Handbook On Legislative Reform

Handbook on Legislative Reform
HandbookȱonȱLegislativeȱReform:ȱ
RealisingȱChildren’sȱRightsȱ
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HandbookȱonȱLegislativeȱReform:ȱRealisingȱChildren’sȱRights,ȱVol.1ȱ
©ȱUnitedȱNationsȱChildrenȇsȱFundȱ(UNICEF),ȱGender,ȱRightsȱandȱ
CivicȱEngagement,ȱDivisionȱofȱPolicyȱandȱPractice,ȱNewȱYork,ȱ2008ȱ
ȱ
Gender,ȱRightsȱandȱCivicȱEngagementȱSection,ȱDivisionȱofȱPolicyȱ
andȱPracticeȱ
UNICEFȱ
3ȱUNȱPlaza,ȱNY,ȱNYȱȱ10017ȱ
November,ȱ2008ȱ
The material in this Handbook has been commissioned by the United Nations
Children’s Fund (UNICEF). The contents do not necessarily reflect the policies
or the views of UNICEF.
The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this

Handbook do not imply on the part of UNICEF the expression of any opinion
whatsoever concerning the legal status of any country or territory, or of its
authorities or the delimitation of its frontiers.
The text has not been edited to official publication standards and UNICEF
accepts no responsibility for errors.
Any part of this Handbook may be freely reproduced with the appropriate
acknowledgement.
Photo credit: UNICEF/HQ04-0604/Giacomo Pirozzi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSȱ
Thisȱpublicationȱwouldȱnotȱhaveȱbeenȱpossibleȱwithoutȱtheȱ
commitmentȱandȱunconditionalȱsupportȱofȱElizabethȱGibbons,ȱ
AssociateȱDirector,ȱGenderȱRightsȱandȱCivicȱEngagementȱSectionȱ
(UNICEF).ȱWeȱoweȱaȱspecialȱthanksȱtoȱDanielȱSeymour,ȱChief,ȱGenderȱ
andȱRightsȱUnit,ȱ(UNICEF)ȱandȱDavidȱClarkȱNutritionȱSpecialistȱ
(Legal)ȱNutritionȱSection,ȱ(UNICEF)ȱforȱtheirȱinvaluableȱcounselȱandȱ
supportȱthroughoutȱtheȱprocessȱofȱpreparationȱofȱthisȱpublication.ȱ
ȱ
TheȱcontributorsȱtoȱthisȱpublicationȱincludeȱBeatriceȱDuncan,ȱEricaȱ
Hall,ȱChristineȱLundy,ȱRoseȱNathan,ȱNadineȱPerrault,ȱandȱVanessaȱ
Sedletzki.ȱWarmȱthanksȱareȱdueȱtoȱthemȱforȱtheirȱresearchȱandȱ
contribution.ȱ
ȱ
Weȱwishȱtoȱexpressȱourȱgratitudeȱtoȱtheȱmanyȱindividualsȱwhoȱ
providedȱusefulȱcomments,ȱsuggestionsȱandȱsupportȱforȱtheȱ
preparationȱofȱthisȱpublication.ȱInȱparticular,ȱweȱwouldȱlikeȱtoȱ
acknowledgeȱtheȱworkȱdoneȱbyȱNadineȱPerrault,ȱUNICEF,ȱGenderȱandȱ
RightsȱUnit,ȱwhoȱtookȱprimaryȱresponsibilityȱforȱconceptualizingȱandȱ
developingȱthisȱHandbook.ȱManyȱotherȱpeopleȱwithinȱUNICEFȱ
contributedȱtheirȱtimeȱtoȱreadingȱandȱcommentingȱonȱvariousȱchapters.ȱ
SpecialȱthanksȱgoȱtoȱNoreenȱKhan,ȱVeronicaȱAvati,ȱRajaeȱMseferȱ
Berrada,ȱSusanȱBissell,ȱAmandaȱBissex,ȱCandieȱCassabalian,ȱShelleyȱ
Cassey,ȱMatthewȱDuncan,ȱAnthonyȱHodges,ȱLivȱElinȱIndreiten,ȱ
GhassanȱKhalil,ȱSirajȱMahmudov,ȱMurielȱMafico,ȱKirstenȱDiȱMarino,ȱ
MargieȱdeȱMonchy,ȱSamuelȱMomanyi,ȱWilfredoȱNuqui,ȱKayodeȱ
Oyegbite,ȱSilviaȱPasti,ȱMannanȱRana,ȱRiffatȱSardar,ȱLilianȱSelenje,ȱErikaȱ
Strand,ȱandȱKadjoȱYao.ȱ
ȱ
UsefulȱinformationȱandȱadviceȱwereȱreceivedȱfromȱSavitriȱGoonesekereȱ
andȱRangitaȱdeȱSilvaȱDeȱAlwis.ȱWeȱareȱgratefulȱforȱtheirȱgenerousȱ
support.
Contentsȱ
ȱ
ȱ
Contributorsȱ
ExecutiveȱSummaryȱ–ȱNadineȱPerraultȱ
ChapterȱIȱ–ȱNadineȱPerraultȱ
ChapterȱII,ȱPartȱ1ȱ–NadineȱPerrault,ȱEricaȱHallȱ
ChapterȱII,ȱPartȱ2ȱ–ȱChristineȱLundyȱ
ChapterȱIIIȱ–ȱBeatriceȱDuncanȱ
ChapterȱIVȱ–ȱVanessaȱSedletzkiȱ
ChapterȱVȱ–ȱRoseȱNathanȱ
ȱ
Glossary .....................................................................................................................................i
Realising Children’s Rights ....................................................................................................x
Executive Summary ...............................................................................................................x
Purpose of the Handbook ................................................................................................xi
Using the Handbook ...................................................................................................... xii
Structure of the Handbook............................................................................................ xiii
La realización de los derechos de la infancia......................................................................xvi
Resumen Ejecutivo ............................................................................................................. xvi
Objetivo del Manual .................................................................................................... xvii
Utilización del Manual ............................................................................................... xviii
Estructura del Manual....................................................................................................xix
La réalisation des droits de l’enfant .................................................................................. xxii
Résumé Analytique ............................................................................................................xxii
Pourquoi ce manuel .................................................................................................... xxiii
Utilisation du Manuel ..................................................................................................xxiv
Structure du Manuel .....................................................................................................xxv
Chapter 1 ..................................................................................................................................1
COMPREHENSIVE AND HOLISTIC LEGISLATIVE REFORM ON BEHALF OF
CHILDREN’S RIGHTS..........................................................................................................1
Part 1 HUMAN RIGHTS-BASED APPROACH TO LEGISLATIVE REFORM ............2
1.1 Human Rights-based Legislative Reform ..........................................................2
1.2 Human Rights Principles and Legislative Reform .............................................3
Part 2 CRITICAL COMPONENTS OF A HUMAN RIGHTS-BASED APPROACH TO
LEGISLATIVE REFORM....................................................................................................10
2.1 Characteristics of a Human Rights Approach to Legislative Reform ..............10
2.2 Value-added of a Human Rights-based Approach to Legislative Reform .......20
Chapter 2 ................................................................................................................................23
ASSESSING COMPLIANCE OF NATIONAL LEGISLATION WITH
INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS NORMS AND STANDARDS............................23
Part 1 LEGAL TRADITIONS AND SYSTEMS ............................................................26
1.1 Introduction to Legal Traditions and Systems..................................................26
1.2 Differing Legal Systems ..................................................................................28
1.3 Status of International Human Rights Instruments in Domestic Legislation ...37
1.4 Conclusion .......................................................................................................37
Part 2 LEGISLATION REVIEW AND REFORM ON BEHALF OF CHILDREN'S
RIGHTS ..........................................................................................................................38
2.1 Why Review and Reform Legislation? ............................................................38
2.2 Review of Legislation ......................................................................................43
2.3 Reform of Legislation ......................................................................................87

2.4 Conclusion .....................................................................................................105
Chapter 3 ..............................................................................................................................108
CONSTITUTIONAL REFORMS IN FAVOUR OF CHILDREN..................................108
Part 1 CONSTITUTIONS AS TOOLS OF LEGISLATIVE AND POLICY REFORMS....
........................................................................................................................109
1.1 The Role of Constitutions in State Affairs .....................................................109
1.2 Constitutions as Frameworks for Legislative Reform....................................112
1.3 Constitutions as Frameworks for Policy Reform ...........................................113
1.4 Constitutions Should Reinforce the Status of Children as Subjects of Human
Rights .............................................................................................................114
1.5 Key Considerations in the Formulation of the Substance and Process of
Constitutions in Favour of Children...............................................................116
1.6 The Relationship between Constitutions, Customary Law and Islamic Law .119
1.7 The Interface between International Law and Constitutional Reforms..........125
Part 2 GENERAL CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS IN FAVOUR OF CHILDREN ...
........................................................................................................................127
2.1 Principle 1: Universality.................................................................................127
2.2 Principle 2: Inalienability, Indivisibility and Interdependency ......................130
2.3 Principle 3: Accountability.............................................................................142
2.4 Principle 4: Participation...............................................................................148
Part 3 SPECIFIC CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS IN FAVOUR OF CHILDREN....
........................................................................................................................149
3.1 The Relationship between Specific and General Provisions ..........................149
3.2 Definition and Legal Status of the Child........................................................150
3.3 Application of the Principles of the CRC.......................................................151
Part 4 POST-CONSTITUTIONAL REFORMS: THE NEXT STEPS .........................160
4.1 Who Are the Stakeholders and What Should They Do for Children?............161
4.2 Wide Dissemination of the Constitution through Appropriate Means ...........162
4.3 Constitutional Litigation and Interpretation ...................................................163
Part 5 CONCLUSIONS AND LESSONS LEARNED FROM CONSTITUTIONAL
REFORM EXPERIENCES ................................................................................................166
Chapter 4 ..............................................................................................................................170
LEGISLATIVE REFORM FOR THE PROTECTION OF THE RIGHTS OF CHILD
VICTIMS OF TRAFFICKING ..........................................................................................170
Part 1 DEFINITIONS ...............................................................................................172
1.1 General Definition..........................................................................................173
1.2 Regional Instruments .....................................................................................174
1.3 Definition of a Child ......................................................................................175
1.4 The Notion of Exploitation ............................................................................176
Part 2 GUIDING PRINCIPLES ................................................................................178
2.1 Right to Non-discrimination...........................................................................179
2.2 Jurisdiction .....................................................................................................179
2.3 Best Interests of the Child ..............................................................................180
2.4 Right to Life, Survival and Development.......................................................180
2.5 Respect for the Views of the Child ................................................................181
Part 3 RIGHTS OF VICTIMS ...................................................................................182
3.1 Guiding Principles Specific to the Rights of Victims.....................................183
3.2 Concrete Steps for the Protection of Child Victims .......................................187
3.3 Rights of Victims in Judicial Proceedings .....................................................189
3.4 Status of Victims in Receiving States ............................................................193
Part 4 PREVENTION................................................................................................197
4.1 Action on Demand .........................................................................................198
4.2 Addressing Factors of Vulnerability to Trafficking .......................................201
Part 5 CRIMINALIZATION ......................................................................................204
5.1 Jurisdiction .....................................................................................................205
5.2 Criminal Liability of Legal Entities ...............................................................206

5.3 Activities Related to Trafficking....................................................................207
5.4 Sanctions ........................................................................................................208
5.5 Evidence.........................................................................................................208
5.6 Extradition......................................................................................................209
Part 6 INSTITUTIONAL REFORM ..........................................................................211
6.1 Creation of a Specific Institution ...................................................................211
6.2 Structure .........................................................................................................212
6.3 Accountability ................................................................................................214
6.4 Strengthening Law Enforcement....................................................................214
Part 7 PROCESSES AND ENTRY POINTS ..............................................................215
7.1 A Human Rights-based Approach to Legislative Reform in the Area of
Trafficking .....................................................................................................215
Chapter 5 ..............................................................................................................................221
REALISING CHILDREN’S RIGHTS TO ADEQUATE NUTRITION THROUGH
NATIONAL LEGISLATIVE REFORM...........................................................................221
1.1 Technical Considerations in Establishing Legal Requirements: Legislation or
Regulations (Subsidiary Legislation)? ...........................................................227
1.2 Specific Interventions to Fulfill Children’s Right to Adequate Nutrition:
Combating Micronutrient Malnutrition..........................................................231
1.3 Promoting Optimal Nutrition and Health during Infancy and Early Childhood:
Adopting and Strengthening the International Code of Marketing of Breastmilk
Substitutes ......................................................................................................242
1.4 Accompanying Social Policies to Protect, Promote and Support Breastfeeding
........................................................................................................................259
1.5 Establishing a Policy Environment to Protect against Childhood Obesity and
Promote Physical Activity..............................................................................265
1.6 Participatory processes...................................................................................271
Chapter 5: Annex 1 ...........................................................................................................276
Summary of the Code’s Provisions ...................................................................................276
Chapter 5: Annex 2 ...........................................................................................................279
Summary of the ILO Maternity Convention and Recommendations .................................279
ȱ
Glossaryȱ
Noteȱfromȱtheȱauthorȱ–ȱTheȱdefinitionsȱofȱtheȱfollowingȱconceptsȱareȱ
tailoredȱstrictlyȱtoȱtheȱuseȱandȱcontextȱinȱtheȱtextȱofȱtheȱHandbook.ȱ
_________________ȱ
ȱ
Affirmativeȱactionȱ–ȱAȱmechanismȱforȱpromotingȱequalȱaccessȱbyȱ
activelyȱpromotingȱtheȱinterestsȱofȱpeopleȱfromȱgroupsȱthatȱhaveȱ
traditionallyȱexperiencedȱdiscrimination.ȱ
ȱ
Automaticȱincorporationȱ–ȱAȱconstitutionalȱprovisionȱbyȱwhichȱ
internationalȱtreatiesȱorȱconventionsȱareȱautomaticallyȱincorporatedȱ
directlyȱintoȱdomesticȱlegislation,ȱbecomingȱimmediatelyȱandȱfullyȱ
justiciable.ȱ(SeeȱMonistȱsystemȱbelow).ȱ
ȱ
Caseȱlawȱ–ȱInȱtheȱcommonȱlawȱsystem,ȱlawȱwhichȱisȱcreatedȱbyȱ
argumentsȱandȱjudicialȱdecisionsȱrelatingȱtoȱspecificȱcases.ȱ(Seeȱ
Commonȱlawȱsystemȱbelow).ȱ
ȱ
ChildȬfriendlyȱcourtȱproceduresȱ–ȱProcessesȱandȱproceduresȱwhichȱ
areȱdesignedȱtoȱmakeȱtheȱcourtȱaccessibleȱtoȱandȱlessȱintimidatingȱforȱ
childrenȱwhoȱappearȱasȱwitnessesȱorȱvictims.ȱSuchȱmeasuresȱincludeȱ
courtroomsȱspeciallyȱdesignedȱtoȱputȱchildrenȱatȱease,ȱlegalȱandȱ
supportȱstaffȱtrainedȱtoȱprepareȱchildrenȱbyȱexplainingȱtheȱprocessȱtoȱ
themȱinȱwaysȱthatȱtheyȱwillȱunderstand,ȱandȱprovisionsȱtoȱinvolveȱ
familyȱorȱotherȱtrustedȱindividualsȱinȱbothȱtheȱcourtȱproceedings,ȱinȱ
supportȱofȱtheȱchild,ȱandȱinȱfollowȬupȱandȱrecoveryȱprogrammes. 1ȱ
ȱ
Childȱtraffickingȱ–ȱAnyȱactȱwhichȱinvolvesȱtheȱillicitȱtransportationȱofȱ
childrenȱfromȱoneȱplaceȱtoȱanother.ȱInternationalȱtraffickingȱisȱdefinedȱ
byȱtheȱcrossingȱofȱinternationalȱboundaries.ȱ
ȱ
Childrenȱbornȱoutȱofȱwedlockȱ–ȱChildrenȱwhoseȱparentsȱatȱbirthȱareȱ
notȱlegallyȱrecognisedȱasȱbeingȱmarriedȱtoȱeachȱotherȱunderȱtheȱlawȱ
applicationȱtoȱtheseȱchildren.ȱ
ȱ
1
RESOLVE Manitoba, “Child Victim Support Service”, Resolve News, Winnipeg, Manitoba,
Research and Education for Solutions to Violence and Abuse, Volume 7, Number 2, June
2005.
i
Childrenȱinȱconflictȱwithȱtheȱlawȱ–ȱChildrenȱwhoȱareȱsuspectedȱorȱ
accusedȱofȱinfringingȱcriminalȱlaws.ȱ
ȱ
Children’sȱcodesȱ(alsoȱknownȱasȱchildren’sȱactsȱorȱchildren’sȱstatutes)ȱ
–ȱComprehensiveȱlegislationȱcoveringȱaȱwideȱrangeȱofȱaspectsȱofȱtheȱ
livesȱofȱchildren,ȱusuallyȱincludingȱnameȱandȱnationality,ȱfamilyȱ
relations,ȱstandardsȱofȱcareȱandȱprotectionȱmeasures.ȱ
ȱ
Civilȱlawȱ–ȱAȱsystemȱofȱlawȱderivedȱmainlyȱfromȱRomanȱlaw,ȱ
emphasisingȱtheȱarrangementȱofȱlawsȱintoȱcomprehensiveȱnationalȱ
codes.ȱCivilȱlawȱreliesȱheavilyȱonȱwrittenȱlaw. 2ȱ
ȱ
CodexȱAlimentariusȱ–ȱAȱfoodȱcodeȱestablishedȱbyȱtheȱWorldȱHealthȱ
Organizationȱ(WHO)ȱandȱFoodȱandȱAgricultureȱOrganizationȱ(FAO),ȱ
definingȱqualityȱstandardsȱtoȱbeȱmetȱforȱfoodȱthatȱhasȱbeenȱfortified.ȱȱ
ȱ
Commonȱlawȱ–ȱAȱsystemȱofȱlawȱderivedȱfromȱEnglishȱtradition,ȱinȱ
whichȱlawȱisȱdeterminedȱnotȱonlyȱthroughȱwrittenȱlegislationȱ(Statutes)ȱ
butȱalsoȱbyȱcourtȱdecisionsȱthroughȱtheȱcreationȱofȱjudicialȱprecedentȱ
fromȱdecisionsȱonȱspecificȱcasesȱtriedȱbeforeȱtheȱcourts. 3 ȱ(SeeȱalsoȱCaseȱ
lawȱabove).ȱ
ȱ
Constitutionȱ–ȱTheȱfundamentalȱlawȱofȱaȱState,ȱtypicallyȱoutliningȱtheȱ
structureȱofȱgovernmentȱandȱtheȱmeansȱbyȱwhichȱtheȱgovernmentȱwillȱ
operate;ȱmayȱalsoȱincludeȱtheȱprinciplesȱofȱhumanȱrightsȱwhichȱareȱ
intendedȱtoȱguideȱallȱgovernmentȱaction,ȱincludingȱlegislation. 4ȱ
ȱ
Criminalȱcodeȱ–ȱAȱbodyȱofȱlawȱthatȱdefinesȱcriminalȱactsȱandȱtheȱ
applicationȱofȱcriminalȱjustice.ȱ
ȱ
Customaryȱlawȱ–ȱUsuallyȱunwritten,ȱtheȱsystemȱofȱlawȱwhichȱhasȱ
developedȱoverȱtimeȱinȱspecificȱcommunitiesȱorȱsocialȱgroups,ȱderivedȱ
fromȱlongȬestablishedȱpracticesȱthatȱhaveȱacquiredȱtheȱforceȱofȱlawȱbyȱ
commonȱadoptionȱorȱacquiescence;ȱcustomaryȱlawȱisȱsometimesȱ
2
See Chapter 2 for more details.
3
4
ii
administeredȱbyȱtraditionalȱchiefsȱandȱtheirȱcouncils,ȱoftenȱdealingȱ
withȱmattersȱrelatingȱtoȱchildrenȱandȱfamily. 5ȱ
ȱ
Dualistȱsystemȱ–ȱUsuallyȱfoundȱinȱcommonȱlawȱregimes,ȱaȱsystemȱinȱ
whichȱinternationalȱtreatiesȱorȱagreementsȱareȱnotȱautomaticallyȱ
incorporatedȱintoȱnationalȱorȱdomesticȱlaw;ȱsuchȱincorporationȱ
requiresȱspecificȱlegislativeȱmeasuresȱtoȱbeȱaccomplished.ȱNationalȱ
lawsȱneedȱtoȱbeȱpassedȱtoȱincorporateȱtheȱprinciplesȱbehindȱtheseȱ
treatiesȱorȱagreements.ȱ(ContrastȱtoȱMonistȱsystem,ȱbelow).ȱ
ȱ
Dutyȱbearersȱ–ȱThoseȱwhoȱareȱresponsibleȱforȱensuringȱthatȱtheȱrightsȱ
ofȱdesignatedȱgroupsȱareȱprotected,ȱpromotedȱandȱfulfilled;ȱforȱtheȱ
rightsȱofȱchildren,ȱtheȱStateȱisȱtheȱprimaryȱdutyȱbearerȱandȱisȱ
responsibleȱforȱcreatingȱconditionsȱinȱwhichȱotherȱdutyȱbearers,ȱsuchȱ
asȱparents,ȱserviceȱworkers,ȱcommunityȱleaders,ȱtheȱprivateȱsector,ȱ
donorsȱandȱinternationalȱinstitutions,ȱcanȱmeetȱtheirȱresponsibilitiesȱforȱ
alsoȱprotecting,ȱpromotingȱandȱfulfillingȱtheȱrightsȱofȱchildren. 6 ȱȱ
ȱ
Effectiveȱremediesȱ–ȱJudicialȱorȱadministrativeȱremediesȱintendedȱtoȱ
restoreȱtoȱaȱvictimȱorȱvictimsȱofȱhumanȱrightsȱviolationsȱthoseȱrightsȱ
andȱentitlementsȱwhichȱwereȱdeniedȱand,ȱinȱcasesȱwhereȱthisȱisȱ
deemedȱnecessaryȱbyȱtheȱauthoritiesȱmandatingȱtheȱremedies,ȱtoȱ
extendȱcompensationȱforȱlossesȱsustainedȱinȱtheȱviolationȱofȱtheȱ
victim’sȱorȱvictims’ȱrights.ȱ
ȱ
Enablingȱlegislationȱ–ȱInȱdualistȱcountries,ȱtheȱmeansȱbyȱwhichȱ
internationalȱagreementsȱareȱincorporatedȱintoȱnationalȱlaw,ȱthroughȱ
constitutionalȱamendment,ȱlawȱorȱdecree.ȱ(SeeȱDualistȱsystemȱabove).ȱ
ȱ
Equalȱprotectionȱclausesȱ–ȱAsȱaȱcomplementȱtoȱnonȬdiscriminationȱ
provisions,ȱtheseȱhumanȱrightsȱprovisionsȱprovideȱforȱequalȱaccessȱorȱ
equalȱopportunityȱforȱall.ȱȱ
ȱ
ExtraȬterritorialȱjurisdictionȱ–ȱTheȱcapacityȱofȱaȱStateȱtoȱapplyȱlawȱandȱ
exerciseȱauthorityȱthroughȱtheȱapplicationȱofȱnationalȱlegislationȱtoȱ
criminalȱactsȱinvolvingȱtheirȱnationalsȱ(asȱperpetratorȱorȱvictim)ȱand/orȱ
5
Heritage Community Foundation, “Nature’s Laws: Customary Law”, at Albertasource.ca,
viewed 10 June 2008. See Chapter 2 for more details.
6
Thies, Joachim, “Introduction to Rights-based Programming”, Part 1: Rights Based
Programming – An Evolving Approach, Save the Children, Sweden, 2004, p.3.
iii
criminalȱactsȱprejudicialȱtoȱtheȱinterestsȱofȱtheȱcountryȱorȱofȱitsȱ
nationalsȱcommittedȱoutsideȱtheȱterritoryȱinȱwhichȱtheȱlawȱisȱenforcedȱ
andȱofȱwhichȱtheȱaccusedȱisȱaȱnational.ȱTheȱexerciseȱofȱextraȬ
territorialityȱmayȱbeȱlimitedȱbyȱtheȱsovereigntyȱofȱtheȱStateȱinȱtheȱ
territoryȱwhereȱtheȱactsȱtakeȱplace. 7ȱ
ȱ
Familyȱlawȱ–ȱTheȱbodyȱofȱlegislationȱwhichȱaddressesȱallȱaspectsȱofȱ
familyȱrelations,ȱincludingȱmarriage,ȱdivorce,ȱcustodyȱofȱchildren,ȱ
responsibilityȱforȱtheȱupbringingȱofȱchildren,ȱadoptionȱ(whereȱ
permitted)ȱandȱinheritance.ȱȱ
ȱ
Femaleȱgenitalȱmutilationȱ–ȱCustomaryȱactivitiesȱwhichȱentailȱ
mutilationȱofȱfemaleȱgenitaliaȱ(i.e.ȱpartialȱorȱcompleteȱremovalȱofȱtheȱ
clitoris,ȱorȱtheȱlabiaȱminoraȱ(excision)ȱorȱofȱanyȱexternalȱgenitalia,ȱwithȱ
stitchingȱorȱnarrowingȱofȱtheȱvaginalȱopeningȱ(infibulation)),ȱoftenȱ
performedȱonȱwomenȱandȱgirls.ȱ
ȱ
Foodȱfortificationȱ–ȱTheȱadditionȱofȱmicronutrientsȱorȱotherȱessentialȱ
elementsȱthatȱmayȱhaveȱbeenȱremovedȱinȱprocessingȱtoȱcommonlyȱ
usedȱfoods,ȱinȱorderȱtoȱcombatȱwidespreadȱmicronutrientȱdeficiencies.ȱ
ȱ
GenderȬsensitiveȱcourtȱproceduresȱ–ȱProceduresȱandȱprocessesȱwhichȱ
takeȱintoȱaccountȱtheirȱimpactȱonȱwomen,ȱmen,ȱboysȱandȱgirls,ȱ
includingȱtheȱspecialȱcircumstancesȱofȱwomenȱandȱgirls,ȱdesignedȱtoȱ
overcomeȱtheȱmarginalizationȱofȱandȱdiscriminationȱagainstȱwomenȱ
andȱgirls.ȱ
ȱ
Goodȱgovernanceȱ–ȱTheȱprocessȱbyȱwhichȱpublicȱinstitutionsȱconductȱ
publicȱaffairs,ȱmanageȱpublicȱresourcesȱandȱguaranteeȱtheȱrealisationȱ
ofȱhumanȱrightsȱinȱaȱmannerȱessentiallyȱfreeȱofȱabuseȱandȱcorruption,ȱ
andȱwithȱdueȱregardȱforȱtheȱruleȱofȱlaw.ȱ
ȱ
Holisticȱapproachȱ(toȱlegislativeȱreform)ȱ–ȱAnȱapproachȱwhichȱ
encompassesȱallȱtheȱdimensionsȱofȱtheȱsituationsȱbeingȱaddressed,ȱforȱ
exampleȱtakingȱintoȱaccountȱtheȱentiretyȱofȱchildren’sȱlivesȱinȱrevisingȱ
legislationȱthatȱaffectsȱchildrenȱandȱaddressingȱtheȱissuesȱinȱtermsȱofȱ
7
Coughlan, Steve; Currie, Robert J.; Kindred, Hugh M.; and Scassa, Teresa, Global Reach,
Local Grasp: Constructing Extraterritorial Jurisdiction in the Age of Globalization,
Dalhousie Law School, Prepared for the Law Commission of Canada, June 23, 2006, pp. 4-8.
iv
bothȱtheȱlegalȱareasȱinvolvedȱandȱtheȱmeasuresȱneededȱtoȱensureȱ
effectiveȱapplicationȱandȱenforcementȱofȱtheȱlaw. 8ȱ
ȱ
Homogeneousȱsystemȱ–ȱAȱlegalȱsystemȱbasedȱonȱaȱsingleȱlegalȱ
tradition,ȱeitherȱcivilȱlawȱorȱcommonȱlaw. 9 ȱȱ
ȱ
HumanȱrightsȬbasedȱapproachȱ(HRBA)ȱtoȱlegislativeȱreformȱ–ȱAnȱ
approachȱbasedȱonȱinternationalȱstandardsȱandȱnormsȱandȱonȱtheȱfullȱ
recognitionȱofȱtheȱequalȱrightsȱofȱchildren,ȱboysȱandȱgirls,ȱmenȱandȱ
womenȱandȱtheȱrealisationȱofȱStateȱobligationsȱunderȱtheȱinternationalȱ
humanȱrightsȱinstrumentsȱtoȱwhichȱtheȱStateȱisȱparty. 10ȱ
ȱ
Indirectȱdiscriminationȱ–ȱDiscriminationȱwhichȱdoesȱnotȱoccurȱbyȱ
explicitȱprohibitionsȱorȱrestrictions,ȱbutȱratherȱbyȱcreatingȱconditionsȱinȱ
whichȱcertainȱgroupsȱareȱneverthelessȱeffectivelyȱpreventedȱfromȱ
exercisingȱallȱtheirȱrights;ȱforȱexample,ȱbyȱstructuringȱvotingȱinȱ
electionsȱinȱsuchȱaȱwayȱthatȱpeopleȱwhoȱcannotȱreadȱareȱunableȱtoȱ
participate,ȱtherebyȱeffectivelyȱexcludingȱaȱcategoryȱofȱpersonsȱ
(illiterate,ȱwithȱdisabilitiesȱetc.)ȱfromȱvoting.ȱ
ȱ
InterȬConventionȱapproachȱ–ȱAnȱapproachȱwhichȱusesȱtheȱbroadȱ
spectrumȱofȱhumanȱrightsȱinstrumentsȱforȱtheȱformulationȱofȱ
constitutionalȱprovisions,ȱnationalȱlegislationȱorȱgovernmentȱ
programmes.ȱ
ȱ
Internationalȱinstrumentsȱ–ȱInternationallyȱadoptedȱtreaties,ȱ
conventions,ȱcovenants,ȱprotocolsȱandȱdeclarations,ȱincludingȱthoseȱ
thatȱcomeȱunderȱtheȱUnitedȱNations,ȱitsȱSpecializedȱAgenciesȱorȱ
regionalȱorganisations.ȱ
ȱ
Internationalȱlawȱ–ȱTheȱbodyȱofȱnormsȱandȱstandardsȱcontainedȱ
withinȱinternationalȱhumanȱrightsȱandȱhumanitarianȱinstruments,ȱ
includingȱtheȱhumanȱrightsȱconventionsȱandȱcovenantsȱofȱtheȱUnitedȱ
Nationsȱsystem,ȱtheȱconventionsȱofȱtheȱInternationalȱRedȱCross,ȱandȱ
theȱjurisprudenceȱofȱtheȱinternationalȱcourtsȱandȱspecialȱtribunalsȱthatȱ
haveȱbeenȱconstitutedȱbyȱinternationalȱagreement.ȱ
ȱ
8
9
10
See Chapter 1 for details.
v
Islamicȱlawȱ–ȱAȱsystemȱofȱcivilȱandȱpenalȱlawsȱthatȱisȱpredominantlyȱ
basedȱonȱShari’a,ȱwithȱaȱbodyȱofȱinterpretationȱandȱjurisprudenceȱthatȱ
mayȱbeȱinformedȱbyȱlocalȱexperience.ȱ
ȱ
Justiciableȱ–ȱSubjectȱtoȱdueȱprocessȱinȱaȱcourtȱofȱlaw.ȱ
ȱ
Juvenileȱjusticeȱ–ȱAȱspecialȱdimensionȱofȱtheȱjusticeȱsystemȱwhichȱ
recognisesȱtheȱneedsȱandȱrightsȱofȱchildrenȱwhoȱmayȱcomeȱintoȱconflictȱ
withȱtheȱlaw.ȱ
ȱ
Lawȱ–ȱWithȱregardȱtoȱhumanȱsociety,ȱtheȱbodyȱofȱrules,ȱregulationsȱ
andȱprohibitions,ȱdevelopedȱthroughȱcustom,ȱorȱadoptedȱandȱ
promulgatedȱbyȱtheȱgovernment,ȱwhichȱguideȱtheȱconductȱofȱ
individuals,ȱorganisationsȱandȱtheȱgovernmentȱinȱrelationȱtoȱothersȱ
withȱwhomȱtheȱpolitical,ȱcivic,ȱeconomicȱandȱsocialȱenvironmentȱisȱ
shared.ȱ
ȱ
Lawȱreformȱcommissionsȱ–ȱPermanentȱstandingȱbodiesȱusedȱinȱsomeȱ
countriesȱtoȱreviewȱexistingȱlegislationȱandȱmakeȱrecommendationsȱonȱ
newȱmeasuresȱorȱrevisionȱofȱexistingȱlegislationȱinȱorderȱtoȱbringȱtheȱ
expressionȱofȱlawȱupȱtoȱcurrentȱstandards.ȱ
ȱ
Legalȱilliteracyȱ–ȱLackȱofȱknowledgeȱofȱlawsȱorȱofȱtheȱlegislativeȱ
process.ȱ
ȱ
Legalȱreformȱ–ȱReformȱofȱtheȱlegalȱsystem,ȱincludingȱtheȱjudiciary,ȱ
policeȱandȱcustodialȱinstitutions.ȱ
ȱ
Legalȱsystemȱ–ȱEncompassesȱallȱtheȱrulesȱandȱinstitutions,ȱbasedȱonȱitsȱ
legalȱtradition,ȱwhichȱdetermineȱhowȱtheȱlawȱisȱapplied. 11ȱ
ȱ
Legalȱtraditionȱ–ȱTheȱculturalȱperspectiveȱunderȱwhichȱtheȱlegalȱ
systemȱisȱcreated,ȱprovidingȱtheȱphilosophyȱforȱhowȱtheȱsystemȱshouldȱ
beȱorganisedȱandȱhowȱlawȱshouldȱbeȱformedȱandȱimplemented. 12ȱ
ȱ
Legislationȱ–ȱAllȱactsȱofȱtheȱlegislature,ȱincludingȱformalȱlaws,ȱ
governmentȱactionȱplans,ȱbudgets,ȱandȱadministrativeȱmeasures.ȱ
11
12
vi
ȱȱ
Legislativeȱreformȱ–ȱReformȱofȱtheȱwholeȱbodyȱofȱlegislation,ȱ
includingȱConstitutionalȱlaws,ȱactsȱofȱtheȱlegislature,ȱformalȱlaws,ȱ
decreesȱandȱadministrativeȱmeasuresȱasȱwellȱasȱlegalȱinstitutions.ȱ
ȱ
Localȱorȱdomesticȱlawȱ–ȱLawȱthatȱisȱadoptedȱbyȱandȱprevailsȱwithinȱaȱ
specificȱcountry,ȱasȱopposedȱtoȱinternationalȱlaw.ȱ(Seeȱabove).ȱ
ȱ
Mainstreamingȱ–ȱApplyingȱprogrammesȱorȱapproachesȱwhichȱhaveȱ
beenȱtriedȱandȱtestedȱinȱaȱsmallȱrepresentativeȱregionȱtoȱtheȱentireȱ
country.ȱ
ȱ
Micronutrientȱmalnutritionȱ–ȱCausedȱbyȱtheȱlackȱofȱessentialȱ
micronutrientsȱ(suchȱasȱiodine,ȱiron,ȱfolicȱacid,ȱorȱvitaminsȱAȱorȱD)ȱinȱ
theȱdiet,ȱresultingȱinȱdevelopmentalȱdeficitsȱorȱvulnerabilityȱtoȱ
particularȱailments.ȱ
ȱ
Minorityȱgroupȱ–ȱAnyȱgroupȱwhich,ȱbyȱvirtueȱofȱitsȱethnicȱ
composition,ȱplaceȱofȱorigin,ȱtraditionalȱpractices,ȱorȱlanguageȱorȱ
cultureȱisȱmarginalizedȱinȱsocietyȱandȱeffectivelyȱdeprivedȱofȱrights;ȱ
theȱtermȱmayȱalsoȱbeȱappliedȱmoreȱgenerallyȱtoȱgroupsȱwhich,ȱ
althoughȱnotȱaȱnumericalȱminorityȱinȱsociety,ȱareȱneverthelessȱtreatedȱ
byȱlawȱorȱcustomȱasȱifȱtheyȱwereȱlessȱsignificantȱthanȱothers,ȱasȱwomenȱ
areȱinȱmanyȱcountries.ȱ
ȱ
Mixedȱsystemsȱ–ȱLegalȱsystemsȱwhichȱinvolveȱcombinationsȱofȱmoreȱ
thanȱoneȱlegalȱtraditionȱoftenȱinvolvingȱsomeȱformȱofȱcustomaryȱorȱ
traditionalȱlawȱorȱIslamicȱlawȱcombinedȱwithȱcivilȱorȱcommonȱlaw. 13 ȱ
(ContrastȱtoȱHomogeneousȱsystems,ȱabove).ȱ
ȱ
Monistȱsystemȱ–ȱAȱsystemȱinȱwhichȱnationalȱandȱinternationalȱlawȱareȱ
viewedȱasȱaȱsingleȱlegalȱsystem,ȱandȱinternationalȱtreaties,ȱonceȱratifiedȱ
orȱaccededȱto,ȱautomaticallyȱbecomeȱpartȱofȱnationalȱlaw.ȱ
ȱ
NonȬdiscriminationȱ–ȱOneȱofȱtheȱfundamentalȱprinciplesȱofȱhumanȱ
rights,ȱwhichȱprohibitsȱandȱcondemnsȱanyȱdistinction,ȱexclusion,ȱ
restrictionȱorȱpreferenceȱbasedȱonȱgroundsȱsuchȱasȱ“race,ȱcolour,ȱsex,ȱ
13
vii
language,ȱreligion,ȱpoliticalȱorȱotherȱopinion,ȱnational,ȱethnicȱorȱsocialȱ
origin,ȱproperty,ȱdisability,ȱbirthȱorȱotherȱstatus.’ȱ(CRC,ȱArticleȱ2.1).ȱ
ȱ
NonȬrefoulementȱ–ȱAȱprincipleȱofȱcustomaryȱinternationalȱlawȱwhichȱ
opposesȱ anyȱ measureȱ attributableȱ toȱ theȱ Stateȱ whichȱ couldȱ haveȱ theȱ
effectȱ ofȱ returningȱ anȱ asylumȱ seekerȱ orȱ refugeeȱ toȱ theȱ frontiersȱ ofȱ
territoriesȱ whereȱ hisȱ orȱ herȱ lifeȱ orȱ freedomȱ wouldȱ beȱ threatened,ȱ orȱ
whereȱ heȱ orȱ sheȱ isȱ atȱ riskȱ ofȱ persecution,ȱ includingȱ interception,ȱ
rejectionȱatȱtheȱfrontier,ȱorȱindirectȱrefoulement. 14ȱ
ȱ
Penalȱreformȱ–ȱReformȱofȱtheȱpenalȱsystemȱ(i.e.ȱcourtȱsystem,ȱprisons,ȱ
andȱotherȱpenalȱinstitutions).ȱȱ
ȱ
Personalȱlawȱ–ȱLawȱwhichȱrelatesȱtoȱtheȱstatusȱofȱpersons,ȱinȱparticularȱ
regardingȱadoption,ȱmarriage,ȱdivorce,ȱburial,ȱandȱdevolutionȱofȱ
propertyȱonȱdeathȱinȱsomeȱconstitutionalȱregimes.ȱ
ȱ
Pluralȱsystemsȱ–ȱseeȱMixedȱsystemsȱ(above).ȱ
ȱ
Positiveȱdiscriminationȱ–ȱSeeȱAffirmativeȱactionȱ(above);ȱthisȱtermȱisȱ
notȱgenerallyȱusedȱinȱcontemporaryȱdiscussion.ȱ
ȱ
Reflectionȱdelayȱ–ȱAȱmechanismȱinstitutedȱbyȱsomeȱStatesȱasȱaȱmiddleȱ
groundȱbetweenȱrespectȱforȱtheȱrightsȱofȱvictimsȱofȱtraffickingȱandȱ
States’ȱneedȱtoȱarrestȱandȱprosecuteȱtraffickers,ȱtoȱensureȱthatȱvictimsȱ
canȱrecoverȱfromȱtheirȱtrauma,ȱhaveȱaccessȱtoȱsupportȱandȱassistanceȱ
includingȱmedicalȱcareȱandȱlegalȱadvice,ȱandȱcanȱthusȱmakeȱanȱ
informedȱdecisionȱaboutȱwhetherȱtheyȱwantȱtoȱtestifyȱagainstȱtheȱ
trafficker.ȱ
ȱ
Ruleȱofȱlawȱ–ȱAȱprincipleȱaccordingȱtoȱwhichȱlawsȱhaveȱtheȱultimateȱ
authorityȱoverȱtheȱactionsȱofȱallȱindividualsȱ(includingȱgovernmentȱ
representatives).ȱGovernmentȱauthorityȱisȱexercisedȱonlyȱinȱaccordanceȱ
withȱpubliclyȱdisclosedȱlawsȱandȱregulations,ȱandȱisȱsubjectȱtoȱtheȱ
normalȱchecksȱofȱanȱindependentȱjudiciary.ȱ
ȱ
14
Global Consultations on International Protection, Cambridge Roundtable, 9- 10 July 2001,
organised by the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees and the Lauterpacht
Research Centre for International Law, Summary Conclusions - The Principle of Non-
Refoulement.
viii
SelfȬexecutingȱ–ȱOfȱinternationalȱtreatiesȱandȱconventions,ȱbecomingȱ
partȱofȱdomesticȱlawȱasȱaȱconsequenceȱofȱratificationȱorȱaccessionȱ(inȱ
monistȱsystems).ȱ
ȱ
Statutesȱ–ȱLawsȱenactedȱbyȱtheȱlegislature,ȱsubjectȱtoȱjudicialȱreviewȱ
andȱinterpretation.ȱ
ȱ
Supremacyȱclausesȱ–ȱConstitutionalȱprovisionsȱwhichȱaffirmȱtheȱ
supremacyȱofȱtheȱConstitutionȱoverȱallȱotherȱlegislationȱorȱregulations.ȱ
ȱ
Systemȱofȱpresumptionȱ–ȱInȱcriminalȱlaw,ȱifȱcertainȱconditionsȱareȱ
gathered,ȱevenȱifȱthereȱisȱnoȱsubstantialȱevidenceȱagainstȱaȱparticularȱ
person,ȱthatȱpersonȱisȱpresumedȱguilty.ȱ
ȱ
Traditionalȱlawȱ–ȱSeeȱCustomaryȱlaw,ȱabove.
ix
HandbookȱonȱLegislativeȱReform:ȱ
RealisingȱChildren’sȱRightsȱ
ȱ
ExecutiveȱSummaryȱ
ȱ
InȱreviewingȱStatesȱParties’ȱreports,ȱtheȱCommitteeȱonȱtheȱRightsȱofȱtheȱ
Childȱ(CRCȱCommitteeȱorȱtheȱCommittee),ȱtheȱtreatyȱbodyȱwhichȱ
monitorsȱtheȱprogressȱmadeȱinȱimplementingȱtheȱConventionȱonȱtheȱ
RightsȱofȱtheȱChildȱ(CRC),ȱhasȱconsistentlyȱstressedȱtheȱneedȱforȱ
reviewȱandȱreformȱofȱnationalȱlegislationȱtoȱharmoniseȱitȱwithȱtheȱ
principlesȱandȱprovisionsȱofȱtheȱCRC.ȱTheȱCommitteeȱhasȱoftenȱ
recommendedȱthatȱSatesȱPartiesȱ“undertakeȱcomprehensiveȱreviewȱofȱ
[national]ȱlegislationȱandȱensureȱitsȱconformityȱwithȱtheȱprinciplesȱandȱ
provisionsȱofȱtheȱConvention.” 15 ȱȱ
ȱ
Directlyȱorȱindirectly,ȱtheȱCRCȱreportingȱprocessȱhasȱundoubtedlyȱ
inspiredȱlawȱreformȱinȱmanyȱStatesȱandȱdrawnȱpoliticalȱattentionȱtoȱ
children’sȱrights.ȱSeveralȱStatesȱhaveȱrespondedȱtoȱtheȱCommittee’sȱ
repeatedȱrecommendationsȱforȱreformȱofȱnationalȱlegislationȱbyȱ
enactingȱchildren’sȱcodesȱorȱchildren’sȱacts. 16 ȱOtherȱStatesȱhaveȱ
enactedȱlawsȱonȱspecificȱissuesȱrelatedȱtoȱchildren’sȱrights,ȱsuchȱasȱ
childȱlabour,ȱchildȱtrafficking,ȱfemaleȱgenitalȱmutilationȱandȱtheȱ
protectionȱofȱadolescentȱmothers.ȱStatesȱPartiesȱhaveȱalsoȱrevisedȱ
existingȱlawsȱandȱregulations,ȱandȱprovidedȱframeworksȱwhichȱ
includeȱlegalȱguaranteesȱofȱandȱresponsibilitiesȱforȱrespondingȱtoȱ
violationsȱofȱchildren’sȱrights.ȱAȱnumberȱofȱcountriesȱhaveȱadoptedȱ
Constitutionsȱwithȱprovisionsȱdedicatedȱtoȱtheȱprotectionȱofȱtheȱrightsȱ
ofȱtheȱchild. 17 ȱSomeȱhaveȱamendedȱtheirȱcriminalȱcodesȱtoȱintroduceȱ
provisionsȱdesignedȱtoȱcombatȱsexualȱexploitationȱofȱchildrenȱandȱ
punishȱperpetrators.ȱInȱtheȱareaȱofȱjuvenileȱjustice,ȱimportantȱstepsȱ
haveȱbeenȱtakenȱinȱmanyȱpartsȱofȱtheȱworldȱtoȱintegrateȱhumanȱrightsȱ
15
See, e.g., Committee on the Rights of the Child, ‘Concluding Observations: Liberia’, U.N.
Doc. CRC/C/15/Add.236 (4 June 2004), para. 10; Committee on the Rights of the Child,
‘Concluding Observations: Singapore’, U.N. Doc. CRC/C/15/Add.220 (27 October 2003),
para. 9.
16
Duncan, Beatrice. Global perspective on consolidated children’s statutes, draft working
paper UNICEF, DPP, 2007.
17
UNICEF (2005); Laying the Foundation for Children’s Rights, Innocenti Insight, p25.
x
standardsȱintoȱnationalȱlawsȱandȱpoliciesȱandȱtoȱgiveȱspecialȱattentionȱ
toȱtheȱrightsȱofȱchildrenȱinȱconflictȱwithȱtheȱlaw. 18ȱ
ȱ
However,ȱdespiteȱtheseȱadvances,ȱinȱmanyȱofȱtheȱcountriesȱwhereȱ
reformsȱhaveȱtakenȱplace,ȱtheȱCRCȱCommitteeȱhasȱfoundȱthatȱtheyȱdoȱ
notȱ“sufficientlyȱreflectȱtheȱcomprehensiveȱrightsȬbasedȱapproachȱ
enshrinedȱinȱtheȱConvention,” 19 ȱorȱthatȱtheȱlawsȱenactedȱ“doȱnotȱfullyȱ
reflectȱtheȱprinciplesȱandȱprovisionsȱofȱtheȱCRC.” 20 ȱInȱotherȱinstances,ȱ
theȱCommitteeȱhasȱobservedȱtheȱpersistenceȱofȱdiscriminationȱagainst,ȱ
amongȱothers,ȱgirls,ȱchildrenȱbornȱoutȱofȱwedlock,ȱchildrenȱwithȱ
disabilities,ȱindigenousȱchildrenȱandȱchildrenȱbelongingȱtoȱminorityȱ
groups.ȱAdditionally,ȱtheȱCommitteeȱhasȱstressedȱtheȱfailureȱofȱsomeȱ
Statesȱtoȱimplementȱorȱenforceȱalreadyȱexistingȱlaws.ȱMoreover,ȱfewȱ
StatesȱPartiesȱtoȱtheȱCRCȱhaveȱadoptedȱaȱholisticȱapproachȱtoȱ
legislativeȱreform.ȱReformȱofȱnationalȱlegislationȱhasȱbeenȱ
accomplishedȱinȱanȱisolatedȱandȱscatteredȱmannerȱwithoutȱtakingȱintoȱ
accountȱtheȱprincipleȱofȱinterconnectednessȱorȱindivisibilityȱofȱrights.ȱ
Inȱaddition,ȱlegislativeȱreformȱhasȱtendedȱtoȱbeȱdominatedȱbyȱ
lawmakers,ȱparliamentariansȱand/orȱgovernmentȱexpertsȱinȱclosedȱ
settings.ȱFewȱprocessesȱhaveȱprovidedȱanȱenvironmentȱconduciveȱtoȱ
civilȱsocietyȱparticipation,ȱmuchȱlessȱchildren’sȱparticipation. 21ȱ
ȱ
PurposeȱofȱtheȱHandbookȱȱ
ȱ
ThisȱHandbookȱonȱLegislativeȱReform:ȱRealisingȱChildren’sȱRightsȱ(theȱ
Handbook)ȱaimsȱtoȱsupportȱtheȱeffectiveȱimplementationȱofȱtheȱCRCȱ
andȱtheȱConventionȱonȱtheȱEliminationȱofȱAllȱFormsȱofȱDiscriminationȱ
againstȱWomenȱ(CEDAW), 22 ȱandȱadvanceȱgenderȱequalityȱbyȱ
influencingȱtheȱadoptionȱofȱlegislativeȱmeasures,ȱsocialȱpoliciesȱandȱ
18
For more information see Nundy, Karuna. Global Status of legislative reform related to the
CRC, UNICEF, DPP, 2004 and Desk review of legislative advances related to the CRC -
Phase I of the Legislative Reform Initiative, UNICEF, DPP, (2004).
19
See, e.g. Kuwait, U.N. Doc. CRC/C/15/Add.96 (26 October 1998); Belize, U.N. Doc.
CRC/C/15/Add.99 (10 May 1999).
20
See, e.g. Belarus, U.N. Doc. CRC/C/15/Add.17 (7 February 1994).
21
For more information see: Desk review of legislative advances related to the CRC - Phase I
of the Legislative Reform Initiative, UNICEF, DPP, (2004).
22
The Handbook is supportive of legislative initiatives in relation to CEDAW in areas that are
related to children’s rights (example, CEDAW Article 5), in addition to those which
demonstrate complementarities between women’s and children’s rights (example, CEDAW
Article 9).
xi
institutionalȱchangesȱthatȱpromoteȱgenderȱequalityȱandȱresultsȱforȱ
childrenȱthrough:ȱ
ȱ
x Contributingȱtoȱprocessesȱleadingȱtoȱtheȱeffectiveȱadoption,ȱ
enactment,ȱimplementation,ȱandȱenforcementȱofȱnationalȱ
legislationȱthatȱcompliesȱwithȱinternationalȱhumanȱrightsȱ
standardsȱandȱnorms;ȱandȱȱ
x Providingȱclearȱandȱillustrativeȱoptionsȱandȱgoodȱpracticesȱthatȱ
canȱbeȱusedȱasȱguidanceȱtoȱstrengthenȱStatesȱParties’ȱeffortsȱtoȱ
complyȱwithȱinternationalȱinstruments,ȱparticularlyȱtheȱCRCȱ
andȱCEDAW.ȱ
ȱ
ThisȱHandbookȱadvocatesȱforȱaȱhumanȱrightsȬbasedȱapproachȱtoȱ
legislativeȱreformȱwithȱgenderȱequalityȱatȱitsȱcore.ȱItȱisȱinspiredȱbyȱtheȱ
needȱforȱinnovativeȱprocessesȱandȱapproachesȱtoȱtheȱestablishmentȱofȱaȱ
legalȱframeworkȱthatȱeffectivelyȱprotectsȱchildrenȱ(bothȱgirlsȱandȱboys)ȱ
andȱensuresȱtheȱfullȱrealisationȱofȱtheirȱrights.ȱItȱisȱalsoȱmotivatedȱbyȱ
theȱneedȱtoȱdisseminateȱmoreȱwidelyȱpracticalȱexperiencesȱofȱrightsȬ
basedȱapproachesȱtoȱlegislativeȱreformȱinitiativesȱinȱfavourȱofȱchildren.ȱȱ
ȱ
UsingȱtheȱHandbookȱȱ
ȱ
TheȱHandbookȱisȱintendedȱtoȱserveȱasȱguidanceȱforȱlegislators,ȱ
parliamentarians,ȱjurists,ȱlawyers,ȱjudges,ȱlineȱministries,ȱgovernmentȱ
officials,ȱhumanȱrightsȱandȱchildren’sȱrightsȱadvocates,ȱpolicyȬmakers,ȱ
andȱforȱallȱthoseȱinvolvedȱinȱharmonizingȱnationalȱlegislationȱwithȱ
internationalȱinstruments,ȱparticularlyȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAW.ȱItȱisȱ
designedȱtoȱbeȱused,ȱinȱwholeȱorȱinȱpart,ȱasȱaȱuserȬfriendlyȱpracticalȱ
guideȱtoȱassistȱinȱlegalȱreformȱforȱtheȱrealisationȱofȱchildren’sȱrights.ȱȱ
ȱ
TheȱHandbookȱplacesȱchildrenȱatȱtheȱcentreȱofȱtheȱreformȱprocessȱbyȱ
envisagingȱthemȱasȱsubjectsȱofȱrightsȱwithȱspecialȱprotectionȱandȱ
entitlementsȱtoȱmakeȱclaimsȱfromȱdutyȱbearers.ȱItȱtakesȱintoȱaccountȱ
theȱgeneralȱprinciplesȱofȱhumanȱrightsȱlawȱinȱadditionȱtoȱthoseȱwhichȱ
deriveȱspecificallyȱfromȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAW.ȱȱTheȱHandbookȱalsoȱ
takesȱintoȱconsiderationȱtheȱgenderȱdimensionȱofȱlegislativeȱreformȱ
withȱaȱviewȱtoȱensuringȱthatȱinitiativesȱresultȱinȱtheȱeliminationȱofȱ
disparitiesȱbetweenȱboysȱandȱgirls,ȱandȱdiscriminationȱagainstȱtheȱ
latterȱgroup.ȱ
xii
ȱ
TheȱHandbookȱanalysesȱdifferentȱtypesȱofȱlegislation,ȱincludingȱ
constitutionalȱlaw,ȱspecificȱareasȱofȱlawsȱ(suchȱasȱfamilyȱlaw,ȱjuvenileȱ
justice,ȱlabourȱlaw,ȱetc.)ȱasȱwellȱasȱconsolidatedȱchildren’sȱcodes/acts.ȱItȱ
providesȱguidanceȱbothȱonȱtheȱprocessȱandȱtheȱsubstanceȱofȱlegislativeȱ
reformȱinitiatives.ȱItȱprovidesȱaȱmethodologyȱforȱreviewȱofȱlegislationȱ
andȱproposesȱaȱseriesȱofȱelementsȱforȱholisticȱandȱcomprehensiveȱ
legislativeȱreformȱinȱcomplianceȱwithȱinternationalȱinstrumentsȱandȱ
standards,ȱparticularlyȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAW.ȱȱ
ȱ
TheȱHandbookȱincludesȱexcerptsȱfromȱselectedȱprovisionsȱofȱnationalȱ
legislationȱinȱdifferentȱlegalȱsystemsȱandȱtraditions,ȱaccompaniedȱbyȱ
briefȱcommentaries.ȱTheseȱexamplesȱareȱnotȱintendedȱtoȱserveȱasȱ
modelsȱbutȱratherȱasȱillustrations.ȱ
ȱ
TheȱHandbookȱlooksȱatȱtheȱentireȱprocessȱofȱdraftingȱlegislation,ȱ
includingȱidentificationȱofȱresources,ȱbudgets,ȱandȱregulations,ȱasȱwellȱ
asȱtheȱmechanismsȱandȱinstitutionsȱneededȱtoȱensureȱtheȱeffectiveȱ
implementationȱofȱlaws.ȱItȱseeksȱtoȱencourageȱaȱgreaterȱunderstandingȱ
ofȱtheȱlinksȱbetweenȱlaw,ȱinstitutions,ȱsocialȱpolicy,ȱandȱresourceȱ
allocation.ȱFinally,ȱtheȱHandbookȱaddressesȱtheȱissuesȱofȱlegalȱ
illiteracy,ȱlawȱdissemination,ȱandȱsocialȱmobilisation,ȱpartnership,ȱandȱ
advocacyȱactivitiesȱforȱaȱmoreȱeffectiveȱprocessȱofȱformulationȱandȱ
implementationȱofȱlaws.ȱ
ȱ
ItȱisȱtheȱhopeȱthatȱthisȱHandbookȱgivesȱlifeȱtoȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAWȱbyȱ
servingȱasȱaȱreferenceȱguideȱforȱharmonisingȱnationalȱlegislationȱforȱ
childrenȱwithȱinternationalȱhumanȱrightsȱstandards.ȱ
ȱȱ
StructureȱofȱtheȱHandbookȱ
ȱ
TheȱHandbookȱisȱdividedȱintoȱvolumesȱwithȱchapters.ȱEachȱchapterȱisȱ
dividedȱintoȱsections,ȱwhichȱcanȱbeȱtakenȱasȱdistinctȱtoȱaȱcertainȱextent.ȱȱ
ȱ
Theȱvolumesȱcomplementȱeachȱother.ȱTakenȱtogether,ȱtheyȱprovideȱtheȱ
necessaryȱelementsȱforȱcomprehensiveȱandȱholisticȱlegislativeȱreformȱ
inȱcomplianceȱwithȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAW.ȱ
ȱ
xiii
VolumeȱIȱofȱtheȱHandbookȱ
ȱ
ChapterȱIȱ ComprehensiveȱandȱHolisticȱReformȱonȱ
BehalfȱofȱChildren’sȱRightsȱ
ChapterȱIIȱ AssessingȱComplianceȱofȱNationalȱ
LegislationȱwithȱInternationalȱHumanȱRightsȱ
NormsȱandȱStandardsȱȱ
ChapterȱIIIȱ ConstitutionalȱReformsȱinȱFavourȱofȱChildrenȱ
ChapterȱIVȱ LegislativeȱReformȱforȱtheȱProtectionȱofȱtheȱ
RightsȱofȱChildȱVictimsȱofȱTraffickingȱ
ChapterȱVȱ RealisingȱChildren’sȱRightsȱtoȱAdequateȱ
NutritionȱthroughȱNationalȱLegislativeȱ
Reformȱȱ
ȱ
SummaryȱofȱtheȱChaptersȱ
ȱ
Chapterȱ Iȱ “Comprehensiveȱ andȱ Holisticȱ Reformȱ onȱ Behalfȱ ofȱ
Children’sȱ Rights”ȱ setsȱ theȱ overallȱ frameworkȱ ofȱ theȱ Handbookȱ byȱ
supportingȱtheȱviewȱthatȱlegislativeȱreformȱinȱfavourȱofȱchildrenȱmustȱ
beȱgearedȱtowardsȱtheȱfulfilmentȱofȱchildren’sȱhumanȱrights.ȱ
ȱ
Chapterȱ IIȱ “Assessingȱ Complianceȱ ofȱ Nationalȱ Legislationȱ withȱ
Internationalȱ Humanȱ Rightsȱ Standardsȱ andȱ Norms”ȱ exploresȱ theȱ
reasonsȱ forȱ undertakingȱ aȱ reviewȱ andȱ possibleȱ reformȱ ofȱ nationalȱ
legislationȱrelatingȱtoȱchildren,ȱandȱoutlinesȱsomeȱofȱtheȱconsiderationsȱ
andȱ approachesȱ thatȱ canȱ beȱ usedȱ asȱ partȱ ofȱ theȱ reviewȱ andȱ reformȱ
process.ȱ
ȱ
ChapterȱIIIȱ“ConstitutionalȱReformsȱinȱFavourȱofȱChildren”ȱpresentsȱaȱ
setȱ ofȱ broadȱ guidelinesȱ onȱ possibleȱ optionsȱ forȱ theȱ formulationȱ andȱ
interpretationȱ ofȱ constitutionsȱ asȱ integralȱ partsȱ ofȱ comprehensiveȱ andȱ
holisticȱ legislativeȱ reformȱ inȱ favourȱ ofȱ children.ȱ Chapterȱ IIȱ isȱ aȱ
guidanceȱtoolȱforȱuseȱonȱtheȱoccasionȱofȱconstitutionalȱreformȱandȱcanȱ
alsoȱ serveȱ asȱ anȱ advocacyȱ toolȱ forȱ countriesȱ thatȱ haveȱ yetȱ toȱ considerȱ
reform.ȱ
ȱ
Chapterȱ IVȱ “Legislativeȱ Reformȱ forȱ theȱ Protectionȱ ofȱ theȱ Rightsȱ ofȱ
ChildȱVictimsȱofȱTrafficking”ȱfocusesȱonȱtheȱrightsȱofȱchildȱvictimsȱandȱ
theȱ legislativeȱ processesȱ forȱ protectingȱ theseȱ rights,ȱ indicatingȱ theȱ
standardsȱ towardsȱ whichȱ oneȱ shouldȱ aim.ȱ Chapterȱ IVȱ usesȱ theȱ
xiv
principlesȱ andȱ provisionsȱ ofȱ humanȱ rightsȱ instrumentsȱ asȱ basicȱ

