x = 0.

20. Both I (x, y) = x2 - i and df I dy = -2y are continuous near (0, 1), so the theorem guarantees both existence and uniqueness of a solution in some neighborhood of x = 0.

21. The curve in the figure on the left below can be constructed using the commands illustrated in Problem 1 above. Tracing this solution curve, we see that y( -4) ::::: 3.

An exact solution of the differential equation yields the more accurate approximation y( -4) ::::: 3.0183.

/ . I

/' I
-3 .. ~. /
-4 \ '\
-5
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 2 3 4 5 22

Chapter 1

4/1 1 1 2ft ... / !

-1

-5 ~_'__--'-----' _ _'__-'-----'-_'---_'__---'---LJ

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0

x

2 3 4 5

22. Tracing the curve in the figure on the right at the bottom of the preceding page, we see that y( -4) :::; -3. An exact solution of the differential equation yields the more accurate approximation y(-4):::; -3.0017.

23. Tracing the curve in figure on the left below, we see that y(2):::; 1. A more accurate approximation is y(2):::; 1.0044.

I I I / / / / i I --,/ il I

-----_;.-/I

2 ._'_-/ ./ /; II ··III ·il , - - - ./ / / / I I I I I ,,'------'---// III/I

,,-,,-;..--/ //1(1

1 .. \"",,,,--_.-//./.j ·1

\\,,-,,,,-- ////1 \\\,,"-,---\ \ \ , " , , - (- ,0)

I
I
I I
I I r
I / --// I I I
I I / // // / I I / I
I / I I I I I I / I I I
I / I I I I I I i / I I
-2 I I I / / I I I 1 I I I
-2 -1 0 2
x ; I

\ , " , --- - I I I /

,/ v / / I I I I -///j. III I / I I I I I I I

'- '- --- --'- -- / / I I ! I I I 1 '- - - - ./ / / I I / i I / / r

-2 .~-/ ./ // I l-;' /. I

-2

-1

o

2

24. Tracing the curve in the figure on the right above, we see that y(2):::; 1.5. A more accurate approximation is y(2):::; 1.4633.

25. The figure below indicates a limiting velocity of 20 ft/sec - about the same as jumping off a 6t-foot wall, and hence quite survivable. Tracing the curve suggests that v(t) = 19

ft/sec when t is a bit less than 2 seconds. An exact solution gives t:::; 1.8723 then.
40
\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \
\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \
\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \
'\ '\ '\ '\ '\ '\ '\ '\ '\ .'\ \ '\
<, -, <, -, '\. <, <, <, <, <, -, <, <,
<; .. . . - . .. . - .
<, <, <, '" <, <, <; <, <, '" <, .-'- .-'-
/' /' .> /' /' .> /'
/ / / / / / / / /
./ / / .I L I .J. I J
/ I / / I / / I /
·1· I .. I / / I I / I
I I I I ! I I I I
3 4 Section 1.3

23

26. The figure below suggests that there are 40 deer after about 60 months; a more accurate value is t:::::; 61.61. And it's pretty clear that the limiting population is 75 deer.

150
\ \
\ \
125 \ \
\
\ \ \ \ \ \
" ": " " "- .". " " -, "- -,
<, <, "'- "-.. <, <, <, <, "-.. <, <,
--- --- --- --- ---
/' .. /' .. /' /- --/-
,/ ,/ ,/ ,/ »:
,/ ,/ /' »: ,/ »: : ,/ »: ;...- ,/ »:
.... ...........
/' /' /' .> /' /' /' /' .> /'
- -- - -- - - - -- -
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
t 27. If b < 0 then the initial value problem y' = 2.jY, yeO) = b has no solution, because the square root of a negative number would be involved. If b > 0 we get a unique solution curve through (0, b) defined for all x by following a parabola - in the figure on the left

below - down (and leftward) to the x-axis and then following the x-axis to the left. But starting at (0,0) we can follow the positive x-axis to the point (c,O) and then branching

off on the parabola y = (x - C)2. This gives infinitely many different solutions if b = O.

x

28. The figure on the right above makes it clear initial value problem xy' = y, y( a) = b has a unique solution off the y-axis where a::j:. 0; infinitely many solutions through the origin where a = b = 0; no solution if a = 0 but b::j:. 0 (so the point (a,b) lies on the positive or negative y-axis).

(0,0

x

24 Chapter 1

29. Looking at the figure on the left below, we see that we can start at the point (a,b) and follow a branch of a cubic up or down to the x-axis, then follow the x-axis an arbitrary distance before branching off (down or up) on another cubic. This gives infinitely many solutions of the initial value problem y' = 3 y2/3, y( a) = b that are defined for all x.

However,if b:;t:O there is only a single cubic y=(X-C)3 passing through (a,b),so the solution is unique near x = a.

x

-pi

pi

x

30. Thefunction y(x)=cos(x-c), with y'(x)=-sin(x-c), satisfies the differential equation y' = -~1- i on the interval c < x < c + Jr where sin(x - c) > 0, so it follows that

-~1- i = -~I-cos2(x-c) = -~sin2(x-c) = -sin(x-c) = y.

If Ibl> 1 then the initial value problem y' = -~1- i, yea) = b has no solution because the square root of a negative number would be involved. If Ibl < 1 then there is only one curve of the form y = cos( x - c) through the point (a, b); this give a unique solution.

But if b = ±1 then we can combine a left ray of the line y = + 1, a cosine curve from the line y = + 1 to the line y = -1 , and then a right ray of the line y = -1. Looking at the figure on the right above, we see that this gives infinitely many solutions (defined for

all x) through any point of the form (a,±I).

31. Thefunction y(x)=sin(x-c), with y'(x)=cos(x-c), satisfies the differential equation y'=-H on the interval c-Jr/2<x<c+Jr/2 where cos(x-c»O, soh follows that

~1-i = ~1-sin2(x-c) = ~COS2(X-C) = -sin(x-c) = y.

Section 1.3

25

If Ibl> 1 then the initial value problem y' = ~1-l, yea) = b has no solution because the square root of a negative number would be involved. If Ibl < 1 then there is only one curve of the form y = sin(x - e) through the point(a,b); this give a unique solution.

But if b = ±1 then we can combine a left ray of the line y = -1, a sine curve from the line y = -1 to the line y = + 1 , and then a right ray of the line y = + 1. Looking at the figure on the left below, we see that this gives infinitely many solutions (defined for all x) through any point of the form (a,±1).

-pV2

pi/2

x

~ j
x

32. Looking at the figure on the right above, we see that we can piece together a "left half" of a quartic for x negative, an interval along the x-axis, and a "right half" of a quartic curve

for x positive. This makes it clear he initial value problem y' = 4x/y, yea) = b has infinitely many solutions (defined for all x) if b e 0; there is no solution if b < 0 because this would involve the square root of a negative number.

33. Looking at the figure provided in the answers section of the textbook, it suffices to observe that, among the pictured curves y = x I( ex -1) for all possible values of e,

• there is a unique one of these curves through any point not on either coordinate axis;

• there is no such curve through any point on the y-axis other than the origin; and

• there are infinitely many such curves through the origin (0,0).

But in addition we have the constant-valued solution y(x) == 0 that "covers" the x-axis. It follows that the given differential equation has near (a,b)

• a unique solution if a"* 0 ;

• no solution if a = 0 but b"* 0 ;

• infinitely many different solutions if a = b = o.

26 Chapter 1

SECTION 1.4

SEPARABLE EQUATIONS AND APPLICATIONS

Of course it should be emphasized to students that the possibility of separating the variables is the first one you look for. The general concept of natural growth and decay is important for all differential equations students, but the particular applications in this section are optional. Torricelli's law in the form of Equation (24) in the text leads to some nice concrete examples and problems.

1.

2.

3.

