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HOLGER SCHUTKOWSKT Prwiat fer Anthropologie der Universitat Gottingen, 1D-3400 Gottingen, Germany KEY WORDS talfieids, Pelvis, Mandible ABSTRACT Ancient cemeteries number of infants and young children, Ss however, could rarely historic sample of sixty-one children of known see ond distinctive traits London (37 boys, 24 girls), sexually Sex determination, Children’s skeletons, Spi. {fun are presented for morphognostic diagnosis. Beside, otf features, boys a narrower and deeper sciatic notch than girls. Mox hie study allow individuals between birth and five yon ot ‘age to be success Sex in 70-90% of the cases, fully allocated to either ‘Morphognostic determination of sex in an. cient human skeletal remains is generally accepted as an efficient and sufficiently pre, cise diagnostic method when adult individa. als are involved. However, there is a lack of liable methods for determining the sex of children’s skeletons, although various hinte concerning sex differences in the immature skeleton can be derived from anatomical and obstetrical investigations. As early as 1876, Fehling reported on sexually distinc. tive features of the fetal and neonate pelvis (see also Verneau, 1875), His observations on the differences in shape of the greater Sciatic notch and the pubic angle were later Supported by several investigators (Thom. son, 1899; Villemin, 1987; Souri, 1959; Kho. myakov et al., 1986), Sex-discriminant char. acters were also described for the immature sacrum (Happel, 1922), Weaver (1980) was the first to introduce a qualitative criterion (auriewlar surface elevation) for anthropo- logical diagnosis of the sex of immature sel. etons. Apart from pelvic features, no further hints of sexually distinctive structures that may serve as diagnostic criteria in children's skeletons have been reported in the literature (ef. Schutkowski, 1986, 1990 for review © 1980 WILEY-LIss, Ne of the traits presented in 6 1988 Wiley-Liss, ne Moreover, only those traits are diagnosti- cally suitable that can be applied to the iso. lated skeletal element. Such pelvic features as the pubic angle, which require more than one bone for an evaluation of shape, ure ren, dered useless for anthropological purpos by postmortem disarticulation of the skele. ton. ‘The vast majority of the literature on mor- phognostie sexual dimorphism of subadults refers to fetal and perinatal individuals Reference data on skeletal sexual dimor. Phism are lacking for most immature age Sroups, particularly those which are gener. ally represented in larger quantities in his: toric cemeteries. This study presents dia. ‘gnostic criteria of sex derived from a sample of children of known sex and age, mostly between birth and five years, MATERIALS AND METHODS This investigation is based on children’s skeletons from the “Coffin Plate Sample” of Known sex and age, It is part of a historic skeletal series from Christ Church, Spi.talfields, London, stored at the Natural His tory Museum, London. The “Coffin Plate Sample” allowed individual identification from metal plates still attached to the cof- fins (Adams and Reeve, 1987; Molleson 1990), Sixty-one individuals (24 girls, 37 boys) were suitable for examination. The distribution of age and sex, however, shows that individuals older than fi are clearly under d The evaluation of sex-typieal_morphognostic traits therefore focused on children between birth and five years of age. Diagenetie loss of substance during the inhumation period did not allow an evaluation of the traits listed beiow in all individuals, so that the results are based on subsamples with slightly dif- fering numbers of individuals ‘see Results) Among those skeletal elements regularly preserved in the Spitalfields sample, sexu- ally distinctive morphognostic features ap- peared most clearly in the mandible and the iljum. Other elements such as the pars basi- laris of the occipital, the petrous temporal, or the long bones turned out not to be diag- nostic of sex by morphognostic examination, typical appearances of different traits in girls and boys for the mandible and ilium