referenceȱpointsȱforȱproposingȱlegislativeȱmeasures.ȱ
ȱ
ChapterȱVȱ“RealisingȱChildren’sȱRightsȱtoȱAdequateȱNutritionȱthroughȱ
NationalȱLegislativeȱReform”ȱaddressesȱhowȱlawsȱandȱregulationsȱcanȱ
impactȱfourȱfocusedȱnutritionȱinterventionsȱthatȱguaranteeȱchildrenȱtheȱ
rightȱ toȱ adequateȱ nutrition:ȱ 1)ȱ combatingȱ micronutrientȱ malnutrition,ȱ
primarilyȱ throughȱ foodȱ fortification;ȱ 2)ȱ protecting,ȱ promoting,ȱ andȱ
supportingȱ breastfeeding;ȱ 3)ȱ enactingȱ orȱ strengtheningȱ accompanyingȱ
socialȱ policiesȱ toȱ enableȱ womenȱ toȱ breastfeed;ȱ andȱ 4)ȱ promotingȱ
healthyȱ dietsȱ andȱ physicalȱ activityȱ toȱ reverseȱ childhoodȱ obesityȱ andȱ
resultingȱchronicȱdiseasesȱinȱdevelopedȱandȱdevelopingȱcountries.ȱȱ
xv
Manualȱsobreȱreformaȱlegislativa:ȱ
Laȱrealizaciónȱdeȱlosȱderechosȱdeȱlaȱ
infanciaȱ
ȱ
ResumenȱEjecutivoȱ
ȱ
En su examen de los informes de los Estados Parte, el Comité de los Derechos
del Niño (el Comité), el órgano creado en virtud de tratados que supervisa el
progreso alcanzado en la aplicación de la Convención sobre los Derechos del
Niño (la Convención), ha hecho hincapié sistemáticamente en la necesidad de
revisar y reformar la legislación nacional con el objetivo de armonizarla con
los principios y las disposiciones de la Convención. El Comité ha
recomendado a menudo que el Estado Parte “lleve a cabo un amplio examen
de la legislación [nacional] con miras a asegurar que su legislación interna se
ajuste plenamente a los principios y disposiciones de la Convención23 “.
Directa o indirectamente, el proceso de presentación de informes sobre la

Convención ha servido sin duda de ejemplo para la reforma legislativa en
muchos Estados y ha llamado la atención de las instancias políticas sobre los
derechos de la infancia. Varios Estados han respondido a la repetida
recomendación del Comité en favor de la reforma de la legislación nacional,
mediante la promulgación de códigos sobre la infancia o Leyes sobre la
infancia 24 . Otros países han promulgado leyes sobre cuestiones específicas
relacionadas con los derechos de la infancia, como el trabajo infantil, la trata
de niños y niñas, la mutilación genital femenina y la protección de las madres
adolescentes. Los Estados Parte han revisado también las leyes y regulaciones
existentes, y han brindado marcos que incluyen garantías jurídicas y
responsabilidades por la violación de los derechos de la infancia. Algunos
países han enmendado sus códigos penales para incorporar disposiciones
dirigidas a combatir la explotación sexual de los niños y a castigar a los
culpables. En la esfera de la justicia de menores, se han adoptado importantes
medidas en muchas partes del mundo para integrar las normas de derechos
humanos en las leyes y políticas nacionales y prestar una especial atención a
los derechos de los niños que están en conflicto con la ley 25 .
23
Véase, por ejemplo, Comité de los Derechos del Niño, “ Observaciones finales: Liberia”, U.N. Doc.
CRC/C/15/Add.236 (4 de junio de 2004), para. 10; Comité de los Derechos del Niño, “ Observaciones
finales: Singapur”, U.N. Doc. CRC/C/15/Add.220 (27 de octubre de 2003), para. 9.
24
Duncan, Beatrice. Global perspective on consolidated children’s statutes, borrador de documento de
trabajo, UNICEF, DPP, 2007.
25
Para obtener más información, véase Nundy, Karuna. Global Status of legislative reform related to the
CRC, UNICEF, DPP, 2004 y Desk review of legislative advances related to the CRC - Fase I de la
Iniciativa de Reforma Legislativa, UNICEF, DPP, (2004).
xvi
Sin embargo, a pesar de estos avances logrados en todo el mundo, en muchos

de los países donde se han llevado a cabo las reformas, el Comité ha
observado que éstas no “no son un fiel trasunto de los derechos consagrados
en la Convención 26 ”, o que las leyes promulgadas “no reflejan plenamente los
principios y disposiciones de la Convención 27 ”. En algunas ocasiones, el
Comité ha observado la persistencia de la discriminación contra las niñas y las
mujeres, contra los hijos nacidos fuera del matrimonio, contra los niños con
discapacidades, contra los niños indígenas y contra los niños que pertenecen a
grupos minoritarios. En otros casos, el Comité ha señalado la incapacidad de
aplicar o poner en vigor las leyes ya existentes. Además, pocos Estados Parte
de la Convención han adoptado un enfoque holístico a la reforma legislativa.
La reforma de la legislación nacional se ha llevado a cabo de una manera
aislada y dispersa (por ejemplo, sin tener en cuenta el principio de la
interrelación o la indivisibilidad de los derechos). Además, como es
tradicionalmente el caso, la reforma legislativa sigue siendo una tarea
ejecutada por legisladores, parlamentarios y/o expertos gubernamentales en
entornos cerrados. Pocos procesos han brindado un entorno favorable a la
participación de la sociedad civil, y mucho menos a la participación de los
niños 28 .
ObjetivoȱdelȱManualȱȱ
Este Manual sobre reforma legislativa en favor de la infancia (el Manual)

tiene como objetivo prestar apoyo a la aplicación efectiva de la Convención y
de la Convención sobre la eliminación de todas las formas de discriminación
contra la mujer (CEDAW) 29 , y promover la igualdad entre los géneros
influyendo en la aprobación de medidas legislativas, políticas sociales y
cambios institucionales que fomenten la igualdad entre los géneros y tengan
como resultado cambios reales y positivos para la infancia.
Los objetivos fundamentales del Manual son:

x Contribuir a los procesos que conducen a la aprobación, promulgación
y aplicación y puesta en vigor efectivas de leyes nacionales que
cumplan con las normas y regulaciones internacionales de derechos
humanos; y
x Brindar opciones claras e instructivas y buenas prácticas que puedan
utilizarse como orientación para reforzar las actividades de los
26
Véase, por ejemplo, Kuwait, U.N. Doc. CRC/C/15/Add.96 (26 de octubre de 1998); Belice, U.N. Doc.
CRC/C/15/Add.99 (10 de mayo de 1999).
27
Véase, por ejemplo, Belarús, U.N. Doc. CRC/C/15/Add.17 (7 de febrero de 1994).
28
Para obtener más información, véase: Desk review of legislative advances related to the CRC -
Phase I of the Legislative Reform Initiative, UNICEF, DPP, (2004).
29
El Manual apoya las iniciativas legislativas relacionadas con la Convención sobre la
eliminación de todas las formas de discriminación contra la mujer en esferas que están
relacionadas con los derechos de la infancia (por ejemplo, el artículo 5) además de aquellos
que demuestren una complementariedad entre los derechos de las mujeres y los niños (por
ejemplo, el artículo 9).
xvii
Estados Parte dirigidas a cumplir con los instrumentos

internacionales, especialmente con la Convención y la CEDAW.
Este Manual promueve un enfoque basado en los derechos humanos con

respecto a la reforma legislativa en favor de la infancia. Se inspira en la
necesidad de establecer procesos y enfoques innovadores para establecer un
marco jurídico que proteja eficazmente a los niños y garantice la plena
realización de sus derechos. También está motivado por la necesidad de
difundir experiencias más amplias y prácticas de los enfoques sobre las
iniciativas de reforma legislativa en favor de la infancia basados en los
derechos.
UtilizaciónȱdelȱManualȱȱ
El objetivo del Manual es servir de orientación a legisladores, parlamentarios,

juristas, abogados, jueces, ministros del ramo, oficiales gubernamentales,
defensores de los derechos humanos y de los derechos de la infancia,
encargados de establecer políticas y a todos aquellos que participen en tareas
dirigidas a la armonización de la legislación nacional con los instrumentos
internacionales, especialmente la Convención y la CEDAW.
El Manual está concebido para que se utilice, en su totalidad o en parte, como

una guía práctica que sirva de asistencia en la reforma legislativa para la
realización de los derechos de la infancia. Está escrito en un lenguaje simple y
por tanto lo pueden utilizar todas las personas e instituciones interesadas en
las iniciativas de reforma legislativa en favor de la infancia.
El Manual sitúa a los niños en el centro de los procesos de reforma al

considerarles como sujetos de derechos, con derechos a una protección
especial y a exigir su cumplimiento a los detentores de obligaciones. Tiene en
cuenta los principios generales de la legislación sobre derechos humanos,
además de los que figuran en la Convención y la CEDAW. El Manual tiene
también en cuenta las dimensiones de género de la reforma legislativa con
miras a garantizar que las iniciativas tengan como resultado la eliminación de
las disparidades entre los niños y las niñas.
El Manual analiza diferentes tipos de leyes, entre ellos leyes constitucionales,

esferas específicas de las leyes (como la ley de la familia, la justicia de
menores, la ley laboral, etc.) así como los códigos/leyes consolidados sobre la
infancia. Ofrece orientación tanto sobre el proceso como sobre la sustancia de
las iniciativas de reforma legislativa. Sin caer en la jerga jurídica, el Manual
establece una metodología para el examen de la legislación y propone una
serie de elementos para una reforma holística y amplia, de conformidad con
los instrumentos y normas internacionales, especialmente la Convención y la
CEDAW.
xviii
A manera de ejemplos, el Manual incluye pasajes extraídos de una selección

de disposiciones legislativas nacionales, acompañados de comentarios breves,
y toma nota de los diferentes sistemas jurídicos y tradiciones. Estos ejemplos
no pretenden servir como “modelos” de legislación o como una “fórmula
mágica”, sino más bien como indicaciones y fuentes de inspiración para el
lenguaje y las disposiciones que se utilizan en la legislación nacional de los
Estados Parte de la Convención. Por tanto, el Manual presenta un marco
flexible, que el Estado puede adaptar a su sistema jurídico y a sus exigencias
nacionales particulares.
El Manual analiza todo el proceso de redacción de leyes, que incluye la

definición de los recursos, presupuestos y regulaciones, así como los
mecanismos e instituciones necesarios para garantizar una aplicación eficaz de
las leyes. Procura alentar una mayor comprensión de los vínculos entre las
leyes, las instituciones, la política social y la asignación de recursos.
Finalmente, el Manual aborda cuestiones como el desconocimiento de las
leyes, la diseminación de las leyes y la movilización social, las asociaciones y
las actividades de promoción para que el proceso de formulación y aplicación
de las leyes sea más eficaz.
Se espera que este Manual sirva como guía de consulta para armonizar la
legislación nacional en favor de la infancia con las normas internacionales de
derechos humanos, y para dotar de contenido a la Convención y la CEDAW.
EstructuraȱdelȱManualȱȱ
El Manual está dividido en varios volúmenes, que incluyen una serie de

capítulos principales. Cada capítulo se divide a su vez en diferentes secciones,
que hasta cierto punto pueden considerarse como entidades separadas.
Los distintos volúmenes están concebidos para que se complementen el uno al

otro y, en su conjunto, ofrecen todos los elementos necesarios para una
reforma amplia e integral en línea con la Convención y la CEDAW.
Volumen I del Manual
El primer volumen incluye los cinco capítulos siguientes:
Capítulo I Reforma amplia e integral en favor de la infancia

Capítulo II Armonización de la legislación nacional relativa a
la infancia con las normas y regulaciones
internacionales de derechos humanos
Capítulo III Reformas constitucionales en favor de la infancia
Capítulo IV Cumplimiento de los derechos de la infancia a una
nutrición adecuada por medio de la reforma
legislativa nacional
xix
Capítulo V Reforma legislativa para la protección de los

derechos de los niños víctimas de la trata
Resumen de los capítulos
El Capítulo I “Reforma amplia e integral en favor de la infancia” establece el

tono general del Manual, al apoyar el punto de vista de que la reforma
legislativa en favor de la infancia debe estar dirigida hacia el cumplimiento de
los derechos humanos de los niños.
El Capítulo II “Armonización de la legislación nacional relativa a la infancia

con las normas y regulaciones internacionales de derechos humanos” explora
las razones para llevar a cabo una revisión y una posible reforma de la
legislación nacional relacionada con la infancia, y describe algunas de las
consideraciones y enfoques que pueden utilizarse como parte del proceso de
revisión y reforma.
El Capítulo III “Reformas constitucionales en favor de la infancia” presenta

una serie de directrices amplias sobre posibles opciones para la formulación e
interpretación de las constituciones como parte integral de una reforma
legislativa amplia y holística en favor de la infancia. El Capítulo III tiene
carácter de promoción, y sirve de instrumento orientativo para su utilización
en ocasión de una reforma constitucional, y también es un llamado de
atención para los países que todavía no han tomado en consideración la
necesidad de una reforma.
El Capítulo IV “Cumplimiento de los derechos de la infancia a una nutrición

adecuada por medio de la reforma legislativa nacional” describe cómo las
leyes y regulaciones pueden repercutir en cuatro intervenciones centradas en
la nutrición que son elementos cruciales en la combinación que garantiza a la
infancia el derecho a una nutrición adecuada: 1) combatir la desnutrición de
micronutrientes, especialmente por medio del enriquecimiento de los
alimentos; 2) proteger, promover y apoyar la lactancia materna; 3) promulgar
o reforzar las políticas sociales complementarias que permiten amamantar a
las mujeres; y 4) promover regímenes alimentarios sanos y actividades físicas
para contrarrestar la alarmante tendencia hacia la obesidad infantil y las
enfermedades crónicas resultantes, tanto en los países en desarrollo como
desarrollados.
El Capítulo V “Reforma legislativa para la protección de los derechos de los

niños víctimas de la trata” se centra en los derechos de las víctimas infantiles
y de los procesos legislativos para proteger estos derechos, e indica las normas
que deben ser el objetivo de todos. Como ocurre con los otros capítulos, el
Capítulo V utiliza los principios y las disposiciones de los instrumentos de
derechos humanos como punto de referencia básico para proponer medidas
xx
legislativas, que deben en última instancia conducir al cumplimiento de los

derechos de la infancia en esta esfera.ȱ
xxi
Manuelȱrelatifȱàȱlaȱréformeȱdeȱlaȱlégislationȱ:ȱ
Laȱréalisationȱdesȱdroitsȱdeȱl’enfantȱ
ȱ
RésuméȱAnalytiqueȱ
ȱ
Lors de son examen des rapports soumis par les États Parties à la Convention
relative aux droits de l’enfant (CDE), le Comité des droits de l’enfant (Comité
CDE ou le Comité), l’organe créé aux fins d’application de la CDE qui suit les
progrès accomplis en faveur de sa mise en œuvre, a souligné à maintes
reprises qu’un examen et une réforme des législations nationales s’imposait à
des fins d’harmonisation avec les principes et les dispositions de la CDE. Le
Comité a recommandé plusieurs fois aux États Parties de « procéder à un
examen approfondi de [leur] législation [nationale] pour veiller à ce qu’elle
soit pleinement conformes aux principes et aux dispositions de la
Convention » 30 .
Directement ou indirectement le mécanisme d’établissement des rapports de la

CDE a indubitablement été à l’origine des réformes législatives entreprises par
de nombreux États, et il a attiré l’attention des cercles politiques sur les droits
de l’enfant. Plusieurs États ont tenu compte des efforts du Comité qui leur a
recommandé à plusieurs reprises d’entreprendre des réformes de leur
législation nationale en promulguant des codes ou des textes de loi en faveur
des enfants 31 . D’autres pays ont adopté des lois sur des aspects spécifiques des
droits de l’enfant, comme le travail des enfants, la traite d’enfants, les
mutilations génitales féminines et la protection des mères adolescentes. Les
États Parties ont également amendé les lois et réglementations en vigueur, et
créé des cadres comprenant des garanties et des responsabilités juridiques en
cas de violations des droits de l’enfant. Certains pays ont amendé leur code
pénal en introduisant des dispositions ayant pour but de lutter contre
l’exploitation sexuelle des enfants et de punir les auteurs de tels délits. Dans le
domaine de la justice appliquée aux mineurs, des mesures importantes ont été
prises dans plusieurs régions du monde visant à intégrer les normes qui sous-
tendent les droits de l’homme dans les législations et politiques nationales, et
à apporter une attention particulière aux droits des enfants en conflit avec la
loi 32 .
30
Voir, par ex.., Comité des droits de l’enfant, ‘Observations finales : Libéria’, Doc. ONU :
CRC/C/15/Add.236 (4 juin 2004), par. 10; Comité des droits de l’enfant, ‘Observations finale :
Singapour’, Doc. ONU : CRC/C/15/Add.220 (27 octobre 2003), par. 9.
31
Duncan, Beatrice. Global perspective on consolidated children’s statutes, projet de document de
travail, DPP, 2007.
32
Pour plus d’informations, consulter Nundy, Karuna. Global Status of legislative reform related to the
CDE, UNICEF, DPP, 2004 et Desk review of legislative advances related to the CRC - Phase I de
l’Initiative de réforme législative, UNICEF, DPP, (2004).
xxii
Toutefois, malgré ces progrès, dans plusieurs des pays où des réformes sont
intervenues, le Comité a constaté que « les dispositions et les principes
contenus dans la Convention ne sont pas complètement traduits dans le droit
interne » 33 , ou que les lois adoptées ne sont pas « pleinement compatibles
avec les dispositions et les principes de la Convention »34 . Dans d’autres cas,
le Comité a observé une persistance de la discrimination à l’égard des filles et
des femmes, des enfants nés en dehors des liens du mariage, des enfants
handicapés, des enfants autochtones et des enfants appartenant à des groupes
minoritaires. Dans d’autres cas, le Comité a constaté que les législateurs
avaient fait leur travail mais que les lois n’étaient pas appliquées. Par ailleurs,
seuls quelques États Parties à la CDE ont abordé leur réforme législative dans
une optique générale. Les réformes des législations nationales ont souvent été
menées en l’absence de toute coordination (sans tenir compte du principe
d’indivisibilité des droits et des liens qui les unissent). En outre,
conformément à la tradition, les réformes législatives ont été menées à bien en
vase clos par des législateurs, des parlementaires et/ou des experts
gouvernementaux. Rares sont celles qui sont le fruit d’une participation de la
société civile, et encore moins des enfants 35 .
Pourquoiȱceȱmanuelȱȱ
Ce Manuel sur les réformes législatives en faveur des enfants (le Manuel) a
pour but de soutenir la mise en œuvre de la CDE et de la Convention sur
l’élimination de toutes les formes de discrimination à l’égard des femmes
(CEDAW) 36 , et de promouvoir l’égalité des sexes en pesant en faveur de
l’adoption de mesures législatives, de politiques sociales et de changements
institutionnels favorables à l’égalité des sexes et entraînant des changements
réels et positifs pour les enfants.
Les principaux objectifs poursuivis avec ce Manuel sont les suivants :

x Contribuer à des mécanismes entraînant l’adoption, la promulgation et
l’application d’une législation nationale conforme aux normes et
règles internationales relatives aux droits de l’homme; et
x Fournir des options claires, des illustrations et des pratiques
couronnées de succès pouvant servir de d’encadrement pour renforcer
les initiatives des États Parties visant à se mettre en conformité avec
les instruments internationaux, notamment la CDE et la CEDAW.
33
Voir par ex. Kuweït, Doc. ONU CRC/C/15/Add.96 (26 octobre 1998); Belize, Doc ONU.
CRC/C/15/Add.99 (10 mai 1999).
34
Voir par ex. Bélarus, Doc ONU. CRC/C/15/Add.17 (7 février 1994).
35
Pour plus d’informations, consulter : Desk review of legislative advances related to the CRC -
Phase I de l’Initiative de réforme législative, UNICEF, DPP, (2004).
36
Le présent Manuel soutient les initiatives législatives relatives à la CEDAW dans la mesure
où elles ont un rapport avec les droits de l’enfant (par exemple, l’Article 5 de la CEDAW) en
plus des initiatives qui révèlent la complémentarité des droits des femmes et des enfants (par
exemple, l’Article 9 de la CEDAW).
xxiii
Le présent Manuel préconise d’inscrire les réformes législatives en faveur des

enfants dans la perspective des droits fondamentaux. Il s’inspire de la
nécessité d’avoir recours à des approches et mécanismes novateurs lors de la
création d’un cadre juridique capable de protéger efficacement les enfants et
de garantir la réalisation totale de leurs droits. Il est aussi le fruit d’une prise
de conscience : la nécessité de faire mieux connaître en pratique les réformes
législatives en faveur des enfants menées dans l’optique des droits
fondamentaux.
UtilisationȱduȱManuelȱȱ
Ce Manuel servira de référence aux législateurs, parlementaires, juristes,

avocats, juges, employés des ministères, fonctionnaires, défenseurs des droits
de l’homme et des droits de l’enfant, décideurs, et à tous ceux qui contribuent
à l’harmonisation des législations nationales avec les instruments
internationaux, en particulier la CDE et la CEDAW.
Ce Manuel devrait servir de guide pratique, dans son intégralité ou par

chapitre, encourageant les réformes législatives en faveur de la réalisation des
droits de l’enfant. Il a été rédigé dans une langue simple de façon à pouvoir
être utilisé par toute personne ou institution soucieuse de mener à bien une
réforme législative en faveur des enfants.
Ce Manuel place les enfants au centre du mécanisme de réforme en les

considérant comme des détenteurs de droits devant bénéficier d’une protection
spéciale et susceptibles de faire valoir leurs droits auprès de ceux qui ont des
devoirs à leur égard. Il prend en compte les principes généraux des
instruments relatifs aux droits de l’homme en plus de ceux qui sous-tendent la
CDE et la CEDAW. Le présent manuel tient aussi compte de la composante
femmes dans la réforme législative dans le but de s’assurer que les initiatives
contribuent à l’élimination des disparités entre les filles et les garçons.
Le manuel analyse différent types de législations : droit constitutionnel,

domaines spécifiques du droit (droit de la famille, justice appliquée aux
mineurs, droit du travail, etc.) ainsi que les codes ou instruments qui
concernent les enfants. Il fournit des conseils à la fois sur les mécanismes et la
substance des réformes législatives. Sans tomber dans le jargon juridique, le
Manuel propose une méthodologie d’examen de la législation et une série
d’éléments constituant d’une réforme globale et en profondeur de la
législation, en conformité avec les normes et instruments internationaux, en
particulier la CDE et la CEDAW.
À titre d’exemple, le Manuel cite des extraits de dispositions des législations

nationales accompagnés de brefs commentaires en tenant compte des divers
systèmes juridiques et traditions. Ces exemples ne sont pas là pour servir de
« modèles » de législation ou de « formule magique », mais ce sont plutôt des
xxiv
illustrations et des sources d’inspiration concernant l’énoncé et la manière

dont les États Parties à la CDE ont inscrit les dispositions dans leur législation
nationale. Ainsi, le Manuel propose un cadre souple que l’État adaptera à son
système juridique et aux conditions nationales qui lui sont propres.
Le Manuel décrit le mécanisme de rédaction d’un projet de loi dans son

intégralité, en commençant par l’identification des ressources, des budgets et
des réglementations, jusqu’aux mécanismes et institutions indispensables pour
garantir l’application des lois. Il s’efforce de promouvoir une meilleure
compréhension des liens qui unissent les textes de lois, les institutions, les
politiques sociales et l’allocation des ressources. Enfin, le Manuel aborde
divers autres problèmes : méconnaissance des lois, diffusion des lois,
mobilisation sociale, partenariats et activités de sensibilisation afin de
renforcer l’efficacité du processus de formulation et d’application des lois.
Ce Manuel a été conçu dans le but de servir de guide lors de l’harmonisation
des législations nationales en faveur des enfants avec les normes
internationales relatives aux droits de l’homme et de donner vie à la CDE et à
la CEDAW.
StructureȱduȱManuelȱ
Le Manuel est divisé en plusieurs volumes comprenant chacun plusieurs

chapitres importants. Chaque chapitre est ensuite divisé en différentes
sections, qui peuvent être abordées séparément dans une certaine mesure.
Les différents volumes se complètent et l’ensemble contient tous les éléments

indispensables à l’entreprise d’une réforme globale et en profondeur de la
législation en conformité avec la CDE et la CEDAW.
Volume I du Manuel
Le premier volume se compose de cinq chapitres :
Chapitre I Réforme globale et en profondeur de la législation