4.

lny = _x2 +c;

2 2

y(x) = e-X +C = C e-X

1 2

-- = -x -C;

y

1 y(x) = x2 +C

f; = fsinxdx;

In y = - cos x + c;

y(x) = e-cosx+c = C e-cosx

fdY -_ f 4dx "

lny = 41n(1 + x) + InC;

y 1+x

y(x) = C(1+x)4

5.

f dy f dx. sin " y = --Jx +C; y(x) = sin(--Jx +C)

~1- y2 = 2--Jx '

6.

f jy ~ f3Fx dx: 2.Jy ~ 2x'l2 + 2C; y(x) ~ (x'" +C)'

7.

f 3/2

:~3 = f4xll3 dx; t y2/3 = 3x4/3 +tc; y(x) = (2X4/3 +C)

8. fcosydy = f2xdx; siny = x2 +C; y(x) = sin-1(x2 +C)

9.

f dy - f 2 dx - f (_1_ + _1_) dx (partial fractions)

y - 1 - x2 - 1 + x 1- x

lny = In(1+x)-ln(1-x)+lnC; y(x) = C1+x

I-x

Section 1.4

27

10.

f dy f dx

(1 + y)2 - (1 + X)2 '

1 1

-C = _1+C(l+x) l+x

--- = ---

l+y l+x

l+x l+y = ---l+C(l+x)'

(x) - l+x -1 _ x-C(l+x)

y - l+C(l+x) - l+C(1+x)

11.

f dy = fX dx: __ 1_ = x2 _ C. y(x) = (C _ X2)-1I2

/ '2y2 2 2'

12.

f ydy fxdx; -tln(l+1) = -tx2+-tInC; l+l = Cex2

l+l =

13.

f < dy = f cos x dx; tIn (l + 1) = sin x + C y +1

15.

f(2.--1 JdY = f(~ __ l )dx;

y2 y4 x x2

211 --+- = Inlxl+-+C

y 3/ x

16.

f sin y dy = f x dx; -In( cos x) = -t In (1 + x2 ) + In C

cosy 1 +X2

17. y' = l+x+ y+xy = (1+x)(l+ y)

f dy = J(1+x)dx; InI1+YI = X+-tX2+C 1+ y

f dy f( 1) -I 1

-- = --1 dx; tan y = ---x+C;

1+ l x2 X

y( x) = tan ( C - ~ - x )

19. f; = fex dx; Iny = eX + InC; y(x) = Cexpre")

yeO) = 2e implies C = 2 so y(x) = 2exp(eX).

28

Chapter 1

20.

21.

I_!!L = f3x2 dx: tan " y = X3 + C; y(X) = tan(x3 + C)

1+ y2 '

yeO) = 1 implies C = tan " l = 1C / 4 so y(x) = tan ( x3 + 7r /4).

f 2 y dy = f x dx ; l = .J x2 - 16 + C .Jx2-16

y(5)=2 implies C=1 so y2 = 1+.Jx2-16.

22. Ie; = f(4x3-1)dx; lny = X4_X+lnC; y(x) = Cexp(x4-x)

y(I)=-3 implies C=-3 so y(x) = -3exp(x4-x).

23.

I dy = fdx' tln(2y-l) = x+tlnC; 2y-l = Ce"

2y-l '

y(l) = 1 implies C = e-2 so y(x) = t( 1 + e2X-2).

f dy -- f cos. x dx ,.

24. lny = In(sinx)+lnC; y(x) = Csinx

y smx

y( f) = f implies C = f so y(x) = fsinx .

25. f e; = f(~ +2X} lny = Inx+x2 +lnC; y(x) = Cx exprx") y(l) = 1 implies C = e-I so y(x) = xexptx" -1).

26.

27.

1 2 3

-- = X +x +C

,

y

-1

y( x) = x2 + x3 + C

y(l) = -1 implies C = -1 so

1

y(x) = 2 3 •

I-x -x

y( x) = In ( 3 e" + C)

y(O)=O implies C=-2 so y(x) =In(3e2x-2).

Section 1.4

29

28. fsec2YdY= f2~; tany=~+C; y(x)=tan-l(~+C) y(4)=t implies C=-l so y(x) =tan-l(~-l).

29.

(a)

Separation of variables gives the general solution

1 1

- = -x+C; y(x) = --y x-C

(b) Inspection yields the singular solution y( x) == 0 that corresponds to no value of the constant C.

(c) In the figure below we see that there is a unique solution curve through every point in the xy-plane.

4

-4

30. When we take square roots on both sides of the differential equation and separate variables, we get

f 2Jy ~ f dx; JY~ x-C; y(x) ~ (x-C)',

This general solution provides the parabolas illustrated in Fig. 1.4.5 in the textbook. Observe that y(x) is always nonnegative, consistent with both the square root and the

original differential equation. We spot also the singular solution y(x) == 0 that corresponds to no value of the constant C.

30

Chapter 1

(a) Looking at Fig. 1.4.5, we see immediately that the differential equation

(y')2=4y has no solution curve through the point (a,b) if b c i).

(b) But if b ~ ° we obviously can combine branches of parabolas with segments

along the x-axis to form infinitely many solution curves through (a,b).

(c) Finally, if b > ° then on a interval containing (a,b) there are exactly two

solution curves through this point, corresponding to the two indicated parabolas through (a,b) , one ascending and one descending from left to right.

-15

-10

-5

10

15

x

Problem 31 Figure

31. The formal separation-of-variables process is the same as in Problem 30 where, indeed, we started by taking square roots in (y')2 = 4 y to get the differential equation

y' = 2.JY. But whereas y' can be either positive or negative in the original equation, the latter equation requires that y' be nonnegative. This means that only the right half of

each parabola y = (x - C)2 qualifies as a solution curve. Inspecting the figure above, we therefore see that through the point (a,b) there passes

(a) No solution curve if b < 0,

(b) A unique solution curve if b > 0,

(c) Infinitely many solution curves if b = 0, because in this case we can pick any c > a and define the solution y(x)=O if x~c, y(x)=(X-C)2 if x z c,

Section 1.4

31

Problem 32 Figure (a)

-4

_5u__---'---_-'- __ '-- _ __.___ _ ___L_ _ __.___ __ -,--L--_~

-pi pi 2pi

x

32. Separation of variables gives

x=f 0 = sec-'iyi+C y y -1

if IYI > 1, so the general solution has the form y(x) = ±sec(x - C). But the original differential equation y' = y~ /-1 implies that y' > 0 if y > 1, while y' < 0 if y < -1. Consequently, only the right halves of translated branches of the curve

y = secx (figure above) qualify as general solution curves. This explains the plotted general solution curves we see in the figure at the top of the next page. In addition, we spot the two singular solutions y( x) == 1 and y( x) == -1. It follows upon inspection of

this figure that the initial value problem y' = y~ y2 -1, yea) = b has a unique solution if Ibl > 1 and has no solution if Ibl < 1. But if b = 1 (and similarly if b = -1) then we can

pick any c > a and define the solutiony(x) = 1 if x s c, y(x) = Isec(x - c)1 if

c s x < c + f. So we see that if b = ±1, then the initial value problem

y' = y~ /-1, yea) = b has infinitely many solutions.

33. The population growth rate is k = In(30000 125000) 11 0 ~ 0.01823, so the population of the city t years after 1960 is given by pet) = 25000eO.01823t. The expected year 2000 population is then P( 40) = 25000 eO.01823x40 ~ 51840.

32 Chapter 1

Problem 32 Figure (b)

34. The population growth rate is k = In(6)/l0 "'" 0.17918, so the population after t hours is given by pet) = Po eO.17918t. To find how long it takes for the population to double, we therefore need only solve the equation 2 P = Po eO.17918t for

t = (ln2)/0.17918 z 3.87 hours.

35. As in the textbook discussion of radioactive decay, the number of 14C atoms after t years is given by N(t) = No e-O·OOO1216t. Hence we need only solve the equation

tNo = Noe-O·OO01216t for t = (ln6)/0.0001216 z 14735 years to find the age of the skull.

36. As in Problem 35, the number of 14C atoms after t years is given by N(t) = 5.0x1010 e-O·OOO1216t. Hence we need only solve the equation

4.6xlOlO = 5.0x1010e-O·OOO1216t for the age t = (In(5.0/4.6))/0.0001216 z 686 years of the relic. Thus it appears not to be a genuine relic of the time of Christ 2000 years ago.

37. The amount in the account after t years is given by A(t) = 5000eO.08t. Hence the amount in the account after 18 years is given by A(18) = 5000eO.08X18 z 21,103.48 dollars.

38. When the book has been overdue for t years, the fine owed is given in dollars by A(t) = 0.30eO.05t. Hence the amount owed after 100 years is given by

A(100) = 0.30eO.05xl00 z 44.52 dollars.

Section 1.4

33

39. To find the decay rate of this drug in the dog's blood stream, we solve the equation

t = e-5k (half-life 5 hours) for k=(ln2)/5"",0.13863. Thus the amount in the dog's

bloodstream after t hours is given by A(t) = An e-G,13863t. We therefore solve the equation A(l) = An e-G.l3863 = 50x45 = 2250 for An "'" 2585mg, the amount to anesthetize the dog properly.

40. To find the decay rate of radioactive cobalt, we solve the equation t = e-5,27k (half-life 5.27 years) for k = (In 2)/ 5.27"'" 0.13153. Thus the amount of radioactive cobalt left after t years is given by A(t) = An e-G,13153t. We therefore solve the equation

A(t) = Ane-G,13153t = O.OlAn for t= (In100)/0.13153 "",35.01 and find that it will be about 35 years until the region is again inhabitable.

41. Taking t = 0 when the body was formed and t = T now, the amount Q(t) of 238U in the body at time t (in years) is given by Q(t) = Qoe-kt, where k = (In 2)/(4.51x10\ The given information tells us that

Q(T) Qo -Q(T)

= 0.9.

After substituting Q(T) = Qoe-kT, we solve readily for iT = 19/9, so

T = (1/k)ln(19/9) "'" 4.86x109. Thus the body was formed approximately 4.86 billion years ago.