can be described as follows: Mandible (Fig. 1) Protrusion of the chin region. Girls. The chin region is not prominent and the mandible does not show distinct ele- vated rough structures at the side of the me cian sagittal line. The surface of the bone is rather smooth. Seen from the top, the men- 1 scHUTKOWS Fig. 1. Sexeypical appearances of morpho ite in dhe mandible uf boys and gies a the Sp ids "Cain Plate Sample a: Protrsion ofthe vion: br Shape ofthe anterior dental arcade: eB Sion ofthe goni vyion se tet tal protrusion appears faint and narrow and. Boys. The chin region is more prominent To either side of the midsagittal lane. the mandible shows slightly elevated ro structures. which fade distally into shallos indentations. Seen from the top, the protr- sion is generally wide and angular agai the mandibular corpus, Shape of the anterior dental arcade. Girls. The alveoli of the front teeth con: form to a rounded contour. The canines nor mally do not protrude in the dental arch, whi ita roughly parabolie shape. Boys. The dental arcade is wider anter orly. ‘The alveoli of the canines protrude slightly against the adjacent molars, so that the dental arch usually appears U-shaped rather than parabolic Eversion of the gonion region. Girls. The outer surfaces of the horizontal rami of the mandible are aligned with the gonion region Viewed from the frontal aspect of dible, the gonion areas are everted, ding slightly beyond the general sur- face of the mandible’s horizontal rami. lium (Fig. 2A~C) Angle of the greater sciatic notch (Fig. 2). Orientation: The bone is viewed from the ventral aspect and positioned in a way that«hallow votrude that shaped ith th pet of verted. Al sur SEX DETERMINATION OF SKELETONS. | Fig. 2. A: Sextypical appearances of morphogno trait m the ium of boys nnd girls of the Spitalfields “Cofin Plate Sample” Venton! aspect of the bone a Angle of the greater sciatic notsh by Arch eiterion fal appearances of rite in the hum of bays an gil of the Spitalfields “Coin Plate Sample" Doreal aspect of the bane: Depth a the greter sciatic notch (ee text) The ‘lack bar represents an imaginary reference line to help fvaluate this trait. C: Sexctypical appearance of iliac ‘rest of bys and gits according tothe Spitalfields "Col in Plate Sample" Top view of the iin crest, di Curva ire ofthe ae crst see text), The blac ba represents sn imaginary referene line st the darsal surface of the tune ta help evaluate this rat 201 the anterior side of the greater seiatie notch is aligned vertically. Girls. The notch de 2907 >90", Boys. The greater sciatic noteh is nar- rower and describes an angle of ~90°. Depth of the greater sciatic notch ig. 2B). This trait directly corresponds to the rela. tive width of the angle of the greater sciatic notch, Orientation: Viewed from the dorsal as. pect, the spina iliaca posterior inferior and the dorsal rim of the acetabular region point downwards in a line, Girls, The notch between the spina iliaca posterior inferior and the acetabulum joint portion is usually shallow. Boys. The notch between the spina iliaca posterior inferior and the acetabulum joint portion is usually deep, rch” criterion (Fig, 2A). Orientation: as for “angie of the greater sciatie notch.” Girls. The “arch” formed by drawing a cranial extension from the vertical side of the greater sciatic notch crosses the auricu- lar surface, Boys. The cranial extension of the vertical side of the greater sciatic notch leads into the lateral rim of the auricular surface. Curvature of the iliac erest (Fig. 2C). Orientation: The ilium is viewed from the top and the dorsal surface is aligned hori zontally. Girls. Viewed from the top, the crest shows a faint S-shape. Boys. The curvature of the iliae crest is more pronounced, exhibiting a marked ‘S-shape when viewed from the top, The significance of differences between girls and boys for the investigated traits was tested by means of the y*-tast for 2 » 2 con- tingency tables (Sachs, 1972), y“-approxi- mation was considered appropriate since a calculation of the expected frequencies re- vealed values >5, Yates's correction was ap- plied for