en faveur des enfants
Chapitre II Conformité de la législation nationale relative aux
enfants avec les standards et les normes des
instruments internationaux relatifs aux droits de
l’homme
Chapitre III Réformes constitutionnelles en faveur des enfants
Chapitre IV Réalisation du droit de l’enfant à une nutrition
adéquate grâce à une réforme de la législation
nationale
Chapitre V Réforme de la législation sur la protection des
droits des enfants victimes de la traite d’enfants
xxv
Résumé des chapitres
Le Chapitre I « Réforme globale et en profondeur de la législation en faveur

des enfants » donne le ton du Manuel en affirmant que toute réforme de la
législation en faveur des enfants doit être axée sur la réalisation des droits
fondamentaux des enfants.
Le Chapitre II « Conformité de la législation nationale relative aux enfants

avec les standards et les normes des instruments internationaux relatifs aux
droits de l’homme » explore les raisons pour lesquelles un gouvernement
entreprendra un examen et éventuellement une réforme de sa législation
nationale relative aux enfants, et il décrit certaines considérations et méthodes
qui s’avéreront utiles lors de l’examen et de la réforme.
Le Chapitre III « Réformes constitutionnelles en faveur des enfants » présente

un jeu de directives générales sur les options possibles en termes de
formulation et d’interprétation des Constitutions en tant qu’éléments intégraux
d’une réforme globale et en profondeur de la législation en faveur des enfants.
Le Chapitre III relève de la sensibilisation, se voulant outil d’orientation à
utiliser lors des réformes constitutionnelles et servant aussi de signal d’alarme
pour les pays qui n’ont pas encore envisagé de réforme.
Le Chapitre IV « Réalisation du droit de l’enfant à une nutrition adéquate