42. Taking t = 0 when the rock contained only potassium and t = T now, the amount Q(t) of potassium in the rock at time t (in years) is given by Q(t) = Qoe-kt, where

k = (In 2)/(1.28x109). The given information tells us that the amount A(t) of argon at

time t is

and also that A(T) = Q(T). Thus

Qo -Q(T) = 9 Q(T).

After substituting Q(T) = Qoe-kT we readily solve for

T = (InlOlln2)(1.28xl09) "'" 4.25xl09.

Thus the age of the rock is about 1.25 billion years.

43. Because A = 0 the differential equation reduces to T' = kT, so T(t) = 25e-kt• The fact that T(20) = 15 yields k = (l/20)ln(5/3), and finally we solve

34 Chapter 1

5 = zse" for

t = (In 5)lk ::::: 63 min.

44. The amount of sugar remaining undissolved after t minutes is given by A(t) = Aoe -kt; we find the value of k by solving the equation A(l) = Aoe-k = 0.75Ao for

k = +In 0.75::::: 0.28768. To find how long it takes for half the sugar to dissolve, we solve theequation A(t) = Aoe-kt=-tAo for t=(In2)/0.28768:::::2.41 minutes.

45.

(a)

The light intensity at a depth of x meters is given by lex) = 10e-l.4x. We solve

theequation l(x)=loe-1.4x=-tlo for x=(In2)/1.4:::::0.495 meters.

(b) At depth 10 meters the intensity is 1(10) = loe-1.4XlO::::: (8.32x10-7)l0'

(c) We solve the equation lex) = loe-1.4x =0.0110 for x = (In 100) 11.4 ::::: 3.29 meters.

46. (a) The pressure at an altitude of x miles is given by p(x) = 29.92e-O·2x. Hence the pressure at altitude 10000 ft is p(lOOOO I 5280) ::::: 20.49 inches, and the pressure at altitude 30000 ft is p(30000 I 5280) ::::: 9.60 inches.

(b) To find the altitude where p = 15 in., we solve the equation 29.92e-O·2x = 15 for

x = (In 29.92/15)/0.2 ::::: 3.452 miles= 18,200 ft.

47. If N(t) denotes the number of people (in thousands) who have heard the rumor after t days, then the initial value problem is

N~ = k(100 - N), N(O) = 0

and we are given that N(7) = 10. When we separate variables (dN 1(100 - N) = k dt ) and integrate, we get In(100 - N) = - kt + C, and the initial condition N(O) = 0 gives

C=ln100. Then 100-N=100e-kt, so N(t)= 100(1-e-kt). Wesubstitutet=7,

N = 10 and solve for the value k = In(1001 90) 17 ::::: 0.01505. Finally, 50 thousand people have heard the rumor after t = (In 2) I k ::::: 46.05 days.

48. Let Ng(t) and N5(t) be the numbers of 238U and 235U atoms, respectively, at time t (in billions of years after the creation of the universe). Then N8(t) = Noe-kt and

N5(t) = Nue-ct ,where No is the initial number of atoms of each isotope. Also,

k = (In2)/4.51 and c = (In2)/0.71 from the given half-lives. We divide the equations for Ng and N5 and find that when t has the value corresponding to "now",

Section 1.4

35

e(c-k)1

N

= _8 = 137.7.

N5

Finally we solve this last equation for t = (In 137.7) I(c - k) "'" 5.99. Thus we get an estimate of about 6 billion years for the age of the universe.

49. The cake's temperature will be 1000 after 66 min 40 sec; this problem is just like Example 6 in the text.

50. (a) A(t) =10/1• Also 30=ACi)=10eI5k12, soso

k = 2.ln3 = In(32/15). 15

e15kl2 = 3'

,

Therefore ACt) = 1O( e' y = 10 . 321 115.

(b) After 5 years we have A(5) = 10·32/3 "'" 20.80pu.

(c) ACt) = 100 when ACt) = 10· 321/15. t = ..!-2..ln(10) "" 15.72 years.

, 2 In(3)

51. (a) A(t) = 15e-kl; 10 = A(5) = 15e-kl, so

3

_ = ekl.

2 '

1 3 k = -In-.

5 2

Therefore

( 3) (3 )-1/5 (2 )1/5

A(t) = 15exp -~ln2' = 15· 2' = 15· 3"

(b) After 8 months we have

(2 J8/5

A(8) = 15· 3" "'" 7.84 suo

(c) A(t) = 1 when

(2 JI15

ACt) = 15· 3"

= 1;

t = 5· InC~) "'" 33.3944.

In(t)

Thus it will be safe to return after about 33.4 months.

52. If L(t) denotes the number of human language families at time t (in years), then L(t) = e" for some constant k. The condition that L(6000) = e6000k = 1.5 gives

36

Chapter 1

k = _1_ln~. If "now" corresponds to time t = T, then we are given that 6000 2

kT 1 6000ln 3300 .

L(T)=e =3300,so T=-ln3300= :::::119887.18. This result suggests

k In(3/2)

that the original human language was spoken about 120 thousand years ago.

53. If L(t) denotes the number of Native America language families at time t (in years), then L(t) = e" for some constant k. The condition that L(6000) = e6000k = 1.5 gives

k = _1_ln2. If "now" corresponds to time t = T, then we are given that

6000 2

1 6000ln 150 .

L(T)=ekT =150,so T=-ln150= :::::74146.48. ThIS result suggests that the

k In(3/2)

ancestors oftoday's Native Americans first arrived in the western hemisphere about 74 thousand years ago.

54. With A(y) constant, Equation (19) in the text takes the form

dy = kJY dt

We readily solve this equation for 2 JY = kt + C. The condition yeO) = 9 yields C = 6, and then y( 1) = 4 yields k = 2. Thus the depth at time t (in hours) is yet) = (3 - t)2, and hence it takes 3 hours for the tank to empty.

55. With A = Jr(3)2 and a = Jr(1I12)2, and taking g = 32 It/sec", Equation (20) reduces to 162 y' = -JY. The solution such that y = 9 when t = 0 is given by 324.fY = -t + 972. Hence y = 0 when t = 972 sec = 16 min 12 sec.

56. The radius of the cross-section of the cone at height y is proportional to y, so A(y) is proportional to l. Therefore Equation (20) takes the form

and a general solution is given by

2/12 = -5kt + C.

The initial condition yeO) = 16 yields C = 2048, and then y(1) = 9 implies that 5k = 1562. Hence y = 0 when

t = C/5k = 204811562 ::::: 1.31 hr.

Section 1.4

37

57. The solution of y' = -k.JY is given by

2.JY = -kt + C.

The initial condition yeO) = h (the height of the cylinder) yields C = 2 Jh. Then substitution of t = T, Y = 0 gives k = (2 Jh )/T. It follows that

y = h(l- t/Tl

If r denotes the radius of the cylinder, then

58. Since x = l/4, the cross-sectional area is A(y) = !tx2 = !ti/2. Hence the general equation A( y) y' = - a.J2iY reduces to the differential equation yy' = - k

with general solution

(1/2)l = -kt + C.

The initial condition yeO) = 12 gives C = 72, and then y(1) = 6 yields k = 54. Upon separating variables and integrating, we find that the the depth at time t is

yet) = ~144-108ty(t).

Hence the tank is empty after t = 144/108 hr, that is, at 1 :20 p.m.

59. (a) Since x2 = by, the cross-sectional area is A(y) = !tx2 = nb», Hence the equation A( y) y' = - a~2gy reduces to the differential equation

with the general solution

(2/3 )l12 = -kt + C.

The initial condition yeO) = 4 gives C = 16/3, and then y(l) = 1 yields k = 14/3. It follows that the depth at time t is

yet) = (8-7tiI3•

(b)

The tank is empty after t = 817 hr, that is, at 1 :08:34 p.m.

(c)

We see above that k = (a/1lh) J2i = 14/3. Substitution of a = n r", b = 1,

38

Chapter 1

g = (32)(3600)2 ft/hr' yields r = (1/60) -J7 112 ft:::: 0.15 in for the radius of the bottom-hole.

60. With g = 32 ft/sec" and a = Jr(l/ 12)2, Equation (24) simplifies to

dy Jr r::

A(y)- = --v y .

dt 18

If z denotes the distance from the center of the cylinder down to the fluid surface, then y = 3 - z and A(y) = 10(9 - Z2)112. Hence the equation above becomes

10(9_Z2)1/2~~ = 7s(3-Z)1I2, 180(3+ Z)1I2dz = n dt,

and integration yields

120(3 + Z)1I2 = n t+ C.

Now z = 0 when t = 0, so C = 120(3)3/2. The tank is empty when z = 3 (that is, when y = 0) and thus after

t = (1201Jr)(63/2 - 33/2) :::: 362.90 sec.

It therefore takes about 6 min 3 sec for the fluid to drain completely.