smail cell sample size202 RESULTS ‘The evaluation of morphognostic sexual ferences in the mandible was carried out for the traits "protrusion of the chin region”, ‘shape of the anterior dental arcade”, and “eversion of the gonion area”. The chin and gonion area exhibit marked sexual dimor- phism in the adult skeleton (e.g., Krogman and Igcan, 1986; Sjevold, 1988; Herrmann et al., 1990), In the “Coffin Plate Sample”, these areas showed sex differences between boys and girls most clearly for individuals from 0-5 years of age ‘Within each sex, however, there was con- siderable variation in each of the sex-corre- lated traits, leading to a certain overlap of sex-typical appearances, Nevertheless, sig- nificant sexual differences become apparent when all individuals scored the same way for a particular trait are broken down into boys and girls. Table 2 shows the distribu- tion of traits according to age, Percentage rn below refer to the total subsat ple for the respective trait Above all, a prominent and angular chin and a wide an- terior dental arcade can be significantly at- tributed to boys (94.1% and 82.6% of the s}, whereas these traits have a clearly lower occurrence in girls’ mandibles. Even the eversion of the gonion region allows an accuracy of 73.9% for the boys’ subsample Tn contrast, an allocation of appearances which seemed typical for girls does not pro- duce significant results. It is evident that the selected traits clearly distinguish male but fail to allocate girls reliably rable 3), When marked differences are ob- served in the frequency of traits between the ‘sexes, they are continuously shown through- out all age groups investigated and are not ced to certain aye classes. he few individuals of more than five ‘years of age did not exhibit the sex-typical distribution of shape characters. This is very likely to be due to the small sample. The observations are therefore not further dis- cussed here. In the case of the ilivm, morphognostic sexual differences were described by the traits “angle of the greater sciatic notch”, “depth of the greater sciatic notch’, “arch criterion", and “curvature of the iliac crest.” HL SCHUTKOWSKL TABLE 2 Distribution of sextypieal shape conditions ‘he mandible for eve aed ‘Spal e a Anterioe dental arcade wide Aanerir dental arcade rounded oni nat evrted At least for the first three traits a high dis crimination capacity is reported in the adult skeleton (e.g., Novotny, 1972; Krogman and Igean, 1986; Herrmann et al., 1990), In the “Coffin Plate Sample”, these characters re veal a clear sexual dimorphism between boys and girls. ‘Table 4 shows the distribution of sex-typi- cal appearances in boys and girls for the Spi- talfields sample according to age. The re ported pereentage values refer to the total subsample for the respective trait. In all four criteria, sex-typical shapes can be sig- nificantly attributed to either sex (Table 5: ‘Traits connected with the greater sciatic notch are the best discriminators: 95.0% of‘SEX DETERMINATION OF SKELETONS 203 TABLE 3, Percentage ve end et. po ribuion of mandibater traits in Subsarpteof ages 0-5 sears Boye Gint P Trait m= svortaled Chin prominent, «4188 angular chin smeoeh 48 522 755 0.008 Ansecir dental 826 Astenor dental 427—-«563«478— 0.000 trends rounded Sin na ered tei the individuals with a narrow notch were boys, whereas 71.4% of those with a wider sciatic notch were girls. The eriterion “depth of the greater sciatic notch” eorrectly allo- ‘ated 81.2% of boys ideep notch) and 76.5% of girls (shallow noteh). For the “arch crite- rion”, 73.3% of the boys showed an arch bor- dering the auricular surface, whereas an arch crossing the auricular surface was Sund in 70.6% of the girls. Even the “curva- ture of the iliac crest” showed a distinct sep- aration, particularly for boys: a pronounced S-shape was found in 81.2% of boys, a faint S.shape in 62.1% of girls. With the exception the curvature trait, al iliae features sepa. rate clearly between girls and boys. As in the mandible, sex-typical shapes appear for all age classes. While a narrow greater sciatic notch is distinctive of boys