grâce à une réforme de la législation nationale » parle de la manière dont les
lois et les réglementations peuvent avoir un impact sur quatre interventions
relatives à la nutrition qui sont des éléments cruciaux d’un ensemble qui
garantit aux enfants le droit à une nutrition adéquate : 1) combattre la
malnutrition due à la carence en micronutriments, essentiellement grâce à
l’enrichissement des aliments; 2) protéger, promouvoir et soutenir
l’allaitement maternel; 3) adopter ou renforcer des politiques sociales
d’accompagnement pour permettre aux femmes de nourrir au sein; et 4)
promouvoir des régimes alimentaires sains et l’activité physique pour inverser
la tendance alarmante à l’obésité chez les enfants et les maladies chroniques
qui en résultent dans les pays développés comme dans les pays en
développement.
LeȱChapitreȱVȱ«ȱRéformeȱdeȱlaȱlégislationȱsurȱlaȱprotectionȱdesȱdroitsȱ
desȱenfantsȱvictimesȱdeȱlaȱtraiteȱd’enfantsȱ»ȱexamineȱlesȱdroitsȱdesȱ
enfantsȱvictimesȱdeȱlaȱtraiteȱd’enfantsȱetȱlesȱmesuresȱlégislativesȱquiȱ
permettentȱdeȱprotégerȱcesȱdroits,ȱetȱilȱdécritȱlesȱnormesȱversȱlesquellesȱ
lesȱpaysȱdevraientȱtendre.ȱCommeȱlesȱautresȱchapitres,ȱleȱChapitreȱVȱ
s’appuieȱsurȱlesȱprincipesȱetȱdispositionsȱdesȱinstrumentsȱrelatifsȱauxȱ
droitsȱdeȱl’hommeȱquiȱserventȱdeȱréférenceȱdeȱbaseȱpourȱproposerȱdesȱ
mesuresȱlégislativesȱdevantȱmenerȱenȱfinȱdeȱcompteȱauȱrespectȱdesȱ
droitsȱdeȱl’enfantȱdansȱceȱdomaine.ȱ
xxvi
Chapterȱ1ȱ
ȱ
COMPREHENSIVEȱANDȱHOLISTICȱ
LEGISLATIVEȱREFORMȱONȱ
BEHALFȱOFȱCHILDREN’SȱRIGHTSȱ
ȱ
TheȱadoptionȱofȱtheȱConventionȱonȱtheȱRightsȱofȱtheȱChildȱ(CRC) 37 ȱ
wasȱaȱmajorȱbreakthroughȱinȱtheȱpromotionȱandȱprotectionȱofȱ
children’sȱrights.ȱTheȱCRCȱmovedȱbeyondȱguaranteeingȱprotectionȱtoȱ
children,ȱtoȱclearlyȱspellingȱoutȱchildren’sȱstatusȱasȱholdersȱofȱrights,ȱinȱ
allȱaspectsȱofȱcivil,ȱpolitical,ȱeconomic,ȱsocialȱandȱculturalȱlife.ȱArticleȱ4ȱ
ofȱtheȱCRC 38 ȱsetsȱoutȱtheȱoverallȱobligationȱ“toȱtakeȱappropriateȱ
legislative,ȱadministrativeȱandȱotherȱmeasures”ȱtoȱimplementȱtheȱ
rightsȱguaranteedȱbyȱtheȱCRCȱandȱthus,ȱimpliesȱthatȱ“legislativeȱ
reform”ȱisȱoneȱofȱtheȱmostȱeffectiveȱentryȱpointsȱandȱstrategiesȱtoȱ
advanceȱchildren’sȱrights.ȱȱItȱsuggestsȱthatȱlegislativeȱreformȱwithȱtheȱ
mereȱobjectiveȱofȱ‘puttingȱtheȱlawȱinȱplace’ 39 ȱisȱinadequateȱtoȱachieveȱ
bothȱharmonizationȱofȱnationalȱlegislationȱwithȱtheȱCRCȱandȱeffectiveȱ
implementationȱofȱchildren’sȱrights.ȱ
ȱ
TheȱCRCȱprovidesȱanȱopportunityȱtoȱadoptȱanȱapproachȱbasedȱonȱtheȱ
recognitionȱofȱtheȱrightsȱofȱtheȱchild,ȱusingȱtheȱprinciplesȱandȱ
provisionsȱofȱtheȱConventionȱasȱaȱfundamentalȱreferenceȱpointȱforȱtheȱ
processȱandȱcontentȱofȱlegislativeȱreform.ȱTheȱCRCȱestablishesȱgroundsȱ
forȱcomprehensiveȱandȱholisticȱlegislativeȱreformsȱthatȱrequireȱStatesȱ
Partiesȱtoȱexamineȱtheȱwholeȱspectrumȱofȱlegislationȱandȱregulationsȱ
thatȱaffectȱtheȱrealisationȱofȱchildren’sȱrightsȱȬȱfromȱconstitutionalȱandȱ
penalȱreformsȱtoȱreformsȱofȱjudicialȱsystemsȱȬȱandȱadoptȱlegislationȱ
andȱregulationsȱwhichȱreflectȱtheȱinterconnectedȱnatureȱofȱtheȱrightsȱ
guaranteedȱbyȱtheȱCRC.ȱThisȱholisticȱapproachȱtoȱpolicyȱplanningȱandȱ
37
The CRC was adopted by the UN General Assembly on 20 November 1989.
38
CRC, Article 4.
39
Goonesekere, Savitri, Protecting the world’s children: Impact of the Convention on the
Rights of the Child in diverse legal systems, Introduction and Overview, UNICEF, Cambridge
University Press (2007).
1
implementationȱisȱessentialȱifȱlegislativeȱreformȱisȱtoȱresultȱinȱpositiveȱ
changesȱforȱchildren.ȱȱ
ȱ
Thisȱchapterȱpresentsȱanȱapproachȱtoȱlegislativeȱreformȱthatȱisȱ
concernedȱwithȱunderstandingȱtheȱcriticalȱindivisibilityȱofȱcivilȱandȱ
political,ȱcultural,ȱeconomicȱandȱsocialȱrightsȱfromȱanȱinterȬdisciplinaryȱ
perspective,ȱandȱthatȱencompassesȱdifferentȱinterventions,ȱasȱwellȱasȱ
integratedȱmeasuresȱtoȱrealiseȱchildren’sȱrights. 40ȱ
ȱ
Partȱ1ȱ HUMANȱRIGHTSȬBASEDȱ
APPROACHȱTOȱLEGISLATIVEȱREFORMȱ
ȱ
1.1ȱ HumanȱRightsȬbasedȱLegislativeȱReformȱ
ȱ
Thereȱisȱnoȱsingleȱdefinitionȱofȱlegislativeȱreform.ȱExpertsȱworkingȱinȱ
thisȱfieldȱhaveȱusuallyȱdefinedȱtheȱconceptȱforȱthemselvesȱandȱitȱisȱ
oftenȱunderstoodȱinȱaȱnarrowȱsense,ȱasȱmerelyȱchangingȱlaws.ȱȱ
ȱ
However,ȱlegislativeȱreformȱencompassesȱmoreȱthanȱmerelyȱ“puttingȱ
theȱlawȱinȱplace.”ȱItȱinvolvesȱreviewingȱandȱreformingȱnotȱonlyȱlawsȱ
(i.e.ȱlegislationȱalreadyȱinȱplace)ȱbutȱalsoȱthoseȱmeasuresȱnecessaryȱtoȱ
effectivelyȱimplementȱthemȱȬȱregulations,ȱinstitutions,ȱpolicies,ȱbudgetȱ
allocationsȱandȱtheȱprocessȱofȱreformȱinȱtheȱcountry. 41 ȱȱ
ȱ
Fromȱaȱhumanȱrightsȱperspective,ȱlegislativeȱreformȱrelatedȱtoȱtheȱCRCȱ
isȱanȱapproachȱbasedȱonȱtheȱfullȱrecognitionȱofȱtheȱequalȱrightsȱofȱ
children,ȱboysȱandȱgirls,ȱasȱsubjectsȱofȱrightsȱinȱsociety.ȱItȱisȱanȱ
approachȱthatȱdemandsȱfullȱpublicȱparticipationȱinȱtheȱdrafting,ȱdebateȱ
andȱapprovalȱofȱlegislationȱbyȱallȱthoseȱdirectlyȱorȱindirectlyȱaffectedȱ
byȱtheȱlegislation.ȱItȱisȱalsoȱanȱapproachȱthatȱisȱdirectedȱtowardsȱtheȱ
effectiveȱimplementationȱofȱsuchȱlegislationȱinȱallȱsegmentsȱofȱsocietyȱ
andȱallȱaspectsȱofȱchildren’sȱlives.ȱȱ
ȱ
40
Based on Perrault, Nadine, Bringing Child Rights to Reality, Needs and Prospects: Beyond
the law prepared for the International interdisciplinary course on children’s rights, Ghent
University, UNICEF, DPP (2006).
41
Hall, Erica, Something to think about, Internal bulletin sponsored by the Global Policy
Section, UNICEF, Bulletin no. 40 (April 2006).
2
AȱhumanȱrightsȬbasedȱapproachȱ(HRBA)ȱtoȱlegislativeȱreformȱmayȱbeȱ
definedȱasȱaȱframeworkȱforȱensuringȱfullȱcomplianceȱofȱnationalȱ
legislationȱwithȱinternationalȱhumanȱrightsȱnormsȱandȱconcreteȱ
realizationȱofȱhumanȱrights.ȱȱ
ȱ
1.2ȱȱ HumanȱRightsȱPrinciplesȱandȱLegislativeȱReformȱ
ȱ
Theȱcoreȱhumanȱrightsȱprinciples 42 ȱguideȱlegislativeȱreformȱinitiatives.ȱ
Theseȱprinciplesȱare:ȱa)ȱuniversalityȱofȱrights;ȱb)ȱinterdependenceȱandȱ
interȬconnectednessȱofȱrights,ȱ(holisticȱvisionȱwithȱemphasisȱonȱ
prioritiesȱandȱstrategiesȱtoȱsecureȱrightsȱinȱtheȱcontextȱofȱavailableȱ
resources);ȱc)ȱnonȬdiscriminationȱandȱequality;ȱd)ȱparticipationȱofȱallȱ
stakeholdersȱasȱaȱrightȱ(ownershipȱandȱsustainability);ȱe)ȱ
accountabilityȱofȱallȱdutyȱbearersȱforȱhumanȱrightsȱobligationsȱandȱtheȱ
ruleȱofȱlaw. 43 ȱȱInȱaddition,ȱanȱHRBAȱtoȱlegislativeȱreformȱrelatedȱtoȱtheȱ
CRCȱtakesȱintoȱaccountȱtheȱguidingȱprinciplesȱofȱtheȱConvention.ȱAsȱ
such,ȱtheȱprincipleȱofȱtheȱbestȱinterestsȱofȱtheȱchildȱshouldȱbeȱtheȱbasisȱ
uponȱwhichȱallȱeffortsȱtoȱreformȱnationalȱlegislation,ȱcustomsȱandȱ
practicesȱareȱundertaken.ȱȱ
ȱ
1.ȱUniversalityȱofȱRightsȱ
ȱ
Anȱapproachȱtoȱlegislativeȱreformȱbasedȱonȱhumanȱrightsȱrecognizesȱ
thatȱallȱhumanȱrightsȱapplyȱequallyȱinȱallȱcultures,ȱtraditionsȱandȱ
politicalȱsystems,ȱwithoutȱadjustmentȱorȱmitigation.ȱAnȱHRBAȱtoȱ
legislativeȱreformȱrequiresȱtheȱdevelopmentȱofȱaȱlegalȱframeworkȱthatȱ
effectivelyȱprotectsȱandȱfulfilsȱtheȱrightsȱofȱallȱchildren,ȱbothȱboysȱandȱ
girls.ȱLegislativeȱreformȱthatȱcapturesȱtheȱprincipleȱofȱuniversalityȱofȱ
rightsȱshouldȱbeȱaimedȱatȱensuringȱinclusiveness,ȱespeciallyȱinȱfavourȱ
ofȱtraditionallyȱexcludedȱgroups.44ȱThus,ȱitȱcallsȱforȱtheȱabolishmentȱofȱ
“anyȱdistinction,ȱexclusion,ȱrestrictionȱorȱpreference”45ȱwhichȱhasȱtheȱ
effectȱofȱnullifyingȱorȱimpairingȱtheȱrecognition,ȱenjoymentȱorȱexerciseȱ
ofȱallȱtheȱrightsȱsetȱforthȱinȱtheȱCRC.ȱAtȱtheȱsameȱtime,ȱuniversalȱ
enjoymentȱofȱrightsȱimpliesȱtakingȱpositiveȱmeasures,ȱthroughȱtheȱ
42
UN Common Understanding on HRBA (Stanford Consensus, 2003).
43
Core principles of a rights-based approach to programming (from Core Course: Human
Rights Principles for Programming).
44
For more details see: Duncan, Beatrice. Chapter III of the Handbook, Constitutional
reforms in favour of children, UNICEF, DPP (2007).
45
CCPR General Comment no. 18 on Non-discrimination, Human Rights Committee (1989).
3
adoptionȱofȱlegislativeȱprovisionsȱinȱfavourȱofȱchildrenȱinȱvulnerableȱ
situationsȱ(e.g.,ȱasylumȱseekers,ȱmigrantȱchildren,ȱchildrenȱwithȱ
disabilities,ȱchildrenȱinȱconflictȱwithȱtheȱlawȱetc.).ȱ
ȱ
2.ȱInterdependenceȱofȱRightsȱ
ȱ
AnȱHRBAȱtoȱlegislativeȱreformȱrecognizesȱthatȱeachȱrightȱisȱdependentȱ
onȱtheȱfulfilmentȱofȱallȱtheȱotherȱrightsȱandȱthatȱthereforeȱallȱrightsȱ
mustȱbeȱrespected.ȱThus,ȱtranslatingȱtheȱprincipleȱofȱinterdependenceȱ
ofȱrightsȱrequiresȱadoptingȱaȱcomprehensiveȱandȱbalancedȱapproachȱ
thatȱfocusesȱonȱtheȱfullȱrangeȱofȱrights.ȱAllȱlawsȱ(constitutional,ȱcivil,ȱ
penal,ȱlabour,ȱsocialȱetc.),ȱasȱwellȱasȱallȱcomponentsȱofȱtheȱjudicialȱ
systemȱmustȱtoȱbeȱreviewedȱand,ȱifȱnecessary,ȱamendedȱinȱlightȱofȱthisȱ
understanding.ȱThisȱrequiresȱaȱrevisionȱofȱtheȱentireȱlegalȱframeworkȱ
soȱasȱtoȱensureȱthatȱitȱisȱcoherentȱandȱdoesȱnotȱcontradictȱitself.ȱForȱ
instance,ȱfromȱaȱrightsȱperspective,ȱpreventingȱchildȱmarriageȱrequiresȱ
ensuringȱthatȱtheȱminimumȱageȱforȱmarriageȱisȱhigherȱthanȱtheȱ
minimumȱschoolȬleavingȱageȱandȱtheȱminimumȱageȱofȱemployment.ȱ
Children’sȱaccessȱtoȱjusticeȱandȱimplementingȱagenciesȱ(includingȱtheȱ
courts),ȱthroughȱtheȱdevelopmentȱofȱlegalȱassistanceȱprogrammes,ȱ
accessibleȱcomplaintsȱmechanismsȱandȱchildȬfriendlyȱandȱgenderȱ
sensitiveȱcourtȱprocedures,ȱalsoȱrequiresȱadequateȱattention.ȱ
ȱ
AnȱHRBAȱtoȱlegislativeȱreformȱlogicallyȱleadsȱtoȱtheȱrealisationȱofȱtheȱ
otherȱhumanȱrightsȱinstrumentsȱthatȱaȱcountryȱhasȱratified.ȱTheȱCRCȱ
andȱtheȱCEDAWȱare,ȱforȱexample,ȱinterrelatedȱinȱseveralȱaspects.ȱ
TheseȱaspectsȱincludeȱinterȱaliaȱtheȱprotectionȱagainstȱgenderȬbasedȱ
discrimination,ȱrightsȱtoȱhealth,ȱnutritionȱandȱeducation,ȱandȱ
protectionȱfromȱsexualȱabuse,ȱincludingȱsexualȱtrafficking.ȱInȱotherȱ
areas,ȱsuchȱasȱmarriageȱandȱprotectionȱfromȱviolence,ȱrespectȱforȱtheȱ
provisionsȱofȱoneȱConventionȱstrengthensȱtheȱprotectionsȱsetȱoutȱinȱtheȱ
other.ȱThereforeȱtheȱimplementationȱofȱoneȱwillȱinȱmanyȱcasesȱfacilitateȱ
implementationȱofȱtheȱother.ȱȱ
ȱ
Boxȱ1:ȱIndivisibilityȱandȱInterȬconnectednessȱofȱrightsȱ
TheȱCRCȱCommitteeȱhasȱonȱseveralȱoccasionsȱstressedȱtheȱneedȱtoȱtakeȱaccountȱofȱ
theȱ principleȱ ofȱ indivisibilityȱ inȱ legislativeȱ reformȱ initiatives.ȱ Inȱ itsȱ
recommendationsȱ toȱ Benin,ȱ theȱ Committeeȱ welcomedȱ “theȱ measuresȱ takenȱ toȱ
strengthenȱ theȱ legalȱ frameworkȱ onȱ theȱ rightȱ ofȱ theȱ childȱ andȱ toȱ bringȱ theȱ nationalȱ
legislationȱ intoȱ conformityȱ withȱ theȱ Convention,ȱ notablyȱ theȱ Personsȱ andȱ Familyȱ
Codeȱ andȱ theȱ draftȱ Children’sȱ Code.”ȱ However,ȱ theȱ Committeeȱ notedȱ thatȱ thisȱ
4
legislationȱinȱsomeȱareasȱwasȱnotȱcoherentȱ(particularlyȱonȱissuesȱofȱviolenceȱagainstȱ
children)ȱandȱthatȱotherȱnationalȱlegislationȱwasȱnotȱbroughtȱinȱconformityȱwithȱtheȱ
CRC.ȱ
ȱ
Source:ȱCRC/C/BEN/CO/2ȱ(20ȱOctoberȱ2006).ȱ
ȱ
3.ȱNonȬdiscriminationȱandȱEqualityȱ
ȱ
AnȱHRBAȱtoȱlegislativeȱreformȱhelpsȱtackleȱtheȱrootȱcausesȱofȱ
discriminationȱandȱstrivesȱtoȱeliminateȱtheȱgapsȱandȱobstaclesȱ
responsibleȱforȱexclusionȱandȱdiscrimination.ȱItȱisȱoneȱofȱtheȱmostȱ
effectiveȱstrategiesȱtoȱcounterȱlawsȱandȱculturalȱandȱtraditionalȱ
practicesȱthatȱaffectȱandȱdisempowerȱcertainȱindividualsȱand/orȱ
groups. 46ȱ
ȱ
AnȱHRBAȱtoȱlegislativeȱreformȱentailsȱabolitionȱofȱlawsȱthatȱopenlyȱ
discriminateȱagainstȱwomenȱandȱgirls.ȱItȱalsoȱpromptsȱanȱexaminationȱ
ofȱlawsȱthat,ȱwhileȱtextuallyȱ‘neutral’ȱhaveȱaȱdisproportionatelyȱ
negativeȱimpactȱonȱwomenȱandȱgirls.ȱAnȱHRBAȱtoȱlegislativeȱreformȱ
promotesȱequalityȱnotȱjustȱinȱtermsȱofȱformalȱequalityȱ(lackȱofȱ
distinctionȱbetweenȱwomenȱandȱmenȱinȱtheȱtextȱofȱlawsȱandȱpolicies)ȱ
butȱalsoȱsubstantiveȱequality 47 ȱ(i.e.ȱtheȱrule’sȱresultsȱorȱeffects). 48 ȱ
Promotingȱsubstantiveȱequalityȱrequiresȱexaminingȱlawsȱandȱpoliciesȱ
toȱdetermineȱtheirȱimpactȱonȱwomen,ȱlookingȱforȱdisproportionatelyȱ
negativeȱimpactsȱonȱwomenȱorȱaȱlackȱofȱequalityȱinȱpractice.ȱTheȱ
CommitteeȱonȱEconomic,ȱSocialȱandȱCulturalȱRightsȱrefersȱtoȱthisȱasȱ
“equalȱenjoymentȱofȱrights”ȱbyȱwomenȱandȱmen. 49 ȱThisȱCommitteeȱhasȱ
pointedȱoutȱthatȱStatesȱmustȱconsiderȱtheȱroleȱofȱ“existingȱeconomic,ȱ
socialȱandȱculturalȱinequalities,ȱparticularlyȱthoseȱexperiencedȱbyȱ
women”ȱinȱperpetuatingȱinequalityȱandȱaddressȱtheseȱissuesȱinȱlaws,ȱ
46
Goonesekere, Savitri, “A gender perspective in legislative reform”, paper presented at the
Expert meeting on legislative reform, UNICEF, New York (2004).
47
Schuler, Margaret and Flowers, Nancy. Women’s human rights, Facilitator’s guide,
Women, Law and Development International (2003).
48
“Formal rule equality often does not produce equal results because of significant
differences in the characteristics and circumstances of women and men. Substantive equality
demands that rules take account of these differences to avoid gender-related outcomes that are
considered unfair” (see Bartlett, T. Katharine and Harris, Angela, Gender and Law, Theory,
Doctrine, Commentary (1998), p. 261-262.
49
General Comment no. 16: ‘The equal right of men and women to the enjoyment of all
economic, social and cultural rights’ (art. 3 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social
and Cultural Rights), paras. 3-5, U.N. Doc. E/C.12/2005/4, 11 Aug. 2005.
5
policies,ȱandȱpractice. 50 ȱTheȱCommitteeȱonȱtheȱEliminationȱofȱ
DiscriminationȱagainstȱWomenȱalsoȱaddressesȱthisȱindirectȱ
discrimination, 51 ȱcallingȱforȱStatesȱPartiesȱtoȱtakeȱmeasuresȱtoȱcreateȱanȱ
‘enablingȱenvironment’ȱforȱwomenȱtoȱachieveȱ‘equalityȱofȱresults’.ȱThisȱ
includesȱproactivelyȱaddressingȱhistoricȱdiscriminationȱandȱgenderȬ
basedȱstereotypes.ȱȱ
ȱ
4.ȱParticipationȱandȱInclusion 52ȱ
ȱ
InȱaȱhumanȱrightsȬbasedȱapproach,ȱindividualsȱareȱcentralȱtoȱtheirȱownȱ
growthȱandȱadvancement.ȱLegalȱilliteracy,ȱdefinedȱasȱlackȱofȱ
knowledgeȱofȱlawsȱorȱofȱtheȱlegislativeȱprocess,ȱhasȱaȱsubstantialȱ
impactȱonȱaccessȱtoȱrights.ȱThus,ȱeducationȱandȱawarenessȬraisingȱareȱ
essentialȱinȱorderȱtoȱensureȱthatȱparticipationȱisȱpossible.ȱCreatingȱtheȱ
conditionsȱforȱchildrenȱtoȱfullyȱparticipateȱinȱtheȱdecisionsȱthatȱaffectȱ
theirȱlivesȱcanȱleadȱtoȱaȱbetterȱunderstandingȱofȱtheirȱrightsȱandȱtheirȱ
concernsȱbyȱallȱmembersȱofȱsociety. 53ȱ
ȱ
TheȱprocessȱprescribedȱbyȱtheȱCRCȱasȱaȱwholeȱandȱparticularlyȱinȱ
Articleȱ4ȱforȱrealisingȱchildren’sȱrightsȱconstitutesȱaȱdepartureȱfromȱ
traditionalȱpracticesȱofȱlawmaking.ȱAȱhumanȱrightsȱapproachȱtoȱ
legislativeȱreformȱsupposesȱthatȱreformsȱareȱconductedȱinȱaȱ
participatoryȱmannerȱ(includingȱvulnerableȱandȱmarginalizedȱ
stakeholders)ȱthatȱpaysȱparticularȱattentionȱtoȱtheȱviewsȱofȱchildrenȱ
andȱwomenȱinȱallȱstagesȱofȱdevelopingȱlegalȱframeworks.ȱSystematicȱ
involvementȱofȱallȱsectorsȱofȱsocietyȱandȱgovernmentȱisȱanȱimportantȱ
stepȱtoȱensuringȱthatȱlegislationȱinȱcomplianceȱwithȱtheȱCRCȱandȱ
CEDAWȱisȱbothȱadoptedȱandȱimplemented.ȱDirectȱparticipationȱbyȱallȱ
50
Ibid. General Comment no. 16, para. 8.
51
“Indirect discrimination against women may occur when laws, policies and programmes are
based on seemingly gender-neutral criteria which in their actual effect have a detrimental
impact on women. Gender-neutral laws, policies and programmes unintentionally may
perpetuate the consequences of past discrimination. They may be inadvertently modeled on
male lifestyles and thus fail to take into account aspects of women’s life experiences which
may differ from those of men. These differences may exist because of stereotypical
expectations, attitudes and behaviour directed towards women, which are based on the
biological differences between women and men. They may also exist because of the generally
existing subordination of women by men.” See General Recommendation no. 25, on article 4,
paragraph 1, of the CEDAW, on temporary special measures, n.1, p. 9 (2004).
52
For more information on participation and inclusion see UNICEF Programming Guidance
Paper Series, Supporting the realisation of children’s rights through a rights-based approach
to legislative reform, UNICEF, DPP (2007).
53
Ibid. p. 27.
6
thoseȱconcernedȱshiftsȱlegislativeȱreformȱfromȱaȱtraditionalȱtechnocraticȱ
exerciseȱ(atȱbestȱallowingȱinputȱfromȱdesignatedȱ‘experts’)ȱtoȱaȱprocessȱ
thatȱenablesȱindividualsȱandȱencouragesȱtheȱrealisationȱofȱtheirȱ
rights. 54ȱ
ȱ
54
Ibid. p. 27.
7
Boxȱ2:ȱParticipationȱinȱlegislativeȱreformȱprocessesȱ
KgotlaȱgatheringsȱȬȱInȱBotswana,ȱaȱcountryȱwithȱaȱpluralȱsystemȱ(ofȱbothȱcommonȱ
lawȱandȱcustomaryȱlaw)ȱkgotlaȱgatheringsȱareȱtheȱcustomaryȱmeetingsȱofȱaȱtribeȱorȱ
aȱportionȱofȱitȱtoȱdiscussȱmattersȱofȱtribalȱorȱcommunalȱconcernȱinȱaccordanceȱwithȱ
customaryȱlaw.ȱTheyȱplayedȱanȱimportantȱroleȱinȱtheȱlawȱreviewȱprocess,ȱincludingȱ
throughȱdiscussionsȱwithȱtheȱchildren’sȱreferenceȱgroup.ȱȱ
ȱ
Source: UNICEF Legislative Reform Initiative, Phase II – Legislative reform initiatives, institutional
development, and policy changes in favour of children: A Ghana national study, Professor Kofi
Quashigah, UNICEF Ghana (2004).
ȱ
Nationalȱmovementȱforȱchildren’sȱrightsȱȬȱInȱGuatemala,ȱtheȱadoptionȱofȱtheȱChildȱ
andȱ Adolescentȱ Protectionȱ Actȱ tookȱ severalȱ yearsȱ andȱ wasȱ facedȱ withȱ majorȱ
oppositionȱinȱtheȱParliamentȱunderȱtheȱpressureȱofȱvariousȱinfluentialȱgroups.ȱDueȱ
toȱ thisȱ resistance,ȱ UNICEFȱ supportedȱ theȱ creationȱ ofȱ aȱ movementȱ forȱ children’sȱ
rights,ȱ unitingȱ actorsȱ supportiveȱ ofȱ theȱ law.ȱ Theȱ difficultiesȱ facedȱ byȱ theȱ networkȱ
increasedȱ solidarityȱ amongȱ itsȱ membersȱ andȱ UNICEF,ȱ andȱ establishedȱ aȱ habitȱ ofȱ
“workingȱ together.”ȱ Asȱ aȱ result,ȱ whenȱ theȱ lawȱ wasȱ adopted,ȱ theȱ movementȱ forȱ
children’sȱ rightsȱ persistedȱ andȱ focusedȱ itsȱ attentionȱ onȱ theȱ implementationȱ ofȱ theȱ
lawȱbyȱholdingȱtheȱgovernmentȱaccountableȱandȱorganizingȱvariousȱactivitiesȱsuchȱ
asȱtrainingsȱandȱconferences.ȱȱ
ȱ
Source: Sedletzki, Vanessa. UNICEF’s experience in the area of legislative reform: a review of
selected countries (Legislative reform initiative paper series). UNICEF, DPP (2007).
ȱ
Referenceȱ Groupȱ Ȭȱ Inȱ Botswana,ȱ theȱ lawȱ reviewȱ wasȱ undertakenȱ inȱ aȱ veryȱ
participatoryȱmanner.ȱAȱfirstȱreviewȱofȱtheȱ1981ȱChildren’sȱActȱtookȱplaceȱinȱ2000Ȭ
2001.ȱ However,ȱ theȱ recommendationsȱ thatȱ resultedȱ fromȱ theȱ reviewȱ didȱ notȱ
representȱpeople’sȱaspirationsȱandȱlackedȱaȱfocusȱonȱchildren’sȱrights.ȱTherefore,ȱinȱ
2003,ȱ UNICEFȱ supportedȱ anotherȱ lawȱ review,ȱ followingȱ anȱ agreementȱ withȱ theȱ
governmentȱtoȱundertakeȱaȱholisticȱandȱcomprehensiveȱreviewȱofȱtheȱChildren’sȱActȱ
basedȱ onȱ humanȱ rightsȱ conceptsȱ andȱ principles,ȱ andȱ followingȱ aȱ humanȱ rightsȬ
basedȱ process.ȱ Twoȱ referenceȱ groupsȱ wereȱ setȱ up:ȱ aȱ Technicalȱ MultiȬsectoralȱ
Referenceȱ Groupȱ andȱ aȱ Children’sȱ Referenceȱ Group.ȱ Theȱ compositionȱ ofȱ bothȱ
groupsȱreflectedȱdiversityȱofȱgender,ȱexperienceȱandȱsectors.ȱGoalsȱandȱprinciplesȱofȱ
theȱ groupsȱ wereȱ spelledȱ outȱ fromȱ theȱ beginningȱ andȱ wereȱ humanȱ rightsȱ based.ȱ
Activitiesȱincludedȱmeetingsȱandȱretreats,ȱdiscussionsȱandȱfocusȱgroupȱdiscussionsȱ
forȱchildren.ȱTheseȱactivitiesȱinvolvedȱinteractionsȱwithȱaȱwideȱrangeȱofȱactorsȱsuchȱ
asȱ ministries,ȱ lawyers,ȱ judges,ȱ socialȱ workersȱ andȱ parliamentarians.ȱ
RecommendationsȱwereȱfinallyȱpresentedȱtoȱtheȱPrincipalȱSecretaryȱinȱtheȱMinistryȱ
ofȱGovernment.ȱȱ
ȱ
Source: Kamchedzera, Garton, UNICEF Legislative Reform Initiative, Phase II - The CRC, legislative
reform, and customary law: A Botswana case study, UNICEF Botswana (2004).
ȱ
8
5.ȱAccountabilityȱandȱRuleȱofȱLawȱ
ȱ
Lawsȱareȱimportantȱforȱensuringȱtheȱimplementationȱofȱrights,ȱ
definingȱresponsibilitiesȱandȱobligations,ȱandȱholdingȱdutyȱbearersȱ
accountable.ȱHowever,ȱlawsȱmerelyȱcreateȱtheȱlegalȱframeworkȱforȱtheȱ
exerciseȱandȱenjoymentȱofȱrights.ȱAȱhumanȱrightsȬbasedȱapproachȱtoȱ
legislativeȱreformȱsupposesȱthatȱtheȱprocessȱofȱ“puttingȱtheȱlawȱinȱ
place”ȱalsoȱenhancesȱaȱState’sȱcapacityȱtoȱfulfilȱandȱhonourȱ
commitmentsȱundertakenȱbyȱratificationȱofȱhumanȱrightsȱtreatiesȱ–ȱinȱ
particularȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAW.ȱAȱrightsȬbasedȱapproachȱtoȱ
legislativeȱreformȱemphasizesȱempowermentȱandȱaccountabilityȱofȱ
thoseȱresponsibleȱforȱcomplianceȱwithȱinternationalȱobligations.ȱȱ
ȱ
Theȱ‘ruleȱofȱlaw’ȱmeansȱthatȱlaws,ȱnotȱindividualsȱ(includingȱ
governmentȱleaders),ȱhaveȱtheȱultimateȱpowerȱandȱthatȱtheseȱlawsȱ
mustȱbeȱeasyȱtoȱunderstand. 55 ȱAȱhumanȱrightsȬbasedȱapproachȱtoȱ
legislativeȱreformȱprovidesȱanȱadditionalȱsetȱofȱcodesȱthatȱbindȱ
governments,ȱensuringȱtheȱaccountabilityȱofȱlegalȱsystems,ȱthrough,ȱforȱ
instance,ȱanȱautonomousȱlegalȱorderȱthatȱestablishesȱregulationȱofȱ
governmentȱpower.ȱSuchȱanȱapproachȱalsoȱworksȱunderȱtheȱ
assumptionsȱofȱequalityȱbeforeȱlawȱandȱaȱlegalȱsystemȱwithȱfixed,ȱfair,ȱ
publishedȱrulesȱofȱproceduresȱthatȱareȱconsistentlyȱandȱtransparentlyȱ
applied.ȱȱ
ȱ
Boxȱ3:ȱBenefitsȱofȱaȱHRBAȱtoȱlegislativeȱreform
x Promotesȱholisticȱandȱcomprehensiveȱreformȱ
x Stimulatesȱdiscussionȱofȱbarriersȱtoȱreformȱ
x Addressesȱgenderȱinequalityȱandȱdiscriminationȱagainstȱwomenȱandȱgirlsȱ
x Ensuresȱthatȱlawsȱcontributeȱtoȱstrengtheningȱwomen’sȱandȱgirls’ȱcapacityȱ
toȱexerciseȱtheirȱrightsȱ
x Promotesȱbroadȱparticipationȱinȱpoliticalȱlifeȱ
x Promotesȱbroadȱdisseminationȱofȱinternationalȱhumanȱrightsȱinstrumentsȱ
andȱincreasedȱlegalȱliteracyȱ
x Promotesȱeffectiveȱimplementation,ȱinȱconformityȱwithȱhumanȱrightsȱ
principlesȱandȱnormsȱ
x Ensuresȱspecialȱprotectionȱforȱvulnerableȱandȱmarginalizedȱchildrenȱ
x Combatsȱsocialȱpracticesȱnegativelyȱaffectingȱchildrenȱandȱwomenȱandȱ
55
In the UN System, the rule of law is defined as “a principle of governance in which all
persons, institutions and entities, public and private, including the State itself, are accountable
to laws that are publicly promulgated, equally enforced and independently adjudicated, and
which are consistent with international human rights norms and standards.” S/2004/616, para.
6.
9
promotesȱpositiveȱchangeȱ
x Promotesȱanȱeffective,ȱreliableȱandȱpredictableȱjudicialȱsystemȱthatȱisȱ
accessibleȱtoȱallȱ
x Includesȱadequateȱandȱinstitutionalizedȱmonitoringȱ
x Promotesȱadoptionȱofȱredressȱmechanismsȱ
x Ensuresȱthatȱlawȱcontributesȱtoȱchildren’sȱandȱwomen’sȱwellȬbeingȱtoȱtheȱ
fullȱextentȱpossibleȱ
ȱ
Partȱ2ȱ CRITICALȱCOMPONENTSȱOFȱAȱ
HUMANȱRIGHTSȬBASEDȱAPPROACHȱTOȱ
LEGISLATIVEȱREFORMȱ
ȱ
2.1ȱ CharacteristicsȱofȱaȱHumanȱRightsȱApproachȱtoȱ
LegislativeȱReformȱ
ȱ
‘Puttingȱtheȱlawȱinȱplace’ȱorȱsettingȱstandardsȱtoȱharmoniseȱwithȱ
internationalȱstandardsȱisȱnotȱanȱexerciseȱlimitedȱtoȱtheȱlegislativeȱ
branch,ȱbutȱisȱaȱprocessȱthatȱlinksȱtoȱeffectiveȱimplementationȱthroughȱ
involvementȱofȱdifferentȱstakeholders,ȱsocialȱpolicyȱsupport,ȱ
institutionalȱsupportȱandȱadequateȱresourceȱallocation. 56ȱ
ȱ
Boxȱ4:ȱCombatingȱFemaleȱGenitalȱMutilationȱ
Inȱ recentȱ years,ȱ lawsȱ prohibitingȱ Femaleȱ Genitalȱ Mutilationȱ (FGM)ȱ haveȱ beenȱ
passedȱ inȱ anȱ increasingȱ numberȱ ofȱ Africanȱ countries.ȱ Yetȱ theȱ motivationȱ behindȱ
passingȱ theseȱ lawsȱ andȱ theirȱ possibleȱ consequencesȱ onȱ theȱ targetedȱ communities,ȱ
particularlyȱwomen,ȱhaveȱbeenȱgivenȱlittleȱattention.ȱWhileȱfacilitatingȱtheȱpassageȱ
ofȱsuchȱlegislationȱservedȱtheȱpurposeȱofȱdemonstratingȱpoliticalȱwillȱonȱtheȱpartȱofȱ
governments,ȱaȱhumanȱrightsȱapproachȱtoȱlegislativeȱreformȱdictatedȱthatȱprotectionȱ
ofȱ theȱ vulnerableȱ requiresȱ theirȱ participation,ȱ andȱ shouldȱ takeȱ accountȱ ofȱ theȱ
indivisiblyȱ ofȱ humanȱ rights.ȱ NonȬlegalȱ measuresȱ haveȱ notȱ beenȱ consideredȱ anȱ
essentialȱcompanionȱtoȱantiȬFGMȱlaws.ȱAsȱaȱresult,ȱgirlsȱandȱwomenȱfaceȱtheȱdoubleȱ
jeopardyȱ ofȱ sufferingȱ FGMȱ becauseȱ itȱ isȱ anȱ entrenchedȱ socialȱ practiceȱ andȱ thenȱ
beingȱpenalizedȱbyȱtheȱmodernȱlegalȱsystem.ȱSuchȱasȱcaseȱillustratesȱtheȱimportanceȱ
ofȱ involvingȱ theȱ supposedȱ beneficiariesȱ ofȱ aȱ newȱ lawȱ inȱ itsȱ developmentȱ andȱ
supportingȱ theȱ law’sȱ implementationȱ withȱ nonȬlegalȱ measuresȱ thatȱ ensureȱ itȱ isȱ
enforcedȱeffectively.ȱ
ȱ
Source: Legislation as a tool for behavioural and social change, Dr. Nahid Toubia (RAINBO), paper
for the Afro-Arab expert consultation on legal tools for the prevention of FGM, June 2003.ȱ
56
Goonesekere, Savitri, Protecting the world’s children: Impact of the Convention on the
Rights of the Child in diverse legal systems, Introduction and Overview, UNICEF, Cambridge
University Press (2007).
10
ȱ
AȱrightsȬbasedȱapproachȱtoȱlegislativeȱreformȱisȱrecognizableȱbyȱitsȱ
criticalȱcharacteristics.ȱFirst,ȱaȱhumanȱrightsȱapproachȱtoȱlegislativeȱ
reformȱisȱintrinsicȱtoȱtheȱrealisationȱofȱhumanȱrights,ȱbecauseȱtheȱ
approachȱgivesȱlifeȱtoȱinternationalȱhumanȱrightsȱinstrumentsȱthroughȱ
theȱharmonisationȱofȱnationalȱlegislationȱwithȱinternationalȱstandardsȱ
andȱnorms.ȱSecond,ȱanȱHRBAȱtoȱlegislativeȱreformȱincorporatesȱaȱ
genderȱperspectiveȱatȱallȱstagesȱofȱtheȱlegislativeȱreformȱprocess.ȱ
Thirdly,ȱinstitutionalȱreformȱandȱlawȱenforcementȱthroughȱeffectiveȱ
budgetȱallocations,ȱcivicȱeducation,ȱtrainingsȱandȱlegalȱilliteracyȱareȱ
indispensableȱelementsȱofȱaȱhumanȱrightsȬbasedȱapproachȱtoȱ
legislativeȱreform.ȱThus,ȱthisȱapproachȱisȱconcernedȱwithȱtheȱeffectiveȱ
implementationȱandȱenforcementȱofȱtheȱlaws.ȱFourth,ȱwiderȱ
participationȱofȱandȱpartnershipsȱamongȱconcernedȱactorsȱareȱcriticalȱ
forȱensuringȱinternalizationȱandȱadherenceȱtoȱtheȱnormsȱandȱ
standards.ȱOneȱvalueȱofȱensuringȱparticipationȱandȱtheȱcreationȱofȱ
partnershipsȱisȱthatȱitȱprovidesȱanȱarticulatedȱmethodologyȱtoȱestablishȱ
aȱlegalȱframeworkȱthatȱeffectivelyȱprotectsȱrightsȱwhileȱincreasingȱ
empowermentȱandȱholdingȱtheȱdifferentȱactorsȱresponsible.ȱ
ȱ
AnȱaddedȬvalueȱofȱanȱHRBAȱtoȱlegislativeȱreformȱisȱthatȱitȱstimulatesȱ
andȱservesȱasȱtheȱbasisȱforȱtheȱadoptionȱofȱsustainableȱsocialȱpoliciesȱinȱ
favourȱofȱchildren.ȱHenceȱwhatȱwasȱperceivedȱpriorȱtoȱtheȱCRCȱasȱ
supportiveȱsocialȱpoliciesȱandȱmeasuresȱonȱmattersȱsuchȱasȱhealthȱandȱ
education,ȱhaveȱnowȱbecomeȱindivisibleȱdimensionsȱofȱchildren’sȱ
rightsȱthatȱmustȱbeȱincorporatedȱintoȱlegislation.ȱȱ
ȱ
Boxȱ5:ȱHumanȱrightsȱapproachȱtoȱlegislativeȱreformȱonȱFGMȱ
Inȱ Burkinaȱ Faso,ȱ theȱ passingȱ ofȱ theȱ lawȱ againstȱ FGMȱ wasȱ theȱ resultȱ ofȱ aȱ
comprehensiveȱprocessȱwhichȱincluded:ȱ
x AggressiveȱconsciousnessȬraisingȱcampaignsȱinȱlocalȱpopulationsȱaboutȱtheȱ
harmfulȱeffectȱofȱthisȱpracticeȱ
x Researchȱandȱsurveys,ȱwhichȱallowedȱforȱaȱbetterȱunderstandingȱofȱtheȱrootȱ
causesȱandȱscopeȱofȱtheȱproblemȱ
x InvolvementȱandȱengagementȱofȱopinionȬleadersȱandȱdecisionȬȱandȱpolicyȬ
makers,ȱasȱwellȱasȱtheȱmediaȱinȱpublicȱdiscussionsȱandȱdebatesȱȱ
x Establishmentȱofȱanȱinstitutionȱtoȱmonitorȱimplementationȱofȱtheȱlaw,ȱwithȱ
aȱmandateȱtoȱinterveneȱinȱcaseȱofȱviolationsȱ
x Formationȱofȱpartnershipsȱandȱcoalitionsȱtoȱ“StopȱFGM”ȱ
x Strongȱdeterminationȱtoȱfosterȱparticipationȱinȱdraftingȱtheȱdomesticȱ
legislationȱ
x Trainingȱofȱjudgesȱandȱotherȱstakeholdersȱ
11
x Lobbyingȱwithȱcommunityȱleadersȱ
Theseȱ areȱ theȱ conditionsȱ thatȱ notȱ onlyȱ encouragedȱ theȱ adoptionȱ ofȱ theȱ legislationȱ
againstȱFGM,ȱbutȱalsoȱstimulatedȱcomplianceȱwithȱtheȱlaw.ȱ
ȱ
Source:ȱKambou,ȱGisele,ȱTheȱlawȱasȱaȱtoolȱforȱbehavioralȱchange:ȱtheȱcaseȱofȱBurkinaȱFasoȱ(Voixȱdesȱ
Femmes),ȱpaperȱforȱtheȱAfroȬArabȱexpertȱconsultationȱonȱlegalȱtoolsȱforȱtheȱpreventionȱofȱ
FGMȱ(Juneȱ2003).ȱ
ȱ
Theȱfollowingȱsectionsȱprovideȱanȱoverviewȱofȱtheȱmajorȱ
considerationsȱunderȱtheȱcharacteristicsȱmentionedȱabove. 57 ȱȱ
ȱ
2.1.1ȱ HarmonisingȱNationalȱLegislationȱwithȱInternationalȱHumanȱ
RightsȱNorms 58ȱ
ȱ
OneȱofȱtheȱultimateȱgoalsȱofȱanȱHRBAȱtoȱlegislativeȱreformȱinȱfavourȱofȱ
childrenȱisȱtheȱharmonisationȱofȱnationalȱlegislationȱandȱlocalȱ
traditionsȱandȱcustomsȱwithȱinternationalȱhumanȱrightsȱstandardsȱandȱ
norms,ȱparticularlyȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAW.ȱTheȱstartingȱpointȱforȱsuchȱ
harmonisationȱisȱaȱcloseȱexaminationȱofȱtheȱtext/substanceȱofȱnationalȱ
(orȱsubȬnational)ȱlegislationȱagainstȱtheȱbackdropȱofȱCRCȱandȱ
CEDAW.ȱThisȱshouldȱbeȱfollowedȱbyȱmeaningfulȱanalysisȱofȱtheȱgapsȱ
andȱobstaclesȱinȱlegislationȱthatȱleadȱtoȱinequalityȱandȱnonȬrealisationȱ
ofȱrights.ȱ
ȱ
HarmonisingȱnationalȱlegislationȱwithȱtheȱCRC 59 ȱimplies,ȱamongȱotherȱ
things:ȱ
ȱ
x MakingȱaȱclearȱpronouncementȱonȱtheȱstatusȱofȱtheȱCRCȱinȱ
domesticȱlaw;ȱ
x InternalizingȱtheȱCRC.ȱTheȱintegrationȱofȱtheȱCRCȱprinciplesȱ
andȱnormsȱintoȱnationalȱConstitutionsȱwillȱpreventȱsuccessiveȱ
governmentsȱfromȱbacktrackingȱonȱchildren’sȱrightsȱissues.ȱ
NationalȱConstitutionsȱreflectingȱCRCȱprinciplesȱandȱnormsȱ
canȱbeȱusedȱtoȱchallengeȱnegativeȱpolicyȱinterventionsȱorȱlegalȱ
57
Please note that a separate chapter is dedicated to each one of the other critical
characteristics of an HRBA to legislative reform.
58
The issue of harmonisation of national legislation is discussed in great detail in Chapter II
of the Handbook. For a more comprehensive introduction to law review and law reforms see:
Lundy, Christine. Chapter II of the Handbook, Compliance of National Legislation Related to
Children with International Human Rights Standards and Norms, UNICEF, DPP (2007).
59
See: Ibid. Chapter II of the Handbook.
12
changesȱandȱpromoteȱproactiveȱmeasures,ȱbothȱlegalȱandȱnonȬ
legal;ȱȱ
x Identifyingȱlawsȱtoȱbeȱamendedȱorȱabolishedȱinȱorderȱtoȱ
harmoniseȱnationalȱlegislationȱwithȱCRCȱstandards;ȱ
x Reviewingȱreservationsȱmadeȱwithȱregardȱtoȱhumanȱrightsȱ
treatiesȱwithȱtheȱaimȱofȱremovingȱtheȱlegalȱconstraintsȱandȱ