61. A(y) = Jr(8y -l) as in Example 7 in the text, but now a = Jr 1144 in Equation (24), so the initial value problem is

18(8y - i)y' = -JY,

yeO) = 8.

We seek the value of t when y = o. The answer is t:::: 869 sec = 14 min 29 sec.

62. The cross-sectional area function for the tank is A = Jr(1-l) and the area of the bottom-hole is a = lO-4Jr, so Eq. (24) in the text gives the initial value problem

Simplification gives

so integration yields

Section 1.4

39

The initial condition y(O) = 1 implies that C = 2 - 2/5 = 8/5, so y = 0 after

t = (8/5)/(1.4XI0-4M) z 3614 seconds. Thus the tank is empty at about 14 seconds after 2 pm.

63.

(a)

As in Example 8, the initial value problem is

2 dy C

1l"(8y- Y ) dt = -1l"k-vy,

yeO) = 4

where k = 0.6 r2 J2i = 4.8 r". Integrating and applying the initial condition just in the Example 8 solution in the text, we find that

16 3/2 2 5/2 448

-y --y = -kt+-.

3 5 15

When we substitute y = 2 (ft) and t = 1800 (sec, that is, 30 min), we find that k z 0.009469. Finally, y = 0 when

t = 448 z 3154 sec = 53 min 34 sec. 15k

Thus the tank is empty at 1 :53:34 pm.

(b) The radius of the bottom-hole is

r = -Jk 14.8 z 0.04442 ft z 0.53 in, thus about a half inch.

64. The given rate of fall of the water level is dyldt = -4 inlhr = -(1/10800) ftlsec. With A = 1l"X2 and a = nr", Equation (24) is

Hence the curve is of the form y = kx'; and in order that it pass through (1,4) we must have k = 4. Comparing .fY = 2X2 with the equation above, we see that

(8r2)( 1 0800) = 1/2,

so the radius of the bottom hole is r = 1I(240J3) ft z 1/35 in.

40

Chapter 1

65. Let t = 0 at the time of death. Then the solution of the initial value problem

T' = k(70 -1),

T(O) = 98.6

IS

T(t) = 70+28.6e-kt•

If t = a at 12 noon, then we know that

T(t) = 70+ 28.6e-ka = 80,

T(a + 1) = 70+ 28.6e-k(a+l) = 75.

Hence

28.6e-ka = 10 and 28.6e-kae-k = 5.

It follows that e -k = 112, so k = In 2. Fin all y the first of the previous two equations yields

a = (In 2.86)/(In 2) "" 1.516 hr "" 1 hr 31 min,

so the death occurred at 10:29 a.m.

66. Let t = 0 when it began to snow, and t = to at 7:00 a.m. Let x denote distance along the road, with x = 0 where the snowplow begins at 7:00 a.m. If y = ct is the snow depth at time t, w is the width of the road, and v = dx/dt is the plow's velocity, then "plowing at a constant rate" means that the product wyv is constant. Hence our differential equation is of the form

kdx = !.

dt t

The solution with x = 0 when t = to is

t = kx toe .

We are given that x = 2 when t = to + 1 and x = 4 when t = to + 3, so it follows that

2k to + 1 = toe

and

to + 3

4k = toe .

Elimination of to yields the equation

Section 1.4

41

so it follows (since k » 0) that e2k = 2. Hence to + 1 = 2to, so to = 1. Thus it began to snow at 6 a.m.

67. We still have t = to lx, but now the given information yields the conditions

4k to + 1 = to e

and

7k to + 2 = to e

at 8 a.m. and 9 a.m., respectively. Elimination of to gives the equation

2e4k_e7k_l = 0,

which we solve numerically for k = 0.08276. Using this value, we finally solve one of the preceding pair of equations for to = 2.5483 hr ~ 2 hr 33 min. Thus it began to snow at 4:27 a.m.

68. (a) Note first that if e denotes the angle between the tangent line and the horizontal, then a= 1- e so cota= cot(1- e) = tan e = y'(x). It follows that

. sina 1 1

Slna = = = .

.Jsin2a+cos2a .J1+coea ~1+y'(X)2

Therefore the mechanical condition (sin a) / v = constant (positive) with v = ~2 gy translates to

1

---==:-r==== = constant, so y [1 + (y')2] = 2a

JliY~l+(yy

for some positive constant a. We readily solve the latter equation for the differential equation

y' = dy = ~2a - y

dx y

(b) Thesubstitution y=2asin2t, dy=4asintcostdt now gives 4a sin t cos t dt = 2a - 2a sin 2 t dx = cos t dx

2a sin 2 t sin t '

dx = 4a sin" t dt.

Integration now gives

x = f4asin2 t dt = 2a f(1-cos2t) dt

= 2a(t-+sin2t)+C = a(2t-sin2t)+C,

and we recall that y = 2a sin 2 t = a(l- cos 2t). The requirement that x = 0 when t = 0

42

Chapter 1

implies that C = O. Finally, the substitution e = 2t (nothing to do with the previously mentioned angle e of inclination from the horizontal) yields the desired parametric equations

x = a( e - sin e),

y = a(l- cos e')

of the cycloid that is generated by a point on the rim of a circular wheel of radius a as it rolls along the x-axis. [See Example 5 in Section 10.4 of Edwards and Penney, Calculus, 6th edition (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2002).]

69. Substitution of v = dy / dx in the differential equation for y = y(x) gives

a dv = ..)1 + v2 , dx

and separation of variables then yields

J dv fdx

..[1;7 = -;;

sinh' V = ~+CI; a

The fact that y'(O) = 0 implies that C1 = 0, so it follows that

dy .nh(x)

- = Sl _.

dx a '

y(x) = acosh(:)+C.

Of course the (vertical) position of the x-axis can be adjusted so that C = 0, and the units in which T and p are measured may be adjusted so that a = 1. In essence, then the shape of the hanging cable is the hyperbolic cosine graph y = coshx.

SECTION 1.5

LINEAR FIRST-ORDER EQUATIONS

1. p=exp(f1dx)=ex; Dx(y·ex)=2ex; y·ex =2eX +C; y(x) = 2+Ce-X yeO) = 0 implies C = - 2 so y(x) = 2 - 2e-x

2. p=exp(f(-2)dx)=e-2X; Dx(y·e-2X)=3; y·e-2x =3x+C; y(x) = (3x+C)e2X yeO) = 0 implies C = 0 so y(x) = 3xe2x

Section 1.4

43

4.

X2 2

y·e- =x +C; y(x) = (x+C)eX

5. p=exp(f(2Ix)dx)=e2InX=x2; Dx(y·x2)=3x2; Y'X2=X3+C

y(x) = X+CIX2; y(1)=5 implies C=4 so y(x) = x+41x2

6. P = exp( f(51 x)dx) = e5lnx = x5; D, (y. x5) = 7x6; y. x5 = x' + C

y(x) = x2+Clx5; y(2)=5 implies C=32 so y(x) = x2+321x5

7. P = exp( f(1/2x) dx) = e(lnx)/2 = Fx; o, (y. Fx) = 5; y. Fx = 5x + C y(x) = 5Fx +cIFx

8. p = exp( f(1l3x)dx) = e(lnx)/3 =~; o, (y.~) = 4~; y. ~ = 3X4/3 + C y(x) = 3x + Cx-l13

9. p=exp(f(-llx)dx)=e-Inx =lIx; Dx{y·lIx)=lIx; y·lIx=lnx+C

y(x) = xlnx+Cx; y(l)=7 implies C=7 so y(x) = xlnx+7x

10. P = exp( f( -3/2x)dx) = e(-3Inx)/2 = X-3/2;

o, (y. X-3/2) = 9Xl/2 12; y. X-3/2 = 3X3/2 + C;

y(x) = 3x3 + CX3/2

11. p=exp(f(lIx-3)dx)=elnx-3x =xe-3\ Dx(y·xe-3X)=O; y·xe-3x =C

y(x) = C x-1e3\ y(1) = 0 implies C = 0 so y(x) == 0 (constant)

12. p=exp(f(3Ix)dx)=e3Inx=x3; Dx(y·x3)=2x7; Y'X3=tx8+C

y(x) = tx5+CX-3; y(2)=1 implies C=56 so y(x) = tx5+56x-3

13.

p = exp( fldx) = eX;

44

Chapter 1

15.

p = exp ( J 2x dx) = ex2 ; D x (Y . ex2 ) = x ex2 ;

y(x) = t+Ce-x2; y(O)=-2 implies C=-f so y(x) = t-fe-x2

16. P = exp( Jcosxdx) = esinx; D; (y. eSinx) = esinx cosx; y. esinx = esinx + C

y(x) = l+Ce-sin-<; y(Jl")=2 implies C=l so y(x) = 1+e-sinx

17. P = exp( JlI(l + x)dx) = e1n(1+x) = 1 + x; D, (r ·(1 + x)) = cosx; y ·(1 + x) = sin x +C

() C +sin x

y x = ;

1+x

1 +sin x yeO) = 1 implies C = 1 so y(x) = ---

1+x

y(x) = x2(sinx+C)