from birth on- ward, in the other traits, definite sexual di- morphism seems to develop during the first year of life, although significant differences ‘exist even in the 0-0.5 years age group (Te ble 4), For individuals of more then five years of age, boys especially continue to show the sex-typical features described for the younger children, This is true for both sexes ts far as the “arch criterion” is concerned, Although the observations suggest that a sexual diagnosis of older children is possi: ble, they should be evaluated with caution, because the sample is too small to make a valid statement. ‘The results for both mandibular and iliac traits show a high degree of accuracy in sex TABLE 4. Distribution ofwextpical shape conditions in the ton for ee amd gra from te Spt “Cafin "ate Sample scoring a Boye Oink Test Aven 30) 22) Grater site notch angle tr 3S pe o 4 0 8 53 o ost ‘ > : 8 ° ° (Greater site notch depths eeper ous sg 3 8 a Bo ordering auricular wurface 205 Gg cvosses auricular curfice = 051 “Tt a ooo 6G Bie ret ‘aathed Shape 005 1 2 oes te > 8 Boa ot & ° diagnosis, When a certain appearance of a morphognostic trait was found in the“ Plate Sample’, it could usually be allocated to one of the sexes with high significance,204 AL sctt Sering mee a faint S-shape a9 DISCUSSION ‘The results obtained for the “Coffin Plate Sample” show that morphognostic sex dif forences are detectable in children’s skele- tons. The occurrence of typical appearances differs significantly in boys and girls for most mandibular traits and all selected cri- teria in the ilium, ‘Morphognostic sex differences in the man- dible have not been previously reported in children’s skeletons, and sexual dimorphism with respect to shape criteria is demon- strated here for the first time. For the ilium, this investigation confirms previously pub- lished statements about the possible diag- nostic value of relative width of the angie in the greater sciatic notch in early ontogenetic stages. The data presented here for the iso- lated skeletal elements suggest that certain shape conditions of the fetal pelvis are main- tained throughout early childhood stages. Comparable data available for pelvic fea tures of adult skeletons allow us to evaluate the diagnostic capacity of the observed sex- ual dimorphisms. Reliabilities of determina- tion are reported to be 70-75% for the greater sciatic notch (Acsadi and Nemesk- eri, 1970; Novotny, 1972) and 60% for the “composed arch" (corresponding to the “arch criterion” used in this study) (Novotny, 1972), Other figures given for the discrimi- nating ability of morphognostic traits (e.g., Acsadi and Nemeskeri, 1970; Leopold, 1978) mostly refer to the classification results ob- tained by Krogman with the Hamann-Todd Collection (80% certainty with long bones, TKOWSK aa ous ooo m8 a6 oom 100% with whole skeleton). These figure however, are highly biased due to a consid erabiy unbalanced sex ratio of the st sample, and therefore should be lowered | v 510% (Krogman and Igcan, 1986), There are no comparable data on the classifieatory reliability of mandibular traits for adult in- dividuals, : Because the collection of immature skele- tons from the “Coffin Plate Sample” is unique, both with respect to sample size and historie provenience, for the time being it is not possible to check the significantly differ ing frequency distributions given here { ¢ sex-typical morphognostie traits against a comparable series of known sex, and the general reliability of these traits in sex clas- sification cannot be estimated at present. However, the reliability in the sample from Spitalfields is about as high as that reported for similar morphognostic traits in adult skeletons. Thus, with the characters intro duced here, the basis for a sexual determina- tion of immature skeletal individuals is pt vided with a diagnostic accuracy comparable to that known for adult individuals. Addi tionally, no greater observer experience is required for the application of the traits than has been necessary in previous work on adult material CONCLUSION The possibility of assessing sex in chil dren's skeletons