barriersȱandȱwithdrawingȱtheȱreservationsȱentered;ȱȱ
x Removingȱconstraintsȱandȱbarriersȱtoȱequality;ȱ
x Minimisingȱdiscriminationȱandȱinequalityȱinȱorderȱtoȱcreateȱaȱ
cultureȱofȱrespectȱforȱhumanȱrightsȱandȱnormsȱofȱgoodȱ
governanceȱunderȱtheȱruleȱofȱlaw.ȱInȱthisȱsense,ȱlawȱreformȱcanȱ
helpȱtoȱweakenȱsocialȱpractices,ȱtaboosȱandȱotherȱculturalȱ
trendsȱthatȱviolateȱhumanȱrights;ȱ
x ExaminingȱtheȱuseȱofȱtheȱCRCȱandȱnewȱlawsȱinȱcourtsȱofȱlaw,ȱ
andȱtheȱmannerȱinȱwhichȱcourtsȱareȱcontributingȱtoȱlawȱreformȱ
onȱchildren’sȱrightsȱthroughȱinterpretation;ȱ
x Examiningȱtheȱwayȱlawsȱareȱimplementedȱandȱdisseminated;ȱ
x Examiningȱtheȱwayȱinstitutionsȱforȱlawȱimplementationȱandȱ
enforcementȱareȱfunctioning.ȱ
ȱ
Theȱprocessȱofȱharmonisationȱalsoȱrequiresȱanȱexaminationȱofȱtheȱ
socialȱandȱculturalȱcontextsȱinȱwhichȱlawsȱareȱimplemented.ȱTheseȱ
contextsȱareȱimportantȱtoȱeffectiveȱharmonisationȱofȱhumanȱrightsȱ
standardsȱasȱthereȱareȱoftenȱgapsȱbetweenȱlawȱandȱpractice.ȱInȱsomeȱ
cases,ȱsocialȱnormsȱcanȱhaveȱanȱimportantȱinfluenceȱonȱtheȱ
developmentȱofȱlegislation,ȱwhileȱinȱothersȱlawsȱmayȱnotȱbeȱ
implementedȱbecauseȱtheyȱdoȱnotȱcorrespondȱtoȱsocialȱvaluesȱandȱ
practices.ȱIdentifyingȱsocialȱandȱculturalȱvaluesȱthatȱsupportȱlegislativeȱ
initiativesȱtoȱrealiseȱtheȱrightsȱofȱwomenȱandȱchildrenȱ(girlsȱandȱboys),ȱ
asȱwellȱasȱhighlightingȱsocialȱandȱculturalȱpracticesȱthatȱcompromiseȱ
humanȱrightsȬbasedȱlegislativeȱreform,ȱareȱcriticalȱtoȱtheȱadoptionȱandȱ
implementationȱofȱeffectiveȱinitiatives.ȱWorkȱinȱthisȱarea,ȱtherefore,ȱ
oftenȱrequiresȱanȱemphasisȱonȱeducationȱandȱshapingȱofȱculturalȱ
values.ȱ
ȱ
2.1.2ȱMainstreamingȱtheȱPrincipleȱofȱGenderȱEqualityȱinȱLegislativeȱ
Reformȱ
ȱ
“Inȱmostȱsocieties,ȱtheȱformulationȱofȱlawsȱhasȱbeenȱaffectedȱbyȱ
women’sȱrelationshipȱtoȱchildren.ȱAndȱhistorically,ȱtheȱimplementationȱ
13
ofȱlawȱhasȱbeenȱequallyȱaffectedȱbyȱtheȱpositionȱofȱwomenȱinȱsocietyȱ
andȱtheirȱrelationshipȱtoȱchildren.” 60 ȱȱ
ȱ
Addressingȱgenderȱissuesȱinȱtheȱlegalȱframeworkȱisȱcriticalȱforȱtheȱ
simultaneousȱrealisationȱofȱbothȱwomen’sȱandȱchildren’sȱrights,ȱasȱ
genderȱplaysȱaȱcrucialȱroleȱinȱtheȱorderingȱofȱourȱsocial,ȱeconomic,ȱandȱ
politicalȱlives.ȱAdoptingȱaȱgenderȱperspectiveȱtoȱlegislativeȱreformȱ
opensȱupȱdiscussionȱonȱculturalȱandȱreligiousȱtraditionsȱandȱleadsȱtoȱaȱ
greaterȱunderstandingȱofȱtheȱcriticalȱindivisibilityȱofȱcivilȱandȱpolitical,ȱ
social,ȱeconomic,ȱandȱculturalȱrights.ȱFocusingȱonȱgenderȱequalityȱisȱ
necessaryȱinȱreviewingȱandȱreformingȱlawsȱandȱpoliciesȱinȱorderȱtoȱ
overcomeȱsocialȱstereotypesȱandȱdiscriminationȱagainstȱwomenȱandȱ
girlsȱinȱtheȱsocioȬeconomicȱandȱpoliticalȱarenas.ȱItȱrequiresȱpayingȱ
specialȱattentionȱtoȱwomenȱandȱgirlsȱbothȱasȱsubjectsȱofȱrightsȱandȱ
marginalizedȱgroups.ȱTheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAWȱhaveȱintroducedȱaȱgenderȱ
perspectiveȱinȱlegislativeȱreform,ȱwhichȱenablesȱusȱtoȱhaveȱaȱcloserȱ
lookȱatȱlawsȱthatȱdisempowerȱandȱdisadvantageȱwomenȱandȱgirls,ȱ
preventingȱthemȱfromȱenjoyingȱtheirȱrights.ȱAddressingȱgenderȱissuesȱ
inȱtheȱlegalȱframeworkȱisȱcriticalȱforȱtheȱsimultaneousȱrealisationȱofȱ
bothȱwomen’sȱandȱchildren’sȱrights.ȱ
ȱ
Boxȱ6:ȱSubstantiveȱinequalityȱinȱdivorceȱpracticeȱ
WomenȱinȱChinaȱhaveȱtheȱrightȱtoȱpetitionȱforȱdivorce,ȱalthoughȱcourtsȱconsiderȱtheȱ
woman’sȱ accessȱ toȱ housingȱ inȱ grantingȱ theȱ petition.ȱ Becauseȱ stateȱ housingȱ policyȱ
givesȱ theȱ maritalȱ homeȱ toȱ theȱ husbandȱ afterȱ divorce,ȱ aȱ womanȱ mustȱ beȱ ableȱ toȱ
demonstrateȱaccessȱtoȱotherȱhousingȱinȱorderȱtoȱhaveȱtheȱdivorceȱpetitionȱgranted.ȱ
Therefore,ȱaccessȱtoȱdivorceȱisȱdiscriminatoryȱinȱpractice,ȱevenȱthoughȱwomenȱhaveȱ
theȱrightȱlegally.ȱ
ȱ
Inȱ anotherȱ exampleȱ ofȱ ostensiblyȱ equalȱ statusȱ underȱ theȱ law,ȱ Macedonia’sȱ
InheritanceȱLawȱandȱFamilyȱLawȱgrantsȱequalȱrightsȱtoȱmenȱandȱwomenȱinȱfamilyȱ
relations.ȱ ȱHowever,ȱ inȱ practice,ȱ women’sȱ limitedȱ familiarityȱ withȱ theȱ legalȱ
institutionsȱ thatȱ provideȱassistanceȱandȱ adviceȱ resultsȱ inȱ discriminatoryȱ outcomes,ȱ
forȱexample,ȱfollowingȱdivorce.ȱ
ȱ
Sources:ȱUNIFEM,ȱGenderȱIssuesȱFactȱSheetȱNo.ȱ3,ȱwww.unifemȬ
eseasia.org/resources/factsheets/UNIFEMSheet3.PDF,ȱpp.ȱ4Ȭ5;ȱȱ
Pressȱ Release,ȱ Unitedȱ Nations,ȱ “Women’sȱ AntiȬDiscriminationȱ Committeeȱ Takesȱ upȱ Reportȱ
ofȱFormerȱYugoslavȱRepublicȱofȱMacedonia:ȱExpertsȱCommendȱRapidȱProgress,ȱUrgeȱStepsȱ
OnȱTrafficking,ȱMinorityȱRights,ȱWomen’sȱPoliticalȱParticipation”ȱ(25ȱJanuaryȱ2006).ȱ
ȱ
60
Ibid. Gooneskere, Savitri. A gender perspective in legislative reform, UNICEF, New York,
2004.
14
2.1.3ȱImplementationȱandȱEnforcementȱofȱLegislativeȱMeasures 61ȱ
ȱ
Whileȱexplicitȱtextualȱconsistencyȱbetweenȱnationalȱlawsȱandȱ
provisionsȱofȱinternationalȱhumanȱrightsȱinstrumentsȱisȱaȱfoundationȱ
forȱeffectiveȱrealisationȱofȱrights,ȱitȱisȱnotȱsufficient.ȱLawsȱdoȱnotȱ
functionȱinȱaȱvacuum,ȱandȱtheȱgreaterȱchallengeȱisȱoftenȱtheirȱ
implementationȱandȱenforcement.ȱȱ
ȱ
Laws,ȱifȱproperlyȱimplemented,ȱshouldȱbenefitȱallȱmembersȱofȱsocietyȱ
andȱpayȱspecialȱattentionȱtoȱthoseȱmostȱmarginalized.ȱHence,ȱlawsȱmayȱ
requireȱspecificȱimplementationȱmeasuresȱorȱtoolsȱ(suchȱasȱregulations,ȱ
codesȱofȱconductȱorȱprofessionalȱguidelines)ȱorȱadditionalȱpolicies,ȱ
budgets,ȱorȱinstitutionsȱinȱorderȱtoȱbeȱeffective.ȱȱForȱinstance,ȱissuesȱ
suchȱasȱtraffickingȱandȱexploitationȱinȱlabourȱcannotȱbeȱaddressedȱ
effectivelyȱbyȱsolelyȱputtingȱinȱplaceȱlegalȱstandardsȱthatȱcriminalizeȱ
children’sȱexploitation.ȱTheȱprocessȱofȱ‘puttingȱtheȱlawȱinȱplace’ȱ(i.e.ȱ
enacting/promulgatingȱtheȱlaw)ȱshouldȱbeȱaccompaniedȱbyȱ
implementationȱmeasures,ȱincludingȱtheȱdevelopmentȱofȱinstitutionsȱ
thatȱsupportȱlawȱenforcementȱandȱpreventȱexploitationȱandȱtheȱ
adoptionȱofȱpoliciesȱthatȱensureȱtheȱsustainabilityȱofȱtheseȱmechanisms.ȱ
Equallyȱimportantȱisȱtheȱdisseminationȱofȱtheȱlawsȱtoȱstakeholdersȱandȱ
theȱgeneralȱpublic,ȱtrainingȱofȱjudges,ȱawarenessȬraisingȱactivities,ȱandȱ
legalȱeducation.ȱAsȱS.ȱGoonesekereȱputsȱitȱ“itȱisȱthisȱprocessȱofȱ
legislativeȱreformȱthatȱmayȱbeginȱtoȱaddressȱtheȱknownȱrelationȱinȱ
manyȱcountriesȱwhereȱlegislativeȱreformȱbecomesȱsterileȱrhetoricȱthatȱ
failsȱtoȱtouchȱtheȱlivesȱofȱwomenȱandȱchildren.” 62 ȱȱ
ȱ
1.ȱInstitutionalȱReformȱandȱDevelopmentȱ
ȱ
Boxȱ7:ȱInstitutionalȱreformsȱ
Childȱ welfareȱ ministryȱ Ȭȱ Afterȱ theȱ ratificationȱ ofȱ theȱ CRCȱ aȱ largeȱ numberȱ ofȱ
governmentsȱ prioritizedȱ children’sȱ rightsȱ enoughȱ toȱ establishȱ governmentȱ
departmentsȱthatȱserveȱasȱfocalȱpointsȱforȱchildrenȱasȱwellȱasȱspecialȱtaskȱforcesȱtoȱ
workȱonȱurgentȱissues.ȱTheseȱrangeȱfromȱchildȱprotectionȱunitsȱwithinȱministriesȱofȱ
welfare,ȱasȱinȱEritrea;ȱtoȱministriesȱdealingȱexclusivelyȱwithȱchildren’sȱissues.ȱInȱtheȱ
caseȱ ofȱ Denmark,ȱ aȱ ministerialȱ committeeȱ onȱ childrenȱ wasȱ createdȱ withȱ aȱ parallelȱ
committeeȱofȱcivilȱservantsȱthatȱhandlesȱtheȱgovernment’sȱyouthȱpolicies.ȱ
Source:ȱNundy,ȱK.,ȱGlobalȱStatusȱofȱlegislativeȱreformȱrelatedȱtoȱtheȱCRC,ȱUNICEF,ȱ2004,ȱp.28.ȱ
61
UNICEF, Programming guidance on legislative reform, p.36.
62
Goonesekere, Savitri. A gender perspective in legislative reform, paper presented at the
Expert meeting on legislative reform, UNICEF New York (2004).
15
ȱ
Institutionalȱreformȱhasȱseveralȱdimensions.ȱItȱmeans,ȱamongȱothers:ȱ
ȱ
x Creatingȱinstitutionsȱthatȱareȱinȱlineȱwithȱhumanȱrightsȱ
standardsȱandȱprinciplesȱtoȱdirect,ȱimplementȱandȱenforceȱlawsȱ
orȱreformingȱinstitutions;ȱ
x Buildingȱinstitutionalȱcapacity,ȱe.g.ȱtrainingȱjudgesȱandȱhelpingȱ
themȱtoȱdevelopȱjurisprudenceȱonȱchildȱrights,ȱtoȱreferȱtoȱCRCȱ
andȱCEDAWȱandȱotherȱhumanȱrightsȱprinciplesȱandȱprovisionsȱ
inȱtheirȱdecisions;ȱ
x Inȱrelationȱtoȱtheȱjudiciary,ȱstrengtheningȱcapacityȱtoȱdevelopȱaȱ
judiciaryȱthatȱisȱindependentȱandȱcommittedȱtoȱtheȱruleȱofȱlaw.ȱ
Lawsȱandȱrulesȱmeanȱveryȱlittleȱindeedȱwithoutȱtheȱ
underpinningȱofȱanȱaccessible,ȱfair,ȱcompetent,ȱandȱeffectiveȱ
judicialȱsystem;ȱ
x Facilitatingȱtheȱestablishmentȱofȱmonitoringȱsystemsȱand/orȱaȱ
supportiveȱinfrastructure:ȱInstitutionalȱreformȱcanȱalsoȱreferȱtoȱ
nonȬlegalȱ(i.e.ȱCommitteeȱtoȱCombatȱFGM)ȱorȱsemiȬlegalȱ
modelsȱ(i.e.ȱOmbudspersons,ȱHumanȱRightsȱCommissionsȱwithȱ
aȱchildren’sȱfocus,ȱChildȱProtectionȱAuthorities,ȱMunicipalȱ
BoardsȱforȱChildȱProtection,ȱetc.);ȱ
x Establishingȱappropriateȱrecourseȱandȱmechanismsȱtoȱensureȱ
redressȱinȱcaseȱofȱviolationȱofȱrights;ȱ
x Establishingȱmechanismsȱforȱfreeȱlegalȱadvice/serviceȱetc.;ȱ
x Facilitatingȱtheȱestablishmentȱofȱtheȱruleȱofȱlawȱbyȱensuringȱ
accountabilityȱandȱtransparencyȱofȱinstitutionsȱandȱensuringȱ
accessȱtoȱjusticeȱandȱadministrativeȱappealȱ(i.e.ȱforȱchildrenȱ
underȱStateȱprotection).ȱ
ȱ
Boxȱ8:ȱMonitoringȱchildren’sȱrights 63ȱ
Independentȱ Nationalȱ Institutionsȱ forȱ Children’sȱ Rightsȱ –ȱ Overȱ 40ȱ Statesȱ Partiesȱ haveȱ
specialisedȱchildren’sȱrightsȱinstitutions.ȱMostȱoftenȱtheyȱtakeȱtheȱformȱofȱChildren’sȱ
Ombudspersonsȱ orȱ Commissionersȱ forȱ Children’sȱ Rights.ȱ Lessȱ frequently,ȱ inȱ someȱ
civilȱlawȱsystems,ȱaȱsimilarȱpostȱisȱcreatedȱcallȱtheȱDefenderȱofȱMinors.ȱAȱnumberȱofȱ
theseȱ officialȱ initiativesȱ sufferȱ fromȱ limitationsȱ onȱ independenceȱ andȱ insufficientȱ
resources.ȱ Someȱ areȱ empoweredȱ toȱ holdȱ independentȱ enquiries,ȱ butȱ theȱ abilityȱ toȱ
initiateȱproceedingsȱagainstȱpublicȱauthoritiesȱisȱrare.ȱ
Source: Nundy, Karuna. Global Status of legislative reform related to the CRC, UNICEF, DPP, 2004, p.
29.
63
For more information on monitoring mechanisms see also: Lansdown, Gerison.
Independent institutions protecting children’s rights, Innocenti Digest, 8, Innocenti Research
Centre (2001).
16
Childȱ Protectionȱ Authorityȱ Ȭȱ Anȱ interestingȱ experimentȱ hasȱ takenȱ placeȱ inȱ Sriȱ Lanka.ȱ
TheȱChildȱProtectionȱAuthorityȱhasȱbeenȱquiteȱeffective,ȱdrawingȱonȱtheȱadvantagesȱ
ofȱ beingȱ aȱ national,ȱ interȬdepartmentalȱ authorityȱ andȱ henceȱ withȱ theȱ authorityȱ toȱ
implementȱ recommendationsȱ moreȱ directly.ȱ Itsȱ activitiesȱ includeȱ theȱ adoptionȱ ofȱ
measuresȱ toȱ preventȱ childȱ abuseȱ andȱ protectȱ andȱ rehabilitateȱ childȱ victims;ȱ
developmentȱ ofȱ preventionȱ andȱ awarenessȱ activities;ȱ recommendationsȱ forȱ legalȱ
reform;ȱmonitoringȱofȱprogressȱofȱinvestigations;ȱandȱmaintenanceȱofȱaȱdatabaseȱforȱ
planningȱ childȱ protectionȱ interventions.ȱ Itsȱ majorȱ gapȱ hasȱ been,ȱ however,ȱ theȱ weakȱ
participationȱofȱNGOs.ȱȱ
ȱ
Source:ȱIbid.ȱGlobalȱStatusȱofȱlegislativeȱreformȱrelatedȱtoȱtheȱCRC,ȱp.ȱ25.ȱȱ
ȱ
2.ȱTrainingȱandȱCapacityȬbuildingȱ
ȱ
AnȱHRBAȱtoȱlegislativeȱreformȱalsoȱincludesȱbuildingȱcapacities,ȱsuchȱ
asȱtrainingȱjudgesȱandȱlawȱenforcementȱofficials,ȱamongȱothers,ȱwhichȱ
willȱallowȱinstitutionsȱtoȱfunctionȱeffectively.ȱGovernmentȱagenciesȱ
andȱministries,ȱparliamentarians,ȱjudges,ȱlawyers,ȱandȱinstitutionsȱ
(suchȱasȱlawȱreformȱcommissions)ȱallȱhaveȱimportantȱrolesȱtoȱplayȱinȱ
implementingȱtheȱlaws.ȱȱ
ȱ
Boxȱ9:ȱTrainingȱandȱcapacityȬbuildingȱ
Inȱ Ghana,ȱ aȱ reviewȱ ofȱ progressȱ inȱ lawȱ enforcementȱ showsȱ aȱ clearȱ gapȱ betweenȱ
practiceȱ andȱ enforcement.ȱ ȱ Aȱ typicalȱ caseȱ inȱ pointȱ isȱ inȱ theȱ areaȱ ofȱ theȱ preventionȱ
andȱpunishmentȱofȱharmfulȱtraditionalȱpractices.ȱExperienceȱhasȱshownȱforȱinstanceȱ
thatȱTrokosi 64 ȱandȱFGM,ȱbothȱreligious/cultureȬbasedȱpractices,ȱareȱveryȱdifficultȱtoȱ
eliminateȱmerelyȱthroughȱlegislation.ȱTheȱsameȱreasonȱexplainsȱtheȱobviousȱlackȱofȱ
politicalȱwillȱtoȱconfrontȱtheseȱpracticesȱwithȱtheȱfullȱforceȱofȱcriminalȱlaw.ȱToȱdate,ȱ
noȱ criminalȱ prosecutionȱ hasȱ beenȱ initiatedȱ againstȱ theȱ practiceȱ trokosi.ȱ ȱ Lackȱ ofȱ
optionsȱ forȱ enforcementȱ andȱ limitedȱ educationȱ onȱ howȱ toȱ bringȱ aȱ claimȱ mayȱ beȱ
factorsȱ thatȱ inhibitȱ theȱ effectiveȱ enforcementȱ ofȱ theȱ legislationȱ andȱ thusȱ theȱ
protectionȱofȱtheȱrightsȱofȱchildren.ȱ
ȱ
Source:ȱUNICEFȱLegislativeȱReformȱInitiative,ȱPhaseȱIIȱ–ȱLegislativeȱreformȱinitiatives,ȱ
institutionalȱdevelopment,ȱandȱpolicyȱchangesȱinȱfavorȱofȱchildren:ȱAȱGhanaȱnationalȱstudy,ȱProfessorȱ
KofiȱQuashigah,ȱUNICEFȱGhanaȱ(2004).ȱ
ȱ
64
The Trokosi practice is a system under which young virgin girls are sent into
fetish shrines to atone for the misdeeds of relatives. In its original conception,
the young girls were sent there not because any of their relatives had
committed transgressions, but for the same reasons other girls entered
convents. From that perspective, the Trokosi system was designed to create a
class of traditional elite women, or “Fiasidi.” These “marriageable king’s
initiates” were to become the mothers of the elite men and women of the
society, kings, philosophers, the seers, and other men and women of virtue.
17
3.ȱBudgetȱandȱResourceȱAllocationȱ
ȱ
TheȱneedȱforȱfundingȱforȱlegislativeȱreformȱisȱhighlightedȱbyȱtheȱCRCȱ
Committee,ȱwhichȱviewsȱitȱasȱnecessaryȱtoȱrealiseȱchildren’sȱrightsȱandȱ
incorporateȱtheȱinstrumentȱintoȱtheȱdomesticȱlegalȱsystem. 65 ȱLawȱ
implementationȱmeasures,ȱsuchȱasȱbudgetȱandȱresourceȱallocation,ȱareȱ
essentialȱtoȱlegislativeȱreform.ȱȱ
ȱ
Boxȱ10:ȱObstaclesȱtoȱimplementationȱofȱlawsȱ
ImplementationȱofȱChildȱCareȱActȱ–ȱJamaicaȱenactedȱaȱChildȱCareȱandȱProtectionȱActȱ
whichȱrepealedȱtheȱJuvenileȱAct,ȱ(aȱ45ȱyearȬoldȱAct).ȱTheȱnewȱActȱprovidesȱaȱmoreȱ
comprehensiveȱpieceȱofȱlegislationȱaimedȱatȱprotectingȱtheȱchildȱinȱallȱspheresȱofȱlifeȱ
andȱpromotingȱaȱcaringȱenvironmentȱtoȱgiveȱeachȱchildȱanȱequalȱfootingȱinȱsociety.ȱȱȱ
ȱ
However,ȱ thereȱ isȱ aȱ generalȱ concernȱ regardingȱ fundingȱ toȱ sustainȱ andȱ implementȱ
theȱ provisionsȱ ofȱ theȱ newȱ Act.ȱ ȱ Someȱ specificȱ obstaclesȱ forȱ implementationȱ ofȱ theȱ
ChildȱCareȱandȱProtectionȱActȱinclude:ȱ
x Insufficientȱfundingȱtoȱsustainȱtheȱtrainingȱandȱeducationalȱprogrammeȱtoȱ
changeȱtheȱnationalȱmindȬsetȱaroundȱtheȱimportanceȱofȱprotectingȱchildren;
x Insufficientȱfundingȱtoȱensureȱthatȱtheȱmechanismsȱandȱinstitutionsȱ
functionȱasȱproposed;ȱ
x InsufficientȱfundingȱforȱdayȬtoȬdayȱlogistics,ȱsuchȱasȱvehiclesȱandȱgasolineȱ
toȱtransportȱchildrenȱfromȱcentresȱtoȱcourt.ȱ
ȱ
Source:ȱUNICEFȱLegislativeȱReformȱInitiativesȱ–ȱPhaseȱIȱ–ȱNationalȱreportȱonȱlegislativeȱreform,ȱ
UNICEFȱJamaicaȱ(2004).ȱ
ȱ
“Legislativeȱreformȱandȱtheȱsubsequentȱimplementationȱofȱlegislationȱ
throughȱpoliciesȱandȱinstitutionalȱdevelopmentȱrequireȱadequateȱandȱ
oftenȱsubstantialȱallocationȱofȱfundsȱfromȱgovernmentsȱtoȱensureȱ
concreteȱimplementationȱandȱtoȱmakeȱchildren’sȱrightsȱaȱreality.” 66 ȱ
Fundsȱareȱnotȱonlyȱcriticalȱtoȱtheȱimmediateȱimplementationȱofȱ
policies,ȱbutȱalsoȱtoȱensuringȱadherenceȱtoȱtheseȱpoliciesȱ(e.g.ȱbyȱ
providingȱforȱeconomicȱopportunitiesȱtoȱtheȱgroupȱwhoȱwillȱbeȱdirectlyȱ
orȱindirectlyȱaffectedȱbyȱtheȱlaw). 67 ȱȱ
65
‘General Guidelines for periodic reports’, U.N. Doc. CRC/C/58 (November 1996). For
further information on budgeting and rights, see Gore, R. Influencing Budgets for Children’s
Rights (June 2004).
66
Summary Report of the Study on the Impact of the Implementation of the Convention on
the Rights of the Child, Innnocenti Research Centre (2004).
67
For example, women who practice female excision/cutting as a job.
18
ȱ
Boxȱ11:ȱCostingȱlegislativeȱmeasuresȱ
Costingȱ theȱ Southȱ Africanȱ Childȱ Justiceȱ Bill 68 Ȭȱ Anȱ importantȱ advantageȱ ofȱ havingȱ theȱ
costȬeffectivenessȱ analysisȱ doneȱ whilstȱ theȱ Childȱ Justiceȱ Billȱ wasȱ stillȱ beingȱ draftedȱ
wasȱthatȱitȱallowedȱforȱiterationȱofȱtheȱBill.ȱTheȱBillȱhadȱbeenȱcriticizedȱatȱthatȱstageȱ
forȱ theȱ factȱ thatȱ magistratesȱ presidingȱ overȱ preliminaryȱ inquiriesȱ wouldȱ haveȱ toȱ
recuseȱthemselvesȱfromȱaȱsubsequentȱtrialȱifȱtheyȱhadȱheardȱanyȱprejudicialȱevidenceȱ
duringȱ aȱ preliminaryȱ inquiry.ȱ Theȱ criticsȱ saidȱ thatȱ thisȱ wouldȱ proveȱ tooȱ expensive,ȱ
andȱ thisȱ criticismȱ wasȱ beingȱ usedȱ byȱ someȱ toȱ supportȱ aȱ suggestionȱ thatȱ theȱ Billȱ beȱ
amendedȱsoȱthatȱtheȱmagistrateȱwouldȱnotȱattendȱtheȱpreliminaryȱinquiry.ȱThisȱissueȱ
wasȱspecificallyȱexaminedȱbyȱtheȱeconomists,ȱandȱtheȱcostsȱwereȱfoundȱnotȱtoȱbeȱveryȱ
significant,ȱ soȱ theȱ magistrate’sȱ attendanceȱ atȱ theȱ preliminaryȱ inquiryȱ remainedȱ partȱ
ofȱtheȱChildȱJusticeȱBill.ȱTheȱcostingȱanalysisȱalsoȱdemonstratedȱtheȱcostȬeffectivenessȱ
ofȱclusteringȱservices.ȱAnȱenablingȱclauseȱforȱtheȱestablishmentȱofȱ“oneȱstop”ȱcentresȱ
wasȱthusȱaddedȱtoȱtheȱdraftȱChildȱJusticeȱBill.ȱȱ
ȱ
Sources:ȱBarberton,ȱC.,ȱStuart,ȱJ.,ȱandȱAjam,ȱT.,ȱCostingȱtheȱImplementationȱofȱtheȱChildȱJusticeȱBillȱ
andȱdevelopingȱaȱstrategyȱforȱimplementationȱAFReC,ȱUniversityȱofȱCapeȱTownȱ(1999).ȱ
ȱ
Theȱnationalȱbudgetȱisȱessentiallyȱtheȱfinancialȱembodimentȱofȱaȱ
government’sȱpolicy/lawȱgoals.ȱConsequently,ȱtheȱpolicyȬmakingȱandȱ
budgetaryȱprocessȱshouldȱbeȱintimatelyȱrelated. 69 ȱȱThisȱimplies,ȱamongȱ
others:ȱ
x Aȱfocusȱonȱrealisticȱresourceȱallocationȱandȱbudgetingȱforȱ
enforcementȱofȱlaws;ȱ
x AwarenessȬraisingȱcampaigns,ȱinȱparticularȱlawȱawarenessȱ
activitiesȱ(translationȱofȱlawsȱintoȱnational,ȱlocal,ȱminorityȱ
languages,ȱeducationȱcampaignsȱandȱdisseminationȱofȱlaws,ȱ
availabilityȱofȱnewȱlegislationȱtoȱpublicȱinȱreaderȬfriendlyȱ
formatȱetc.);ȱ
x CapacityȬbuilding/Trainingȱofȱcivilȱservants,ȱincludingȱ
professionalsȱworkingȱforȱandȱwithȱchildren,ȱsuchȱasȱteachers,ȱ
psychologists,ȱlawȱenforcementȱofficers,ȱpoliceȱofficers,ȱlawyers,ȱ
etc;ȱ
x Mechanismsȱtoȱensureȱaccessȱtoȱtheȱjudicialȱsystemȱ(e.g.ȱensureȱ
availabilityȱofȱfinancialȱandȱotherȱassistance).ȱ
68
Barberton, C., Stuart, J., and Ajam, T., Costing the Implementation of the Child Justice Bill
and developing a strategy for implementation AFReC, University of Cape Town (1999).
69
Perrault, Nadine. A human rights-based approach to legislative reform, Concept note, UNICEF, DPP
(2004).
19
ȱ
Boxȱ12:ȱȱBudgetȱallocationȱforȱlegislativeȱmeasuresȱ
Childȱ Budgetȱ Ȭȱ Inȱ Brazil,ȱ “Theȱ Childȱ Budget”ȱ isȱ aȱ nationalȬlevelȱ effortȱ aimedȱ atȱ
promotingȱ transparencyȱ inȱ theȱ useȱ ofȱ publicȱ resourcesȱ throughȱ monitoringȱ publicȱ
budgetsȱ andȱ providingȱ relevantȱ informationȱ toȱ civilȱ societyȱ groupsȱ andȱ others.ȱ Inȱ
1995,ȱ theȱ governmentȱ formulatedȱ theȱ Pactȱ forȱ Childrenȱ document,ȱ whichȱ
highlightedȱ theȱ importanceȱ ofȱ monitoringȱ publicȱ policyȱ financingȱ thatȱ affectsȱ
children.ȱȱ
ȱ
Source:ȱInnocentiȱResearchȱCentre,ȱPromotingȱchildȱrightsȱinȱBrazil.ȱ
ȱ
2.1.4ȱPartnershipsȱandȱSocialȱMobilisationȱ
ȱ
Establishingȱaȱlegalȱframeworkȱthatȱenablesȱtheȱrealisationȱofȱ
children’sȱrightsȱrequiresȱaȱgreatȱdealȱofȱeffortȱbyȱaȱvarietyȱofȱactors.ȱ
SuccessfulȱrightsȬbasedȱeffortsȱrequireȱbuildingȱeffectiveȱpartnershipsȱ
withȱnationalȱcounterpartsȱ(bothȱgovernmentalȱandȱnonȬgovernmentalȱ
actors)ȱtoȱensureȱtheȱinvolvementȱofȱbothȱclaimȬholdersȱandȱdutyȬ
bearers,ȱincludingȱcivilȱsocietyȱactorsȱandȱStates,ȱtheȱlatterȱbeingȱ
primarilyȱaccountableȱforȱrealisationȱofȱrights.ȱȱ
ȱ
Effectiveȱpartnerships,ȱinvolvingȱgovernmentȱandȱkeyȱstakeholders,ȱ
NGOs,ȱwomen’sȱandȱyouthȱorganisations,ȱacademia,ȱandȱtheȱmedia,ȱ
areȱcriticalȱasȱtheseȱgroupsȱareȱwellȱpositionedȱtoȱȱpromoteȱlegislativeȱ
reformȱandȱbeȱcatalystsȱforȱmonitoringȱStates’ȱlegislativeȱreformȱ
responsibility. 70 ȱȱ
ȱȱ
2.2ȱ ValueȬaddedȱofȱaȱHumanȱRightsȬbasedȱApproachȱtoȱ
LegislativeȱReformȱ
ȱ
2.2.1ȱSustainableȱSocialȱPoliciesȱforȱChildren 71ȱ
ȱ
Legislativeȱreformȱisȱneitherȱanȱisolatedȱactivityȱnorȱanȱoptionalȱ
activity,ȱbutȱratherȱanȱessentialȱtoolȱtoȱdevelopȱsustainableȱpoliciesȱinȱaȱ
democraticȱcontext,ȱwhereȱtheȱstabilityȱandȱcontinuityȱofȱsocialȱpoliciesȱ
dependȱonȱlawsȱandȱnotȱonȱtheȱdiscretionaryȱdecisionȱofȱindividualsȱatȱ
theȱexecutiveȱlevel.ȱȱ
70
UNICEF Programming Guidance Paper Series, UNICEF, DPP (2007), p.76.
71
For more information on social policies see: UNICEF Programming guidance on legislative
reform, p.13, and Perrault, Nadine. A Human rights-based approach to legislative reform,
concept note, UNICEF, DPP (2004).
20
ȱ
Itȱisȱimportantȱtoȱdistinguishȱbetweenȱlawȱandȱpolicy;ȱalthoughȱtheyȱ
areȱintertwined,ȱtheyȱareȱalsoȱdistinct.ȱTheȱlawȱsetsȱoutȱstandards,ȱ
proceduresȱandȱprinciplesȱthatȱmustȱbeȱfollowed.ȱAȱpolicyȱoutlinesȱtheȱ
goalsȱofȱgovernmentȱandȱtheȱstrategies,ȱmethods,ȱandȱprinciplesȱ
intendedȱtoȱachieveȱthem.ȱSocialȱprotectionȱpolicies,ȱforȱexample,ȱ
coexistȱwithȱlawsȱthatȱeitherȱreinforceȱorȱdiminishȱthisȱprotection.ȱ
Inheritanceȱlawsȱcanȱsupportȱaȱpolicyȱofȱsocialȱprotectionȱforȱall,ȱbyȱ
grantingȱwomenȱtheirȱrights,ȱorȱcreateȱaȱbarrierȱforȱwomenȱbyȱtreatingȱ
womenȱunequally.ȱȱ
ȱ
Whileȱlawsȱmayȱbeȱamendedȱorȱrepealed,ȱtheyȱultimatelyȱprovideȱaȱ
solidȱfoundationȱforȱpoliciesȱinȱfavourȱofȱchildrenȱandȱwomen.ȱSocialȱ
policiesȱaloneȱmayȱbeȱunsustainable,ȱinȱchangingȱconditions,ȱorȱ
capriciousȱifȱalignedȱveryȱstronglyȱwithȱtheȱgroupȱinȱpower.ȱSocialȱ
policiesȱderivingȱfromȱlaw,ȱhowever,ȱcanȱhaveȱmoreȱpermanenceȱandȱ
sustainabilityȱthanȱthoseȱcreatedȱbyȱdiscretionaryȱactionȱwithinȱtheȱ
executiveȱbranchȱofȱgovernment.ȱWhenȱaȱlawȱisȱputȱinȱplace,ȱitȱcanȱ
createȱanȱenvironmentȱsupportiveȱofȱsocialȱpolicies.ȱWhenȱsocialȱ
policiesȱareȱintegratedȱintoȱandȱreinforcedȱbyȱlaw,ȱtheyȱwillȱbeȱdifficultȱ
toȱderailȱorȱundermine.ȱTherefore,ȱsocialȱpolicyȱandȱlawȱmustȱworkȱ
handȬinȬhand,ȱasȱinterrelatedȱandȱinterdependentȱtoolsȱforȱtheȱ
fulfilmentȱofȱchildren’sȱandȱwomen’sȱrights.ȱ
ȱ
Boxȱ13:ȱSocialȱpolicyȱtoȱsupportȱlegislativeȱreformȱ
InȱIreland,ȱtheȱChildȱCareȱActȱ1991ȱmovedȱawayȱfromȱtheȱperceptionȱofȱchildrenȱasȱ
parentalȱ propertyȱ toȱ anȱ understandingȱ ofȱ theȱ childȱ asȱ aȱ personȱ whoȱ hasȱ rightsȱ byȱ
virtueȱofȱbeingȱanȱindividual.ȱThisȱshiftȱwasȱreflectedȱinȱtheȱDepartmentȱofȱHealth’sȱ
Childȱ Careȱ Policyȱ thatȱ followedȱ inȱ 1993.ȱ Moreover,ȱ inȱ recognitionȱ ofȱ theȱ
interdependenceȱofȱrights,ȱtheȱIrishȱGovernmentȱhasȱappointedȱaȱMinisterȱofȱStateȱ
toȱtheȱDepartmentsȱofȱHealth,ȱEducationȱandȱJusticeȱwithȱspecialȱresponsibilityȱforȱ
childrenȱ and,ȱ inȱ particular,ȱ forȱ theȱ coordinationȱ ofȱ theȱ activitiesȱ ofȱ threeȱ
departmentsȱinȱrelationȱtoȱchildȱprotection.ȱ
ȱ
Source:ȱNundy,ȱKaruna,ȱGlobalȱStatusȱofȱlegislativeȱreformȱrelatedȱtoȱtheȱCRC,ȱUNICEF,ȱDPP,ȱ
(2004)ȱp.ȱ22.ȱȱ
ȱ
Lawsȱandȱsocialȱpoliciesȱareȱequallyȱimportantȱinȱtranslatingȱchildren’sȱ
andȱwomen’sȱrightsȱintoȱpractice.ȱTheȱintegrationȱofȱlawȱreformȱandȱ
socialȱpolicyȱalsoȱfacilitatesȱaȱmoreȱinterdisciplinaryȱdraftingȱofȱlawsȱinȱ
aȱtransparentȱandȱparticipatoryȱenvironment.ȱTheȱendȱproductȱisȱlikelyȱ
toȱbeȱmoreȱenforceableȱandȱcapableȱofȱinternalizationȱasȱaȱlegitimateȱ
21
standard.ȱAȱcombinationȱofȱlawȱreformȱandȱsocialȱpoliciesȱcanȱalsoȱactȱ
asȱaȱbasisȱforȱhumanȱresourceȱdevelopmentȱtoȱachieveȱsustainableȱ
developmentȱ(e.g.,ȱeducationȱandȱhealth,ȱandȱaccessȱtoȱresources,ȱ
participation,ȱetc.ȱforȱchildren,ȱinȱparticularȱgirls,ȱwomenȱandȱmembersȱ
ofȱotherȱmarginalizedȱgroups). 72ȱ
ȱ
2.2.2ȱConclusionȱ
ȱ
Socialȱpoliciesȱandȱlegislativeȱreformȱinȱgeneralȱareasȱsuchȱasȱhousing,ȱ
shelter,ȱandȱaccessȱtoȱlandȱcanȱhelpȱtoȱweakenȱnegativeȱsocialȱcustomsȱ
andȱtraditionsȱthatȱinfringeȱonȱtheȱhumanȱrightsȱofȱwomenȱandȱ
children.ȱAȱcombinationȱofȱlawȱreformȱandȱsocialȱpoliciesȱcanȱalsoȱactȱ
asȱaȱbasisȱforȱhumanȱresourceȱdevelopmentȱtoȱachieveȱsustainableȱ
developmentȱ(e.g.ȱprovidingȱaccessȱtoȱeducation,ȱhealth,ȱetc.).ȱTheȱ
integrationȱofȱlegislativeȱreformȱandȱsocialȱpolicyȱwillȱalsoȱfacilitateȱaȱ
newȱapproachȱandȱaȱmoreȱinterdisciplinaryȱdraftingȱofȱlawsȱinȱaȱ
transparentȱandȱparticipatoryȱenvironment.ȱȱ
ȱ
AnȱHRBAȱtoȱlegislativeȱreformȱcanȱhelpȱpromote,ȱcatalyzeȱandȱsustainȱ
socialȱpoliciesȱinȱfavourȱofȱchildren.ȱItȱcanȱhelpȱcorrectȱandȱovercomeȱ
someȱofȱtheȱmainȱobstaclesȱsocialȱpoliciesȱfaceȱinȱgeneralȱandȱforȱ
childrenȱinȱparticularȱ(suchȱasȱlackȱofȱfinancialȱandȱhumanȱresources,ȱ
lackȱofȱempowerment,ȱtransparency,ȱandȱsustainability,ȱgenderȱ
inequality,ȱetc.).ȱWhenȱaȱlawȱthatȱisȱinȱcomplianceȱwithȱhumanȱrightsȱ
normsȱisȱputȱinȱplace,ȱitȱwillȱcreateȱanȱenvironmentȱsupportiveȱofȱsocialȱ
policiesȱcompliantȱwithȱinternationalȱhumanȱrightsȱnorms.ȱWhenȱsuchȱ
socialȱpoliciesȱareȱintegratedȱintoȱandȱreinforcedȱbyȱlaw,ȱitȱwillȱbeȱ
difficultȱtoȱdislodgeȱorȱrenegeȱonȱthem.ȱȱ
72
For instance, minorities, indigenous peoples, persons with disabilities etc.
22
Chapterȱ2ȱ
ȱ
ASSESSINGȱCOMPLIANCEȱOFȱ
NATIONALȱLEGISLATIONȱWITHȱ
INTERNATIONALȱHUMANȱ
RIGHTSȱNORMSȱANDȱ
STANDARDSȱ
ȱ
Thisȱchapterȱexploresȱtheȱreasonsȱforȱundertakingȱaȱreviewȱandȱ
possibleȱreformȱofȱnationalȱlegislationȱrelatingȱtoȱchildrenȱandȱoutlinesȱ
someȱofȱtheȱconsiderationsȱandȱapproachesȱthatȱcanȱbeȱusedȱasȱpartȱofȱ
process.ȱ
ȱ
Weȱstartȱwithȱtheȱrecognitionȱthatȱlegislationȱisȱnotȱmerelyȱanȱ
administrativeȱmechanismȱwhichȱcanȱbeȱaltered,ȱwithdrawnȱorȱ
introducedȱwithȱminimalȱeffort.ȱAȱnationȇsȱlawsȱareȱaȱsignificantȱ
expressionȱofȱnationalȱcharacter;ȱtheyȱdefineȱwhoȱtheȱpeopleȱofȱtheȱ
countryȱare,ȱwhatȱtheyȱvalueȱandȱhowȱtheyȱrelateȱtoȱeachȱother.ȱAnyȱ
changeȱtoȱlegislationȱisȱcorrelatedȱtoȱaȱchangeȱinȱtheȱcharacterȱofȱtheȱ
nation.ȱLegislativeȱchangeȱmayȱcomeȱasȱaȱresultȱofȱanȱevolutionȱthatȱ
hasȱtakenȱplaceȱinȱcustomsȱandȱdayȬtoȬdayȱusage,ȱorȱitȱmayȱserveȱasȱaȱ
meansȱforȱcreatingȱaȱnewȱparadigmȱthatȱseemsȱimportantȱforȱtheȱfutureȱ
andȱwellȬbeingȱofȱtheȱcountryȱandȱitsȱpopulation.ȱOfȱparticularȱinterest,ȱ
inȱthisȱcontext,ȱisȱlegislationȱwhichȱisȱbroughtȱintoȱforceȱtoȱprotectȱ
individualsȱorȱgroupsȱfromȱdiscriminationȱorȱtoȱpromoteȱparticularȱ
socialȱvalues.ȱ
ȱ
Legislationȱofȱwhateverȱkindȱnecessarilyȱdealsȱwithȱtheȱrelationshipȱ
betweenȱtheȱpopulationȱofȱtheȱcountryȱandȱitsȱgovernments,ȱasȱwellȱasȱ
relationshipsȱamongȱtheȱpeopleȱthemselves.ȱThisȱisȱtheȱcaseȱwhetherȱ
theȱlegislationȱdealsȱwithȱtheȱcollectionȱofȱtaxesȱorȱtheȱprohibitionȱofȱ
murder.ȱAtȱtheȱrootȱofȱmostȱlawsȱareȱconceptionsȱofȱhumanȱrights,ȱ
includingȱprotectionȱofȱindividualsȱfromȱphysicalȱharm,ȱparticipationȱ
ofȱindividualsȱandȱgroupsȱinȱsociety,ȱandȱprovisionȱofȱopportunitiesȱ
23
forȱindividualȱgrowthȱandȱdevelopment.ȱReviewȱandȱreformȱofȱ
legislation,ȱwhenȱundertakenȱwithȱtheȱexplicitȱintentionȱofȱrespecting,ȱ
promotingȱandȱprotectingȱtheȱhumanȱrightsȱofȱall,ȱisȱaȱwayȱforȱbothȱ
governmentsȱandȱcivilȱsocietyȱtoȱhaveȱaȱdirectȱeffectȱonȱtheȱlivesȱandȱ
wellȬbeingȱofȱallȱgroupsȱwithinȱtheȱpopulation.ȱ
ȱ
Atȱtheȱsameȱtime,ȱitȱmustȱbeȱrecognizedȱthatȱlegislationȱcanȱbeȱaȱsourceȱ
ofȱdisparitiesȱandȱdiscrimination.ȱSometimesȱthisȱisȱovert,ȱasȱwithȱlawsȱ
thatȱrestrictȱaccessȱtoȱcertainȱservicesȱorȱfacilitiesȱonȱtheȱbasisȱofȱage,ȱ
sex,ȱrace,ȱbeliefȱorȱotherȱcriteria.ȱSometimesȱitȱisȱlessȱobvious.ȱTheȱ
legislationȱmayȱmandateȱequalȱaccessȱtoȱhealthȱcare,ȱforȱinstance,ȱbutȱ
alsoȱrequireȱthatȱpatientsȱpayȱforȱtheȱcareȱtheyȱreceive,ȱtherebyȱlimitingȱ
theȱaccessȱforȱthoseȱwhoseȱfinancialȱresourcesȱareȱextremelyȱlimited.ȱ
Legislationȱcanȱalsoȱcondoneȱexistingȱdiscriminationȱbyȱnotȱtakingȱ
activeȱmeasuresȱtoȱremoveȱtheȱcausesȱofȱdiscrimination.ȱIfȱtheȱlawȱdoesȱ
notȱrequireȱallȱpublicȱservicesȱtoȱbeȱreadilyȱavailableȱtoȱpeopleȱwithȱ
disabilities,ȱforȱexample,ȱschoolsȱmayȱbeȱeffectivelyȱclosedȱtoȱchildrenȱ
withȱphysicalȱhandicapsȱ(becauseȱtheyȱcannotȱenterȱtheȱbuilding)ȱorȱ
withȱlearningȱdisabilitiesȱ(becauseȱthereȱareȱnoȱprogrammesȱorȱtrainedȱ
staffȱtoȱhelpȱthemȱlearn),ȱorȱgirlsȱmayȱbeȱexcludedȱ(becauseȱsocialȱ
customsȱpreventȱthemȱfromȱattendingȱschoolsȱwithȱmaleȱteachers).ȱȱ
ȱ
Reformingȱexistingȱlegislationȱcanȱbeȱaȱchallengingȱexercise.ȱSocialȱ
structuresȱandȱvestedȱinterestsȱwhichȱareȱsupportedȱbyȱtheȱlegislationȱ
asȱitȱisȱcurrentlyȱwrittenȱandȱappliedȱmayȱresistȱchange.ȱPeopleȱmayȱ
fearȱtheȱunknownȱconsequencesȱofȱadoptingȱaȱdifferentȱbehaviourȱorȱ
policyȱthatȱisȱcontainedȱwithinȱtheȱnewȱlegislation.ȱLegislativeȱreformȱ
isȱmoreȱthanȱaȱpaperȱexercise.ȱItȱcanȱleadȱtoȱrealȱchangeȱinȱactions,ȱ
systemsȱandȱattitudes,ȱatȱleastȱoverȱtime,ȱandȱtheȱdegreeȱofȱresistanceȱ
willȱreflectȱtheȱimportanceȱofȱthatȱchangeȱandȱtheȱextentȱtoȱwhichȱitȱ
affectsȱsocietyȇsȱfundamentalȱvalues.ȱThisȱisȱnowhereȱmoreȱevidentȱ
thanȱwhenȱitȱcomesȱtoȱlegislationȱdealingȱwithȱchildrenȱandȱtheȱfamily.ȱ
ȱ
Inȱundertakingȱaȱprocessȱofȱlegislativeȱreformȱinȱfavourȱofȱchildren,ȱitȱ
isȱalsoȱimportantȱtoȱbearȱinȱmindȱtheȱlimitationsȱandȱtheȱpotentialȱ
benefitsȱofȱtheȱexercise.ȱAsȱimportantȱasȱlawȱis,ȱthereȱareȱsomeȱthingsȱitȱ
cannotȱaccomplish.ȱNoȱlaw,ȱforȱinstance,ȱcanȱforceȱparentsȱtoȱhaveȱtheȱ
bestȱinterestsȱofȱtheirȱchildrenȱasȱtheirȱbasicȱconcernȱ(asȱspecifiedȱinȱ
Articleȱ18ȱofȱtheȱCRC).ȱHowever,ȱlegislationȱcanȱrequireȱparentsȱtoȱ
behaveȱasȱifȱtheyȱdidȱso,ȱbyȱrequiringȱthemȱtoȱprovideȱtheirȱchildrenȱ
24
withȱtheȱnecessitiesȱofȱlifeȱandȱtoȱfosterȱtheirȱchildrenȇsȱfullȱ
development.ȱ
ȱ
LegalȱTraditionsȱandȱSystemsȱ
ȱ
Ourȱconsiderationȱofȱtheȱprocessȱandȱstructureȱofȱlegalȱreformȱinȱ
favourȱofȱchildrenȱisȱbasedȱonȱtheȱrecognitionȱofȱfourȱbasicȱlegalȱ
systemsȱoperatingȱaroundȱtheȱworldȱtoday:ȱcivilȱlaw,ȱcommonȱlaw,ȱ
Islamicȱlaw,ȱandȱpluralȱlegalȱsystems,ȱwhichȱusuallyȱinvolveȱaȱcivilȱorȱ
commonȱlawȱsystemȱcombinedȱwith,ȱorȱbalancedȱby,ȱaȱsystemȱofȱ
customaryȱorȱtraditionalȱlaw.ȱTheȱcharacteristicsȱofȱeachȱofȱtheseȱ
systemsȱwillȱbeȱidentified,ȱwithȱspecialȱreferenceȱtoȱtheirȱeffectȱonȱtheȱ
creation,ȱadoptionȱandȱenforcementȱofȱlawsȱrelatingȱtoȱchildren.ȱ
ȱ
Withinȱeachȱsystem,ȱthereȱareȱdifferentȱrolesȱplayedȱbyȱtheȱlegislature,ȱ
theȱexecutiveȱofȱgovernmentȱ(includingȱtheȱcivilȱservice),ȱtheȱjudiciaryȱ
andȱtheȱlegalȱsystem,ȱandȱrepresentativesȱofȱcivilȱsocietyȱinȱbothȱtheȱ
adoptionȱandȱtheȱimplementationȱofȱlegislation.ȱTheȱdifferentȱsystemsȱ