19. p=exp(Jcotxdx)=e1n(SinX) =sinx; Dx(y·sinx)=sinxcosx

. 1· 2 C

Y . Sill X = zSIll X + ;

y( x) = t sin x + C esc x

-x-x2/2 -x-x2/2 C

y·e =-e +;

y(x) = -1 + C e-x-x2 12

y(O)=O implies C=1 so y(x) = _1+e-x-x212

21. P = exp( J( -3/ x)dx) = e-31nX = x-3; D, (r- x-3) = cosx; y. x-3 = sinx + C

y(x) = x3 sin x + C x3; y(2Jl") = 0 implies C = 0 so y(x) = x3 sin x

22. P = exp( J( -2x)dx) = e-x2; o, (Y· e-x2) = 3x2; y. e-x2 = x3 + C

y(x) = (:3+C)e-x2; y(O)=5 implies C=5 so y(x) = (x3+5)e-x2

Section 1.5

45

24. p = exp( f3x l(x2 + 4)dx) = e31n(x2+4)/2 = (x2 + 4)3/2; D; (y. (x2 + 4)3/2) = x(x2 + 4)1/2 y. (x2 + 4)3/2 = tex2 + 4)3/2 + C; y(x) = t + C (x2 + 4r312

y(O)=l implies C=136 so y(x) = t[1+16(x2+4r3/2]

25. First we calculate

It follows that p = (x2 + 1r3/2 exp(3x2 12) and thence that

DX(y·(x2 +1)-3/2exp(3x2 12)) = 6X(X2 +4r5/2,

y. (x2 + 1)-3/2 exp(3x2 12) = - 2(x2 + 4r3/2 + C, y(x) = -2exp(3x2 12)+C(x2 +1)3/2exp(-3x2 12).

Finally, yeO) = 1 implies that C = 3 so the desired particular solution is

y(x) = - 2exp(3x2 12) + 3(x2 + 1)3/2 exp( -3x2 12).

26. With x' = dx 1 dy, the differential equation is l x' + 4/ x = 1. Then with y as the independent variable we calculate

1 C x(y) = -+- 2/ y4

27. With x' = dx 1 dy, the differential equation is x' - x = y eY• Then with y as the independent variable we calculate

28. With x' = dx 1 dy, the differential equation is (1 + y2 )x' - 2 y x = 1. Then with y as the independent variable we calculate

46

Chapter 1

p(y) = exp( f( -2y /(1 + l)dy) = e-1n(/+I) = (1 + y2rl DAx.(1+ y2rl) = (1+ y2r2

An integral table (or trigonometric substitution) now yields

I:Y' ~ Ll+:')' ~ ~C:y' +tan " y+C J

x(y) = t[Y+(l+ l)(tan-I y+C)]

29. P = exp( f( -2x)dx) = e-x2; o, (Y· e-x2) = e-x2; y. e-x2 = C + f e-t2 dt y(x) = ex2 (c + t~ erf(x))

30. After division of the given equation by 2x, multiplication by the integrating factor p = x-1I2 yields

x-1/2y' -tx-3/2y = x-1I2 cosx, Dx(X-1I2y) = X-1/2COSX,

x-1I2y = C + r r"' cost dt.

The initial condition y(I) = 0 implies that C = 0, so the desired particular solution is

y(x) = X1l2 r r'" cost dt.

31.

(a)

32.

(a)

If y = Acosx + Bsinx then

y' + y = (A + B) cos x + (B - A) sin x = 2 sin x

provided that A = -1 and B = 1. These coefficient values give the particular solution yp(x) = sin x - cos x.

Section 1.5

47

(b) The general solution of the equation y' + y = 0 is y(x) = cs= so addition to the

particular solution found in part (a) gives y(x) = cs= + sin x - cos x.

(c) The initial condition j-(O) = 1 implies that C = 2, so the desired particular

solution is y(x) = 2e-x + sin x - cos x.

33. The amount x(t) of salt (in kg) after t seconds satisfies the differential equation x' = - x 1200, so x(t) = 100e-tI2oo. Hence we need only solve the equation

10 = 100e-tI200 for t = 461 sec = 7 min 41 sec (approximately).

34. Let xU) denote the amount of pollutants in the lake after t days, measured in millions of cubic feet (mft'). The volume of the lake is 8000 mfr', and the initial amount x(O) of pollutants is xo = (0.25%)(8000) = 20 mft3. We want to know when

x(t) = (0.10%)(8000) = 8 mft3. We set up the differential equation in infinitesimal form by writing

dx == [in]-[out] = (0.0005)(500)dt-_x_.500dt, 8000

which simplifies to

dx 1 x dx 1 1

= or -+-x = -.

dt "4-16' dt 16 4

Using the integrating factor p = e1/J6, we readily derive the solution x(t) = 4 + 16e-f1J6 for which x(O) = 20. Finally, we find that x = 8 when t = 161n4 ~ 22.2 days.

35. The only difference from the Example 4 solution in the textbook is that V = 1640 knr' and r = 410 krrr'ryr for Lake Ontario, so the time required is

V

t = -ln4 = 4ln 4 ~ 5.5452 years. r

36. (a) The volume of brine in the tank after t min is Vet) = 60 - t gal, so the initial value problem is

dx _ 2 3x

- - ---,

dt 60-t

x(O) = O.

The solution is

x(t)

= (60-t)- (60-t)3 3600

(b) The maximum amount ever in the tank is 40/.J3 ~ 23.09 lb. This occurs after

t = 60 - 20.J3 ~ 25/36 min.

48

Chapter 1

37. The volume of brine in the tank after t min is Vet) = 100 + 2t gal, so the initial value problem is

38.

dx = 5- 3x

dt 100+2t'

x(O) = 50.

The integrating factor pet) = (100 + 2til2 leads to the solution

50000

x(t) = (100 + 2t) - 3/2

(100+2t)

such that x(O) = 50. The tank is full after t = 150 min, at which time x(150) = 393.75 lb.

(a)

dx/dt = -x/20 and x(0)=50so x(t) = 50e-t120.

(b) The solution of the linear differential equation

with yeO) = 50 is

yet) = 150e-t140 -100e-tI2o.

(c) The maximum value of y occurs when

y'(t) = - .!2e-tI40 + 5e-t120 = _ 2_e-tI40 (3 - 4e-tI40) = O.

4 4

We find that Ymax = 56.251b when t = 40 In(4/3) ~ 11.51 min.

39.

The initial value problem

(a)

x(O) = 100

for Tank 1 has solution x(t) = 100 e -1/10. Then the initial value problem

dy = ~_L = IOe-lllo _L yeO) = 0

dt 10 10 10'

for Tank 2 has solution yet) = 10te-I/IO•

Section 1.5

49

(b) The maximum value of y occurs when

y'(t) = lOe-tiIO - te-tiIO = 0

and thus when t = 10. We find that Ymax = y(10) = lOOe-1 ~ 36.79 gal.

40.

(b)

Assuming inductively that x" = t"e-1/2/(n!2"), the equation for X,,+l IS

dxn+1 1 1

-- = -x --x =

dt 2" 2 11+1

We easily solve this first-order equation with X,,+1 (0) = 0 and find that

(n+1)!2"+1'

thereby completing the proof by induction.

41.

(a)

A'(t) = 0.06A + 0.12S = 0.06A + 3.6eo,051

(b) The solution with A(O) = 0 is

A(t) = 360(eO.06 t _ eO.os '),

so A( 40) ~ 1308.283 thousand dollars.

42. The mass of the hailstone at time t is m = (4/ 3)7rr3 = (4/ 3)7rk3t3• Then the equation d(mv)/dt = mg simplifies to

tv'+3v = gt.

The solution satisfying the initial condition v(O) = 0 is vet) = gt/4, so v'(r) = g/4.

43. The solution of the initial value problem y' = X - y, y( -5) = Yo IS

Substituting x = 5, we therefore solve the equation 4 + (Yo + 6)e-10 = Y1 with Yl = 3.998, 3.999, 4, 4.001, 4.002 for the desired initial values Yo = -50.0529, -28.0265, -6.0000, 16.0265, 38.0529, respectively.

50

Chapter 1

44. The solution of the initial value problem y' = X + y, y( -5) = Yo is

Substituting x = 5, we therefore solve the equation -6 + (Yo - 4 )elO = YI with YI = -10, -5, 0, 5, 10 for the desired initial values

Yo = 3.99982, 4.00005, 4.00027, 4.00050, 4.00073, respectively.

45. With the pollutant measured in millions of liters and the reservoir water in millions of cubic meters, the inflow-outflow rate is r = t, the pollutant concentration in the inflow

is Co = 10, and the volume of the reservoir is V = 2. Substituting these values in the equation x' = rco - (r / V)x, we get the equation

dx 1

- = 2--x

dt 10

for the amount x(t) of pollutant in the lake after t months. With the aid of the integrating factor p = elf 10 , we readily find that the solution with x(O) = 0 is

x(t) = 20(I-e-lflO).

