Review for Fundamentals of Engineering Exam

Ralph A. Wurbs, Ph.D., P.E.

Professor of Civil Engineering Texas A&M University

Fluid Mechanics

• Fluid Properties

• Fluid Statics

• Fluid Dynamics

• Fluid Measurements

EIT Review Manual by Michael R. Lindeburg, P.E.

Professional Publications, Inc. 1 997 -1 998 Edition

Topic VII: Fluid Mechanics Chapter 22 Fluid Properties Chapter 23 Fluid Statics Chapter 24 Fluid Dynamics Chapter 25 Fluid Measurements

and Similitude

/7 /-

states of matter - solid

- fluid

• liquid

• gas

A fluid is a substance that deforms continuously under the action of an applied shear stress.

Fluid Properties

density

specific volume specific weight specific gravity pressure

stress

viscosity surface tension capillarity

j)

Mass and Force Units

dimension:

mass

force

Systeme International (SI) units:

kilogram (kg) newton (N)

British Gravitational System units:

slug pound

English Engineering System units:

pound mass (Ibm) pound force (lbf)

Newton's Second Law:

force = mass· acceleration

F

m·a

weight

mass . acceleration of gravity

W = m·g

standard acceleration of gravity

g = 9.807 m/s2 = 32.174 ft/s2

SI System

w - m 9

1 N - 1 Kg.m/s2

British Gravitational System

m = wig

1 slug = Ib I (ft/s2) = Ib.s2/ft

English Engineering System

F

m a I gc

where: 9c = 32.174 ft.lbm/lbt.s '

1 lbf =

1 lbm x 32. 174 f t / S 2

3 2 . 1 7 4 f t x 1 bm / 1 b f x S 2

Density (p) and Specific Weight (y)

p = mass / unit volume

y - weight / unit volume

SI and British Gravitational System:

y = pg

English Engineering System:

For water at temperature of 10°C or 50°F:

p - 1,000 kg/m3 - 1 .94 sluqs/ft '

- 62.4 Ibm/ft3

y - 9.80 kN/m3 - 62.4 Ib/ft3

- 62.4 Ibf/ft3

Specific Gravity (S.G.)

The specific gravity of a fluid is the ratio

of the density of the fluid to the density

of water at a specified temperature and

pressure.

S.G. = Pfluid / Pwater

Absolute and Gage Pressure absolute pressure =

gage pressure + atmospheric pressure Pabs = Pgage + Patm

Q)

10-

:J en en Q)

10-

a..

~l
A
-
d. ....
~,
«
Q) gage pressure A
I..-
:J
en
en
Q) _tlocal atmospheric pressu
l..-
e.
Q) gage pressure B (vacuum)
....... B_ ,
:J ,
-
0 - H
en
..0 absolute pressure B
co
rabsolute zero pressure re

(complete vaccuum)

Stress

stress (t) is force per unit area

• normal stress

• tangential (shear) stress

Viscosity

The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to flow when acted upon by an external force such as a pressure gradient or gravity.

Newton's Law of Viscosity

'"( dv/dy J.! -

'"( == J.! (dv/dy)

- shear stress

- velocity gradient

absolute or dynamic viscosity

v - f.l/p

v - kinematic viscosity m2/s or ft2/S

J-L - dynamic viscosity N·s/m2 or lb-s/ft"

p - density

kq/m" or slug or lbm/ft '

__ -

\ :)

For water at temperature of of 10°C or 50°F:

J.l = 1.307x10-3 N·s/m2 = 2. 735x1 0-5 Ib·s/ft2 v = 1 .306x1 0-6 m2/s

= 1 .41 Ox1 0-5 ft2/s

Surface Tension

Surface tension is property used to describe a phenomena observed at the interface between a gas and liquid where intermolecular cohensive forces form an imaginary film capable of resisting tension.

Capillarity

Capillary action is caused by surface tension between a liquid and solid surface. Water rises in a thin-bore tube.