areȱexaminedȱinȱSectionȱ2.2ȱofȱthisȱchapter.ȱ
ȱ
LegislativeȱReviewȱandȱReformȱ
ȱ
EveryȱStateȱPartyȱtoȱtheȱCRCȱisȱobligedȱtoȱundertakeȱaȱcomprehensiveȱ
reviewȱofȱlegislationȱaffectingȱchildrenȇsȱrights,ȱtoȱamendȱorȱreplaceȱ
legislationȱwhichȱdoesȱnotȱmeetȱtheȱStateȱPartyȇsȱcommitmentsȱunderȱ
theȱConventionȱandȱtoȱadoptȱnewȱlegislationȱasȱrequiredȱtoȱfulfilȱthoseȱ
aspectsȱofȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱnotȱcoveredȱbyȱexistingȱmeasures.ȱ
However,ȱeachȱcountryȱwillȱapproachȱtheȱprocessȱinȱaȱwayȱthatȱisȱ
compatibleȱwithȱitsȱownȱpoliticalȱsystemȱandȱlegalȱtradition.ȱSectionȱ2.3ȱ
looksȱatȱthoseȱaspectsȱofȱtheȱreviewȱandȱreformȱprocessȱwhichȱshouldȱ
beȱcommonȱtoȱall.ȱ
ȱ
Theȱprocessesȱofȱreviewȱandȱreformȱofȱlegislationȱrelatingȱtoȱchildrenȱ
areȱveryȱcloselyȱrelated.ȱAȱreviewȱofȱlegislationȱisȱusuallyȱinspiredȱbyȱ
theȱneedȱorȱpoliticalȱwillȱtoȱrevise,ȱreformȱorȱotherwiseȱchangeȱanȱ
establishedȱbodyȱofȱlegislation.ȱItȱwillȱalsoȱlikelyȱserveȱasȱanȱevaluationȱ
ofȱtheȱexistingȱlegislationȱinȱrelationȱtoȱtheȱlegislators’ȱintentionsȱatȱtheȱ
timeȱtheȱlegislationȱwasȱadoptedȱandȱtheȱwayȱinȱwhichȱthatȱlegislationȱ
hasȱbeenȱimplementedȱandȱenforcedȱsinceȱitsȱadoption.ȱItȱisȱpossible,ȱ
therefore,ȱforȱaȱreviewȱtoȱbeȱconductedȱwithoutȱitȱnecessarilyȱleadingȱ
25
toȱlegislativeȱreform,ȱsinceȱtheȱreviewȱmayȱdemonstrateȱthatȱtheȱ
legislationȱasȱitȱstandsȱisȱeffectiveȱandȱfullyȱinȱkeepingȱwithȱtheȱrightsȱ
ofȱchildren.ȱReform,ȱonȱtheȱotherȱhand,ȱshouldȱalwaysȱbeȱprecededȱbyȱ
aȱcarefulȱstudyȱofȱtheȱexistingȱlegislationȱandȱitsȱimplementation,ȱasȱ
wellȱasȱtheȱgeneralȱsituationȱtheȱlegislationȱisȱmeantȱtoȱaddress.ȱOnlyȱ
thenȱisȱitȱappropriateȱtoȱtakeȱactionȱthatȱwillȱhaveȱanȱeffectȱonȱtheȱlivesȱ
ofȱchildren,ȱtheirȱfamiliesȱandȱtheirȱcommunities.ȱSectionȱ2.3ȱconsidersȱ
bothȱreviewȱandȱreformȱinȱsomeȱdetailȱasȱseparateȱactivities,ȱwhileȱ
maintainingȱtheȱconnectionsȱbetweenȱthem.ȱ
ȱ
ȱ
Partȱ1ȱ LEGALȱTRADITIONSȱANDȱ
SYSTEMSȱ
ȱ
1.1ȱ IntroductionȱtoȱLegalȱTraditionsȱandȱSystemsȱ
ȱ
Inȱorderȱtoȱeffectivelyȱanalyseȱtheȱprocessȱandȱstructureȱofȱlawmakingȱ
andȱlawȱimplementationȱinȱaȱcountry,ȱoneȱmustȱfirstȱunderstandȱtheȱ
country’sȱlegalȱsystems.ȱTheȱlegalȱtraditionȱandȱhowȱthisȱtraditionȱ
translatesȱintoȱtheȱlegalȱsystem,ȱasȱwellȱasȱlocalȱcustomsȱandȱpractice,ȱ
areȱimportantȱfactorsȱinȱunderstandingȱtheȱstatusȱandȱapplicationȱofȱ
humanȱrightsȱstandardsȱandȱprinciplesȱinȱaȱgivenȱcountry.ȱȱ
ȱ
Definitionsȱofȱtheȱtermsȱ‘legalȱsystem’ȱandȱ‘legalȱtradition’ȱmayȱvary.ȱ
However,ȱinȱtheȱcontextȱofȱthisȱdocument,ȱtheȱlegalȱsystemȱofȱaȱ
countryȱencompassesȱitsȱrulesȱandȱinstitutions,ȱwhichȱareȱbasedȱonȱitsȱ
legalȱtradition;ȱthus,ȱwhatȱareȱbeingȱcategorizedȱasȱ“systems”ȱ(civil,ȱ
common,ȱIslamicȱandȱcustomaryȱlaw)ȱareȱactuallyȱtheȱtraditionsȱuponȱ
whichȱindividualȱcountries’ȱsystemsȱofȱlawȱareȱbuilt.ȱȱ
ȱ
Theȱlegalȱtraditionȱisȱtheȱculturalȱperspectiveȱunderȱwhichȱtheȱlegalȱ
systemȱisȱcreated,ȱprovidingȱtheȱphilosophyȱforȱhowȱtheȱsystemȱshouldȱ
beȱorganizedȱandȱhowȱlawȱshouldȱbeȱformedȱandȱimplemented.ȱItȱisȱ
basedȱonȱaȱhistoricȱperceptionȱaboutȱtheȱroleȱofȱlawȱinȱsociety. 73ȱ
73
These definitions are taken from W. Tetley, ‘Mixed jurisdictions: common law v. civil law
(codified and un-codified)’ Uniform L. R., vol. 4 (1993), p. 591, which cites Merryman, J.H.,
The Civil Law Tradition: An Introduction to the Legal Systems of Western Europe and Latin
America, 2nd ed. (1995), p. 1. For further reading, this article is available at:
http://www.unidroit.org/english/publications/review/articles/1999-3.htm.
26
ȱ
Itȱisȱwellȱacceptedȱthatȱtheȱtermȱ‘legalȱsystem’ȱencompassesȱthreeȱ
components:ȱ1)ȱtheȱsubstanceȱofȱtheȱlaw,ȱ2)ȱtheȱstructureȱofȱtheȱlaw,ȱ
andȱ3)ȱtheȱcultureȱofȱtheȱlaw.ȱ
ȱ
1. Theȱsubstanceȱofȱtheȱlawȱrefersȱtoȱtheȱletterȱofȱtheȱlaw 74 ȱ(i.e.ȱtheȱ
formulationȱofȱtheȱprovisionsȱandȱclauses)ȱorȱbroadȱprinciplesȱ
ofȱlawȱ(whichȱareȱinterpretedȱbyȱjudges,ȱparticularlyȱinȱ
commonȱlawȱcountries).ȱȱ
2. Theȱstructureȱofȱtheȱlawȱrefersȱtoȱtheȱinstitutionsȱandȱ
enforcementȱmechanismsȱputȱinȱplaceȱtoȱensureȱapplicationȱofȱ
theȱlaw.ȱTheseȱareȱusuallyȱtheȱcourts,ȱtribunals,ȱofficesȱofȱ
ombudspersons,ȱhumanȱrightsȱcommissions,ȱetc.ȱ
3. Theȱcultureȱofȱtheȱlawȱrefersȱtoȱtheȱsocialȱandȱculturalȱcontextsȱ
inȱwhichȱlawsȱareȱimplemented.ȱTheseȱincludeȱtheȱsocialȱvaluesȱ
andȱpracticesȱasȱwellȱasȱsocialȱdifferencesȱthatȱmayȱexistȱwithinȱ
aȱsociety.ȱ
ȱ
Theȱlegalȱsystemȱhasȱanȱimpactȱonȱtheȱwaysȱinȱwhichȱinternationalȱ
humanȱrightsȱnormsȱareȱintegratedȱintoȱnationalȱlegislation.ȱInȱgeneral,ȱ
thereȱareȱfourȱmainȱwaysȱinȱwhichȱinternationalȱlawȱcanȱbeȱ
incorporatedȱintoȱlocalȱorȱdomesticȱlaw.ȱTheseȱare:ȱ
ȱȱ
1. Throughȱtheȱratificationȱofȱorȱaccessionȱtoȱanyȱinternationalȱ
agreement,ȱtreatyȱorȱconvention,ȱwhichȱautomaticallyȱresultsȱinȱ
theȱprovisionsȱofȱthatȱinstrumentȱbeingȱincorporatedȱdirectlyȱ
intoȱdomesticȱlegislation,ȱandȱbeingȱimmediatelyȱandȱfullyȱ
justiciableȱ(i.e.ȱsubjectȱtoȱactionȱinȱaȱcourtȱofȱlaw).ȱThisȱisȱ
referredȱtoȱasȱ“automaticȱincorporation.” 75ȱ
2. Throughȱtheȱpromulgationȱofȱspecialȱenablingȱlegislation,ȱsuchȱ
asȱaȱconstitutionalȱamendment,ȱaȱlawȱorȱdecree.ȱUntilȱthisȱisȱ
done,ȱtheȱinternationalȱinstrumentȱhasȱnoȱlegalȱforceȱ
domestically.ȱ
3. Throughȱtheȱincorporationȱofȱtheȱinstrument,ȱinȱitsȱentirety,ȱinȱaȱ
singleȱpieceȱofȱlegislation.ȱ
74
This applies specifically to the civil law system.
75
Handbook for Parliamentarians, The Convention on the Elimination of all forms of
Discrimination against Women and its Optional Protocol, United Nations and Inter-
Parliamentary Union (2003), p. 41.
27
4. Throughȱtheȱgradualȱincorporationȱofȱvariousȱaspectsȱofȱtheȱ
internationalȱinstrumentȇsȱapplicationȱoverȱtime,ȱusingȱaȱ
numberȱofȱdifferentȱlaws.ȱ
ȱ
Theȱvariousȱwaysȱinȱwhichȱinternationalȱinstrumentsȱareȱappliedȱinȱ
countriesȱareȱoutlinedȱinȱdetailȱinȱtheȱSectionȱofȱtheȱHandbookȱentitledȱ
“Constitutionalȱreformsȱinȱfavourȱofȱchildren.” 76ȱ
ȱ
1.2ȱ DifferingȱLegalȱSystemsȱ
ȱ
ThisȱSectionȱlooksȱatȱhomogeneousȱsystemsȱandȱmixed/pluralȱsystems,ȱ
whichȱareȱbasedȱonȱcountries’ȱlegalȱtraditions.ȱWithinȱtheseȱtwoȱ
groupsȱ(homogeneousȱandȱmixed),ȱtheȱtraditionsȱconsideredȱareȱthoseȱ
whichȱsubstantiallyȱreflectȱtheȱlegalȱsystemsȱofȱtheȱStatesȱPartiesȱtoȱtheȱ
CRC.ȱȱMostȱcountriesȱhaveȱsomeȱmixtureȱofȱtheseȱtraditions,ȱandȱthereȱ
areȱexceptionsȱtoȱtheȱtraditionsȱdescribedȱbelow.ȱFurthermore,ȱlegalȱ
traditionsȱareȱnotȱstaticȱorȱcompletelyȱdistinct,ȱandȱtheȱbelowȱ
classificationsȱareȱsimplifications.ȱHoweverȱtheseȱtraditionsȱdoȱ
representȱtheȱfoundationȱforȱmodernȱlegalȱsystems.ȱ
ȱ
Theseȱsystemsȱareȱtheȱcivilȱlaw,ȱcommonȱlaw,ȱIslamicȱlawȱandȱpluralȱorȱ
mixedȱsystemsȱwithȱcomponentsȱofȱcustomaryȱlaw.ȱEachȱsystem’sȱ
mainȱcharacteristicsȱareȱidentified,ȱwithȱspecialȱreferenceȱtoȱtheirȱeffectȱ
onȱtheȱdomesticationȱofȱinternationalȱhumanȱrightsȱstandards,ȱasȱwellȱ
asȱtheȱdrafting,ȱadoption,ȱandȱenforcementȱofȱlawsȱfocusedȱonȱ
children.ȱ
ȱ
Asȱpreviouslyȱmentioned,ȱthereȱareȱpointsȱofȱoverlapȱbetweenȱcivilȱlawȱ
andȱcommonȱlawȱinȱpractice,ȱandȱeitherȱmayȱbeȱcombinedȱwithȱIslamicȱ
orȱcustomaryȱlawȱinȱaȱgivenȱcountry.ȱEvenȱwithinȱtheȱbroadȱcategoriesȱ
ofȱcivilȱlawȱandȱcommonȱlaw,ȱthereȱareȱvariationsȱfromȱcountryȱtoȱ
country,ȱsoȱthatȱtheȱbasicȱprinciplesȱandȱhistoricalȱbackgroundȱareȱ
adaptedȱandȱcarriedȱforwardȱbasedȱonȱtheȱparticularȱsituationȱofȱeachȱ
country.ȱItȱisȱfromȱtheȱcountry’sȱparticularȱexpressionȱofȱtheȱ
underlyingȱtraditionȱthatȱtheȱsystemȱofȱlawȱisȱderived.ȱ
ȱ
76
For a more comprehensive introduction to the status of international treaties in domestic
legislation see Chapter III of this Handbook.
28
1.2.1ȱ HomogeneousȱSystemsȱ
ȱ
Manyȱcountriesȱhaveȱaȱlegalȱsystemȱbasedȱonȱaȱsingleȱlegalȱtradition—
eitherȱtheȱcivilȱlawȱtraditionȱorȱtheȱcommonȱlawȱtradition.ȱUsually,ȱ
theseȱcountries’ȱsystemsȱareȱdescribedȱasȱhomogeneous.ȱTheȱprinciplesȱ
ofȱtheȱcommonȱlawȱandȱcivilȱlawȱtraditionsȱapplyȱwhetherȱtheȱlegalȱ
systemȱinȱtheȱcountryȱisȱhomogeneousȱorȱincludesȱtheȱtraditionȱasȱpartȱ
ofȱaȱpluralistȱsystem.ȱWhileȱtheȱdescriptionsȱbelowȱfocusȱonȱtheȱ
historicȱconceptsȱofȱcivilȱandȱcommonȱlawȱsystems,ȱtheȱcontrastȱ
betweenȱthemȱisȱnotȱalwaysȱsharplyȱdefined.ȱCountriesȱwithȱoneȱ
systemȱincreasinglyȱadoptȱconventionsȱofȱtheȱother.ȱȱ
ȱ
1.2.2.ȱ CivilȱLawȱTraditionȱ
ȱ
TheȱcivilȱlawȱtraditionȱisȱderivedȱmainlyȱfromȱRomanȱlaw,ȱwithȱitsȱ
emphasisȱonȱwritingȱlawsȱintoȱcomprehensiveȱnationalȱcodes.ȱ
However,ȱsomeȱcivilȱlawȱsystemsȱremainȱunȬcodified,ȱwhileȱatȱtheȱ
sameȱtimeȱsomeȱcommonȱlawȱjurisdictionsȱmayȱcodifyȱpartsȱofȱtheirȱ
lawȱ(suchȱasȱaȱcriminalȱcode).ȱThus,ȱevidenceȱofȱtheȱsystematicȱ
arrangementȱofȱrelatedȱlawsȱintoȱaȱsingleȱwrittenȱdocumentȱdoesȱnotȱ
automaticallyȱidentifyȱaȱcivilȱlawȱsystem.ȱ
ȱ
Theȱcivilȱlawȱtraditionȱservesȱasȱtheȱbasisȱofȱlawȱinȱtheȱmajorityȱofȱ
countriesȱofȱtheȱworld,ȱespeciallyȱinȱcontinentalȱEurope,ȱbutȱalsoȱinȱ
Quebecȱ(Canada),ȱLouisianaȱ(USA),ȱJapan,ȱLatinȱAmerica,ȱandȱmostȱ
formerȱcoloniesȱofȱcontinentalȱEuropeanȱcountries.ȱȱȱ
ȱ
Civilȱlawȱsystemsȱareȱ‘monist’ȱsystems,ȱmeaningȱthatȱnationalȱandȱ
internationalȱlawȱareȱviewedȱasȱaȱsingleȱlegalȱsystem.ȱInȱgeneral,ȱnoȱ
separateȱimplementingȱlegislationȱisȱneededȱtoȱenforceȱtheȱacceptedȱ
internationalȱlaw.ȱSignificantly,ȱtheȱconstitutionalȱprovisionsȱofȱmostȱ
civilȱlawȱcountriesȱlegallyȱentitleȱthemȱtoȱautomaticȱintegrationȱofȱ
internationalȱtreatiesȱintoȱdomesticȱlawȱuponȱratificationȱ–ȱenablingȱ
lawyersȱandȱjudgesȱtoȱinvokeȱthemȱdirectlyȱinȱcasesȱbroughtȱbeforeȱtheȱ
courts. 77 ȱȱTherefore,ȱonceȱanȱinternationalȱhumanȱrightsȱinstrumentȱisȱ
ratifiedȱbyȱsuchȱaȱcountry,ȱtheȱinstrumentȱbecomesȱpartȱofȱdomesticȱ
lawȱandȱprevailsȱoverȱnationalȱlegislationȱinȱtheȱeventȱofȱaȱconflictȱ
77
UNICEF, Global Status of Legislative Reform Related to the Convention on the Rights of
the Child. Compiled by Karuna Nundy (2004).
29
betweenȱtheȱtwo.ȱUsually,ȱtheȱconstitutionȱindicatesȱthatȱratifiedȱ
treatiesȱareȱtoȱbeȱautomaticallyȱincorporatedȱinȱthisȱway,ȱprovidedȱtheyȱ
haveȱbeenȱpublishedȱinȱtheȱOfficialȱGazette.ȱInȱspiteȱofȱthisȱfact,ȱtheȱ
practiceȱofȱdirectlyȱapplyingȱinternationalȱtreatiesȱinȱcourtsȱisȱlimited.ȱ
FollowingȱratificationȱofȱtheȱCRC,ȱsomeȱcivilȱlawȱcountriesȱtookȱtheȱ
additionalȱstepȱofȱenactingȱlawsȱthatȱreflectȱtheȱtreaty’sȱprovisions.ȱȱ
ȱ
Inȱcivilȱlawȱsystems,ȱtheȱlegislatureȱandȱjudiciaryȱhaveȱdifferentȱroles:ȱ
theȱformerȱcreatesȱtheȱlawȱandȱtheȱlatterȱappliesȱtheȱlaw.ȱJudgesȱareȱ
speciallyȱtrainedȱasȱsuch,ȱinȱtrainingȱschoolsȱorȱduringȱtheȱpostȱlawȱ
schoolȱpracticalȱworkȱperiod.ȱJudicialȱdecisionsȱareȱbasedȱonȱ
interpretationȱofȱtheȱwrittenȱlaw,ȱandȱlegalȱscholarshipȱ(commentariesȱ
byȱexperts,ȱarticlesȱbyȱlawȱprofessors,ȱetc.)ȱmayȱbeȱusedȱtoȱaidȱthisȱ
interpretation.ȱUltimately,ȱjudgesȱinȱlowerȱcourtsȱhaveȱnoȱlegalȱ
obligationȱtoȱfollowȱtheȱinterpretationsȱandȱdecisionsȱofȱotherȱjudgesȱinȱ
previousȱcasesȱ(exceptȱthoseȱofȱtheȱHighȱCourt,ȱSupremeȱCourtȱorȱCourȱ
deȱCassation),ȱalthoughȱtheyȱmayȱdoȱsoȱinȱpractice.ȱȱ
ȱ
Inȱcivilȱlawȱsystems,ȱlegislatorsȱandȱlawȱprofessorsȱexertȱinfluenceȱoverȱ
theȱcontentȱofȱlawȱ(itsȱtextȱandȱitsȱinterpretation).ȱTherefore,ȱtheseȱtwoȱ
groupsȱareȱimportantȱpartners.ȱAdditionally,ȱinȱaȱmonistȱsystem,ȱ
judgesȱcanȱbeȱcalledȱuponȱtoȱapplyȱinternationalȱhumanȱrightsȱtreatiesȱ
toȱwhichȱtheȱcountryȱisȱaȱpartyȱandȱtheyȱshouldȱbeȱencouragedȱtoȱdoȱ
so.ȱ
ȱ
1.2.3ȱCommonȱLawȱTraditionȱ
ȱ
TheȱcommonȱlawȱtraditionȱisȱderivedȱfromȱtheȱEnglishȱlegalȱtradition.ȱ
Historically,ȱcommonȱlawȱwasȱlawȱdevelopedȱbyȱcustomȱ(priorȱ
practiceȱofȱjusticeȱofficials),ȱbeforeȱthereȱwereȱwrittenȱlaws.ȱThisȱ
practiceȱhasȱcontinuedȱtoȱbeȱappliedȱbyȱcommonȱlawȱcourts,ȱevenȱafterȱ
lawsȱexistedȱinȱwrittenȱform.ȱȱ
ȱ
Inȱtheȱcommonȱlawȱsystem,ȱcourtȱdecisionsȱ(caseȱlaw)ȱareȱanȱimportantȱ
sourceȱofȱlawȱandȱexpressionȱofȱlegalȱrules.ȱTheȱcourts’ȱinterpretationȱ
ofȱtheȱconstitution,ȱlegislation,ȱandȱcodesȱbecomesȱlawȱitself.ȱJudgesȱ
createȱandȱrefineȱthisȱlawȱthroughȱinterpretationȱofȱcommunityȱ
standardsȱandȱtraditions.ȱTheȱdecisionsȱofȱcourtsȱthusȱestablishȱ
precedentȱforȱfutureȱinterpretationȱofȱtheȱlawȱbyȱjudgesȱinȱtheȱsameȱorȱ
lowerȱcourtsȱwithinȱtheȱsameȱjurisdiction.ȱJudgesȱthenȱrefineȱthisȱ
30
interpretationȱinȱfutureȱcasesȱbyȱextendingȱitȱtoȱdifferentȱfactsȱandȱ
circumstances.ȱȱ
ȱ
Statutes,ȱwhichȱareȱlawsȱenactedȱbyȱtheȱlegislature,ȱareȱwrittenȱandȱ
interpretedȱbyȱtheȱjudges. 78 ȱCourtȱcasesȱfillȱtheȱgapsȱinȱlegislativeȱtexts.ȱ
Inȱmanyȱcommonȱlawȱcountriesȱjudgesȱareȱseenȱasȱbalancingȱtheȱpowerȱ
ofȱtheȱotherȱbranchesȱofȱgovernment.ȱGenerally,ȱjudgesȱdoȱnotȱreceiveȱ
specificȱtraining,ȱbutȱareȱchosenȱfromȱamongȱrespectedȱandȱ
experiencedȱadvocates/lawyers.ȱ
ȱ
Mostȱcountriesȱofȱtheȱcommonȱlawȱtraditionȱapplyȱtheȱ‘dualist’ȱsystemȱ
withȱrespectȱtoȱtreatyȱobligations. 79 ȱThisȱmeansȱthatȱinternationalȱlawȱ
isȱconsideredȱaȱseparateȱsystemȱthatȱgovernsȱconductȱamongstȱStates.ȱ
Itȱdoesȱnotȱacquireȱdomesticȱstatusȱuponȱratificationȱunlessȱformalȱ
legislativeȱactionȱhasȱbeenȱtaken.ȱȱThus,ȱinȱcommonȱlawȱcountries,ȱ
evenȱifȱanȱinternationalȱinstrumentȱsuchȱasȱtheȱCRCȱorȱCEDAWȱhasȱ
beenȱratified,ȱspecificȱlegislativeȱorȱadministrativeȱmeasuresȱareȱ
requiredȱtoȱincorporateȱitsȱprovisionsȱintoȱdomesticȱlaw.ȱHowever,ȱinȱaȱ
fewȱcommonȱlawȱcountries,ȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAWȱhaveȱbeenȱusedȱbyȱ
judgesȱinȱmakingȱdecisionsȱandȱhaveȱthusȱinfluencedȱcaseȱlaw. 80 ȱInȱ
addition,ȱinȱmanyȱStatesȱParties,ȱlegislationȱincorporatingȱCRCȱandȱ
CEDAWȱprinciplesȱandȱstandardsȱhasȱbeenȱpiecemealȱandȱadȱhoc.ȱȱ
ȱ
Anotherȱimportantȱfeatureȱofȱtheȱcommonȱlawȱtraditionȱinȱrelationȱtoȱ
lawmakingȱisȱthatȱitȱisȱtraditionallyȱbasedȱonȱjudicialȱprecedentȱasȱ
opposedȱtoȱcodificationȱofȱlaw,ȱtheȱmainȱfeatureȱofȱtheȱcivilȱlawȱ
system.ȱThereȱis,ȱhowever,ȱemergingȱevidenceȱtoȱsuggestȱtheȱadoptionȱ
ofȱsomeȱcivilȱlawȱfeaturesȱintoȱtheȱcommonȱlawȱtraditionȱandȱviceȬ
versa:ȱWhereasȱinȱcivilȱlawȱcountries,ȱthereȱisȱaȱgrowingȱimportanceȱofȱ
judicialȱreviewȱinȱtheȱlawmakingȱprocess,ȱinȱcommonȱlawȱcountries,ȱ
thereȱalsoȱappearsȱtoȱbeȱanȱadaptationȱtowardsȱstatuteȱlawȱandȱcodes.ȱ
ȱ
78
Statutes are often written to be interpreted and can therefore be rather general in their
phrasing. Unless the laws are very specific in their wording, they can be interpreted quite
broadly, depending on the rights and interests involved.
79
While most common law countries are dualist when it comes to international treaties, this is
not because of the common law. Rather, it is the result of the application of the royal
prerogative in ratification of international treaties.
80
The CRC is a key component of the definitive Canadian reference on all law affecting
children (Wilson on Children and the Law).
31
Inȱtheȱcommonȱlawȱtradition,ȱtheȱunderstandingȱofȱhumanȱrightsȱ
(generallyȱpreservedȱinȱtheȱnationalȱconstitutionȱorȱaȱbillȱorȱcharterȱofȱ
rights)ȱmayȱbeȱredefinedȱorȱexpandedȱthroughȱinterpretationȱbyȱtheȱ
courts,ȱasȱjudicialȱdecisionsȱestablishȱlegalȱprecedentsȱwhichȱhaveȱtheȱ
forceȱofȱlawȱinȱcommonȱlawȱcountries.ȱThus,ȱcourtsȱandȱjudgesȱareȱ
importantȱpartnersȱinȱbroadlyȱdefiningȱchildren’sȱrightsȱinȱsystemsȱ
basedȱonȱcommonȱlawȱtraditions.ȱJudgesȱmustȱbeȱseenȱasȱpotentialȱ
advocatesȱforȱadvancingȱtheȱrealisationȱofȱchildren’sȱrights.ȱSimilarly,ȱ
legislatorsȱshouldȱbeȱencouragedȱtoȱpassȱlegislationȱholisticallyȱ
incorporatingȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAWȱdomestically.ȱDoingȱsoȱwillȱmakeȱ
itȱeasierȱforȱpartiesȱtoȱcourtȱcasesȱtoȱinvokeȱtheȱCRCȱorȱCEDAWȱinȱ
supportȱofȱtheirȱcases.ȱInȱtheȱabsenceȱofȱholisticȱincorporation,ȱ
advocates/lawyersȱshouldȱencourageȱcourtsȱtoȱuseȱtheȱCRCȱandȱ
CEDAWȱ(evenȱwhenȱnotȱratifiedȱbyȱtheȱState) 81 ȱasȱaȱpersuasiveȱ
authority—basedȱonȱtheȱState’sȱvoluntaryȱacceptanceȱofȱobligationsȱinȱ
ratifyingȱtheȱinstrument.ȱ
ȱ
1.2.4ȱMixed/PluralistȱLegalȱSystemsȱ
Mixedȱorȱpluralistȱlegalȱsystemsȱareȱtheȱmostȱcomplexȱtoȱnavigateȱandȱ
analyzeȱinȱtermsȱofȱhowȱbestȱtoȱsupportȱlegislativeȱreformȱforȱchildrenȱ
andȱwomen.ȱTheyȱmayȱinvolveȱcombinationsȱofȱanyȱlegalȱtraditionsȱ
andȱoftenȱincludeȱsomeȱformȱofȱcustomaryȱorȱtraditionalȱlaw.ȱInȱotherȱ
cases,ȱpluralistȱcountriesȱcombineȱcivilȱorȱcommonȱlawȱwithȱIslamicȱ
law.ȱTheȱdifferentȱtraditionsȱmayȱinteractȱorȱoperateȱinȱindependentȱ
spheres.ȱPluralistȱcountriesȱposeȱtheȱdistinctȱproblemȱofȱtryingȱtoȱ
balanceȱtheȱdifferentȱlegalȱapproachesȱofȱmultipleȱsystemsȱoperatingȱatȱ
theȱsameȱtime.ȱȱ
ȱ
1.2.5ȱIslamicȱLawȱ
ȱ
Islamȱprovidesȱrulesȱforȱbothȱreligiousȱandȱsecularȱlife,ȱsettingȱanȱ
extensiveȱcodeȱthatȱdirectsȱhowȱtheȱfaithfulȱmustȱbehaveȱasȱaȱ
community.ȱ
ȱ
IslamicȱlawȱisȱbasedȱuponȱtheȱprinciplesȱofȱShari’a,ȱwhichȱ“refersȱtoȱtheȱ
generalȱnormativeȱsystemȱofȱIslamȱasȱhistoricallyȱunderstoodȱandȱ
81
Attorney-General of Botswana v. Unity Dow, 1992 LRC (Const) 623, decided by the Court
of Appeal of Botswana.
32
developedȱbyȱMuslimȱjurists.” 82 ȱȱForȱpurposesȱofȱthisȱHandbook,ȱ
StatesȱPartiesȱofȱtheȱIslamicȱlegalȱtraditionȱmayȱbeȱdescribedȱasȱthoseȱ
whoseȱcivilȱandȱpenalȱlawsȱareȱpredominantlyȱbasedȱonȱShari’a.ȱTheȱ
Shari’aȱcoversȱaȱwideȱrangeȱofȱissues,ȱfromȱdiet,ȱtheȱuseȱofȱpublicȱspace,ȱ
andȱchildȱcustodyȱtoȱcriminalȱpunishment.ȱIslamicȱlawȱisȱbasedȱ
predominantlyȱonȱtheȱQur’an,ȱHadithȱorȱSunnaȱ(customȱorȱconductȱofȱ
theȱProphetȱMohammed),ȱIjmaȱ(consensusȱamongȱorȱopinionȱofȱ
Muslimȱjuristsȱonȱaȱquestionȱofȱlaw),ȱQiyasȱ(analogicalȱdeduction,ȱinȱ
mattersȱnotȱcoveredȱbyȱtheȱotherȱsources)ȱandȱIjtihadȱ(exercisingȱ
independentȱjuristicȱreasoning).ȱTheȱShari’aȱtookȱsomewhatȱdifferentȱ
formsȱwithinȱtheseȱapproaches,ȱandȱitsȱcontentȱandȱmethodsȱvaryȱ
acrossȱtheȱMuslimȱworldȱtodayȱdependingȱonȱprevailingȱapproachesȱinȱ
eachȱregionȱandȱcountry,ȱandȱtheȱlocalȱcustomsȱthatȱinformedȱthem. 83ȱ
ȱ
MostȱMuslimȱcountriesȱhaveȱincorporatedȱtheȱShari’aȱintoȱtheirȱ
domesticȱlaw,ȱtoȱoneȱdegreeȱorȱanother.ȱConstitutionsȱofȱIslamicȱStatesȱ
alsoȱserveȱasȱusefulȱframeworksȱforȱdeterminingȱtheȱstatusȱofȱ
internationalȱlawȱwithinȱtheȱlegalȱframework.ȱTheȱconstitutionsȱofȱ
manyȱStatesȱprovideȱthatȱtheȱShari’aȱshallȱbeȱtheȱprincipleȱsourceȱofȱ
legislation.ȱȱ
ȱ
InȱmanyȱStatesȱsecularȱandȱreligiousȱlawsȱcoȬexistȱwhereȱpublicȱlawȱisȱ
conductedȱonȱtheȱbasisȱofȱsecularȱprinciples.ȱItȱisȱtheȱShari’aȱonȱ
personalȱstatusȱmattersȱ–ȱsuchȱasȱmarriage,ȱpolygamy,ȱdivorce,ȱ
repudiation,ȱcustodyȱandȱguardianshipȱofȱchildren,ȱsexualȱrelationsȱ
andȱinheritanceȱ–ȱthatȱisȱmostȱfrequentlyȱfoundȱinȱlegislation.ȱThisȱisȱ
primarilyȱbecauseȱtheȱQur’anȱandȱSunnaȱgiveȱtheirȱmostȱdetailedȱ
prescriptionsȱonȱtheseȱmatters,ȱbecauseȱIslamicȱpersonalȱstatusȱlawsȱ
wereȱoftenȱleftȱlargelyȱintactȱduringȱperiodsȱofȱcolonialȱrule,ȱandȱ
becauseȱIslamicȱfundamentalistȱmovementsȱtypicallyȱmakeȱthisȱareaȱofȱ
lawȱaȱmainȱfocusȱinȱtheirȱreforms. 84 ȱFurthermore,ȱthereȱareȱcountriesȱ
82
A. An-Naim, ed., Islamic Family Law in a Changing World: A Global Resource Book, Zed
Books, London (2003), p. 1, as cited in S. S. Ali, ‘A Comparative Perspective of the
Convention on the Rights of the Child and the Principles of Islamic Law’, in Protecting the
World’s Children: Impact of the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child in Diverse Legal
Systems, UNICEF, Cambridge University Press: New York (2007).
83
See: Dwyer p. 2,12; Venkatraman p.1964-1970; Elahi p. 368-369; An-Naim, “Religious
Human Rights” p. 342-343.
84
Lee, Waldorf, Children’s Rights and Islam, UNICEF unpublished Working Paper (2000).
33
whoseȱpopulationsȱbelongȱtoȱdifferentȱfaiths 85 ȱthatȱhaveȱenactedȱ
personalȱstatusȱlawsȱspecificȱtoȱeachȱofȱtheȱdominantȱreligions. 86ȱ
ȱ
LocalȱvariationȱalsoȱplaysȱanȱimportantȱroleȱinȱIslam.ȱNotȱonlyȱwereȱ
regionalȱtraditionsȱinfluentialȱinȱtheȱdevelopmentȱofȱtheȱShari’a,ȱbutȱ
religionȱasȱitȱisȱnowȱexplainedȱandȱunderstoodȱatȱtheȱlocalȱlevelȱdoesȱ
notȱalwaysȱconformȱtoȱtheȱletterȱofȱtheȱQur’an.ȱSomeȱcustomaryȱ
practicesȱmayȱbeȱfalselyȱcharacterisedȱasȱIslamic.ȱAlso,ȱitȱshouldȱbeȱ
notedȱthatȱlocalȱcustomȱinformedȱtheȱdevelopmentȱofȱtheȱdifferentȱ
Islamicȱschoolsȱofȱlaw.ȱAsȱaȱresult,ȱtheȱconflictsȱwhichȱmayȱexistȱ
betweenȱchildren’sȱhumanȱrightsȱandȱwhatȱisȱunderstoodȱtoȱbeȱaȱ
properȱIslamicȱwayȱofȱlifeȱareȱnotȱconsistentȱacrossȱtheȱMuslimȱworld.ȱ
ȱ
Therefore,ȱparticularlyȱinȱtheȱareaȱofȱfamilyȱlaw,ȱthereȱisȱsomeȱbeliefȱ
thatȱaȱreformulationȱofȱpracticesȱrelatingȱtoȱcustody,ȱguardianship,ȱ
marriageȱage,ȱandȱinheritanceȱrights,ȱamongȱothers,ȱisȱpossibleȱwithinȱ
theȱframeworkȱofȱIslamicȱlaw.ȱ 87 ȱForȱinstance,ȱsomeȱIslamicȱStatesȱhaveȱ
usedȱijtihad,ȱorȱtheȱevolvingȱinterpretationȱofȱIslamicȱreligiousȱtexts,ȱtoȱ
changeȱattitudes. 88 ȱHighlightingȱtheȱprovisionsȱofȱIslamicȱlawȱthatȱareȱ
conduciveȱtoȱchildren’sȱrightsȱcanȱadvanceȱimplementationȱofȱtheȱCRCȱ
andȱCEDAW.ȱ
ȱ
1.2.6ȱTraditionalȱorȱCustomaryȱLawȱ
ȱ
PoliticalȱandȱhistoricalȱlinkagesȱbetweenȱaȱnumberȱofȱcountriesȱinȱAsia,ȱ
AfricaȱandȱpartsȱofȱOceania, 89 ȱandȱthoseȱofȱtheȱpurelyȱcivilȱlawȱandȱ
commonȱlawȱtraditionsȱ(particularlyȱFrance,ȱBritain,ȱBelgiumȱandȱ
Portugal),ȱresultedȱinȱtheȱemergenceȱofȱmixedȱlegalȱtraditions.ȱMentionȱ
canȱalsoȱbeȱmadeȱofȱtheȱAngloȬDutchȱsystemȱofȱlaw,ȱwhichȱaffectedȱ
countriesȱinȱsouthernȱAfrica.ȱTheȱpreȬexistenceȱofȱcustomaryȱlawȱorȱ
Shari’aȱ(orȱboth)ȱinȱcolonisedȱStatesȱandȱtheȱsubsequentȱpositioningȱofȱ
civilȱlaw,ȱcommonȱlawȱorȱAngloȬDutchȱsystemsȱmadeȱthisȱpossibleȱandȱ
persistedȱevenȱafterȱtheseȱStatesȱgainedȱpoliticalȱindependence.ȱȱ
85
Countries such as India and Sri Lanka.
86
See: Syed p. 372-374; Venkatraman p. 1972-4; Goonesekere p. 49-53; Lucas p. 54-55.
87
S. S. Ali, ‘A Comparative Perspective of the Convention on the Rights of the Child and the
Principles of Islamic Law’, in Protecting the World’s Children: Impact of the UN Convention
on the Rights of the Child in Diverse Legal Systems, UNICEF, Cambridge University Press:
New York (2007), citing various scholars of Islamic law.
88
A/52/38/Rev.1, paras 45-80.
89
UNICEF study, supra.
34
ȱ
Thisȱhistoricalȱprocessȱhasȱhadȱaȱprofoundȱeffectȱonȱtheȱlegislativeȱ
agendaȱofȱaffectedȱStatesȱParties.ȱȱColonisationȱgenerallyȱresultedȱinȱ
theȱintroductionȱofȱnewȱlaws,ȱprincipallyȱfoundedȱonȱtheȱidealsȱofȱtheȱ
colonisingȱState.ȱInȱaddition,ȱtraditionsȱandȱcustomsȱcontinueȱtoȱplayȱaȱ
significantȱroleȱinȱtheȱlegalȱsystemȱofȱmanyȱcountries.ȱStatesȱinȱwhichȱ
traditionalȱlawȱhasȱaȱsignificantȱimpactȱoftenȱofficiallyȱrecognizeȱ
certainȱcustomaryȱprovisionsȱasȱsourcesȱofȱlawȱandȱdefineȱtheȱplaceȱofȱ
theseȱprovisionsȱinȱtheȱhierarchyȱofȱlaws.ȱInȱFiji,ȱforȱexample,ȱcommonȱ
lawȱandȱcustomaryȱlawȱoperateȱwithinȱtheȱsameȱsystem.ȱStateȱlawȱisȱ
basedȱonȱtheȱcommonȱlawȱtradition,ȱwhileȱbothȱindigenousȱFijiansȱandȱ
Indiansȱhaveȱtheirȱownȱdistinctȱcustomaryȱlawȱtraditions.ȱFijiȱhasȱthusȱ
integratedȱtheȱcustomaryȱlawȱintoȱbothȱitsȱconstitutionȱandȱstatutoryȱ
law. 90 ȱȱ
ȱ
Customaryȱlaw,ȱinȱsomeȱcasesȱadministeredȱbyȱtraditionalȱchiefsȱandȱ
theirȱcouncils,ȱoftenȱdealsȱwithȱmattersȱrelatingȱtoȱchildrenȱandȱfamily.ȱ
Evenȱifȱtheȱwrittenȱlawsȱofȱaȱcountryȱprotectȱandȱpromoteȱchildren’sȱ
andȱwomen’sȱrights,ȱtraditionalȱpracticesȱmayȱoftenȱhinderȱtheirȱ
effectiveness.ȱForȱexample,ȱtheȱlawȱmayȱgrantȱwomenȱtheȱrightȱtoȱ
inheritȱpropertyȱ(fromȱaȱhusbandȱorȱfatherȱwhoȱdies),ȱbutȱifȱaȱwomanȱ
isȱnotȱawareȱofȱtheȱlawȱorȱifȱcustomsȱinȱherȱcommunityȱexcludeȱwomenȱ
fromȱinheritingȱproperty,ȱsheȱmayȱnotȱbeȱableȱtoȱbenefitȱfromȱtheȱ
law. 91 ȱInȱtheȱcaseȱofȱGhana,ȱtheȱnationalȱconstitutionȱspecificallyȱ
protectsȱwomen’sȱequalȱrightȱtoȱinheritance,ȱbutȱmanyȱwomenȱareȱ
unawareȱofȱtheȱlaw. 92 ȱȱ
ȱ
Often,ȱtheȱpluralityȱofȱsourcesȱofȱlawsȱinȱcountriesȱwithȱmixedȱlegalȱ
systemsȱplacesȱthemȱatȱaȱdisadvantageȱwithȱrespectȱtoȱstandardsȱ
expectedȱunderȱarticleȱ4ȱofȱtheȱCRCȱinȱgeneral,ȱinȱparticularȱtheȱ
obligationȱtoȱundertakeȱlegislativeȱreform.ȱCountriesȱwithȱdiverseȱ
legaciesȱusuallyȱfaceȱadditionalȱhurdlesȱinȱensuringȱthatȱtheȱlegaciesȱofȱ
90
Phillips, Gwen, ‘Application of Customary Law Rules in Fiji and the Pacific Region: Dual
Systems’, in Bringing International Human Rights Law Home: Judicial Colloquium on the
Domestic Application of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination
against Women and the Convention on the Rights of the Child (2000), p. 122.
91
See UNICEF, Human rights for children and women: How UNICEF helps make them a
reality, p. 19-20; Centre on Housing Rights and Evictions, Bringing Equality Home:
Promoting and Protecting the Inheritance Rights of Women (2004).
92
Centre on Housing Rights and Evictions, Bringing Equality Home: Promoting and
Protecting the Inheritance Rights of Women (2004), p. 178.
35
colonial,ȱcustomaryȱandȱShari’aȱlawsȱareȱconsistentȱwithȱtheȱprinciplesȱ
andȱprovisionsȱofȱtheȱCRC.ȱȱȱ
ȱ
Boxȱ14:ȱMainȱcharacteristicsȱofȱkeyȱlegalȱsystemsȱ
ȱ
CivilȱLawȱSystemȱ
x Thisȱwrittenȱlawȱisȱtheȱprimaryȱsourceȱofȱlawȱandȱisȱorganizedȱintoȱ
comprehensiveȱcodes,ȱwhichȱlayȱoutȱbasicȱlegalȱprinciplesȱ(ruleȱorientedȱ
system);ȱcodesȱareȱwrittenȱinȱgeneralȱlanguage.ȱ
x Judgesȱapplyȱlawȱandȱuseȱlegalȱscholarshipȱasȱaȱsourceȱforȱinterpretationȱofȱ
theȱlaw;ȱinterpretationȱlooksȱatȱlegislativeȱhistory,ȱdoctrine,ȱtheȱlaw’sȱ
purpose.ȱ
x Judgesȱhaveȱnoȱlegalȱobligationȱtoȱfollowȱtheȱinterpretationsȱandȱdecisionsȱ
ofȱotherȱjudgesȱinȱpreviousȱcasesȱ(exceptȱthoseȱofȱtheȱHighȱCourtȱorȱCourȱ
deȱCassation),ȱalthoughȱtheyȱmayȱdoȱsoȱinȱpractice.ȱ
x Theȱjudicialȱdecisionȱprocessȱbeginsȱwithȱidentifyingȱtheȱapplicableȱ
principleȱandȱthenȱapplyingȱitȱtoȱcase.ȱ
x Focusȱisȱonȱsocialȱorderȱandȱtimelyȱresolutionȱofȱcases;ȱconsistencyȱofȱ
interpretationȱisȱoftenȱconsideredȱlessȱimportant.ȱ
x Judgesȱareȱspeciallyȱtrainedȱasȱjudgesȱ(inȱtrainingȱschoolsȱorȱduringȱtheȱ
postȱlawȱschoolȱpracticalȱworkȱperiod).ȱ
x LawsȱareȱpublishedȱinȱanȱOfficialȱGazette;ȱonceȱratified,ȱinternationalȱ
treatiesȱwillȱbecomeȱpartȱofȱdomesticȱlawȱwhenȱtheyȱareȱpublishedȱinȱtheȱ
OfficialȱGazette.ȱ
ȱ
CommonȱLawȱSystemȱ
x Courtȱdecisionsȱ(caseȱlaw)ȱareȱanȱimportantȱsourceȱofȱlaw.ȱ
x Legislationȱisȱgenerallyȱspecificȱandȱinterpretedȱbyȱjudges.ȱ
x Theȱjudiciaryȱprovidesȱaȱcheckȱonȱtheȱotherȱbranches;ȱcourtȱdecisionsȱareȱ
lawsȱinȱandȱofȱthemselves.ȱ
x Judgesȱlookȱtoȱpreviousȱcasesȱinȱtheirȱjurisdictionȱtoȱdecideȱaȱcaseȱ(lawȱisȱ
basedȱonȱwhatȱhasȱbeenȱdecidedȱbefore).ȱ
x Courtȱdecisionsȱareȱveryȱ‘factȱspecific’ȱ(i.e.ȱonȱinterpretationsȱofȱtheȱfactsȱtoȱ
seeȱwhatȱruleȱshouldȱbeȱappliedȱandȱhow).ȱ
x Courtȱdecisionsȱmayȱcreateȱtheȱimpetusȱforȱlegislativeȱreformȱtoȱfillȱgapsȱinȱ
legislationȱexposedȱbyȱcases.ȱȱ
ȱ
IslamicȱLawȱ
x Theȱsystemȱisȱbasedȱonȱreligiousȱsourcesȱofȱlawȱandȱjuristicȱtechniques:ȱtheȱ
Quran,ȱHadithȱorȱSunnaȱ(customȱorȱconductȱofȱtheȱProphetȱMohammed),ȱ
Ijmaȱ(consensusȱorȱopinion,ȱagreementȱamongȱMuslimȱjuristsȱonȱaȱquestionȱ
ofȱlaw),ȱQiyasȱ(analogicalȱdeduction,ȱinȱmattersȱnotȱcoveredȱbyȱtheȱotherȱ
sources)ȱandȱIjtihadȱ(exercisingȱindependentȱjuristicȱreasoning).ȱ
x Islamicȱlawȱmostȱoftenȱcoexistsȱwithȱcustomaryȱnormsȱand/orȱ‘secular’ȱ
legalȱframeworksȱ(inȱaȱpluralistȱsystem).ȱ
x Personalȱstatusȱlawȱorȱfamilyȱlawȱisȱtheȱareaȱmostȱcommonlyȱcoveredȱbyȱ
Islamicȱlawȱinȱpluralistȱsystems.ȱ
ȱ
Traditional/CustomaryȱLawȱ
36
x Thisȱrefersȱtoȱoralȱlawȱbasedȱonȱinheritedȱcustomȱandȱcommunityȱtradition.ȱ
x Theseȱlawsȱoftenȱprevailȱinȱpracticeȱevenȱwhenȱatȱoddsȱwithȱformalȱwrittenȱ
laws.ȱ
x Traditionalȱlawȱisȱsometimesȱadjudicatedȱbyȱtraditionalȱleadersȱorȱtribalȱ
councils.ȱ
ȱ
1.3ȱȱ StatusȱofȱInternationalȱHumanȱRightsȱInstrumentsȱinȱ
DomesticȱLegislationȱ
ȱ
Theȱpositionȱofȱinternationalȱhumanȱrightsȱinstruments,ȱsuchȱasȱtheȱ
CRCȱandȱCEDAW,ȱvariesȱwithȱtheȱlegalȱsystemsȱandȱconstitutionalȱ
structuresȱofȱdifferentȱcountries.ȱForȱsome,ȱtheȱratificationȱofȱorȱ
accessionȱtoȱanyȱinternationalȱagreement,ȱtreatyȱorȱconventionȱ
automaticallyȱresultsȱinȱtheȱprovisionsȱofȱthatȱinstrumentȱbeingȱ
incorporatedȱdirectlyȱintoȱdomesticȱlegislation,ȱandȱbeingȱimmediatelyȱ
andȱfullyȱjusticiableȱ(subjectȱtoȱactionȱinȱaȱcourtȱofȱlaw).ȱForȱothers,ȱtheȱ
internationalȱinstrumentȱhasȱnoȱlegalȱforceȱdomesticallyȱunlessȱandȱ
untilȱspecialȱenablingȱlegislationȱisȱadopted.ȱInȱsomeȱcases,ȱthisȱmayȱbeȱ
doneȱthroughȱaȱconstitutionalȱamendment.ȱOtherȱcountriesȱmayȱ
chooseȱtoȱincorporateȱtheȱinstrument,ȱinȱitsȱentirety,ȱinȱaȱsingleȱpieceȱofȱ
legislation.ȱStillȱothersȱwillȱuseȱaȱnumberȱofȱdifferentȱlaws,ȱdealingȱ
withȱtheȱvariousȱaspectsȱofȱtheȱinstrumentȇsȱapplication,ȱtoȱincorporateȱ
itȱgraduallyȱoverȱtime.ȱȱ
ȱ
Theȱvariousȱwaysȱinȱwhichȱinternationalȱinstrumentsȱareȱappliedȱinȱ
countriesȱareȱoutlinedȱinȱdetailȱinȱtheȱSectionȱonȱconstitutionalȱ
changes.ȱ
ȱ
1.4ȱ Conclusionȱ
ȱ
Theȱlegalȱtraditionsȱinȱaȱgivenȱcountryȱcanȱhaveȱaȱprofoundȱimpactȱonȱ
howȱinternationalȱhumanȱrightsȱtreatiesȱsuchȱasȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAWȱ
areȱimplemented.ȱTheȱlegalȱsystemȱalsoȱhasȱanȱeffectȱonȱhowȱ
stakeholdersȱcanȱadvocateȱforȱandȱsupportȱlegislativeȱreformȱ(throughȱ
institutionalȱmobilization,ȱmonitoringȱofȱresourceȱallocations,ȱandȱ
policyȱandȱlawȱimplementation,ȱforȱexample).ȱUnderstandingȱtheȱ
foundationsȱofȱtheȱlegalȱtraditionȱinȱaȱtheoreticalȱsense 93 ȱcanȱprovideȱaȱ
93
For a more comprehensive introduction to legal traditions, see M.A. Glendon, et al.,