Then we find that x = 10 when t = l Oln 2 ~ 6.93 months, and observe finally that, as expected, x(t) ~ 20 as t ~ 00.

46. With the pollutant measured in millions of liters and the reservoir water in millions of cubic meters, the inflow-outflow rate is r = t, the pollutant concentration in the inflow

is Co = 10(1 + cost), and the volume of the reservoir is V = 2. Substituting these values in the equation x' = rca - (r /V)x, we get the equation

dx 1

- = 2(I+cost)--x,

dt 10

that is,

dx 1

-+-x = 2(1 +cosr) dt 10

for the amount x(t) of pollutant in the lake after t months. With the aid of the integrating factor p = efflO, we get

x- eillO = f(2el!10 + 2efll0 cost) dt

fllO (1 )

= 20elllo+2· Ie2 2 -cost+sint +C.

Cfo) +1 10

When we impose the condition x(O) = 0, we get the desired particular solution

Section 1.5

51

x(t) = 20 (101-102e-lllo +cost+lOsint). 101

In order to determine when x = 10, we need to solve numerically. For instance, we can use the Mathematica commands

x = (20/101) (101 - 102 Exp[-t/10] + Cos[t] + 10 Sin[t]); FindRoot[ x == 10, {t,7} ]

{t -> 6.474591767017537}

and find that this occurs after about 6.47 months. Finally, as t ~ 00 we observe that x( t) approaches the function 20 + 120°1 (cos t + 10 sin t) that does, indeed, oscillate about the equilibrium solution x(t) == 20.

SECTION 1.6

SUBSTITUTION METHODS AND EXACT EQUATIONS

It is traditional for every elementary differential equations text to include the particular types of equations that are found in this section. However, no one of them is vitally important solely in its own right. Their main purpose (at this point in the course) is to familiarize students with the technique of transforming a differential equation by substitution. The subsection on airplane flight trajectories (together with Problems 56-59) is included as an application, but is optional material and may be omitted if the instructor desires.

The differential equations in Problems 1-15 are homogeneous, so we make the substitutions

y

v =

y = vx,

dy dx

dv = v+x-.

dx

x

For each problem we give the differential equation in x, vex), and v' = dv / dx that results, together with the principal steps in its solution.

1.

x (v + 1) v' = - ( v2 + 2v -1);

f 2(v + l)dv -_ - f2xdx., ( 2 )

In v +2v-l =-2Inx+lnC

v2 +2v-l

x2 ( v2 + 2v -1) = C; i + 2xy - x2 = C

2. 2xvv'=I; f2vdv= f~; v2=lnx+C; l = x2(lnx+C)

3.

xv' =2Fv;

f dv fdx

2Fv = -;-;

Fv = ln x +C; y = x(lnx+C)2

52

Chapter 1

4.

5.

6.

x ( v - 1) v' = - ( v2 + 1) ;

f 2(1-v)dv = f 2dx;

v2 +1 X

2 tan -I v -In( v2 + 1) = 2In x + C

2 tan' (y/x)-ln(l/x2 +1) = 2lnx+C

1

Inv-- = -21nx+C v

x

Iny-Inx-- = -2Inx+C;

y

x In(xy) = C+y

2 1

ln v -- = -2Inx+C

v

x

2Iny -2Inx-- = -2Inx+C; 2ylny = x +C y y

8. xv'=ev; - fe-vdv=- f ~; e-v = -lnx+C; -v = In(C-Inx)

y = -x In(C-Inx)

9.

xv' = v2. ,

_fdV =-f dx;

v2 X

x = y(C-lnx)

1

- = +in x+C; v

10.

XVV' = 2v2 + 1;

f 4vdv =f 4dx;

2v2 + 1 x

In(2v2 +1) = 4lnx+InC

11.

f(_!_-~)dV =f dx

v v2 + 1 x

In v -In ( v2 + 1) = In x + In C; v = C x ( v2 + 1) ; y = C ( x2 + l)

12.

f vdv f dx

-/v2 +4 = ~;

v2 +4 = (Inx+C)2; 4x2 + l = x2(lnx+C)2

x v v' = -/ v2 + 4 ;

-/v2 +4 = ln x+C

Section 1.6

53

13.

J dv f dx

.Jv2 +1 = -;-;

I f v dv

nx = .Jl+v2 -(1+v2)

1 f du

= 2 ~(1-~)

= - f d; = +In w +In C

with w = 1- ~. Back-substitution and simplification finally yields the implicit solution x - ~X2 + i = C.

15.

x (v + l)v' = -2( v2 +2v);

f 2( v + 1) dv - __ f 4 dx " ( )

In v2 +2v = -4Inx+lnC

v2 +2v x

16. The substitution v = x + y + 1 leads to

f dv f 2u du (v = u2)

X = l+-Fv = l+u

= 2 u - 21n(1 + u) + C

x = 2.J x + y + 1 - 2 In(l + .J x + y + 1) + C

17.

v = 4x + y;

x = f_!!!_ = .!_tan-1 ~+ C

v2 +4 2 2 2

v = 2tan(2x-C); y = 2tan(2x-C)-4x

v'=v2+4'

,

18.

v = x+ y;

v v' = v+l;

x = f vdv = J(l-_l_)dV = v-In(v+l)-C

v+l v+l

y = In(x + y + 1) + C.

54

Chapter 1

Problems 19-25 are Bernoulli equations. For each, we indicate the appropriate substitution as specified in Equation (10) ofthis section, the resulting linear differential equation in v, its integrating factor p, and finally the resulting solution of the original Bernoulli equation.

22.

v' - 6 v I x = - 15 I x2 •

,

23.

v' - 2 v I x = -1;

24.

v' + 2 v = e-2x l x:

,

i = e" I(C + lnx)

26. The substitution v = i yields the linear equation v' + v = e-x with integrating factor p = e". Solution: i = e-X(x + C)

27. The substitution v = i yields the linear equation x v' - v = 3x4 with integrating factor p = l/x. Solution: y = (x4 + C x)1/3

28. The substitution v = i" yields the linear equation x v' - 2v = 2x3 e2x with integrating factor p = l/x2• Solution: y = In(C x2 + X2e2x)

29. The substitution v = siny yields the homogeneous equation 2xv v' = 4x2 + v2.

Solution: sin2y = 4x2 - C X

30. First we multiply each side of the given equation by e". Then the substitution v = i" gives the homogeneous equation (x + v) v' = x - v of Problem 1 above.

Solution: x2 - 2x i" - e2 y = C

Each of the differential equations in Problems 31-42 is of the form M dx + N dy = 0, and the exactness condition aM I By = aN I ax is routine to verify. For each problem we give the principal steps inthe calculation corresponding to the method of Example 9 in this section.

31. F = J(2x+3y)dx = x2+3xy+g(y); Fy = 3X+g'(y) = 3x+2y = N

g'(y) = 2y; g(y) = y2;

x2 +3xy+ i = C

Section 1.6

55

32. F = f(4x-y)dx = 2x2-xy+g(y); Fy = -x+g'(y) = 6y-x = N

g'(y) = 6y; g(y) = 3/;

x2 -xy+3/ = c

g'(y) = 6y2; g(y) = 2i;

g'(y) = 4i; g(y) = y4;

35. F = f(x3+ylx)dx = tx4+ylnx+g(y); Fy = Inx+g'(y) = /+Inx= N

g'(y) = y2; g(y) = t i;

t x3 + t l + y In x = C

36. F = f(1 + yexy)dx = x + eXY + g(y); Fy = x e"" + g'(y) = 2y + x eXY = N

g'(y) = 2y; g(y) = y2;

37. F = f(cosx+Iny)dx = sinx+xIny+g(y); Fy = xly+g'(y) = xly+eY = N

sin x + x In y + eY = C

38.

F = f(x + tan " y)dx = tx2 + x tan' y + g(y);

x , x+y

F = -_ -+g(y) = --= N

Y 1 + y2 1 + y2

g'(y) = -1 Y 2; g(y) = tIn(1 + y2);

+y

39. F = f(3x2i+y4)dx = x3i+x/+g(y);

Fy = 3x3l +4xy3 + g'(y) = 3x3/ + / +4x/ = N

g'(y) = /; g(y) = t /;

40. F = f(eXsiny+tany)dx = eXsiny+xtany+g(y);

Fy = eXcosy+xsec2 y+g'(y) = eXcosy+xsec2 y= N

g'(y) = 0; g(y) = 0;

56

eX siny + xtany = C

Chapter 1

41.

J(2X 3i) X2 y2

F = --_ dx = -+-+g(y);

y X4 Y X3

X2 2y, X2 2y 1

Fy = --+-+g(y) = --+-+-= N

y2 X3 y2 X3 JY

1

g'(y) = JY; g(y) = 2JY;

F 2 -5/3 -3/2 '() -3/2 2 -5/3 N

= --xy +X +g y = X --xy =

y 3 3

g'(y) = 0; g(y) = 0;

43. The substitution y' = p, y" = p' in xy" = y' yields

xp' = p,

(separable)

f dp'P -- f dxx --'..