If

Fluid Statics

Hydrostatic pressure is the pressure a fluid exerts on an immersed object or on container walls.

hydrostatic pressure distribution

Fluid Statics

F

pA

• 1

.2

P yh

where:

P 1 pressure at elevation z1

P 2 pressure at elevation z2

h z2 - z1 = head

p pressure for head h

y specific weight

F force

A area

Example: What is the pressure 1 0 feet

below the surface of a swimming pool?

p == yh == (62.4Ib/ft3) (10ft) == 624 Ib/ft2

/7 c

»-r-'

Example: The tank of water has a 3-m

column of gasoline (S.G. == 0.73) above

it. Atmospheric pressure is 101 kPa.

Compute the pressure on the bottom of

the tank.

(

-,-
~l
gasoline hg - 3
S.G. ==0.73) -
.. ,
- - - -
J
hw - 2m
-
,,. m

water (y==9.81 kN/m3)

,) \

/:..-_.-;,

pressure at bottom of tank

Pgage = Ywhw + yghg

- (9.81 kN/m3) (2m)

+ (0.73) (9.81 kN/m3) (3m) - 41.1 kN/m2

Pabs = Pgage + Patm

- 41 kN/m2 + 101 kN/m2

- 142 kN/m2

- 142 kPa

Example: Use the manometer

measurements to compute the pressure

in the pipe.

water

1 .5 ft

,

-'--

2.0 ft

mercury (S.G. - 13.6)

P pipe + (62.4 Ib/ft3) (1. 5ft)

- (1 3. 6) (62.4 I b 1ft 3) (2.0 ft) == 0

P pipe == 1,604 Ib/ft2

"/J' , '~]

-

Forces on Submerged Surfaces Plane Surface

F = yheA magnitude

Ip - Ie = i, / (leA) location Curved or Plane Surface

(vertical projection) (weight of fluid)

Buoyant Force

F = y (volume displaced)

Example: Compute the magnitude and

location of the resultant force.

water
E he
LO 2.0 m
'" ~ ~ /
/
•
N ~ moment of inertia Ie = bh3/36

F = yheA

Ip - Ie = Ie / (leA)

A = 0.5 (2m)(1.5m) = 1.5 m2

he = 2.75 m - [ (2/3) (1.5m) ] sin 45° = 2.043 m

Ie = he / sin 45° = 2.043 m / 0.7071

= 2.889 m

moment of inertia .I, = bh3/36

I, = (2m)(1.5m)3/36 = 0.1875 m"

F = yheA

= (9.80 kN/m3)(2.043 m)(1.5 m2)

= 30.0 kN

I p - I, = I e I (I eA )

= 0.1875 m4/~2.889m) (1.5m2)]

= 0.0433 m

Ip = 0.0433 m + 2.889 m = 2.932 m

Example: Compute the force on the

curved corner for a unit width.

10 m

water

quarter circle

FH - yheA

- (9.80 kN/m3) (11 .5m) (3m2)

- 338 kN

Fv - yV volume (V) -

(10m) (3m) (1m) + (1/4)" (3m)2 (1m) = 37.07 m3

Fv = (9.80 kN/m3)(37.07 m3) = 363 kN F = (FH 2 + Fv 2)0.5 = (3382 + 3632)°.5

= 496 kN

Laws of Buoyancy and Flotation

I. A body immersed in a fluid is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the fluid displaced.

2. A floating body displaces its own weight of the liquid in which it floats.

Example: Compute the force in the rope.

1 ft

H 1 ft into paper

-- -l;ft

wood _r

(y = 40 Ib/ft3)

3 ft

rope

/1 _)

buoyant force (FB) =

y (volume displaced)

FB - (62.4 Ibs/ft3) (2 ft3) - 124.8 Ibs

weight of wood (W)

W = (40 Ibs/ft3) (2 ft3) - 80 Ibs

FB - W - Frape = 0

124.8 Ibs - 80lbs - Frape = 0

Frape = 44.8 Ibs

.-j '-I A, /

,,'_' ___ '

Alternative Solution

The buoyant force (FB) on a submerged

body is the difference between the

I

vertical component of pressure force on

its underside and upper side.

or F - y V

F B == ( 6 2 . 4 I b / ft 3 ) (5 ft) ( 1 ft 2 )

- (62. 4 I b / ft 3) (3 ft) (1 ft 2 )

== 1 24.8

Fluid Dynamics

Conservation Laws mass

energy momentum

Flow in pressure conduits Flow in open channels

Conservation of Mass

(Continuity Equation)

For incompressible fluids (P1 = P2)

A1V1 = A2V2 Q1 = 02

Example: Three kN/s of water flows through the pipeline reducer. Determine the flow rate and velocity in the 300 mm and 200 mm pipes.