Comparative Legal Traditions in a Nutshell (2d. ed., 1999); I. Edge, ed., Islamic Law and
Legal Theory, Aldershot: Dartmouth (1996).
37
betterȱunderstandingȱofȱtheȱnationalȱsystem,ȱhowȱitȱworks,ȱandȱhowȱitȱ
canȱfosterȱtheȱrealisationȱofȱchildren’sȱandȱwomen’sȱrights.ȱ
ȱ
Theȱgeneralȱprinciplesȱofȱhumanȱrightsȱ(universality,ȱindivisibilityȱandȱ
interdependency) 94 ȱcollectivelyȱconnoteȱtheȱneedȱtoȱmaintainȱcohesionȱ
inȱtheȱlawȱreformȱprocess.ȱȱȱ
ȱ
ȱ
Partȱ2ȱ LEGISLATIONȱREVIEWȱANDȱ
REFORMȱONȱBEHALFȱOFȱCHILDRENȇSȱ
RIGHTSȱ
ȱ
2.1ȱ WhyȱReviewȱandȱReformȱLegislation?ȱ
ȱ
Thereȱareȱseveralȱreasonsȱwhyȱaȱcountryȱwouldȱundertakeȱtoȱreviewȱ
andȱreformȱitsȱlegislationȱrelatingȱtoȱchildren.ȱInȱsomeȱplaces,ȱseveralȱ
factorsȱmayȱcombineȱtoȱpromptȱanȱexaminationȱofȱlegislation,ȱsocialȱ
policy,ȱadministrativeȱstructuresȱandȱtheȱallocationȱofȱresourcesȱthatȱ
reflectȱaȱStateȇsȱeffortȱtoȱmeetȱitsȱobligationsȱtoȱitsȱchildren.ȱTheȱreasonsȱ
forȱundertakingȱtheȱexerciseȱwill,ȱtoȱaȱlargeȱextent,ȱdetermineȱtheȱ
processȱfollowedȱandȱtheȱresultingȱactions.ȱ
ȱ
Oneȱreasonȱforȱreviewȱandȱreformȱofȱlegislationȱcouldȱbeȱtoȱensureȱthatȱ
theȱStateȱPartyȱisȱmeetingȱitsȱcommitmentȱunderȱArticleȱ4ȱofȱtheȱCRCȱ
toȱȈundertakeȱallȱappropriateȱlegislative,ȱadministrativeȱandȱotherȱ
measuresȱforȱtheȱimplementationȱofȱtheȱrightsȱrecognizedȱinȱtheȱ
presentȱConvention.ȈȱThereȱmay,ȱinȱaddition,ȱbeȱaȱsimilarȱobligationȱinȱ
relationȱtoȱCEDAWȱorȱotherȱrelatedȱinternationalȱinstrumentsȱtoȱwhichȱ
theȱcountryȱisȱaȱparty.ȱForȱsome,ȱaȱreviewȱofȱlegislationȱcouldȱbeȱ
sparked,ȱasȱitȱwasȱinȱGhana,ȱbyȱtheȱpreparationȱofȱaȱreportȱtoȱtheȱ
CommitteeȱonȱtheȱRightsȱofȱtheȱChild. 95 ȱTheȱCommitteeȇsȱGuidelinesȱ
forȱtheȱpreparationȱofȱreportsȱaskȱexplicitȱandȱpreciseȱquestionsȱaboutȱ
stepsȱtakenȱtoȱimplementȱtheȱprovisionsȱofȱtheȱCRCȱinȱnationalȱ
94
See http://www.unicef.org/CRC/ for more details on the general principles of human rights.
95
Quashigah, Kofi, Legislative Reform Initiatives, Institutional Development and Policy
Changes in Favour of Children: A Ghana National Study, Accra, UNICEF Ghana (date
unknown) [henceforth: Ghana], p. 13.
38
legislation,ȱincludingȱspecificȱlaws,ȱbudgetaryȱmeasures,ȱ
administrativeȱmechanismsȱandȱpoliciesȱregardingȱchildren. 96ȱ
ȱ
Theȱreviewȱandȱreformȱprocessȱcouldȱbeȱpartȱofȱaȱbroaderȱnationalȱ
examinationȱofȱtheȱsituationȱofȱchildren.ȱThisȱmayȱbeȱdrivenȱbyȱpublicȱ
concernsȱaboutȱchildȱpoverty,ȱhealth,ȱeducation,ȱnutrition,ȱlabourȱorȱ
exploitation.ȱTheseȱissuesȱmayȱbeȱbroughtȱtoȱpublicȱandȱgovernmentȱ
attentionȱbyȱchildren,ȱorȱbyȱtheirȱadvocates.ȱTheȱgovernmentȱmayȱtakeȱ
theȱinitiative,ȱinȱresponseȱtoȱeitherȱaȱpoliticalȱdecisionȱorȱ(inȱcommonȱ
lawȱcountries)ȱjudicialȱfindingsȱthatȱbringȱexistingȱlawsȱorȱpartsȱthereofȱ
intoȱquestion.ȱTheȱmedia,ȱbyȱbringingȱbreachesȱofȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱtoȱ
publicȱattention,ȱcanȱbeȱinstrumentalȱinȱgeneratingȱconcernȱthatȱcanȱ
leadȱtoȱreviewȱandȱreformȱofȱlegislation.ȱ
ȱ
Aȱdramaticȱchangeȱinȱtheȱpoliticalȱlandscape,ȱsuchȱasȱtheȱendȱofȱ
ApartheidȱinȱSouthȱAfrica, 97 ȱcanȱprovokeȱaȱwideȬrangingȱreviewȱandȱ
reformȱofȱnationalȱlegislation,ȱincludingȱtheȱconstitution.ȱThisȱwouldȱ
naturallyȱalsoȱincludeȱlegislationȱrelatingȱtoȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱasȱaȱ
matterȱofȱcourse.ȱInȱmonistȱcountries,ȱforȱwhichȱtheȱCRCȱbecameȱ
enforceableȱinȱlawȱasȱaȱdirectȱresultȱofȱratificationȱorȱaccession,ȱthereȱisȱ
stillȱaȱneedȱtoȱensureȱthatȱother,ȱpreȬexistingȱlegislationȱisȱinȱharmonyȱ
withȱtheȱprovisionsȱofȱtheȱCRC.ȱIfȱlegislationȱisȱnotȱinȱaccordȱwithȱtheȱ
CRC,ȱtheȱStateȱisȱobligedȱtoȱtakeȱtheȱstepsȱnecessaryȱtoȱrectifyȱtheȱ
situation,ȱsoȱasȱtoȱavoidȱcontradictionsȱbetweenȱtheȱCRCȱandȱtheȱ
legislation.ȱThisȱhasȱbeenȱtheȱcase,ȱforȱexample,ȱinȱcountriesȱsuchȱasȱ
Nicaragua,ȱEthiopia,ȱSyriaȱandȱBelgium.ȱ 98 ȱȱ
ȱ
Forȱdualistȱcountries,ȱsuchȱasȱJamaica,ȱGhanaȱandȱIndia, 99 ȱwhichȱdoȱ
notȱautomaticallyȱadoptȱinternationalȱinstrumentsȱintoȱnationalȱlaw,ȱ
theȱexistingȱlegislationȱneedsȱtoȱbeȱreviewedȱtoȱseeȱtheȱextentȱtoȱwhichȱ
itȱfulfilsȱtheȱStateȇsȱobligationsȱunderȱtheȱCRC.ȱIfȱthereȱareȱgapsȱorȱ
contradictions,ȱnewȱlegislationȱneedsȱtoȱbeȱadoptedȱtoȱestablishȱtheȱfullȱ
legalȱimplementationȱofȱtheȱCRCȇsȱprovisionsȱinȱtheȱcountryȇsȱcourtsȱ
96
Hodgkin, Rachel and Peter Newell, Implementation Handbook for the Convention on the
Rights of the Child, Fully Revised Edition, UNICEF, New York and Geneva (2002)
[henceforth: Implementation Handbook], p. 54-5.
97
Nundy, Karuna, Global Status of Legislative Reform Related to the Convention on the
Rights of the Child, Global Policy Section, UNICEF (internal paper), New York (April 14,
2004) [henceforth: Nundy], p. 13.
98
Nundy, p. 8-9 (footnote).
99
Nundy, p. 6-7 and p. 10 (footnotes).
39
andȱtoȱpromoteȱtheȱfullȱimplementationȱofȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱinȱ
governmentȱpolicy,ȱprogrammesȱandȱoperations.ȱ
ȱ
Thereȱisȱaȱdistinctȱdifferenceȱbetweenȱaȱprocessȱofȱlegislationȱreviewȱonȱ
behalfȱofȱchildrenȱthatȱarisesȱfromȱaȱbroadlyȱheldȱdesireȱonȱtheȱpartȱofȱ
societyȱtoȱfosterȱaȱprotective,ȱnurturingȱorȱegalitarianȱenvironmentȱinȱ
whichȱchildrenȱcanȱgrowȱandȱdevelop,ȱandȱaȱprocessȱthatȱisȱ
undertakenȱinȱorderȱtoȱensureȱcomplianceȱwithȱCRC/CEDAW.ȱ
ȱ
Ifȱtheȱreviewȱisȱtheȱresultȱofȱaȱgeneralȱcommitmentȱonȱtheȱpartȱofȱtheȱ
governmentȱandȱcivilȱsocietyȱtoȱpromotingȱtheȱbroadestȱpossibleȱ
wellbeingȱofȱchildren,ȱitȱwillȱnaturallyȱlookȱatȱanȱextensiveȱrangeȱofȱ
legislation.ȱLegislationȱthatȱaffectsȱchildren,ȱandȱwhichȱneedsȱtoȱbeȱ
harmonisedȱwithȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAW,ȱgoesȱwellȱbeyondȱlawsȱthatȱ
specificallyȱmentionȱorȱpertainȱtoȱ
children.ȱThisȱapproachȱwillȱlikelyȱalsoȱ Legislative measures
x Specificȱlawsȱandȱ
entailȱaȱstrongerȱandȱmoreȱexpansiveȱ regulations;ȱ
understandingȱofȱtheȱroleȱofȱsocietyȱasȱ x Creationȱofȱspecificȱ
whole,ȱandȱtheȱadministrativeȱ institutionsȱtoȱpromoteȱandȱ
structuresȱofȱtheȱStateȱinȱparticular,ȱinȱ protectȱtheȱrightsȱofȱ
children;ȱ
supportingȱandȱprotectingȱchildrenȇsȱ
x Processesȱwithinȱexistingȱ
rights.ȱHowever,ȱsuchȱanȱexerciseȱcanȱ broaderȱinstitutionsȱtoȱtakeȱ
becomeȱvagueȱandȱunfocusedȱifȱitȱtriesȱ accountȱofȱtheȱinterestsȱofȱ
toȱtakeȱonȱeveryȱaspectȱofȱchildrenȇsȱ children;ȱandȱ
livesȱallȱatȱonce.ȱ x Governmentȱpolices,ȱplansȱ
andȱprogrammes,ȱ
ȱ
includingȱgoalsȱsetȱforȱ
Onȱtheȱotherȱhand,ȱwhileȱaȱreviewȱofȱ economic,ȱsocialȱandȱ
legislationȱinȱresponseȱtoȱ culturalȱrightsȱofȱchildren,ȱ
CRC/CEDAWȱavoidsȱdigressionȱandȱ suchȱas:ȱ
keepsȱaȱclearȱfocusȱonȱitsȱobjective,ȱitȱ - education (e.g. school
enrolment and completion
mayȱbeȱseenȱasȱaȱpurelyȱtechnicalȱ targets);
exerciseȱforȱgovernmentȱagencies.ȱAsȱ - health care (e.g.
suchȱitȱmayȱlackȱtheȱkindȱofȱpublicȱ immunisation coverage);
and
supportȱthatȱenablesȱreadyȱacceptanceȱ - nutrition (e.g. access to
ofȱtheȱprinciplesȱofȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱ adequate and appropriate
and,ȱeventually,ȱsupportȱforȱanyȱȱ food and nutrition).
40
Legislationȱdealingȱwithȱchildren’sȱrights:
x Includes: - protection from abuse and exploitation;
- administration of justice;
- provision of services (education, health care, nutrition,
housing and economic support);
- assignment of family responsibilities; and
- creation of opportunities for children to participate in
national life;
x EstablishesȱbasicȱprinciplesȱthatȱunderlieȱallȱrelationsȱbetweenȱtheȱStateȱ
andȱitsȱchildren;ȱ
x Createsȱstructures,ȱprocessesȱandȱsystemsȱthroughȱwhichȱthoseȱrelationsȱ
areȱcarriedȱout;ȱ
x Providesȱforȱnecessaryȱadministrativeȱandȱbudgetaryȱresourcesȱtoȱ
implementȱmeasuresȱadoptedȱandȱtoȱmaintainȱinstitutionsȱcreatedȱtoȱ
promoteȱandȱprotectȱchildren’sȱrights;ȱandȱ
x Establishesȱstandardsȱandȱmechanismsȱforȱmonitoringȱtheȱsituationȱofȱ
children’sȱrightsȱinȱgeneral,ȱnotȱonlyȱinȱrelationȱtoȱspecificȱpiecesȱofȱ
legislation.ȱ
resultingȱchangeȱtoȱaccustomedȱpractices.ȱItȱcouldȱresultȱinȱaȱsituationȱ
inȱwhichȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱareȱformallyȱrecognisedȱinȱlawȱbutȱareȱnotȱ
respectedȱinȱpractice,ȱifȱbothȱpoliticalȱwillȱandȱpopularȱacceptanceȱareȱ
missing.ȱConcentrationȱonȱtheȱspecificȱprovisionsȱofȱCRC/CEDAWȱ
couldȱresultȱinȱfailureȱtoȱtakeȱaccountȱofȱsomeȱmeasuresȱwhichȱhaveȱaȱ
significantȱifȱindirectȱeffectȱonȱchildrenȇsȱrights.ȱItȱisȱimportantȱwithȱ
thisȱapproachȱasȱwellȱtoȱrecogniseȱthatȱtheȱlegislationȱtoȱbeȱexaminedȱisȱ
notȱlimitedȱtoȱspecificȱlawsȱwhichȱdealȱexplicitlyȱwithȱchildren.ȱSinceȱ
justȱaboutȱanyȱactionȱofȱgovernmentȱwillȱhaveȱsomeȱeffectȱonȱtheȱlivesȱ
andȱrightsȱofȱchildren,ȱallȱlegislationȱneedsȱtoȱbeȱtakenȱintoȱaccountȱinȱ
assessingȱtheȱimplementationȱofȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAW.ȱ
ȱ
2.1.1ȱChildrenȇsȱRightsȱandȱNationalȱLegislationȱ
ȱ
TheȱCRCȱservesȱnotȱonlyȱasȱanȱinternationalȱstandardȱforȱtheȱtreatmentȱ
ofȱchildren,ȱbutȱalsoȱasȱaȱsymbolȱofȱtheȱnewȱandȱgrowingȱ
understandingȱofȱtheȱpositionȱofȱchildrenȱinȱsociety.ȱOnceȱitȱwasȱ
assumedȱeverywhereȱthatȱchildrenȱwereȱessentiallyȱobjectsȱofȱ
protectionȱorȱobjectsȱofȱcontrol,ȱtheȱexclusiveȱresponsibilityȱofȱtheȱ
familyȱandȱnotȱfullyȱpersonsȱinȱtheȱlegalȱsense.ȱTheȱCRCȱembodiesȱtheȱ
recognitionȱthatȱchildrenȱareȱsubjectsȱofȱrightsȱandȱfullyȱentitledȱtoȱ
participateȱinȱsocietyȱtoȱtheȱextentȱtheirȱdevelopingȱcapacitiesȱallow.ȱȱ
ȱ
41
Allȱlegislationȱrelatingȱtoȱchildren,ȱincludingȱbutȱnotȱlimitedȱtoȱfamilyȱ
lawȱandȱthoseȱmeasuresȱthatȱdealȱwithȱcriminalȱactivityȱbothȱbyȱandȱ
againstȱchildren,ȱneedsȱtoȱbeȱreviewedȱand,ȱifȱnecessary,ȱamendedȱinȱ
theȱlightȱofȱthisȱnewȱunderstanding.ȱ
ȱ
Crucialȱtoȱthisȱisȱtheȱacknowledgementȱthatȱchildrenȱareȱimportantȱ
membersȱofȱsocietyȱandȱthatȱsociety,ȱtherefore,ȱhasȱaȱresponsibilityȱtoȱ
careȱforȱthemȱandȱpromoteȱtheirȱfullestȱpossibleȱdevelopment.ȱAȱ
particularȱexampleȱofȱtheȱsortȱofȱattitudeȱthatȱneedsȱtoȱbeȱovercomeȱisȱ
foundȱinȱtheȱȈdoctrineȱofȱirregularȱsituationȈȱwhichȱwas,ȱforȱyears,ȱatȱ
theȱrootȱofȱmuchȱlegislationȱdealingȱwithȱchildrenȱinȱLatinȱAmericanȱ
countries.ȱThisȱconceptȱheldȱthatȱchildrenȱȈareȱobjectsȱofȱjudicialȱ
protectionȱratherȱthanȱindividualsȱwithȱrights.Ȉ 100 ȱItȱleftȱchildrenȱwhoȱ
wereȱnotȱsubjectȱtoȱlegalȱintervention,ȱforȱexampleȱchildrenȱwhoȱliveȱinȱ
householdsȱwithȱeitherȱtheirȱfamiliesȱorȱasȱdomesticȱemployees,ȱsubjectȱ
toȱaȱwideȱvarietyȱofȱabusesȱwithoutȱlegalȱrecourse,ȱwhileȱtheȱjudicialȱ
processȱandȱtheȱtreatmentȱofȱchildrenȱwhoȱcomeȱtoȱtheȱattentionȱofȱtheȱ
courts,ȱincludingȱinȱcasesȱofȱinstitutionalȱcareȱandȱdetention,ȱdidȱnotȱ
Ȉmakeȱaȱclearȱdifferenceȱbetweenȱchildrenȱinȱneedȱofȱcareȱandȱ
protectionȱandȱthoseȱinȱconflictȱwithȱtheȱlaw.Ȉ 101 ȱȱ
ȱ
Legislationȱaffectingȱchildrenȱdoesȱmoreȱthanȱsetȱoutȱrulesȱforȱ
behaviourȱwithȱregardȱtoȱchildren.ȱAlthoughȱitȱisȱimportantȱthatȱtheȱ
lawȱdefineȱprohibitedȱactsȱcommittedȱeitherȱagainstȱorȱbyȱchildren,ȱandȱ
setȱoutȱtheȱpenaltiesȱthatȱwillȱbeȱimposedȱforȱthoseȱacts,ȱtheȱscopeȱofȱ
legislationȱinȱrelationȱtoȱchildren,ȱespeciallyȱasȱenvisagedȱbyȱtheȱCRC,ȱ
isȱmuchȱbroader.ȱItȱencompassesȱallȱaspectsȱofȱaȱchildȇsȱlifeȱandȱtheȱ
childȇsȱrelationshipȱtoȱothers.ȱȱ
ȱ
Thisȱmayȱseemȱaȱveryȱbroadȱdefinitionȱofȱlegislationȱasȱitȱrelatesȱtoȱ
children.ȱHowever,ȱlegislationȱisȱtheȱprimaryȱmeansȱbyȱwhichȱ
governmentsȱactȱonȱbehalfȱofȱtheȱStateȱtoȱmanageȱtheirȱmanyȱ
responsibilities,ȱincludingȱresponsibilitiesȱtoȱandȱforȱchildren.ȱWhenȱ
consideringȱreviewȱandȱreformȱofȱlegislationȱinȱrelationȱtoȱchildrenȇsȱ
rights,ȱlegislationȱspecificallyȱdealingȱwithȱchildrenȱ–ȱfamilyȱlaw,ȱ
juvenileȱjustice,ȱlawsȱaboutȱeducationȱorȱagainstȱchildȱlabour,ȱlawsȱtoȱ
protectȱchildrenȱfromȱsexualȱexploitationȱ–isȱnotȱtheȱonlyȱrealmȱofȱlawȱ
100
Nundy, p. 9.
101
Nundy, p. 9.
42
thatȱmustȱbeȱtakenȱintoȱaccount.ȱOtherȱpiecesȱofȱlegislation,ȱincludingȱ
thoseȱthatȱdealȱwithȱmattersȱofȱgenderȱequalityȱbetweenȱmenȱandȱ
women,ȱasȱwellȱasȱbetweenȱboysȱandȱgirls,ȱshouldȱalsoȱbeȱconsidered,ȱ
sinceȱchildren,ȱasȱmembersȱofȱsociety,ȱareȱaffectedȱbyȱallȱlegislativeȱ
action.ȱȱ
ȱ
2.2ȱ ReviewȱofȱLegislationȱ
ȱ
2.2.1ȱ ApproachesȱtoȱReviewȱ
ȱ
Theȱpreciseȱnatureȱofȱtheȱlegislationȱinȱplaceȱwillȱvaryȱfromȱcountryȱtoȱ
country,ȱdependingȱonȱtheȱlegalȱsystem,ȱtheȱpoliticalȱprocess,ȱeconomicȱ
circumstances,ȱtraditionalȱvaluesȱandȱtheȱroleȱofȱtheȱStateȱinȱsocialȱ
matters.ȱInȱparticular,ȱtheȱmechanismsȱforȱmonitoringȱchildrenȇsȱrights,ȱ
bothȱinȱlawȱandȱinȱpractice,ȱwillȱreflectȱtheȱwaysȱinȱwhichȱaȱcountryȱ
managesȱtheȱrelationshipȱbetweenȱtheȱStateȱandȱtheȱpopulationȱinȱ
general.ȱHowever,ȱthereȱareȱcertainȱfundamentalȱconceptsȱandȱ
approachesȱthatȱshouldȱbeȱcommonȱtoȱallȱStatesȱPartiesȱtoȱtheȱCRCȱandȱ
toȱCEDAW,ȱwhichȱwillȱbeȱhighlightedȱthroughoutȱthisȱchapterȱofȱtheȱ
Handbookȱandȱthoseȱthatȱfollow.ȱ
ȱ
Theȱfollowingȱdiscussionȱdealsȱprimarilyȱwithȱtheȱincorporationȱofȱtheȱ
provisionsȱandȱprinciplesȱofȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAWȱintoȱlegislation.ȱInȱ
thoseȱcountriesȱwhichȱfollowȱtheȱcommonȱlawȱtradition,ȱtheȱreviewȱ
shouldȱgoȱbeyondȱwrittenȱlegislationȱtoȱtheȱbodyȱofȱjurisprudenceȱandȱ
caseȱlawȱthatȱhasȱaȱbearingȱonȱchildrenȇsȱrights.ȱTheȱprocessesȱ
examinedȱhereȱcanȱbeȱappliedȱtoȱbothȱwrittenȱandȱunwrittenȱlaw.ȱ
ȱ
Thisȱguidanceȱhasȱimplications,ȱasȱwell,ȱforȱcountriesȱwithȱpluralȱlegalȱ
systemsȱthatȱincludeȱcustomaryȱlaw.ȱBecauseȱcustomaryȱlawȱisȱlargelyȱ
unwrittenȱandȱdependentȱonȱinterpretation,ȱanȱanalysisȱofȱtheȱsituationȱ
ofȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱandȱpossibleȱrevisionȱofȱcustomaryȱlawȱwillȱhaveȱtoȱ
beȱapproachedȱwithȱgreatȱsensitivity,ȱtakingȱintoȱaccountȱbothȱculturalȱ
andȱhistoricalȱaspectsȱofȱtheȱcustomaryȱlaw.ȱItȱshouldȱbeȱdoneȱinȱaȱwayȱ
thatȱisȱresponsiveȱtoȱtheȱcharacteristicsȱofȱeachȱcommunityȱandȱculturalȱ
group.ȱInȱmanyȱpluralȱlegalȱsystems,ȱcustomaryȱlawȱisȱconstitutionallyȱ
deemedȱsubservientȱtoȱtheȱstateȱstandardȱofȱcivilȱorȱcommonȱlaw.ȱInȱallȱ
circumstances,ȱbecauseȱofȱtheȱuniversalityȱprincipleȱthatȱunderliesȱallȱ
UnitedȱNationsȱhumanȱrightsȱinstruments,ȱrightsȱtakeȱpriorityȱoverȱ
43
customȱinȱdeterminingȱwhatȱlaws,ȱrules,ȱregulationsȱandȱtraditionalȱ
behavioursȱareȱacceptable.ȱTherefore,ȱitȱshouldȱbeȱpossibleȱalsoȱtoȱ
reformȱcustomaryȱlawȱasȱitȱrelatesȱtoȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱbyȱmeansȱofȱ
legislationȱifȱnecessary.ȱGivenȱthisȱunderstanding,ȱaȱreviewȱofȱ
customaryȱlawȱasȱitȱaffectsȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱcanȱbeȱundertakenȱusingȱ
theȱprocessesȱdescribedȱbelow.ȱ
ȱ
Similarly,ȱreviewȱandȱreformȱofȱlegislationȱthatȱderivesȱfromȱIslamicȱ
lawȱinvolvesȱmoreȱthanȱtheȱrelationshipȱbetweenȱwrittenȱlawȱandȱtheȱ
provisionsȱofȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAW.ȱTheȱcrucialȱreligiousȱandȱ
historicalȱdimensionȱofȱIslamicȱlawȱrequiresȱanȱapproachȱthatȱtakesȱ
intoȱaccountȱmoreȱthanȱwrittenȱjurisprudence,ȱconsidering,ȱforȱ
example,ȱtheȱroleȱofȱreligiousȱleadersȱandȱteachers.ȱEvenȱinȱcountriesȱ
whereȱIslamicȱlawȱprevails,ȱhowever,ȱitȱshouldȱbeȱpossibleȱtoȱconsiderȱ
theȱapproachesȱandȱobjectivesȱofȱreviewȱandȱreformȱofȱlegislationȱasȱ
describedȱhere.ȱ
ȱ
TheȱCommitteeȱonȱtheȱRightsȱofȱtheȱChild,ȱinȱitsȱevaluationȱofȱStateȱ
PartyȱreportsȱonȱtheȱimplementationȱofȱtheȱCRC,ȱhasȱconsistentlyȱ
stressedȱtheȱneedȱforȱallȱStatesȱtoȱexamineȱtheirȱownȱlegislationȱtoȱseeȱ
if,ȱandȱtoȱwhatȱextent,ȱitȱisȱinȱcomplianceȱwithȱtheȱprovisionsȱofȱtheȱ
CRC.ȱForȱexample,ȱinȱitsȱConcludingȱObservationsȱonȱtheȱInitialȱReportȱ
ofȱIndonesia,ȱtheȱCommitteeȱsaid:ȱ
ȱ
“TheȱCommitteeȱrecommendsȱtoȱStatesȱPartiesȱthatȱtheyȱsetȱupȱaȱ
mechanismȱtoȱensureȱthatȱallȱproposedȱandȱexistingȱlegislativeȱandȱ
administrativeȱmeasuresȱareȱsystematicallyȱreviewedȱtoȱensureȱtheȱ
compatibilityȱwithȱtheȱConventionȱonȱtheȱRightsȱofȱtheȱChild.ȱSuchȱ
reviewsȱshouldȱbeȱcarriedȱoutȱconsideringȱallȱtheȱprovisionsȱofȱtheȱ
Convention,ȱandȱbeȱguidedȱbyȱitsȱgeneralȱprinciples;ȱtheyȱshouldȱalsoȱ
giveȱadequateȱattentionȱtoȱtheȱneedȱtoȱensureȱappropriateȱconsultationȱ
withȱandȱinvolvementȱofȱcivilȱsocietyȱduringȱtheȱreviewȱprocess.Ȉȱ
(ReportȱonȱtheȱtwentyȬsecondȱsession,ȱSeptember/Octoberȱ1999,ȱCRC/C/90,ȱ
paraȱ291(f).) 102ȱ
ȱ
102
Implementation Handbook, p. 59.
44
2.2.2ȱ WhoȱParticipatesȱinȱtheȱReview?ȱ
ȱ
Aȱreviewȱofȱlegislationȱthatȱaffectsȱtheȱrightsȱofȱchildrenȱhasȱtwoȱ
equallyȱimportantȱdimensions:ȱanalysisȱandȱconsultation.ȱTheseȱareȱnotȱ
separateȱandȱunrelated.ȱAsȱtheȱexampleȱofȱVenezuelaȇsȱlegislationȱ
reformȱprocess 103 ȱshows,ȱtheȱinteractionȱofȱtechnicalȱassessmentȱwithȱ
publicȱconsultationȱcanȱproduceȱtheȱmostȱeffectiveȱresultȱwithȱtheȱ
broadestȱpossibleȱpublicȱsupport.ȱ
ȱ
Throughout,ȱtheȱreviewȱprocessȱshouldȱinvolveȱtheȱfullȱrangeȱofȱ
partiesȱwhoȱhaveȱanȱinterestȱinȱtheȱsituationȱofȱchildrenȱandȱtheirȱ
rights.ȱAsȱtheȱprincipalȱorganȱofȱtheȱState,ȱresponsibleȱforȱbothȱ
developingȱandȱimplementingȱlegislation,ȱtheȱgovernmentȱnaturallyȱ
hasȱaȱkeyȱroleȱtoȱplayȱatȱallȱstagesȱofȱtheȱreview.ȱToȱbeȱeffective,ȱtheȱ
reviewȱwillȱneedȱtoȱengageȱallȱorgansȱofȱgovernment,ȱbothȱpoliticalȱ
andȱadministrative.ȱTheȱcommitmentȱofȱgovernmentȱtoȱtheȱprocess,ȱ
andȱtheirȱfullȱacceptanceȱofȱtheȱresults,ȱwillȱbeȱcriticalȱtoȱtheȱsuccessȱofȱ
thisȱendeavour.ȱ
ȱ
Atȱtheȱsameȱtime,ȱtheȱreviewȱprocessȱneedsȱtoȱgoȱwellȱbeyondȱtheȱ
formalȱgovernmentalȱstructure.ȱItȱshouldȱengageȱallȱsectorsȱofȱtheȱ
country,ȱcoveringȱasȱmanyȱrepresentativesȱofȱdifferentȱstakeholdersȱasȱ
possible.ȱItȱisȱespeciallyȱimportantȱtoȱinvolveȱgroupsȱwhichȱmayȱbeȱ
marginalizedȱorȱdisenfranchisedȱfromȱnormalȱcentresȱofȱauthorityȱandȱ
decisionȬmakingȱwithinȱtheȱcountry.ȱThisȱwouldȱnormallyȱincludeȱ
women,ȱgeographicallyȱisolatedȱgroupsȱandȱminoritiesȱofȱanyȱkind.ȱ
ȱ
Theȱfullȱscopeȱofȱtheȱlegislationȱreviewȱprocessȱdescribedȱbelow,ȱ
includingȱbothȱanalysisȱandȱbroadȬbasedȱpublicȱconsultation,ȱmayȱnotȱ
beȱwithinȱtheȱcapacityȱofȱallȱcountries.ȱLimitedȱresources,ȱlackȱofȱ
suitableȱcivilȱsocietyȱpartnersȱforȱgovernmentȱtoȱworkȱwith,ȱlogisticalȱ
problemsȱthatȱpreventȱreachingȱoutȱtoȱpeopleȱwhereȱtheyȱliveȱ
throughoutȱtheȱcountryȱareȱallȱfactorsȱthatȱcanȱaffectȱtheȱabilityȱofȱthoseȱ
conductingȱtheȱreviewȱtoȱbeȱasȱthoroughȱasȱtheyȱwouldȱlike.ȱEvenȱwithȱ
theseȱlimitations,ȱhowever,ȱitȱshouldȱstillȱbeȱpossibleȱtoȱundertakeȱaȱ
reviewȱofȱlegislationȱwhichȱwillȱexamineȱallȱrelevantȱmeasuresȱ
(legislation,ȱpolicies,ȱadministrativeȱstructures,ȱbudgetaryȱprovisions)ȱ
103
Garate, Gorka, Los Procesos de Construcción de una Nueva Legalidad para Niños y
Adolescentes: Tres Experiencias: Venezuela, Guatemala y Costa Rica, UNICEF El Salvador
(internal paper), San Salvador (September 2005) [henceforth: Garate], p. 14-35.
45
fromȱtheȱperspectiveȱofȱchildrenȇsȱrights.ȱTheȱmethodsȱmayȱvary,ȱbutȱ
theȱquestionsȱaskedȱcanȱbeȱtheȱsame,ȱand,ȱevenȱifȱtheȱrangeȱofȱpeopleȱ
consultedȱisȱnotȱasȱbroadȱasȱtheȱentireȱpopulation,ȱthereȱareȱalwaysȱ
waysȱtoȱinvolveȱrepresentativesȱofȱcivilȱsocietyȱandȱchildrenȱ
themselvesȱinȱtheȱexercise.ȱ
ȱ
Althoughȱtheȱspecificȱdetailsȱofȱtheȱreviewȱprocessȱwillȱvaryȱ
dependingȱonȱtheȱnatureȱofȱtheȱpoliticalȱandȱlegalȱsystemȱinȱeachȱ
country,ȱthereȱareȱseveralȱbasicȱelementsȱthatȱwillȱformȱpartȱofȱaȱ
successfulȱreviewȱprocess.ȱTheseȱare:ȱ
ȱ
1. Analysisȱofȱtheȱexistingȱlegislationȱinȱrelationȱtoȱbothȱtheȱ
provisionsȱofȱtheȱCRC/CEDAWȱandȱtheȱsituationȱofȱchildrenȱinȱ
theȱcountryȱconcerned,ȱincludingȱissuesȱsuchȱasȱgenderȱparity,ȱ
economicȱstatusȱandȱgeographicȱlimitations;ȱ
2. Consultationȱwithȱtheȱwidestȱpossibleȱrangeȱofȱpeople,ȱ
institutionsȱandȱgroupsȱinterestedȱinȱlegislationȱthatȱaffectsȱtheȱ
rightsȱofȱchildren;ȱandȱ
3. Developmentȱandȱpresentationȱofȱconclusionsȱandȱ
recommendationsȱforȱfurtherȱaction.ȱ
ȱ
Theȱanalysisȱandȱconsultationȱelementsȱofȱtheȱreviewȱprocessȱareȱ
equallyȱimportantȱandȱrequireȱtheȱsameȱlevelȱofȱcommitmentȱandȱ
preparationȱtoȱensureȱaȱsuccessfulȱreview.ȱWhenȱexecutedȱthoroughly,ȱ
theȱprocessȱwillȱleadȱtoȱgreaterȱunderstandingȱofȱchildren’sȱrightsȱandȱ
effectiveȱlegislationȱwhichȱfullyȱrespects,ȱprotectsȱandȱpromotesȱthoseȱ
rights.ȱ
ȱ
1.ȱAnalysisȱ
ȱ
Legislationȱisȱaȱspecialisedȱmeansȱforȱdefiningȱandȱimplementingȱ
governmentȱpolicies,ȱplansȱandȱprogrammesȱasȱwellȱasȱaȱmechanismȱ
forȱregulatingȱandȱmanagingȱrelationshipsȱandȱactionsȱwithinȱtheȱ
broaderȱsociety.ȱBecauseȱitȱhasȱlegalȱforceȱandȱisȱsubjectȱtoȱtestingȱinȱaȱ
courtȱofȱlaw,ȱitȱisȱwrittenȱinȱaȱpreciseȱandȱcarefullyȱnuancedȱlanguageȱ
thatȱisȱsometimesȱquiteȱdifferentȱfromȱcommonȱusageȱofȱwordsȱinȱdayȬ
toȬdayȱdiscourse.ȱTherefore,ȱtheȱanalysisȱofȱlegislationȱisȱaȱtaskȱ
generallyȱdelegatedȱtoȱthoseȱwithȱexpertiseȱinȱtheȱfield.ȱ
ȱ
46
Thisȱdoesȱnotȱnecessarilyȱmeanȱitȱcanȱonlyȱbeȱdoneȱbyȱlawyers,ȱ
however.ȱExpertiseȱinȱtheȱsubjectsȱdealtȱwithȱbyȱprovisionsȱofȱ
CRC/CEDAW,ȱespeciallyȱthoseȱthatȱaddressȱtheȱbroaderȱsocietyȇsȱ
responsibilityȱtoȱchildren,ȱcanȱbestȱbeȱfoundȱamongȱthoseȱwhoȱworkȱ
withȱchildrenȱonȱaȱdailyȱbasisȱorȱwhoseȱexperienceȱliesȱwithȱtheȱ
practicalȱeffectsȱofȱtheȱlegislationȇsȱimplementationȱonȱchildrenȇsȱlives.ȱ
Thus,ȱinȱadditionȱtoȱthoseȱwhoȱhaveȱspecialisedȱknowledgeȱandȱ
experienceȱwithȱtheȱtechnicalȱaspectsȱofȱdraftingȱandȱimplementingȱ
legislationȱ(whichȱmayȱincludeȱrepresentativesȱofȱtheȱlegalȱsystem),ȱtheȱ
analysisȱofȱlegislationȱinȱrelationȱtoȱtheȱrightsȱofȱchildrenȱshouldȱalsoȱ
involveȱchildȱcareȱexperts,ȱhealthȱworkersȱwhoȱdealȱwithȱchildren,ȱ
educators,ȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱadvocatesȱandȱanyȱothersȱwhoȱhaveȱ
specialisedȱknowledgeȱofȱtheȱissuesȱtoȱbeȱconsidered.ȱDependingȱonȱ
theȱlegislationȱbeingȱconsidered,ȱtheȱreviewȱcouldȱbeȱconductedȱbyȱ
teamsȱofȱexpertsȱdrawnȱfromȱgovernmentȱandȱnonȬgovernmentalȱ
organisations,ȱwithȱdifferentȱteamsȱanalysingȱtheȱcategoriesȱofȱ
legislationȱthatȱrelateȱmostȱcloselyȱtoȱtheirȱareasȱofȱexpertise.ȱ
ȱ
Theȱtechnicalȱanalysisȱofȱlegislationȱshouldȱtakeȱintoȱaccountȱnotȱonlyȱ
theȱextentȱtoȱwhichȱtheȱlegislationȱinȱquestionȱgivesȱeffectȱonȱpaperȱtoȱ
theȱspecificȱprovisionsȱofȱCRC/CEDAWȱbutȱalsoȱtheȱwaysȱinȱwhichȱ
thatȱlegislationȱdirectlyȱandȱindirectlyȱaffectsȱtheȱactualȱsituationȱofȱ
childrenȱandȱtheirȱrightsȱeveryȱday.ȱThisȱmeansȱgoingȱbeyondȱmerelyȱ
assessingȱtheȱtextȱofȱaȱlawȱtoȱexaminingȱhowȱitȱisȱappliedȱbyȱtheȱcourtsȱ
andȱtheȱcivilȱauthoritiesȱresponsibleȱforȱimplementingȱitȱandȱ
understandingȱhowȱitȱisȱviewedȱbyȱtheȱpeopleȱitȱdirectlyȱaffects,ȱ
especiallyȱchildrenȱandȱtheirȱfamilies.ȱ
ȱ
Theȱanalysisȱcanȱbeȱledȱbyȱaȱsingleȱbodyȱwithȱaȱbroadȱrangeȱofȱ
expertise,ȱsuchȱasȱtheȱChildȱLawȱReformȱAdvisoryȱCommitteeȱ
establishedȱbyȱtheȱGhanaȱNationalȱCommissionȱonȱChildren. 104 ȱAȱ
similarȱapproachȱwasȱusedȱinȱUganda,ȱwithȱtheȱUgandanȱChildȱLawȱ
ReviewȱCommittee,ȱandȱMadagascar,ȱwithȱitsȱCommissionȱforȱtheȱ
ReformȱofȱtheȱRightsȱofȱtheȱChild. 105 ȱSuchȱaȱdiverseȱgroupȱbringsȱtoȱ
bearȱdifferentȱviewpointsȱandȱbackgroundsȱwhichȱwillȱenrichȱtheȱ
discussionȱandȱprovideȱinsightsȱthatȱmayȱexpandȱbothȱtheȱcommitteeȇsȱ
understandingȱofȱtheȱtotalȱeffectȱofȱtheȱlegislationȱonȱtheȱlivesȱofȱ
104
Ghana, p. 13.
105
African Child Policy Forum, Harmonisation of Laws Relating to Children in East and
Southern Africa: A Summary Report, 2006 (draft), p. 17.
47
childrenȱandȱtheȱrangeȱofȱrecommendationsȱtheȱcommitteeȱcanȱbringȱ
forward.ȱ
ȱ
Someȱcountriesȱhaveȱpermanentȱlegalȱcommissionsȱwhichȱregularlyȱ
reviewȱallȱlegislationȱandȱmakeȱrecommendationsȱforȱreformȱasȱ
necessary;ȱinȱsomeȱcountries,ȱthisȱroleȱisȱperformedȱbyȱaȱspeciallyȱ
designatedȱLawȱReformȱCommission.ȱȱTheȱLawȱReformȱCommissionsȱ
ofȱKenya,ȱLesothoȱandȱSouthȱAfricaȱundertookȱsuchȱreviewsȱofȱ
legislation. 106 ȱForȱaȱspecificȱreviewȱofȱlegislationȱrelatingȱtoȱchildrenȇsȱ
rights,ȱsuchȱaȱgeneralȱcommissionȱcouldȱbeȱaugmentedȱbyȱspecialistsȱinȱ
mattersȱofȱconcernȱtoȱchildren.ȱ
ȱ
Itȱhasȱbeenȱtheȱcaseȱinȱtheȱpastȱthatȱreviewsȱofȱlegislationȱinȱsomeȱ
countriesȱhaveȱtakenȱaȱmoreȱrestrictedȱapproach.ȱThisȱhasȱusuallyȱ
involvedȱhiringȱaȱsmallȱteamȱofȱlegalȱexpertsȱ(orȱsometimesȱjustȱoneȱ
lawyerȱorȱjudge)ȱasȱconsultantsȱtoȱundertakeȱanȱassessmentȱofȱtheȱlawsȱ
relatingȱtoȱchildrenȱinȱcloseȱcomparisonȱwithȱtheȱprovisionsȱofȱCRCȱ
andȱCEDAWȱ(ifȱtheȱlatterȱisȱrelevant).ȱThisȱapproachȱhasȱseveralȱ
inadequacies.ȱAlthoughȱtheȱconsultantsȱengagedȱmayȱhaveȱextensiveȱ
legalȱknowledgeȱinȱtheȱspecificȱareasȱcoveredȱbyȱtheȱlegislationȱ
studied,ȱtheyȱoftenȱlackȱexperienceȱinȱtheȱactualȱimplementationȱofȱtheȱ
legislationȱandȱknowledgeȱofȱtheȱsituationȱofȱchildrenȱinȱregardȱtoȱthatȱ
subjectȱareaȱ(health,ȱeducation,ȱnutrition,ȱemployment,ȱabuse,ȱetc.).ȱȱAsȱ
aȱconsequence,ȱtheirȱreviewȱofȱtheȱlegislationȱtendsȱnotȱtoȱbeȱasȱ
completeȱasȱitȱmightȱbeȱwithȱaȱmoreȱbroadȬbasedȱgroupȱofȱexperts.ȱ
Thereȱisȱalsoȱtheȱriskȱthat,ȱwithȱsuchȱaȱnarrowlyȱbasedȱapproach,ȱtheȱ
personalȱideasȱandȱexpectationsȱofȱtheȱconsultantsȱmayȱbiasȱtheȱ
assessmentȱinȱsomeȱdirection,ȱbecauseȱtheyȱwouldȱlackȱtheȱwiderȱ
perspectiveȱofȱaȱmoreȱheterogeneousȱreviewȱpanel.ȱAsȱaȱbonus,ȱ
expandingȱtheȱrangeȱofȱpeopleȱinvolvedȱinȱtheȱanalysisȱcanȱbeȱseenȱasȱ
anȱillustrationȱofȱtheȱrightȱtoȱparticipation.ȱ
ȱ
Theȱanalysisȱofȱlegislation,ȱwithȱitsȱsupportingȱinformation,ȱcanȱbeȱ
usedȱbyȱtheȱexpertsȇȱgroupȱtoȱformulateȱrecommendationsȱforȱfurtherȱ
action.ȱBut,ȱbeforeȱaȱfinalȱdecisionȱisȱmade,ȱitȱisȱimportantȱthatȱtheȱ
conclusionsȱofȱtheȱreviewȱareȱfullyȱownedȱbyȱtheȱpeopleȱwhoȱwillȱhaveȱ
toȱtakeȱresponsibilityȱforȱtheȱnecessaryȱfollowȬup:ȱThisȱincludesȱnotȱ
onlyȱtheȱgovernment,ȱbutȱalsoȱcivilȱsocietyȱandȱtheȱpublicȱinȱgeneral.ȱ
106
Ibid, p. 17.
48
ȱ
Forȱtheȱgovernmentȱtoȱfullyȱownȱtheȱreviewȱprocess,ȱfromȱtheȱ
beginning,ȱrepresentativesȱofȱkeyȱministriesȱshouldȱbeȱinvolvedȱinȱtheȱ
analysisȱofȱexistingȱlegislationȱandȱinȱformulatingȱanyȱ
recommendationsȱaboutȱchangesȱthatȱmayȱbeȱneeded,ȱincludingȱ
decisionsȱaboutȱbudgetaryȱandȱadministrativeȱresourcesȱtoȱsupportȱtheȱ
implementationȱofȱexistingȱlegislationȱandȱanyȱnewȱmeasuresȱthatȱmayȱ
beȱproposed.ȱTheȱprocessesȱfollowedȱinȱGhana,ȱJamaica 107 ȱandȱ
Venezuelaȱareȱallȱgoodȱexamplesȱofȱtheȱengagementȱofȱgovernmentȱ
Ministriesȱandȱagenciesȱfromȱtheȱbeginning.ȱInȱVenezuela,ȱtheȱroleȱofȱ
theȱSpecialȱCongressionalȱCommissionȱwasȱcrucialȱinȱfocusingȱpoliticalȱ
attentionȱonȱtheȱlegislation,ȱwhileȱtheȱinvolvementȱofȱtheȱNationalȱ
InstituteȱforȱChildrenȱ(INAM)ȱensuredȱgovernmentȱcommitmentȱtoȱtheȱ
implementationȱofȱtheȱconclusionsȱofȱtheȱprocess. 108 ȱGhanaȇsȱ
engagementȱofȱvariousȱgovernmentȱministries,ȱdepartmentsȱandȱ
agenciesȱalsoȱestablishedȱaȱsolidȱbasisȱforȱcontinuedȱgovernmentȱ
supportȱofȱtheȱresults.ȱ
ȱ
2.ȱConsultationȱ
ȱ
Theȱtechnicalȱanalysis,ȱhowever,ȱisȱonlyȱpartȱofȱtheȱworkȱthatȱneedsȱtoȱ
beȱdoneȱforȱaȱthoroughȱreview.ȱInȱorderȱtoȱunderstandȱtheȱrealȱeffectȱofȱ
theȱexistingȱlegislationȱandȱtheȱwaysȱinȱwhichȱtheȱlegislationȱrelatesȱtoȱ
theȱrealȱsituationȱofȱchildren,ȱitȱisȱimportantȱtoȱundertakeȱaȱ
consultationȱthatȱwillȱinvolveȱasȱmanyȱsegmentsȱofȱcivilȱsocietyȱasȱ
possible.ȱThisȱwillȱbeȱimportantȱnotȱonlyȱforȱanyȱcorrectiveȱactionȱthatȱ
mayȱresult,ȱbutȱalsoȱforȱtheȱeffectiveȱapplicationȱofȱexistingȱlegislationȱ
andȱnewȱmeasuresȱthatȱmayȱbeȱadoptedȱasȱaȱresultȱofȱ
recommendationsȱarisingȱfromȱtheȱreview.ȱThisȱisȱparticularlyȱ
importantȱinȱcountriesȱwithȱpluralȱlegalȱsystemsȱthatȱincorporateȱ
customaryȱlaw.ȱAsȱaȱgeneralȱrule,ȱtheȱbroaderȱtheȱparticipationȱ
throughoutȱtheȱreviewȱprocess,ȱtheȱgreaterȱtheȱlikelihoodȱofȱpublicȱ
supportȱforȱanyȱlegislationȱthatȱpromotes,ȱprotectsȱandȱrespectsȱ
childrenȇsȱrights.ȱ
ȱ
Theȱpossibleȱrangeȱofȱparticipantsȱinȱtheȱconsultativeȱphaseȱofȱtheȱ
reviewȱprocessȱisȱextensive.ȱConsultationȱshouldȱengageȱasȱmanyȱ
107
UNICEF Jamaica, Advancing Children's Rights in Jamaica: Report on Legislative Reform
Initiative, UNICEF Jamaica, Kingston (August 2004) [henceforth: Jamaica].
108
See Garate, p. 14-35.
49
differentȱpointsȱofȱviewȱasȱpossible,ȱtoȱensureȱtheȱwidestȱpossibleȱ
perspectiveȱonȱtheȱwaysȱinȱwhichȱtheȱlegislationȱunderȱconsiderationȱ
affectsȱtheȱlivesȱofȱchildrenȱandȱwomen.ȱȱ
Itȱisȱimportantȱtoȱengageȱtheȱpeopleȱwhoȱworkȱwithȱtheȱlegislationȱandȱ
itsȱeffectsȱonȱaȱdayȬtoȬdayȱbasis.ȱTheseȱcanȱincludeȱteachers,ȱhealthȱ
workers,ȱsocialȱserviceȱworkers,ȱcorrectionalȱstaff,ȱtheȱstaffȱofȱ
governmentȬoperatedȱrecreationalȱandȱculturalȱinstitutions,ȱ
administratorsȱandȱmanagers,ȱincludingȱtheȱgovernmentȱstaffȱworkingȱ
inȱareasȱsuchȱasȱsocialȱworkersȱandȱemployeesȱofȱcivilȱregistries.ȱȱ
Dependingȱonȱtheȱsubjectȱmatter,ȱthisȱcategoryȱmayȱalsoȱincludeȱtheȱ
judgesȱandȱlawyersȱwhoȱconsiderȱtheȱlegislationȱinȱcourtȱorȱinȱ
mediation.ȱ
ȱ
Sinceȱtheȱspecificȱprovisionsȱofȱtheȱlegislationȱmayȱbeȱimplementedȱatȱ
lowerȱlevelsȱofȱgovernmentȱ(state/provincial,ȱdistrictȱandȱmunicipal)ȱ
theȱrepresentativesȱofȱthoseȱlevelsȱofȱgovernmentȱshouldȱbeȱgivenȱaȱfullȱ
opportunityȱtoȱpresentȱtheirȱopinionsȱandȱexperiences.ȱTraditionalȱorȱ
tribalȱleadersȱshouldȱbeȱableȱtoȱofferȱtheirȱownȱexperienceȱasȱaȱ
counterpointȱtoȱtheȱformalȱgovernmentȱsystem,ȱespeciallyȱinȱcountriesȱ
inȱwhichȱcustomaryȱlawȱplaysȱanȱimportantȱrole.ȱCivilȱsociety,ȱasȱ
representedȱbyȱorganisationsȱthatȱworkȱwithȱchildrenȱandȱwomenȱ
and/orȱhumanȱrightsȱissues,ȱhasȱanȱimportantȱcontributionȱtoȱmakeȱinȱ
anyȱreviewȱofȱlegislationȱdealingȱwithȱchildrenȱandȱaffectingȱtheȱrightsȱ
ofȱchildrenȱandȱwomen.ȱȱ