_" lnp = lnx+lnC,

y' = p = Cx,

y(x) = tCx2 +B = AX2 +B.

44. The substitution y' = p, y" = p p' = p( dp I dy) in yy" + (y,)2 = 0 yields

ypp' + p2 = 0 => yp' = - p, (separable)

f dp'P -- - f dyY ->..

_" lnp = -lny+lnC,

p=Cly => X= f~dY= f~dy

2

x(y) = L+B = Ay2 +B. 2C

45. The substitution y' = p, y" = p p' = p( dp I dy) in y" + 4 y = 0 yields

pp' + 4 y = 0, (separable)

Jpdp = - J4ydy => t p2 = _2y2 +C,

p2 = -4i +2C = 4(tC- i),

Section 1.6

57

f 1 J dy 1 . -I Y

X = P dy = 2~ k2 -l = 2sm k + D,

y(x) = ksin[2x - 2D] = k(sin2xcos2D - cos2xsin2D), y(x) = Acos2x + Bsin2x.

46. The substitution y' = p, y" = p' in xy" + y' = 4x yields

xp'+ P = 4x,

(linear in p)

Dx[x·p] = 4x => x<p = 2X2+A,

dy A

P = dx = 2x+-;,

y(x) = x2 + Alnx + B.

47. The substitution y' = p, y" = p' in y" = (y,)2 yields

(separable)

f~ = fxdx =>

dy 1

=---

dx x+B'

y(x) = A-Inlx+AI.

1

-- = x+B,

P

48. The substitution y' = p, y" = p' in x2 y" + 3xy' = 2 yields

I 3 2

p+-p =-,

'1( x2

(linear in p)

DJx3.p] = 2x => x3.p = x2+C,

dy 1 C

dx = x +7'

A y(x) = Inx+-2+B. x

49. The substitution y' = p, y" = p p' = p(dp / dy) in yy" + (y,)2 = yy' yields

yp p" + p2 = yp => y p' + P = y (linear in p),

Dy[Y'p] = y,

y2+C P = 2y ,

58

Chapter 1

x = J..!.dY = J 2rdy = In(y2 + c) -lnB,

p y +C

i +C = Be' => y(x) = ±(A+Bexyl2.

50. The substitution y' = p, y" = p' in y" = (x + y,)2 gives p' = (x + p)2, and then the substitution v = x + p, p' = v' -1 yields

v' -1 = v2

I dv

1+V2 =

v = x+- = tan(x+A) => dy = tan(x+A)-x, dx

y(x) = lnlsec(x+A)I-tx2 +B.

51. The substitution y' = p, y" = p p' = p(dp/ dy) in y" = 2y(y,)3 yields

pp' = 2y/

=> f ~ = f2ydy

1 2

=> -_ = y +C,

p

J 1 1 3

X = P dy = -3Y -Cx+D,

l +3x+Ay+B = 0

52. The substitution y' = p, y" = p p' = p(dp/ dy) in y3y" = 1 yields

I pdp = J ~ => ± p2 = - 2> + ~ ,

x = J..!.dY = f ydy

P ~Ay2 -1'

ipp' = 1 =>

x = ..!.~ Ai -1 + C => Ax + B = ~ Ai-I,

A

A/-(Ax+B)2 = 1.

53. The substitution y' = p, y" = p p' = p(dp / dy) in y" = 2yy' yields

p p' = 2yp => fdp = f2ydy => P = i +A2,

X f 1 dy J dy = ..!.tan-1Z+C

= p = i +A2 A A '

Section 1.6

59

tan-1L = A(x-C) ~

A

y(x) = A tan(Ax + B).

L = tan(Ax-AC), A

54. The substitution y' = p, y" = p p' = p(dpl dy) in yy" = 3(yf yields

yp p' = 3 p2 ~ f; = f 3;

lnp = 31ny+lnC ~ p = cl,

x = f_!_dY = f dy = __ I_+B,

p cl 2Cy2

Ay2(B - x) = 1.

55. Thesubstitution v=ax+by+c, y=(v-ax-c)lb in y' = F(ax+by+c) yields the separable differential equation (dv 1 dx - a) 1 b = F( v), that is, dv 1 dx = a + b F( v).

56. If v = /-n then y = v1/(I-n) so y' = vn/(I-n)v' 1(1- n). Hence the given Bernoulli equation transforms to

II/(I-n) d

v v + P(x) vll(l-n) = Q(x)vll/(l-n).

I-n dx

Multiplication by (1- n) 1 vn/(I-n) then yields the linear differential equation v' + (1- n)Pv = (1- n)Qv.

57. If v = lny then y = e" so y' = e"v'. Hence the given equation transforms to e v v' + P( x) e v = Q( x) v e ". Cancellation of the factor e v then yields the linear differential equation v' -Q(x)v = P(x).

58. The substitution v = lny, y = e', y' = eV v' yields the linear equation x v' + 2 v = 4x2 with integrating factor p = x2. Solution: y = exp(x2 + Clx2)

59. The substitution x = u - 1, Y = v - 2 yields the homogeneous equation

dv u-v

du u+v

The substitution v = pu leads to

60

Chapter 1

f (p + 1) dp 1 [ ( 2 ) ]

lnu = - = -- In p +2p-l -InC.

(p2 +2p-l) 2

We thus obtain the implicit solution

2 (V2 V J 2 2

u -+2--1 = v +2uv-u = C

u2 U

(y+2)2 +2(x+l)(y+2)-(x+l)2 = C y2 +2xy-x2 +2x+6y = C.

60. The substitution x = u - 3, y = v - 2 yields the homogeneous equation

dv -u+2v

--

du 4u-3v

The substitution v = pu leads to

I f (4 - 3 p) dp 1 f (1 15 J d

nu = (3p+l)(p-l) ="4 p-l- 3p+l ip

1

= -[In(p -1) - 51n(3p + 1) + InC]. 4

We thus obtain the implicit solution

4 C(p-l) C(v/u-l) Cu4(v-u)

u - - ---''-------=:- = --'------;:,.:....

- (3p+l)5 - (3v/u+l)5 (3V+U)5

(3V+U)5 = C(v-u)

(x+3y+3)5 = C(y-x-5).

61. The substitution v = x - y yields the separable equation v' = 1 - sin v. With the aid of the identity

1 1 + sin v

--- = -----::--- = sec+v+secv tanv

1 - sin v cos' v

we obtain the solution

x = tan(x- y) + sec(x- y) + C.

62. The substitution y = vx in the given homogeneous differential equation yields the

Section 1.6

61

separable equation x( 2v3 -1) v' = - ( v4 + v) that we solve as follows:

f2V3 -1 dv = _fdx v4 +v x

f ( 2v -1 - .!_ + _1_) dv = - f dxx (partial fractions)

v2 - v+ 1 v v+ 1

In( v2 - v + 1) - In v + In( v + 1) = - In x + In C x(v2 -v+1)(v+1) = Cv

(y2 _ xy + x2)( X + y) = C xy

x3 + y3 = Cxy

63. If we substitute y = y) + 1/ v, y' = y: - v' I v2 (primes denoting differentiation with respect to x) into the Riccati equation y' = Ay2 + By + C and use the fact that

y: = Ay~ + By) + C, then we immediately get the linear differential equation

v' +(B+2Ay))v = -A.

In Problems 64 and 65 we outline the application of the method of Problem 63 to the given Riccati equation.

64. The substitution y = x + 1/ v yields the linear equation v' - 2x v = 1 with integrating

2

factor p = e -x. In Problem 29 of Section 1.5 we saw that the general solution of this

linear equation is v( x) = ex2 [ C + f erf (x) ] in terms of the error function erf(x) introduced there Hence the general solution of our Riccati equation is given by

y(x) = x+e-x2 [C + f erf(x)J).

65. The substitution y = x + 1 / v yields the trivial linear equation v' = -1 with immediate solution vex) = C - x. Hence the general solution of our Riccati equation is given by y(x) = x + lI(C - x).

66. The substitution y' = C in the Clairaut equation immediately yields the general solution y = Cx+g(C).

67. Clearly the line y = Cx - C2/4 and the tangent line at (C/2, C2/4) to the parabola y = x2 both have slope C.

68. In(v+~) = -klnx+klna =In(x/ark v+.Jl+v2 = (xlark

62 Chapter 1

[ ( x I ark - v J = 1 + v2

( X I a r2k - 2v ( x I ark + v2 = 1 + v2

69. With a = 100 and k = 1/10, Equation (19) in the text is

y = 50[(x/100)9/10 _ (xiI 00)1 1110].

The equation y'(x) = 0 then yields

(xI100)1110 = (9111)112,

so it follows that

Yrnax = 50[(9/11 )9/2 - (9/11 )1112] ~ 3.68 mi.