~

300mm

4~

~~ 200 mrn

Y1 = Y2 = 9.8 kN/m3
Y - pg
-
w - mg
-
• P1A1 V1 P2A2V2
m - -
- -
• Y1A1 V1 Y2A2V2
W - -
- - Q - wly = 3 kN/s I 9.8 kN/m3 Q - 0.306 m3/s

v = Q/A

A = 0.25nD2

V1 - 0.306 m3/s 10.25n(0.3)2

V1 = 4.33 rn/s

V2 - 0.306 m3/s 10.25n(0.2)2

V2 = 9.74m/s

Conservation of Momentum

(Impulse-Momentum Equation)

LFx - pO(V2x-V1X) LFy pO(V2y-V1y) LFz - pQ(V2z-V1z)

Example: Water is flowing at 0.884 m3/s through a 15 cm diameter pipe, that has a 900 bend. What is the reaction on the water in the z-direction in the bend?

y

__ ~.~r---------- __ ,y-----

x

p == 1 000 kq/rn:'

v == Q/A

A == 0.25nD2

V - 0.884 m3/s I 0.25n(0.15 m)2 V == 50 m/s

IFz == pQ(V2z-V1z)

Fz == (1000 kg/m3)(0.884 m3/s)(0-50 m/s)

Fz == - 44,200 kq-rn/s

Fz == - 44,200 N

Reaction == 44,200 N == 44.2 kN

L_J.C)

Conservation of Energy

(Bernoulli and Energy Equations)

total head = z + p + V2
-
Y 2g
ZI + PI + v; Z2 + P2 v;
- +
-
y 2g Y 2g P V2 P V;

Z + _1 + I + h = Z + _2 + + hL

I Y 2g P 2 Y 2g

l} \

Pitot Tube

h = Ps s 'Y

v2 2g

v, o,

Po

~ ~2 ~ V;2

ZI +-+-==Z2 +~+-

r 2g r 2g

Fa t; V2

O+~+O==O +-+_

r r 2g

Fa Ps V2

---==--

r r 2g Fa i;

---==h

r r

V2 h==-

2g

v

(2gh)o.5

Example: The height of water in the pitot tube is measured to be 7.3 cm. What is the velocity at that point in the flow.

atmospheric

v == (2gh)o.5

V [2(9.81 m/s2)(O.073 m)]O.5

V == 1.2 rn/s

slope of energy line S hL/L

v.2 ~ energy -line Ilh

1
2g' hYdraUlicgrad ,. 'r L
, --.: l v2
i-- )
,~ . e Ine 2
, r 2g
-
PI 1"-
P2
-
Y -
Y
.
pipe " -
- '-
If ,.l
- - -
- .~ Z2
Zl
horizontal datum
, " pipe length (L)

... 1

head = energy per unit weight

v; P2

- Z2 +

2g Y

Pressure and Pressure Head

p = yh

h = ply

for p - 1 psi (lb/inch2)

h - (I Ib/in2) (144 in2/ft2) I 62.4 Ib/ft3 - 2.31 ft

Pressures in municipal water distribution systems are typically 60 - 80 psi

(1 39 - 1 85ft).

faucet pressures > 5 psi (11 .5 ft) main pressures > 35 psi (80.8 ft)

AIL
grade line ~ b
hp hydraulic J · (v}
-
energy line
"
2g
~ ~ v2
1
~r 2g P2

411- -
Y
PI
-
Y
pump
1"
I \ L
(': ~

n
ZI Z2
1 horizontal datum ,,, energy line

P v2 P v2

Z + 2 + 1 +h =Z + _2 + 2 +h

1 Y 2g p 2 Y 2g L

Darcy - Weisbach Equation

h = f(L)(V2)