has repeatedly been recog: nized as a diagnostic desideratum, While metric approaches (e.g., Black, 1978, Schut hist preSEX DETERMINATION OF SKELETONS kowski, 1987) to the sexual diagnosis of in fanss and children have been published, an efficient method of morphognostic diagno: ‘vas not available. With the characters pre- pented here, it is now possible to include children in’ paleodemographic investiga tions of historic populations. Against the background of the increasing importance of deductive theory-bound anthropological work (e.g,, Grupe, 1985; Herrmann, 1989; Ulrich-Bochsler, 1990), the value of being abi. to incorporate data on children from historie cemeteries is obvious. The present work offers a contribution of methodological prerequisites to a Historic Demography of skeletal populations. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS: | am most indebted to Theya I. Molleson, Navural History Museum, London, for pro- vidhiig ane the chance of studying the Spi ‘elds “Coffin Plate Sample.” The helpful comments of three anonymous reviewers wore much appreciated, LITERATURE CITED Acsadi G, and Nemasteri J (1970! History of Humen Life Span and Mortality. duper: Akademia Kindo. Adar'= M. and Reeve J (1987) Excavations at Christ (rch, Spitalfields 1984-86. Antiguty 6247-256 ‘Blac TK (2976) Sexual dimorphiem in the teoth crown nis teth, Am. J. PhS. At Pebling H und Neugeborenen und ihre Beziehung 2u der beim Er swacheenen, Arch, Gynak 1:2-80, (Grup (1985) Ein deutives Modell fur de Prahists Tiche Anthropologie—Boitrag 2 einem dkosystemo eeten Interpretatonsraster.Z Morph. Anthro- pol 75180-1985, Happ. 1922) Das Sacrolacaigelonk im Rontgenbild chiedenbeiten des Orthop. bw: Alters und Geachlechtave Sacrufigcalgelenkes im Rontgenbild. Arch Unatleiy 20:576- 696. 1: 1980) Uweltgeshicht. In B Herrmann tnd A Budde (eds: Naturorintenachafliche und hie loriehe Heitrage zu einer okelogischen Grundbil Adune. Hannover: Niedersachrisches Umnveleministe lum. yp. 145-158, 205 mel 8, Pepenbrink H, and ahietorieche Anthropologie tind Labormethoden Belin: Hermann B, Grupe G. Tathowels 11990 Leitfden. der Feld Springer Khomyakor YS, Selamcy RF, and Semoniva NA 1986 ‘Age dynamic of frm and sie ofthe subpubangte in shildron and weenagors. Arch, Anat Gata. Embryol asa7-o Krogman WM, and Iecar MY (1986)"The Human Skele ton in Forensic Medicine 2nd ed. Springfel, Tl Thom Leopol D (2878) Goschlechtsbestimmung durch Uater- ‘chung der cizacinen Knochen des Skaletts. fp Hinger ang D Leopld ‘eds, Identfiaation. Berlin Springer. pp. 118-162 ‘Molleson 1111990) The children from Christ Church ‘ryt, Spitalfields. A, J, Phys Anthevpol, 81:271 Novotny V 1972) Gosshlechtsmerkmale ‘und Ge schlechisbestirsmang auf dem Os coxae, Konference Eucopskech Anthropol. Prague Sache £11072 Statice Auewertungamethoden. Sré ‘ed: Heldetberg New York: Springer utkoweki H 12986) Geschlectadifarente Merkmale ‘an kindlichen Skeleton. Kenntnisstand und diag 3 Beceutung. Morph, Anthropol. 76:14 of fetal and analyst tkeletons Intern J Anthropa 2 Schutkoweki H 1890) Zur Geschlectsdiagnose von Kindereksletten. Morphognestisehe. metrische and dkriminananelstiche Untersuchungen. Dis, Unie: Gottingen ‘Siovalé T 1968) Geschiechtadingoose am Skelett. In R ‘Knussmann ed "Anthropologie. Handbuch der ve fleichenden Biologie dor Mentchen 12. Stuttgar, New York: Fischer. pp. 444-480. Sour $J (1959) morphological etudy ofthe fetal pels, “T-Anat, Soe. india 845-55 ‘Thomson A (2800) The seal ditforences of the foetal polis J. Anat. Physiol. 8380-380. Uich-fachsler § 119801 Von Trauflindern, unsehut igen Kindern, Schwangeren und Woehnevianen. Ar thropologeche Befunds ze Argrabungen im Kanon Bern, In. Sehibler, J Sedimeier, and H Spyeher (eds: Festschrift fur Hane R. Stampfl. Basa, Hel Sing & Lichtenhakn. pp. 809-318 ‘Verneau R (1875) Le Basin dans los Sexes et dans les "Races Par eet file Villemin P1937) La dilferenciation sexuelle precoe de la grande echancrure sciatigue et son retentisament sur evolution due bacsn ches Thomme. Staab. Med 3150-294 Weaver DS 1980 Sex ferences in ecand age sample of fetal and in Phy, Anthropol 2:181-195 i