70. With k=wlvo=101500=1I10, Eq.(16)inthetextgives

In(v+~1+v2) = -l~lnx+c

where v = y I x. Substitution of x = 200, y = 150, v = 314 yields C = In (2.2001110), thence

which - after exponentiation and then multiplication of the resulting equation by xsimplifies as desired to y + ~ x2 + y2 = 2 (200X9 flo. If x = 0 then this equation yields y = 0, thereby verifying that the airplane reaches the airport at the origin.

71. (a) With a = 100 and k = wi "o = 214 = 112, the solution given by equation (19) in the textbook is y(x) = 50[(x/100)1/2 - (x/I 00)3/2]. The fact that yeO) = 0 means that this trajectory goes through the origin where the tree is located.

(b) With k= 4/4 = 1 the solution is y(x) = 50[1 - (x/I 00/] and we see that the

swimmer hits the bank at a distance yeO) = 50 north of the tree.

(e) With k= 6/4 = 1 the solution is y(x) = 50[(xI100rIl2 - (xiI 00)5/2]. This

trajectory is asymptotic to the positive x-axis, so we see that the swimmer never reaches the west bank of the river.

Section 1.6

63

72. The substitution y' = p, y" = p' in ry" = [1 + (y')2 ]3/2 yields

f rpdp = fdx

(1 + p2)3/2 .

Now integral formula #52 in the back of our favorite calculus textbook gives

and we solve readily for

2 (x - a)2

p = 2 ( )2

r - x-a

dy x-a

- = p = -r=====

dx /2 2'

\jr -(x-a)

whence

J (x-a)dx ~ 2 2

Y = 2 2 = - r -(x-a) +b,

~r -(x-a)

which finally gives (x - a)2 + (y - b)2 = r2 as desired.

CHAPTER 1 Review Problems

The main objective of this set of review problems is practice in the identification of the different types of first-order differential equations discussed in this chapter. In each of Problems 1-36 we identify the type of the given equation and indicate an appropriate method of solution.

1. If we write the equation in the form y' - (3/ x) y = x2 we see that it is linear with integrating factor p = x-3• The method of Section 1.5 then yields the general solution y = x3(C + In x).

2. We write this equation in the separable form y' / y2 = (x + 3) / x2. Then separation of variables and integration as in Section 1.4 yields the general solution

y = x / (3 - Cx - x In x).

3. This equation is homogeneous. The substitution y = vx of Equation (8) in Section 1.6 leads to the general solution y = x/(C -In x).

4. We note that D y ( 2xy3 + eX) = D X ( 3x2 y2 + sin y) = 6xy2, so the given equation is exact. The method of Example 9 in Section 1.6 yields the implicit general solution x2i + e" - cos y = c.

64 Chapter 1

5. We write this equation in the separable form y' 1 y2 = (2x - 3) 1 X4 • Then separation of variables and integration as in Section 1.4 yields the general solution

y = C exp[(l - x)/x3].

6. We write this equation in the separable form y' 1 y2 = (1- 2x) 1 x2 . Then separation of variables and integration as in Section 1.4 yields the general solution

y = x/(l +Cx+2xlnx).

7. If we write the equation in the form y' + (21 x)y = 11 x3 we see that it is linear with integrating factor p = x2• The method of Section 1.5 then yields the general solution y = x-2(C + In x).

8. This equation is homogeneous. The substitution y = vx of Equation (8) in Section 1.6 leads to the general solution y = 3Cx/(C _x3).

9. If we write the equation in the form y'+(2Ix)y = 6xJY we see that it is a Bernoulli equation with n = 112. The substitution v = y-1/2 ofEq. (10) in Section 1.6 then yields the general solution y = (x2 + Clxf

10. We write this equation in the separable form y' 1 ( 1 + y2) = 1 + x2. Then separation of variables and integration as in Section 1.4 yields the general solution

y = tan(C + x + x3/3).

11. This equation is homogeneous. The substitution y = vx of Equation (8) in Section 1.6 leads to the general solution y = xl (C - 3 In x).

12. We note that DA6x/+2y4) = Dx(9x2y2+8x/) = 18x/+8/, sothegiven equation is exact. The method of Example 9 in Section 1.6 yields the implicit general solution 3x2/ + 2x/ = C.

13. We write this equation in the separable form y' 1 y2 = 5x4 -4x. Then separation of variables and integration as in Section 1.4 yields the general solution

y = 1 1 (C + 2x2 - x5).

14. This equation is homogeneous. The substitution y = vx of Equation (8) in Section 1.6 leads to the implicit general solution i = x2 1 (C + 2 In x).

15. This is a linear differential equation with integrating factor p = e3x. The method of Section 1.5 yields the general solution y = (x3 + C)e-3x.

Review Problems

65

16. The substitution v = y - x, y = v + X, y' = v' + 1 gives the separable equation

v' + 1 = (y - X)2 = v2 in the new dependent variable v. The resulting implicit general solution of the original equation is y - x-I = C e2x(y - x + 1).

17. We note that Dy(ex+yeXY) = Dx(eY+xeXY) = eXY+xyexy, sothegivenequationis exact. The method of Example 9 in Section 1.6 yields the implicit general solution

eX + eY + eXY = C.

18. This equation is homogeneous. The substitution y = vx of Equation (8) in Section 1.6 leads to the implicit general solution / = Cx2(x2 - i).

19. We write this equation in the separable form y'li = (2 - 3xS) I x3. Then separation of variables and integration as in Section 1.4 yields the general solution

y = x2 I (x5 + Cx2 + 1).

20. If we write the equation in the form y' + (31 x)y = 3X-S/2 we see that it is linear with integrating factor p = x3• The method of Section 1.5 then yields the general solution y = 2x-3/2 + Cx-3•

21. If we write the equation in the form y' + (1/(x + 1)) y = 1/(x2 -1) we see that it is linear with integrating factor p = x + 1. The method of Section then 1.5 yields the general solution y = [C + In(x - 1)] I (x + 1).

22. If we write the equation in the form y' - (61 x)y = 12x3i13 we see that it is a Bernoulli equation with n = 1/3. The substitution v = y-2/3 ofEq. (10) in Section 1.6 then yields the general solution y = (2x4 + Cx2)3.

23. We note that Dy (eY + ycosx) = D; (xeY +sin x] = eY +cosx, so the given equation is exact. The method of Example 9 in Section 1.6 yields the implicit general solution

x eY + y sin x = C

24. We write this equation in the separable form y'l y2 = (1- 9 x2 ) I X3/2. Then separation of variables and inte~ration as in Section 1.4 yields the general solution

y = X1l2 I (6x2 + CXl 2 + 2).

25. If we write the equation in the form y' + (2 I( x + 1) ) Y = 3 we see that it is linear with integrating factor p = (x + 1)2. The method of Section 1.5 then yields the general solution y = x + 1 + C (x + 1)-2.

66

Chapter 1

12 112 113 18 115 1/2 the ei ti Th h d fE I 9'

x y - x y ,so e grven equa Ion IS exact. e met 0 0 xamp e III

Section 1.6 yields the implicit general solution 6x3/2l13 - IOx615il2 = C.

27. Ifwewritetheequationintheform y'+(lIx)y = -x2/13 we see that it is a Bernoulli equation with n = 4. The substitution v = y-3 ofEq. (10) in Section 1.6 then yields the general solution y = X-I(C + Inxr1l3.

28. If we write the equation in the form y' + (1 Ix) y = 2 e2x I x we see that it is linear with integrating factor p = x. The method of Section 1.5 then yields the general solution

y = [1(C + e2x).

29.

30.

31.

32.

33.

34.

35.

If we write the equation in the form y' + (1 1(2x + 1) ) y = (2x + 1 )1/2 we see that it is linear with integrating factor p = (2x + 1 yl2. The method of Section 1.5 then yields the general solutiony = (x2 + X + C)(2x + If1l2.

The substitution v = x + y, y = v - x, y' = v' -1 gives the separable equation

v' -1 = .j; in the new dependent variable v. The resulting implicit general solution of the original equation is x = 2(x + y)1I2 - 2 In[I + (x + y)1I2] + C.

dy I(y + 7) = 3x2 dx is separable; y' + 3x2 Y = 2Ix2 is linear.

dy l(y2 -1) = xdx is separable; y' + x y = x lis a Bernoulli equation with n = 3.

(3X2+2y2)dx+4xydy = Oisexact; y' = -t(3xly+2ylx)ishomogeneous.

1+3ylx.

(x + 3 y) dx + (3x - y) dy = 0 is exact; y' = IS homogeneous.

ylx-3

dy I(y + 1) = 2xdx I( x2 + 1 )is separable; y' - (2x l(x2 + 1)) y = 2x l(x2 + 1) is linear.

36.

dy I ( fY - y) = cot x dx is separable; y' + (cot x) Y = (cot x).JY is a Bernoulli equation with n = 112.

Review Problems

67