L D 2g

hL = head loss due to pipe friction

(feet or meters)

f friction factor (dimensionless)

L length of pipe (ft or m)

D pipe diameter (ft or m)

V flow velocity (ft/sec or m/sec)

g gravitational acceleration constant

(32.2 ft/sec2 or 9.81 rn/sec/)

roughness (ft or m)

e/D = relative roughness (dimensionless)

Lj7

Table 24.1 Specific Roughness of Typical Materials

E
material ft m
riveted steel 0.003-{).03 0.9-9.0
concrete 0.001-{).01 0.3-3.0
galvanized iron 0.00085 0.25
commercial steel
or wrought iron 0.00015 0.046
drawn tubing 0.000005 0.0015 JLv2 h --f - 2Dg

Figure 24.6 Moody Friction Factor Chart

0.09
0.08
0.07
0.06
0.05
0.04
..._
.:-
0 0.03
-
o
co
....
c 0.025
0
.;::;
o
'r;
....
0.02 0.015

0.01 0.009 0.008

I 11111 I I.
I 111111 1 turbulent zone
I transition
~~f-zone 1\
I \
I I
~ I \ ,
Oi I
~. -\ t--
?
~ --
~
0 -
H~-
...... \ I I---
H-II \ <,
~Vr. \ ~ '-... --
r": r-, <, I
~ <,
,~
.'-,;
<,
,
::-- ..._
t--.: t--
<,
............ .......
&0 ,,,,,,,- <,
00::"'::::
OtJ$ <. ["
,00 r::::::::::: t- I
<>'& -, I
r-- I
~ r-, ""'l- i
~ 'I---I-
N ~I-
l-
f-._.
~ 34571 34571 34571 34571 3457

103 2 x 103 104 2 X 104 105 2 X 105 106 2 X 106 107 2 X 107 108

Reynolds number, Re

vD Re=- 1/

0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.015
"'Ie
0.01 ul
0.008 (f)
<lJ
0.006 c
s:
OJ
:J
0.004 0
....
<lJ
>
0.002 +--
(1)
£:
0.001
0.0008
0.0006
0.0004
0.0002
0.0001
0.00005
0.00001 Oarcy-Weisbach Example: For a discharge (Q) of 1 .0 ft3/s, compute the head loss in 1 ,500 feet of

new 6-inch diameter cast iron pipe (E = 0.00085

ft). Assume a water temperature of 60° F.

A = 1/4" 02 = 1/4" (6/12)2 = 0.196 ft2 V = Q/A = 1.0 ft3/s /0.196 ft2 = 5.09 ft/s v = 1.21 7 x 1 0 -5 ft2 / s

N = VD = (S. 09 f t / s) (0. Sf t) = 2. 09.105

R U 1.217 · 105 ft2/s

E/O = 0.00085 ft / 0.5 ft = 0.0017

f - 0.023
-
hL f L V2
-
-
D 2g
hL - 0.023 ( 1, SO 0 ft )
0.5ft - 27.8 ft

(S.09ft/S)2 2 (32 . 2ft/ S2)

4(1

Minor Losses

exit/entrance condition

C value

exit, sharp

exit, protruding

entrance, sharp

entrance, rounded entrance, gradual, smooth

1.0 0.8 0.5 0.1 0.04

Example: A 6-inch diameter 500 ft long steel pipe (E = 0.00015 ft) conveys flow between two reservoirs which have a difference in water surface elevation of 30 ft. The pipe exit and entrance are square edge. Compute the flow rate.

"- 30 f!_[

-
P v2

Z + 1 1 P2

1 - + =Z + +

y 2g 2 Y

30 + 0 + 0 = 0 + 0 + 0 + hL hL = 30 ft

Pipe Friction

s/D = 0.00015 ft I 0.5 ft = 0.0003

assume f - 0.016
-
hL = f ( L) v2
D 2g
hL=0.016 ( 500 ) V2 16 V2
-
-
0.5 2g 2g Minor Losses (entrance and exit)

h = O. 5 V2 + 1. 0 V2 - 1. 5 V2

~ 2g 2g 2g

Compute V for assumed f

h = 16

L

V2 + 1.5 2g

- 17 .5

V2

= 30 ft 2g

V = 10.5 ft/s

Check f

N = VD _ (10.5 ft/s) (0.5 ft)

R v 1.22 · 10-5 ft2/s

= 4.3 x 1 05

f = 0.0164

Compute Q

Q = VA = (10.5ft/s) (0.196ft2) - 2.06 ft3/s

s3

Example: - Assume a pump is added to the previous example and the flow direction is reversed. What pump head is required for a discharge of 2.0 cfs.

-- .. - 30 f_![


pump A = 1 14 tr D 2 = 1 14 tr (0. 5 ft) 2 = 0.1963ft2

V = Q/A = 2 cfs 10.1963 ft2 = 1 0.2 ft/s

from previous problem:

h = 16 v2 + 1. 5 V2 = 1 7 . 5 V2

L 2g 2g 2g

hL = 17.5 ( (10.2 ft/S)2 ) = 28.2 ft 2(32.2 ft/S2)

P v2 P v2

Z +_1 + 1 +h = Z +~ + 2 +h

1 Y 2g P 2 Y 2g L

o + 0 + 0 + hp = 30 + 0 + 0 + 28.2

hp = 58.2 feet

Power and Energy

energy - ability to do work

work - force through a distance

power - rate of transferring energy or work per unit of time

power = energy/time = (weight/time)(energy/weight)

p = y Q h

units of power

kilowatt (kw) - kN· rn/s horsepower (hp) - 550 ft·lb/s 1 hp = 0.746 kw

P = yQh/1]

P - power (kw = kN·m/s or ft·lb/s) y - unit weight (kN/m3 or Ib/ft3) Q - discharge (m3 Is or ft3 Is)

h - head (m or ft)

f] - efficiency

brake horsepower - input horsepower delivered to the pump shaft

yQhp

BHP =

55011

horsepower (hp) - 550 ft· Ibis

Example: Determine the horsepower required for the pump of the previous problem, assuming the pump efficiency is 75%.

hp 58.2 ft

f} 0.75

BHP -

BHP = (62.4 lb/ ft 3) (2.0 ft3 / s) (58.2 ft) ( 5 5 0 f t~: / s ) ( 0 . 7 5 )

1 7 . 6 horsepower

C:S".·

) . )

....... - _.,

Example: Compute the discharge rate that causes the pressure to drop to vapor pressure. The pipe between the reservoir and pump has a length of 1 ,000 ft, diameter of 3 feet, and friction factor (f) of 0.02. Neglect minor losses. For a water temperature of 80°F , the vapor pressure (Pv) is 0.51 psia.

atmospheric pressure

f

10ft

t

P atm = 13.8 psia = 1 ,987 Ib/ft2 Pv = 0.51 psia = 73.4 Ib/ft2

y = 62.22 Ib/ft3

hL = f(L/O} (V2/2g)

hL = (0.02)(1000ft/3ft)(V2/[2(32.2 ft/s2)]

hL = 0.119V2

~atm== 1,987 Ib/ft2

CD

I.--'--~-_-

pump

Pv == 73.4 Ib/ft2

f

10 ft

t

P V2 P V2

Z +--.J:+ 1 =Z +~+ 2 +h

1 Y 2g 2 Y 2g L

0+

p P V2

atm + 0 = Z + _y + 2 + h

Y P Y 2g L

1,987 lb/ft2 = 10ft + 62.221b/ft3

73.41b/ft2 + V_2 _

62.221b/ft3 2(32.2 ft/S2)

+ 0.119 V2

v = 13.2 ft/s

Q = VA = (13.2 ft/s) (7.069 ft2) Q = 93.3 ft3/s

fob

atmospheric pressure

vapor pressure 2

1

2

P V2 P2 V2 h

Z+~+ l=Z+_+ + L

1 Y 2g 2 Y 2g

2

Patm +0 =Z + Pv + V2 +hL

o + y P Y 2g

Darcy Weisbach

hf == f(L/D)(1/2A2g)Q2 K == f(L/D)(1/2A2g)

Minor Losses

ru == C (Q2/2gA2) K == C/2gA2

FOR PIPES IN SERIES

1

2

3

o

01

+

+

FOR PIPES IN PARALLEL

1

2

+

Example: Compute the discharge.

Neglect the minor losses.

length (L) = diameter (D)

Entrance loss

30 ft

CD

500 ft 2.0 ft

€ = 0.00085

€/D = 0.00085/0 €/D1 = 0.000425 €/D2 0.000850 €/D3 = 0.000283

estimated t t1 == 0.0170 t2 == 0.0190 t3 == 0.0160

A == 1/4" 02

A1 == 3. 142 tt2 A2 == 0.7854 tt2 A3 = 7.069 tt2

hL == f (LID) (02/2gA2) _ K = F(L/O)(02/2gA2)

K1 = 0.00669

K2 0.38259

K3== 0.001491

~.

l/ ~)

Q = Q1 = Q2 = Q3

hL = hL 1 + hL2 + hL3 = 30 ft K1 Q2 + K2Q2 + K3Q2 = 30 ft

0.00669 Q2 + 0.38259 Q2 + 0.001491 Q2 = 30 ft

Q = 8.76 cfs

Check the original estimates of friction factor (f):

v = Q/A

V 1 = 8. 76 ft3 I s I 3. 1 42 ft2 = 2. 79 ftl s

V 2 = 8. 76 ft3 lsi O. 7 8 54 ft2 = 1 1 . 1 5 tt/ s V3 = 8.76 ft3/s I 7.069 ft2 = 1.24 ft/s

NR = DV/v

NR = 4.57 x 105 NR = 9.14 x 105 NR = 3.05 x 105

f = .017

f = .019

f = .017

Example: Compute the discharge in each pipe. Neglect minor losses.

K2 = 1.663

K1 = 0.359

K3 = 7.649

K-f(L)( 1 )

D 2gA2

25 ft

Pipe L(feet} D(inch} A(ft2} f K=f (LlD) (ll2gA2)
1 3,000 16 1. 396 0.020 0.359
2 3,000 12 0.785 0.022 1. 663
3 2,000 8 0.349 0.020 7.649
4 1,000 16 1. 396 0.020 0.120 ~)7

01 = 02 + 03

Q1 = 2.14503+Q3 Q1 = 3.145 Q3

Q3 = 0.318°3

hL = hL1 + hL4 + hL3

25 = K1Q12 + K4Q42 + K3Q32

25 = K1Q12 + K4Q42 + K3(0.318Q1)2 25 - 1 .252 012

Q1 - 4.47 cfs

Q4 = 01 = 4.47 cfs

Q3 = 0.318 Q1 = 0.318 (4.47 cfs) = 1 .42 cfs

Q2 = 2.145 Q3 = 2.145 (1.42 cfs) = 3.05 cfs

EXAMPLE: Two reservoirs are connected by a 850 feet long 6-inch diameter pipe (f = 0.020). A pump with the given characteristic curves is used to lift water from one reservoir to the other. Determine the discharge rate.

T 100 ft

t

pump ~----()---------~~------~

/80 qo
160 80
140 ~6) 70
~.
,~ -
- /20 o~ GO ?P.
....., ~ ;o~
Q.) -
Q.) CJ >-
'+- /00 c: CJ,. 50 o
- .~ 1-
c
"0 .CJ Q.)
co 80 ..;:: 40 o
Q.) '+-..
<2> .-
J: '+-
'+-
<;0 30 w
10 20
20 /0
0
0 ZOO 400 600 BOO /000
Discharge Capacity (gpm)
C:) cl ..
-r- -
1 4~ Isz
,Ir _ ..
- -
pump
...
- 2

P v2 P v2

Z +~ +_1 +h =Z +__.3. +_1 +h

1 Y 2g P 2 Y 2g L

Z1 + 0 + 0 + hp = Z2 + 0 + 0 + hL

hp (Z2 - Z1) + hL

hp ll.z + hL

System Head Curve

hp - /1z + hL

hp - /1z + f(L/D) (02/2gA2)

h == 100 + 0.020(85010.5)

p (02/2(32.2)(0.19635)2)

h == 100 + 13.69402

p

0 0 h
(gpm) (cfs) (ft)
0 0 100.0
200 0.445 102.7
400 0.891 110.9
500 1 .114 117.0
600 1.336 124.4
700 1.559 133.3
800 1.782 143.5
900 2.004 155.0
1000 2.227 167.9 180 qo
160 80

140 70
...-..
...-.. /20 (£;0 ~
~ .._.
CD '-5'0sten1 >-
CD /00 50
~ o
.._. C
-0 CD
co 80 40 .-
o
CD ._
J: ~
'+-"
(00 30 ui 40

20

20

/0

o

o 200 400 600 800 1000

Discharge Capacity (gpm)

Q = 630 gpm

l] = 83 %

-1 .. r) . /

,Ii .. ~-

Open Channel Flow Flow Classification

• uniform - flow characteristics (discharge, velocity, depth) are constant along the length of channel

• nonuniform (varied) - flow characteristics vary along the length of channel

- gradually varied

- rapidly varied

• steady - flow characteristics are constant over time

• unsteady - flow characteristics change with time

'~1~)

Uniform Flow

1. The depth, cross-sectional area, velocity, and discharge at every section are constant.

2. The energy line, water surface, and channel bottom are parallel. Their slopes are equal.

normal depth (Yn) - depth at which uniform flow occurs.

Manning Formula

English Units

V = 1.486 R2/3S1/2 n

Q = 1. 486 AR2/3 Sl/2 n

Metric Units

V = l:.R2/3S1/2 n

Q discharge (ft3 Is I m3 Is)

V QI A = velocity (ft/s I m/s)

A cross-sectional area (ft2 ,m2)

R AlP = hydraulic radius (ft. m)

S slope

Z ARL/3 = section factor

n roughness coefficient

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Geometric Elements of Channel Section

example: trapezoidal section

~ T ~I

6~

,. 20 ft ~I
top width T = 2[ 2(6 ftl] + 20 ft - 44 ft

flow area

A = (44ft + 20ft) (6ft) = 192 ft2 2

wetted perimeter r-----------

P = 20 ft + 21(6 ff + (12 ft)2 = 46.8 ft

hydraulic radius

R = AlP = 192 ft2/46.8 ft - 4.10 ft

hydraulic depth

D = AIT = 192 ft2 / 44 ft - 4.36 ft

Example: Compute the discharge in a concrete (n = 0.015) channel with the previous cross-section and slope of 0.10%.

Q = (1 .486/n) AR2/3 S 1/2

Q = (1.486/0.0 1 5) ( 1 92 ft2 )( 4. 10ft) 2/3 ( 0 .00 1 ) 1 /2

Example: Compute the normal depth and

velocity.

Q = 400 cfs S - 0.0016

n = 0.025 j ~ L11

Z Z

I. 1-80 2/3 1/2

Q = on AR S

2/3 Q n 4()O (O.G25)

AR = t1a;;.9'/z = j,18{;,(O.OO/b)l/Z_

AP2j3 = /68.2..

/t== y~btT) == y?2()-f2ff2(2YL)~ '1(20+2/) p == b -1-.2 {y2f(2Y)Z =20+2 JYZ+(2)1)2 =;CO + ~472 Y

R==fl/p =- Y(20+-ZY2

20 +4; 1J2Y

Z/-3

AR :=:: /08.Z

. Y{2D+2Y) 2/3

'I (201-.2 y) :Go + L/-~Lf72 )I = /&'8. Z

by -erial t:/#d C?rrC) ,

y:=: x: ==: 3.30 ft-

n

V= Q:=: Q

A Y(20f2Y)

400

v = 3.30(20f2(3~30») ~ 4, ~0 f-/;/:S