Who to Consult ȱ
x TechnicalȱStaffȱ Otherȱpotentiallyȱhelpfulȱparticipantsȱinȱtheȱ
x Judgesȱ consultationȱincludeȱreligiousȱleaders,ȱ
x Lawyersȱinȱtheȱfieldȱ
academics,ȱtheȱprivateȱsectorȱ(businessȱ
x Politiciansȱ(allȱparties)ȱ
leaders)ȱandȱtheȱmedia,ȱnotȱonlyȱforȱtheȱ
x Otherȱlevelsȱofȱ
governmentȱ influenceȱtheyȱhaveȱonȱtheȱopinionsȱandȱ
x TraditionalȱLeadersȱ actionsȱofȱtheȱgeneralȱpopulationȱbutȱalsoȱ
x ChildrenȇsȱNGOsȱ becauseȱtheyȱwillȱhaveȱvaluableȱinsightsȱ
x Women’sȱNGOsȱ
intoȱtheȱbasisȱforȱspecificȱmeasuresȱdealingȱ
x Humanȱrightsȱ
withȱchildrenȱandȱtheȱsocialȱcontextȱinȱ
agenciesȱ
x ReligiousȱLeadersȱ whichȱtheȱlegislationȱoperates.ȱ
x Academicsȱ ȱ
x Mediaȱ Parentsȱandȱotherȱfamilyȱmembersȱwhoȱ
x Communityȱ
haveȱexperienceȱwithȱtheȱoperationȱofȱtheȱ
Organisationsȱ
legislationȱandȱtheȱeffectsȱitȱhasȱonȱfamilyȱ
x Familiesȱ
x Childrenȱ lifeȱandȱtheȱwellȬbeingȱofȱchildrenȱshouldȱbeȱ
50
givenȱtheȱfullestȱpossibleȱopportunityȱtoȱexpressȱtheirȱviewsȱandȱmakeȱ
theirȱrecommendations.ȱȱ
ȱ
Last,ȱbutȱfarȱfromȱleast,ȱchildrenȱthemselvesȱshouldȱbeȱactivelyȱ
engagedȱinȱtheȱreviewȱprocess,ȱsinceȱtheyȱareȱtheȱonesȱmostȱ
immediatelyȱandȱdirectlyȱaffectedȱbyȱtheȱlegislationȱbeingȱconsidered.ȱ
Theȱparticipationȱofȱchildrenȱisȱdiscussedȱinȱmoreȱdetailȱinȱparagraphsȱ
49ȱtoȱ56ȱbelow.ȱ
ȱ
Ofȱcourse,ȱnotȱallȱofȱtheseȱgroupsȱwillȱparticipateȱatȱallȱstagesȱorȱtoȱtheȱ
sameȱdegree,ȱbutȱitȱisȱnecessaryȱthatȱtheyȱareȱallȱinvolvedȱinȱaȱrealȱandȱ
notȱtokenȱfashionȱifȱtheȱreviewȱofȱlegislationȱinȱrelationȱtoȱchildrenȇsȱ
rightsȱisȱtoȱhaveȱanyȱpositiveȱeffectȱinȱtermsȱofȱgenerallyȱacceptedȱ
practicesȱandȱtheȱwaysȱthatȱvariousȱentitiesȱofȱgovernmentȱandȱsocietyȱ
dealȱwithȱchildren.ȱ
ȱ
2.2.3ȱ PublicȱParticipationȱ
ȱ
Asȱtheȱfirstȱstepȱinȱtheȱconsultationȱaspectȱofȱ PublicȱParticipation
theȱlegislationȱreviewȱprocess,ȱtheȱ 1.ȱDisseminateȱanalysisȱ
assessmentsȱofȱtheȱtechnicalȱteamsȱandȱtheirȱ asȱwidelyȱasȱpossible.ȱ
analysisȱofȱlegislationȱthatȱhasȱledȱtoȱthoseȱ 2.ȱProvideȱ
opportunitiesȱforȱpublicȱ
assessmentsȱshouldȱbeȱmadeȱavailableȱtoȱasȱ
debate.ȱ
wideȱaȱpublicȱasȱpossible,ȱsoȱthatȱtheyȱcanȱ 3.ȱEducateȱpublicȱaboutȱ
learnȱwhatȱisȱneededȱforȱchildrenȱandȱwhatȱ childrenȇsȱrights.ȱ
theirȱgovernmentȱcouldȱdeliverȱthroughȱ 4.ȱIntegrateȱpublicȱ
legislation.ȱȱ contributionsȱintoȱ
overallȱreviewȱprocess.ȱ
ȱ
Thisȱcouldȱbeȱdoneȱbyȱpreparingȱaȱsummaryȱreport,ȱwrittenȱinȱeasilyȱ
accessibleȱlanguage,ȱwhichȱwouldȱthenȱbeȱdistributedȱinȱmuchȱtheȱ
sameȱwayȱasȱtheȱcountryȱreportsȱtoȱtheȱCommitteeȱonȱtheȱRightsȱofȱtheȱ
Childȱareȱdistributed.ȱCopiesȱcouldȱbeȱsentȱto:ȱ
ȱ
x libraries,ȱȱ
x allȱinterestedȱorganisationsȱbothȱgovernmentalȱandȱnonȬ
governmental,ȱȱ
x religiousȱbodiesȱ(especiallyȱimportantȱinȱcountriesȱwithȱIslamicȱ
law),ȱȱ
x academicȱinstitutions,ȱȱ
x theȱmediaȱforȱwiderȱdistribution,ȱandȱȱ
51
xgroupsȱwithȱaȱparticularȱinterestȱinȱtheȱfindingsȱofȱtheȱtechnicalȱ
analysis,ȱincludingȱmembersȱofȱtheȱlegalȱprofession,ȱchildȱcareȱ
workersȱandȱtheirȱagencies,ȱandȱotherȱlevelsȱofȱgovernmentȱ
whichȱmayȱhaveȱresponsibilityȱforȱactionsȱonȱbehalfȱofȱchildren.ȱ
ȱ
Theȱwidestȱpossibleȱpublicationȱofȱtheȱresultsȱofȱtheȱtechnicalȱanalysisȱ
willȱserveȱtoȱpromoteȱaȱbroadȬbasedȱpublicȱdiscussionȱofȱtheȱ
implicationsȱofȱtheȱanalysis,ȱandȱofȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱinȱgeneral.ȱIdeally,ȱ
andȱespeciallyȱifȱanyȱchangesȱinȱlegislationȱareȱrequiredȱtoȱenhanceȱ
complianceȱwithȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAW,ȱtheȱdiscussionȱwillȱleadȱtoȱ
broadȬbasedȱpublicȱsupportȱforȱlegalȱmeasuresȱinȱfavourȱofȱchildrenȇsȱ
rights.ȱ
ȱ
Theȱpublicȱconsultationȱprocessȱcouldȱbeȱledȱbyȱaȱgovernmentȱagencyȱ
orȱspecialȱtaskȱforce,ȱorȱbyȱaȱmixedȱgovernment/nonȬgovernmentalȱ
committeeȱorȱcoalition,ȱorȱitȱcouldȱbeȱledȱbyȱaȱcompletelyȱnonȬ
governmentalȱbodyȱestablishedȱtoȱpromoteȱchildrenȇsȱrights.ȱForȱ
example,ȱinȱJamaica,ȱpublicȱinvolvementȱinȱreviewingȱexistingȱ
legislationȱandȱlobbyingȱforȱchangesȱwasȱsparkedȱbyȱtheȱJamaicaȱ
CoalitionȱonȱtheȱRightsȱofȱChildrenȱ(JCRC),ȱaȱcoalitionȱofȱseveralȱnonȬ
governmentalȱorganisationsȱwhichȱwasȱoriginallyȱestablishedȱtoȱ
promoteȱratificationȱofȱtheȱCRCȱandȱwhichȱnowȱoperatesȱtoȱencourageȱ
measuresȱtoȱputȱtheȱCRCȇsȱprovisionsȱintoȱpractice.ȱ
ȱ
Afterȱconductingȱtheirȱownȱanalysisȱofȱexistingȱlegislation,ȱemployingȱ
aȱlegalȱexpert,ȱtheȱJCRCȱconductedȱanȱintensiveȱcampaignȱtoȱbringȱtheȱ
issuesȱofȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱandȱtheȱneedȱforȱimprovedȱchildȱprotectionȱ
legislationȱtoȱtheȱattentionȱofȱpoliticiansȱandȱtheȱgeneralȱpublic.ȱTheȱ
methodsȱusedȱincluded:ȱ
ȱ
x lobbying,ȱȱ
x letterȬwriting,ȱȱ
x providingȱinformationȱtoȱtheȱmedia,ȱȱ
x participatingȱinȱradioȱprogrammes,ȱȱ
x holdingȱeducationalȱworkshops,ȱandȱȱ
x coordinatingȱwithȱtheȱoutreachȱeffortsȱofȱvariousȱorganisationsȱ
interestedȱinȱtheȱwelfareȱofȱchildren. 109 ȱȱ
ȱ
109
Jamaica, p. 18.
52
Althoughȱaȱbroadlyȱrepresentativeȱconsultativeȱprocessȱmayȱbeȱ
complexȱandȱcomplicatedȱtoȱorganizeȱandȱmanage,ȱitȱhasȱtheȱ
advantageȱofȱdilutingȱtheȱimpactȱonȱtheȱprocessȱ(andȱonȱanyȱnewȱ
legislationȱthatȱmayȱresult)ȱofȱindividualȱprejudices,ȱpreconceptionsȱ
andȱprioritiesȱthatȱmightȱeasilyȱdistortȱaȱmoreȱnarrowlyȬbasedȱreview.ȱ
Theȱmoreȱdiverseȱtheȱparticipationȱinȱtheȱprocess,ȱtheȱmoreȱobjectiveȱ
theȱresultingȱconclusionsȱareȱlikelyȱtoȱbe.ȱAȱbroadȬbasedȱprocessȱwillȱ
allowȱdivergentȱpointsȱofȱviewȱtoȱbeȱexpressedȱasȱconstructivelyȱasȱ
possible,ȱasȱpartȱofȱanȱeffortȱtoȱdevelopȱaȱnationalȱconsensus.ȱ
ȱ
2.2.4ȱ PublicȱConsultationȱandȱEducationȱ
ȱ
Whereȱlegislation,ȱtraditionalȱpracticeȱandȱtheȱprinciplesȱofȱchildrenȇsȱ
rightsȱtakeȱdistinctlyȱdifferentȱapproachesȱtoȱtheȱtreatmentȱofȱchildrenȱ
andȱtheirȱpositionȱinȱsociety,ȱthoseȱdifferencesȱareȱboundȱtoȱbeȱ
reflectedȱinȱtheȱdiscussionsȱandȱdebatesȱthatȱdevelopȱthroughȱ
consultationȱwithȱtheȱvariousȱgroups.ȱItȱisȱimportantȱthatȱtheseȱ
differentȱviewsȱbeȱgivenȱtheirȱdueȱattention;ȱEveryoneȱhasȱaȱrightȱtoȱbeȱ
heard.ȱItȱisȱalsoȱimportantȱthatȱtheȱfocusȱofȱtheȱconsultationȱonȱtheȱ
rightsȱofȱchildrenȱnotȱbeȱlost,ȱwhateverȱotherȱclaimsȱ(forȱexample,ȱtheȱ
ȈrightsȈȱofȱparents)ȱmayȱbeȱraised.ȱ
ȱ
Theȱmereȱideaȱthatȱchildrenȱhaveȱrights,ȱmuchȱlessȱtheȱnatureȱofȱthoseȱ
rights,ȱcanȱcreateȱaȱgreatȱdealȱofȱcontroversyȱinȱmostȱsocietiesȱandȱ
cultures.ȱThereȱhasȱbeenȱandȱwillȱcontinueȱtoȱbeȱsomeȱresistanceȱinȱ
manyȱplacesȱtoȱtheȱideaȱofȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱand,ȱbyȱextension,ȱtoȱanyȱ
legislationȱthatȱmayȱexistȱorȱbeȱproposedȱtoȱfulfilȱthoseȱrights.ȱNoȱ
matterȱhowȱcompleteȱandȱcomprehensiveȱlegislationȱmayȱbeȱwithȱ
respectȱtoȱchildrenȇsȱrights,ȱthereȱcanȱbeȱnoȱeffectiveȱimplementationȱ
unlessȱthereȱisȱatȱleastȱaȱgeneralȱagreementȱonȱtheȱpartȱofȱaȱsignificantȱ
segmentȱofȱtheȱpopulationȱthatȱtheȱrightsȱofȱchildrenȱareȱvalidȱandȱ
shouldȱbeȱrespected.ȱ
ȱ
Muchȱofȱtheȱapprehensionȱcausedȱbyȱtheȱideaȱofȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱcanȱ
beȱattributedȱtoȱlackȱofȱknowledgeȱorȱunderstandingȱofȱtheȱprinciplesȱ
behindȱtheȱCRCȱandȱtheȱspecificȱprovisionsȱwhichȱareȱtoȱbeȱreflectedȱinȱ
nationalȱlegislation.ȱTheȱlegislationȱreviewȱprocess,ȱtherefore,ȱprovidesȱ
aȱgoodȱopportunityȱtoȱeducateȱmembersȱofȱtheȱpublic,ȱandȱmembersȱofȱ
theȱvariousȱinterestȱgroupsȱthatȱhaveȱaȱstakeȱinȱgreaterȱrecognitionȱofȱ
andȱrespectȱforȱchildrenȇsȱrights,ȱinȱtheȱbasicȱtenetsȱofȱtheȱCRCȱandȱ
53
CEDAWȱandȱtheȱwaysȱinȱwhichȱthoseȱprinciplesȱcanȱandȱshouldȱbeȱputȱ
intoȱpracticeȱinȱtheirȱcountry.ȱ
ȱ
Thisȱeducationȱcanȱbeȱintegratedȱwithȱtheȱdiscussionȱofȱspecificȱlaws,ȱ
toȱenableȱpeopleȱtoȱseeȱhowȱrightsȱareȱnotȱmerelyȱabstractȱconceptsȱbutȱ
theȱessentialȱfoundationȱonȱwhichȱpracticalȱactionȱonȱbehalfȱofȱchildrenȱ
andȱtheirȱfamiliesȱisȱbased.ȱByȱconnectingȱtheȱdiscussionȱofȱrightsȱtoȱanȱ
assessmentȱofȱtheȱeffectȱofȱactualȱlawsȱonȱtheȱlivesȱofȱchildren,ȱtheȱ
peopleȱwhoȱareȱmostȱdirectlyȱinvolvedȱinȱdealingȱwithȱchildrenȱ–andȱ
who,ȱbyȱextension,ȱhaveȱtheȱmostȱimmediateȱinfluenceȱonȱtheȱwayȱinȱ
whichȱtheirȱrightsȱareȱaddressedȱ–ȱcanȱseeȱhowȱtheȱideaȱofȱrightsȱforȱ
childrenȱisȱtranslatedȱintoȱrealȱimprovementsȱinȱtheȱwayȱchildrenȱareȱ
treated.ȱ
ȱ
Someȱofȱtheȱmostȱimportantȱbeneficiariesȱofȱthisȱeducationȱwillȱbeȱtheȱ
governmentȱofficials,ȱmembersȱofȱtheȱjudiciaryȱandȱlawȱenforcementȱ
officialsȱwhoȱareȱresponsibleȱforȱtheȱeffectȱtheirȱadoptionȱandȱ
enforcementȱofȱlegislationȱhaveȱonȱchildrenȱandȱfamilies.ȱByȱmakingȱaȱ
connectionȱbetweenȱtheȱCRC/CEDAWȱandȱnotȱonlyȱnationalȱlaws,ȱbutȱ
alsoȱacceptedȱstandardsȱofȱpracticeȱ(forȱexampleȱinȱtheȱtreatmentȱofȱ
childrenȱwhoȱcomeȱintoȱcontactȱwithȱtheȱjusticeȱsystem),ȱtheseȱofficialsȱ
mayȱbeȱableȱtoȱadaptȱtheȱwayȱtheyȱdealȱwithȱchildrenȱtoȱrespectȱtheȱ
rightsȱofȱthoseȱchildren.ȱIfȱtheȱconsultationȱleadsȱtoȱsupportȱforȱ
necessaryȱchangesȱinȱtheȱwayȱthatȱlegislationȱwhichȱaffectsȱchildrenȱ
andȱtheirȱrightsȱisȱimplemented,ȱevenȱwithoutȱspecificȱchangesȱtoȱthatȱ
legislation,ȱthisȱwillȱhaveȱbeenȱanȱeffectiveȱandȱworthwhileȱendeavour.ȱ
ȱ
2.2.5ȱ ChildrenȇsȱParticipationȱinȱReviewȱofȱLegislationȱ
ȱ
InȱJamaica,ȱchildrenȱthemselvesȱwereȱinvolvedȱinȱtheȱpublicȱ
consultationȱonȱtheȱnewȱChildȱCareȱandȱProtectionȱActȱthroughȱislandȬ
wideȱworkshops,ȱwhereȱvaluableȱcontributionsȱtoȱtheȱfinalȱbillȱwereȱ
made. 110 ȱTheȱinclusionȱofȱchildrenȱinȱtheȱlegislationȱreviewȱprocessȱisȱ
intendedȱnotȱmerelyȱtoȱprovideȱopportunitiesȱforȱmediaȱcoverageȱandȱ
platitudes.ȱIfȱtheȱprocessȱofȱreviewingȱlegislationȱisȱtoȱbeȱanȱeffectiveȱ
meansȱforȱassessingȱtheȱimplementationȱofȱtheȱprovisionsȱofȱtheȱ
ConventionȱonȱtheȱRightsȱofȱtheȱChildȱinȱanyȱgivenȱcountry,ȱthatȱ
processȱshouldȱitselfȱreflectȱtheȱrightsȱenshrinedȱinȱtheȱCRC.ȱPreȬ
110
Ibid.
54
eminentȱamongȱthoseȱisȱtheȱobligationȱofȱtheȱStateȱPartyȱtoȱȈassureȱtoȱ
theȱchildȱwhoȱisȱcapableȱofȱformingȱhisȱorȱherȱownȱviewsȱtheȱrightȱtoȱ
expressȱthoseȱviewsȱfreelyȱinȱallȱmattersȱaffectingȱtheȱchildȈȱ(Articleȱ12ȱ
ofȱtheȱCRC).ȱȱ
ȱ
Legislationȱreviewȱonȱbehalfȱofȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱisȱclearlyȱaȱmatterȱ
affectingȱtheȱchild.ȱTheȱchallengeȱisȱhowȱtoȱallowȱandȱenableȱchildrenȱ
toȱacquireȱtheȱinformationȱtheyȱneedȱtoȱformȱandȱexpressȱopinions,ȱandȱ
howȱtoȱcreateȱtheȱconditionsȱunderȱwhichȱtheirȱviewsȱcanȱbeȱheardȱandȱ
Ȉgivenȱdueȱweightȱinȱaccordanceȱwithȱtheȱageȱandȱmaturityȱofȱtheȱ
childȈȱ(Articleȱ12.1.).ȱThisȱisȱaȱflexibleȱandȱfluidȱconcept.ȱItȱcannotȱbeȱ
basedȱonȱageȱalone,ȱsinceȱtheȱcapacityȱtoȱunderstandȱissuesȱandȱ
articulateȱthatȱunderstandingȱcanȱvaryȱconsiderablyȱamongȱchildrenȱofȱ
theȱsameȱage.ȱTheȱconsultativeȱprocessȱneedsȱtoȱbeȱdesignedȱinȱsuchȱaȱ
wayȱthatȱchildrenȱofȱanȱappropriateȱageȱtoȱunderstandȱandȱcommentȱ
onȱtheȱlegislationȱbeingȱconsideredȱwillȱhaveȱsuitableȱopportunitiesȱtoȱ
presentȱtheirȱviews.ȱ
ȱ
InȱsomeȱStatesȱParties,ȱcreativeȱandȱdynamicȱmeansȱhaveȱbeenȱfoundȱ
toȱfacilitateȱchildrenȇsȱparticipationȱinȱcrucialȱdiscussionsȱaboutȱ
legislationȱthatȱaffectsȱthem.ȱInȱSouthȱAfrica,ȱchildrenȱfromȱallȱpartsȱofȱ
theȱcountryȱwereȱbroughtȱtogetherȱforȱanȱintensiveȱweekȱofȱexchangingȱ
experiences,ȱstudyingȱissuesȱandȱpresentingȱtheirȱopinionsȱinȱaȱvarietyȱ
ofȱwaysȱ–ȱusingȱsongs,ȱskitsȱandȱstoryȬwritingȱtoȱexpressȱtheirȱviews. 111 ȱ
Theȱchildrenȱinȱthisȱactivityȱwereȱallȱoverȱtenȱyearsȱofȱage,ȱandȱcapableȱ
ofȱarticulatingȱbothȱtheirȱexperiencesȱandȱtheirȱideasȱfairlyȱclearly.ȱ
Youngerȱchildrenȱmight,ȱinȱsimilarȱcircumstances,ȱbeȱgivenȱtheȱ
opportunityȱtoȱuseȱdrawingȱandȱplayȱwithȱpuppetsȱorȱdollsȱtoȱtellȱ
adultsȱhowȱparticularȱlegislationȱhasȱaffectedȱthem.ȱ
ȱ
Anotherȱmodelȱforȱchildrenȇsȱparticipationȱisȱprovidedȱbyȱtheȱ
CaribbeanȱConferenceȱonȱtheȱRightsȱofȱtheȱChild.ȱThisȱwasȱanȱ
intergovernmentalȱmeetingȱwhichȱtookȱplaceȱinȱBelizeȱCityȱinȱOctoberȱ
1996ȱthatȱusedȱaȱnumberȱofȱinnovativeȱmethodsȱtoȱengageȱtheȱchildrenȱ
ofȱtheȱCaribbeanȱregionȱinȱidentifyingȱimportantȱissuesȱandȱdevelopingȱ
recommendationsȱforȱsolutionsȱinȱtheȱBelizeȱCommitmentȱtoȱAction.ȱ
Schoolsȱallȱoverȱtheȱregionȱwereȱgivenȱresourcesȱtoȱenableȱthemȱtoȱuseȱ
theȱCRCȱasȱaȱteachingȱtoolȱinȱtheȱclassroomȱandȱfacilitateȱcommentȱbyȱ
111
Note: This is based on the author's recollection of a UNICEF video made around 1995.
55
studentsȱonȱkeyȱissuesȱbeforeȱtheȱConferenceȱtookȱplace.ȱIndividualȱ
childrenȱwereȱgivenȱtheȱresourcesȱtoȱsendȱtheirȱcommentsȱdirectlyȱtoȱ
theȱConference,ȱbyȱletter,ȱbyȱfacsimileȱorȱthroughȱtheȱInternetȱandȱtheȱ
WorldȱWideȱWeb,ȱinȱsomeȱcasesȱusingȱtheȱtechnicalȱfacilitiesȱofȱ
internationalȱorganisations’ȱoffices.ȱDuringȱtheȱactualȱConferenceȱ
session,ȱchildrenȱfromȱBelize,ȱwithȱchildȱrepresentativesȱfromȱotherȱ
countries,ȱheldȱtheirȱownȱChildrenȇsȱForumȱatȱtheȱConferenceȱsite.ȱ
There,ȱtheyȱdevelopedȱrecommendationsȱforȱactionȱwhichȱwereȱpassedȱ
onȱtoȱtheȱdelegatesȱatȱtheȱConferenceȱandȱincorporatedȱinȱtheȱfinalȱtextȱ
ofȱtheȱBelizeȱCommitment. 112ȱ
ȱ
Inȱeveryȱcase,ȱtheȱroleȱofȱadults,ȱinȱbothȱgovernmentȱandȱnonȬ
governmentalȱorganisations,ȱisȱofȱcriticalȱimportanceȱinȱopeningȱtheȱ
channelsȱofȱcommunicationȱandȱensuringȱthatȱtheȱchildrenȱfeelȱtheyȱ
haveȱbeenȱheardȱandȱthatȱtheirȱviewsȱwillȱhaveȱaȱpositiveȱeffect.ȱ
ȱ
TheȱchallengeȱofȱhowȱtoȱdetermineȱtheȱȈevolvingȱcapacityȈȱofȱtheȱchildȱ
toȱreasonȱandȱexpressȱopinionsȱthatȱmeritȱconsiderationȱisȱoneȱthatȱ
affectsȱnotȱonlyȱtheȱprocessȱofȱlegislationȱreviewȱbutȱalsoȱtheȱcontentȱofȱ
recommendationsȱforȱanyȱchangesȱtoȱeitherȱlegislationȱorȱpractice.ȱTheȱ
termȱȈevolvingȱcapacityȈȱisȱusedȱinȱArticleȱ5ȱofȱtheȱCRCȱtoȱdefineȱtheȱ
wayȱinȱwhichȱparents,ȱguardiansȱandȱothersȱ(suchȱasȱteachersȱofȱallȱ
sorts)ȱwhoȱhaveȱcareȱofȱtheȱchild,ȱguideȱtheȱchildȇsȱownȱabilityȱtoȱclaimȱ
andȱexerciseȱtheȱrightsȱrecognisedȱinȱtheȱCRC.ȱItȱrefersȱtoȱtheȱwayȱinȱ
whichȱaȱchildȇsȱabilityȱtoȱunderstandȱandȱactȱonȱthatȱunderstandingȱ
changesȱwithȱgreaterȱexperienceȱandȱtheȱdevelopmentȱofȱintellectualȱ
abilitiesȱasȱtheȱchildȱgrowsȱolder.ȱItȱshouldȱnotȱbeȱtakenȱtoȱimplyȱthatȱ
childrenȇsȱrightsȱevolveȱandȱchangeȱasȱtheȱchildrenȱbecomeȱmoreȱ
mature,ȱonlyȱthatȱtheȱabilityȱofȱchildrenȱtoȱexpressȱopinionsȱonȱtheȱ
exerciseȱofȱthoseȱrightsȱchanges.ȱ
ȱ
InȱArticleȱ12ȱofȱtheȱCRC,ȱthisȱconceptȱisȱpresentedȱfromȱtheȱperspectiveȱ
ofȱhowȱchildrenȇsȱopinionsȱareȱtoȱbeȱacceptedȱandȱconsidered.ȱTheyȱareȱ
toȱbeȱȈgivenȱdueȱweightȱinȱaccordanceȱwithȱtheȱageȱandȱmaturityȱofȱtheȱ
child.ȈȱTheȱconsultationȱprocessȱinȱtheȱcontextȱofȱreviewȱofȱlegislationȱ
shouldȱenableȱallȱchildrenȱwhoȱareȱaffectedȱbyȱtheȱlegislationȱtoȱ
presentȱtheirȱopinions.ȱThoseȱopinionsȱshouldȱinfluenceȱtheȱ
112
Lundy, Christine, The Report of the Caribbean Conference on the Rights of the Child:
Meeting the Post Ratification Challenge, UNICEF CAO, Bridgetown, p. 8, and author's
recollection.
56
conclusionsȱofȱtheȱreviewȱtoȱtheȱextentȱthatȱtheyȱcarryȱtheȱappropriateȱ
weightȱbasedȱonȱtheȱcapacityȱofȱtheȱchildrenȱtoȱunderstandȱtheȱissuesȱ
beingȱaddressedȱandȱtoȱcommentȱappropriately.ȱ
ȱ
Aȱpublicȱconsultationȱprocessȱthatȱdoesȱnotȱprovideȱforȱappropriateȱ
participationȱbyȱchildrenȱwhoȱareȱcapableȱofȱparticipatingȱ(whateverȱ
theirȱchronologicalȱage)ȱwillȱnotȱfulfilȱtheȱobligationsȱofȱtheȱStateȱPartyȱ
underȱtheȱCRC.ȱAnyȱrecommendationsȱthatȱmayȱcomeȱfromȱsuchȱaȱ
processȱwillȱlikelyȱinadequatelyȱreflectȱtheȱrealȱsituationȱofȱchildrenȱ
andȱtheȱfullȱrangeȱofȱmeasuresȱneededȱtoȱprotectȱandȱpromoteȱtheirȱ
rights.ȱTheȱmereȱactȱofȱseeingȱandȱhearingȱchildrenȱparticipateȱ
constructivelyȱinȱaȱreviewȱofȱtheȱlegislationȱthatȱaffectsȱthemȱcanȱhaveȱ
aȱpositiveȱeffectȱonȱtheȱgeneralȱpublicȇsȱperceptionȱofȱchildrenȇsȱabilityȱ
toȱparticipateȱinȱsociety.ȱ
ȱ
2.2.6ȱ GovernmentȱEngagementȱ
ȱ
Throughoutȱtheirȱconsultationȱprocess,ȱtheȱJCRCȱinȱJamaicaȱworkedȱ
closelyȱwithȱaȱlongȱlistȱofȱgovernmentȱministriesȱandȱagencies,ȱwhichȱ
ensuredȱthatȱbothȱtheȱprocessȱandȱtheȱresultingȱrecommendationsȱwereȱ
endorsedȱbyȱtheȱgovernment.ȱTheȱgovernmentȱministriesȱandȱagenciesȱ
includedȱtheȱChildrenȇsȱServicesȱDivision,ȱtheȱBureauȱofȱWomenȇsȱ
Affairs,ȱtheȱOfficeȱofȱtheȱSpecialȱEnvoyȱforȱChildren,ȱtheȱPlanningȱ
InstituteȱofȱJamaica,ȱtheȱMinistriesȱofȱHealth,ȱofȱEducationȱandȱCulture,ȱ
ofȱLocalȱGovernmentȱandȱCommunityȱDevelopment,ȱofȱNationalȱ
SecurityȱandȱJustice,ȱofȱLabourȱandȱSocialȱSecurity,ȱandȱtheȱOfficeȱofȱ
theȱPrimeȱMinister. 113 ȱȱ
ȱ
Thisȱkindȱofȱsignificantȱgovernmentȱinvolvementȱisȱcrucialȱtoȱcreatingȱ
theȱconditionsȱunderȱwhichȱtheȱconclusionsȱofȱtheȱreviewȱcanȱbeȱ
adoptedȱbyȱtheȱgovernmentȱandȱusedȱtoȱgenerateȱappropriateȱactionȱtoȱ
reinforceȱtheȱrightsȱofȱchildren.ȱItȱisȱparticularlyȱimportantȱthatȱtheȱ
governmentȱinvolvementȱinȱtheȱJamaicanȱprocessȱwasȱnotȱlimitedȱtoȱ
thoseȱagenciesȱspecificallyȱchargedȱwithȱresponsibilityȱforȱchildrenȇsȱ
matters.ȱTheȱreviewȱshouldȱalsoȱengageȱmajorȱministriesȱcrossingȱallȱ
sectoralȱlinesȱandȱinvolvingȱtheȱparticipationȱofȱtheȱhighestȱpoliticalȱ
levelsȱ(asȱinȱtheȱJamaicanȱcase,ȱwithȱtheȱOfficeȱofȱtheȱPrimeȱMinister).ȱ
113
Jamaica, p. 18.
57
Thisȱbroadȱcommitmentȱwouldȱclearlyȱshowȱpriorityȱbeingȱgivenȱtoȱtheȱ
questionȱofȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱasȱreflectedȱinȱlegislation.ȱ
ȱ
Forȱmostȱreviewsȱofȱlegislation,ȱitȱwillȱbeȱextremelyȱhelpfulȱtoȱengageȱ
theȱactiveȱparticipationȱofȱatȱleastȱseniorȱcivilȱservantsȱand,ȱideally,ȱtheȱ
ministersȱasȱwellȱwhoȱareȱresponsibleȱforȱgovernmentȱpolicyȱandȱ
actionȱinȱtheȱfollowingȱareas:ȱ
ȱ
x Planningȱ
x FinanceȱandȱBudgetingȱ
x Justiceȱ(forȱbothȱlegalȱissuesȱandȱdraftingȱofȱlegislation)ȱ
x Healthȱ
x Educationȱ
x SocialȱServicesȱ/ȱChildȱWelfareȱ
x Labourȱ
x WomenȇsȱIssuesȱ
x NationalȱSecurityȱ/ȱPoliceȱ/ȱPrisonsȱandȱCorrectionalȱServicesȱ
x Recreationȱ/ȱCultureȱ
x HumanȱRightsȱ
ȱ
2.2.7ȱ OrganisingȱandȱManagingȱtheȱReviewȱofȱLegislationȱ
ȱ ȱȱ
Theȱeffectivenessȱofȱaȱlegislationȱreviewȱdependsȱonȱtheȱstrengthȱandȱ
commitmentȱofȱitsȱcoordinationȱandȱmanagement.ȱDifferentȱcountriesȱ
haveȱfoundȱaȱvarietyȱofȱwaysȱtoȱsetȱinȱmotionȱandȱmaintainȱtheȱ
momentumȱofȱsuchȱprocesses.ȱInȱGhana,ȱitȱwasȱtheȱmixedȱ(governmentȱ
andȱnonȬgovernment)ȱGhanaȱNationalȱCommissionȱonȱChildrenȱwhichȱ
setȱtheȱprocessȱinȱmotionȱafterȱtheirȱpreparationȱofȱtheȱfirstȱnationalȱ
reportȱtoȱtheȱUNȱCommitteeȱonȱtheȱRightsȱofȱtheȱChildȱrevealedȱaȱ
numberȱofȱlegalȱinadequacies. 114 ȱTheȱprocessȱinȱJamaicaȱwasȱledȱ
primarilyȱbyȱtheȱnonȬgovernmentalȱJamaicaȱCoalitionȱonȱtheȱRightsȱofȱ
theȱChild,ȱalthoughȱlegislatorsȱandȱgovernmentȱministriesȱplayedȱ
importantȱrolesȱinȱtheȱlatterȱstages. 115 ȱVenezuelaȇsȱprocessȱwasȱ
somewhatȱdiffuse,ȱinvolvingȱseveralȱagenciesȱandȱorganisations,ȱbutȱ
theȱSpecialȱCongressionalȱCommissionȱheldȱtheȱprocessȱtogetherȱandȱ
keptȱitȱfocusedȱonȱtheȱobjectiveȱofȱimprovingȱlegislationȱdealingȱwithȱ
children. 116ȱ
114
Ghana, p. 28.
115
Jamaica, p. 18.
116
Garate, p. 17-21.
58
ȱ
Inȱtheseȱexamples,ȱtheȱimportanceȱofȱtheȱroleȱofȱNGOsȱandȱcivilȱsocietyȱ
isȱclearlyȱdemonstrated.ȱWhetherȱonȱtheirȱownȱorȱinȱcooperationȱwithȱ
government,ȱtheyȱprovidedȱleadershipȱthatȱensuredȱchildrenȱwereȱtheȱ
priority.ȱNGOsȱcoordinated,ȱlobbiedȱgovernment,ȱconductedȱmediaȱ
promotionȱandȱpublicȱeducationȱandȱcreatedȱspaceȱforȱpublicȱ
engagementȱinȱtheȱreviewȱprocess.ȱEffectiveȱcivilȱsocietyȱparticipationȱ
inȱtheȱreviewȱofȱlegislationȱrequiresȱthatȱtheȱvariousȱcivilȱsocietyȱ
organisationsȱbeȱstrongȱandȱwellȬorganised.ȱThisȱisȱnotȱalwaysȱtheȱ
case.ȱParticularlyȱwhenȱtheyȱareȱexpectedȱtoȱtakeȱleadȱrolesȱinȱtheȱ
reviewȱprocess,ȱeitherȱonȱtheirȱownȱorȱinȱpartnership,ȱtheseȱ
fundamentalȱrepresentativesȱofȱtheȱpublicȱinterestȱwillȱoftenȱneedȱ
support.ȱSuchȱsupportȱmayȱcomeȱfromȱinternationalȱagenciesȱ(suchȱasȱ
UNICEFȱorȱSaveȱtheȱChildren),ȱfromȱnationalȱNGOsȱorȱcoalitions,ȱorȱ
fromȱtheȱgovernmentȱstructuresȱwhichȱrelateȱtoȱtheȱareasȱofȱconcernȱofȱ
theȱcivilȱsocietyȱorganisations.ȱ
ȱ
Sometimes,ȱtheȱNGOȱsectorȱcannotȱtakeȱaȱleadingȱroleȱinȱreview.ȱAȱ
numberȱofȱfactorsȱmayȱlimitȱcivilȱsocietyȱcapacity,ȱincludingȱinternalȱ
upheavals,ȱpoliticalȱsituations,ȱdifficultiesȱinȱcommunicationȱandȱtravelȱ
betweenȱdifferentȱpartsȱofȱtheȱcountry,ȱandȱwidespreadȱilliteracyȱ
whichȱmayȱrestrictȱpeopleȇsȱaccessȱtoȱinformation.ȱInȱtheseȱ
circumstances,ȱtheȱgovernmentȱmayȱhaveȱnoȱoptionȱbutȱtoȱactȱonȱitsȱ
ownȱtoȱpromoteȱsomeȱlevelȱofȱpublicȱconsultationȱonȱlegislationȱ
relatingȱtoȱchildren.ȱThisȱwasȱtheȱcaseȱinȱBurkinaȱFaso,ȱwhereȱtheȱ
governmentȱtookȱtheȱinitiativeȱinȱassessingȱexistingȱlegislationȱandȱ
proposingȱchanges. 117ȱ
ȱ
Evenȱinȱcountriesȱwhereȱcivilȱsocietyȱorganisationsȱhaveȱplayedȱaȱ
prominentȱrole,ȱtheȱleadershipȱandȱinitiativeȱtakenȱbyȱtheȱgovernmentȱ
orȱbyȱlegislativeȱbodiesȱgaveȱtheȱreviewȱitsȱvalidityȱandȱopenedȱtheȱ
wayȱtoȱimprovingȱtheȱlegislationȱrelatingȱtoȱchildren.ȱTheȱ
improvementȱmightȱhaveȱcomeȱthroughȱensuringȱmoreȱeffectiveȱ
implementationȱofȱexistingȱlegislationȱorȱbyȱtheȱdevelopmentȱandȱ
adoptionȱofȱnewȱlegislationȱmoreȱinȱkeepingȱwithȱtheȱCRCȱandȱ
CEDAW.ȱȱSinceȱtheyȱhaveȱtheȱprimaryȱresponsibilityȱforȱlegislationȱ
andȱforȱtheȱenforcementȱofȱlaws,ȱgovernmentsȱmustȱbeȱsignificantȱ
117
UNICEF Burkina Faso, Legislative Reform Initiative: Phase II: Country Study, UNICEF
Burkina Faso (internal paper), Ouagadougou, date unknown, p. 28-9.
59
playersȱthroughoutȱtheȱreviewȱprocessȱandȱtakeȱfullȱownershipȱofȱtheȱ
conclusionsȱofȱtheȱreview,ȱasȱanȱessentialȱcomponentȱofȱtheirȱ
obligationsȱunderȱtheȱCRC/CEDAW.ȱ
ȱ
Theȱprocessȱofȱreviewingȱlegislationȱonȱbehalfȱofȱchildrenȱcanȱbeȱledȱbyȱ
differentȱentitiesȱatȱdifferentȱstages,ȱasȱwasȱtheȱcaseȱinȱVenezuela,ȱforȱ
example. 118 ȱThereȱmayȱbeȱbenefitsȱtoȱthisȱapproach,ȱinȱhelpingȱtoȱ
achieveȱdifferentȱgoalsȱatȱdifferentȱstagesȱinȱtheȱprocess.ȱRaisingȱpublicȱ
andȱpoliticalȱawarenessȱofȱtheȱimportanceȱofȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱandȱtheȱ
possibleȱneedȱtoȱadaptȱlawsȱtoȱsupportȱthoseȱrightsȱisȱaȱtaskȱoftenȱbestȱ
suitedȱtoȱNGOsȱandȱotherȱcivilȱsocietyȱactors,ȱsuchȱasȱreligiousȱ
organisationsȱandȱtheȱmedia.ȱThisȱmayȱhelpȱfosterȱtheȱpoliticalȱwillȱtoȱ
improveȱtheȱwayȱgovernmentsȱ(atȱallȱlevels)ȱfulfilȱtheirȱresponsibilitiesȱ
toȱchildrenȱandȱtheirȱfamiliesȱinȱaccordanceȱwithȱcommitmentsȱunderȱ
theȱCRC/CEDAW.ȱIfȱlegislativeȱchangesȱ
Steps in Legislative Review
areȱrequired,ȱgovernmentsȱshouldȱtakeȱ 1. Identify coordinator
chargeȱofȱdevelopingȱtheȱlegislationȱandȱ 2. Clarify reason for review
3. Define scope
settingȱtheȱconditionsȱunderȱwhichȱtheȱ 4. Set time-line
newȱlegislationȱcanȱbeȱimplementedȱ 5. Clarify methods to be used
effectively.ȱTheseȱgoalsȱmayȱwellȱbeȱ 6. Identify participants in analysis
and consultation
easierȱtoȱachieveȱifȱtheȱvariousȱstrengthsȱ 7. Set up feedback system
andȱexpertisesȱofȱdifferentȱentitiesȱcanȱbeȱ 8. Affirm government
commitment to follow-up
broughtȱtoȱbearȱatȱtheȱappropriateȱtimes.ȱȱ
ȱ
Thereȱisȱnonethelessȱgreatȱvalueȱinȱhavingȱtheȱprocessȱmanagedȱfromȱ
beginningȱtoȱendȱbyȱaȱsingleȱcoordinator.ȱChangingȱresponsibilityȱforȱ
deliveringȱresultsȱanyȱstageȱinȱtheȱprocessȱcausesȱundesirableȱdelays.ȱ
Havingȱtheȱsameȱcoordinatorȱthroughout,ȱmotivatedȱtoȱachieveȱtheȱ
objectiveȱofȱtheȱreview,ȱmakesȱforȱmoreȱeffectiveȱmanagementȱofȱtheȱ
process.ȱ(Thatȱobjectiveȱshouldȱbeȱimprovingȱimplementationȱofȱ
existingȱlegislationȱandȱproposingȱrecommendationsȱforȱanyȱnewȱ
legislationȱthatȱmayȱbeȱneededȱtoȱsupportȱchildrenȇsȱrights).ȱThisȱwasȱ
theȱexperienceȱinȱGhana 119 ȱandȱJamaica, 120 ȱforȱexample.ȱAsȱtheseȱ
countryȱexamplesȱalsoȱshow,ȱtheȱvalueȱofȱhavingȱaȱsingleȱcoordinatorȱ
isȱenhancedȱwhenȱthatȱbodyȱincludesȱrepresentationȱfromȱbothȱtheȱ
governmentȱandȱcivilȱsociety.ȱȱ
ȱ
118
Garate, p. 14-35.
119
Ghana, p. 13-14.
120
Jamaica, p. 18-19.
60
Whoeverȱassumesȱresponsibilityȱforȱoverseeingȱtheȱlegislationȱreviewȱ
processȱmustȱunderstandȱthatȱthisȱisȱaȱmajorȱcommitmentȱofȱbothȱtimeȱ
andȱresources.ȱBothȱoverseeingȱtheȱworkȱofȱtechnicalȱanalysisȱandȱ
managingȱtheȱbroadȱpublicȱconsultationȱrequireȱpeopleȱwhoȱhaveȱ
themselvesȱtheȱanalyticalȱskillsȱandȱmanagementȱexpertiseȱtoȱdoȱthisȱ
workȱeffectively.ȱInȱmanyȱcountries,ȱthereȱmayȱbeȱaȱneedȱforȱoutsideȱ
assistanceȱtoȱdoȱthisȱwell.ȱDrawingȱonȱregionalȱcapacitiesȱtoȱtakeȱ
advantageȱofȱpositiveȱexperiencesȱinȱneighbouringȱjurisdictionsȱcouldȱ
beȱofȱgreatȱhelp.ȱThereȱis,ȱtherefore,ȱanȱimportantȱsupportiveȱroleȱforȱ
organisationsȱsuchȱasȱtheȱAfricanȱUnionȱandȱCARICOM.ȱȱ
ȱ
Whileȱdirectȱinvolvementȱinȱtheȱprocessȱbyȱinternationalȱagenciesȱ
(suchȱasȱUNICEFȱandȱSaveȱtheȱChildren)ȱwouldȱnotȱbeȱdesirable,ȱsinceȱ
theȱprocessȱandȱitsȱfinalȱresultȱmustȱbeȱfullyȱownedȱbyȱtheȱgovernmentȱ
andȱpeopleȱofȱtheȱcountryȱconcerned,ȱthereȱisȱaȱsignificantȱroleȱtheseȱ
agenciesȱcanȱplayȱinȱsupportingȱtheȱorganisation(s)ȱwhichȱareȱtakingȱaȱ
leadingȱroleȱinȱcreatingȱchangeȱthatȱbenefitsȱtheirȱownȱchildren.ȱ
ȱ
Theȱreviewȱofȱlegislationȱasȱitȱaffectsȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱcanȱbeȱcontainedȱ
withinȱaȱpoliticalȱorȱadministrativeȱstructureȱ(governmentȱdepartmentȱ
orȱministryȱorȱanȱindependentȱinstitution)ȱorȱitȱcanȱbeȱestablishedȱasȱaȱ
freeȬstandingȱandȱselfȬsufficientȱprocess.ȱExamplesȱofȱtheȱlatterȱ
approachȱincludeȱnationalȱenquiriesȱorȱspecialȱcommissionsȱtaskedȱ
withȱconductingȱaȱthoroughȱexaminationȱofȱtheȱpresentȱsituationȱandȱ
comingȱupȱwithȱrecommendationsȱforȱfutureȱaction,ȱincludingȱreformȱ
ofȱlawsȱifȱneeded.ȱSomeȱcountriesȱusedȱtheȱmoreȱindependentȱ
mechanismȱeffectivelyȱinȱtheȱ1970sȱandȱ1980sȱtoȱexamineȱsociallyȱ
significantȱissuesȱsuchȱasȱtheȱstatusȱofȱwomenȱorȱrelationshipsȱbetweenȱ
differentȱethnicȱorȱreligiousȱgroups.ȱThisȱapproachȱmayȱalsoȱbeȱ
extremelyȱusefulȱnow,ȱinȱtheȱcontextȱofȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱandȱtheȱlaw.ȱ
ȱ
2.2.8ȱ StructureȱofȱaȱReviewȱofȱLegislationȱ
ȱ
Theȱcoordinatorȱofȱtheȱlegislationȱreviewȱwillȱprobablyȱstartȱtheȱ
processȱbyȱclarifyingȱtheȱcontext:ȱtheȱreasonsȱforȱundertakingȱtheȱ
reviewȱinȱtheȱfirstȱplace,ȱtheȱscopeȱofȱtheȱreviewȇsȱactivitiesȱandȱtheȱ
lengthȱofȱtimeȱthatȱtheȱprocessȱisȱexpectedȱtoȱtake.ȱTheȱplanȱforȱtheȱ
reviewȱshouldȱoutlineȱtheȱanticipatedȱoperationȱofȱbothȱtheȱanalyticalȱ
andȱconsultativeȱaspects.ȱIdeally,ȱtheseȱshouldȱbeȱimplementedȱ
together,ȱsoȱthatȱtheyȱcanȱinteractȱandȱreinforceȱeachȱother.ȱThisȱwasȱ
61
theȱcaseȱinȱVenezuela,ȱwhereȱtheȱtechnicalȱworkȱofȱtheȱexpertsȱwhoȱ
wereȱassessingȱandȱdraftingȱnewȱlegislationȱoccurredȱinȱparallelȱwithȱ
theȱvariousȱpublicȱactivitiesȱthatȱallowedȱcivilȱsocietyȱandȱspecialisedȱ
interestȱgroupsȱtoȱpresentȱtheirȱviewsȱofȱlegislationȱforȱchildren. 121 ȱȱ
ȱȱ
Theȱreviewȱcoordinatorȱshouldȱalsoȱidentifyȱtheȱmethodsȱtoȱbeȱusedȱ
throughoutȱtheȱreview.ȱInȱadditionȱtoȱaȱformalȱanalysisȱofȱtheȱ
legislationȱbeingȱstudiedȱinȱrelationȱtoȱtheȱCRC/CEDAW,ȱitȱmayȱbeȱ
helpfulȱtoȱconductȱspecificȱstudiesȱtoȱdetermineȱtheȱeffectȱandȱtheȱ
effectivenessȱofȱparticularȱmeasuresȱ(whichȱcouldȱinclude,ȱinȱadditionȱ
toȱlegislation,ȱsocialȱpolicies,ȱgovernmentȱprogrammesȱandȱ
institutionalȱactivities).ȱSomeȱpossibleȱmethodologiesȱtoȱconsiderȱare:ȱ
ȱ
x socioȬeconomicȱstudiesȱofȱaffectedȱgroups;ȱȱ
x statisticalȱanalysisȱ(includingȱgenderȬȱandȱageȬsensitiveȱdata);ȱ
x publicȱopinionȱsurveys;ȱȱ
x ȈauditsȈȱofȱtheȱimplementationȱofȱcertainȱpiecesȱofȱlegislation;ȱȱ
x publicȱmeetings;ȱȱ
x focusedȱconsultationsȱwithȱspecificȱgroups;ȱandȱ
x inȬdepthȱinterviewsȱwithȱthoseȱwhoseȱlivesȱareȱaffectedȱbyȱtheȱ
legislation,ȱincludingȱchildrenȱandȱtheirȱfamilyȱmembersȱasȱ
wellȱasȱtheȱpeopleȱwhoȱimplementȱprogrammesȱandȱpoliciesȱ
relatedȱtoȱtheȱlegislation.ȱ
ȱ
Thereȱmayȱbeȱaȱplace,ȱinȱthisȱprocess,ȱforȱreferenceȱtoȱexpertsȱandȱtoȱ
experiencesȱinȱotherȱcountriesȱwithȱsimilarȱlegalȱsystems.ȱ
ȱ
Theȱreviewȱprocessȱshouldȱhaveȱaȱclearlyȱdefinedȱtimetable.ȱWhileȱitȱisȱ
importantȱtoȱtakeȱenoughȱtimeȱtoȱcompleteȱaȱthoroughȱanalysisȱofȱtheȱ
legislationȱandȱtoȱdevelopȱsuitableȱandȱusefulȱrecommendations,ȱtheȱ
reviewȱshouldȱnotȱbeȱopenȬended.ȱAȱreviewȱthatȱcontinuesȱforȱmonthsȱ
orȱyearsȱwithoutȱanyȱappreciableȱachievementȱinȱtermsȱofȱeitherȱ
developingȱaȱbroadȱnationalȱconsensusȱonȱchildrenȱandȱtheirȱrightsȱorȱ
determiningȱspecificȱrecommendationsȱaboutȱtheȱnextȱpracticalȱstepsȱtoȱ
beȱtakenȱwillȱnotȱbeȱseenȱasȱhelpfulȱorȱeffective.ȱAȱcomprehensiveȱ
review,ȱwhichȱcoversȱallȱaspectsȱofȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱinȱtheȱcountry,ȱ
doesȱnotȱneedȱtoȱbeȱexhaustive.ȱThereȱshouldȱbeȱaȱclearȱdeadlineȱforȱ
121
Garate, p. 18.
62
theȱcompletionȱofȱtheȱreviewȱfromȱtheȱbeginning,ȱandȱtheȱprocessȱ
shouldȱbeȱimplementedȱonȱtheȱbasisȱofȱaȱrealisticȱschedule.ȱ
ȱ
Fromȱtheȱbeginning,ȱitȱisȱimportantȱtoȱdetermineȱtheȱdegreeȱofȱ
specificityȱneededȱtoȱattainȱaȱclearȱviewȱofȱtheȱsituationȱwithoutȱlosingȱ
focus.ȱTooȱmuchȱdetailȱcanȱcauseȱtheȱreviewersȱtoȱbecomeȱimmersedȱinȱ
legalȱminutiaeȱandȱloseȱsightȱofȱtheȱrealȱgoal,ȱwhichȱisȱtoȱseeȱifȱtheȱ
legislationȱcurrentlyȱinȱplaceȱfullyȱrespects,ȱprotectsȱandȱpromotesȱ
childrenȇsȱrightsȱand,ȱifȱitȱdoesȱnot,ȱidentifyȱwaysȱinȱwhichȱitȱmightȱbeȱ
improved.ȱ
ȱ
AppropriateȱȈfeedbackȈȱmechanismsȱthroughoutȱtheȱprocessȱwillȱhelpȱ
toȱkeepȱitȱrelevantȱandȱresponsiveȱtoȱnotȱonlyȱtheȱrealȱlegalȱsituationȱofȱ
childrenȱbutȱalsoȱtoȱpublicȱexpectations.ȱForȱexample,ȱinȱVenezuela,ȱtheȱ
regularȱexchangesȱbetweenȱtheȱSpecialȱCongressionalȱCommissionȱandȱ
bodiesȱsuchȱasȱtheȱCentreȱforȱJudicialȱResearchȱandȱtheȱNGOȱcoalitionȱ
soughtȱparticipationȱofȱtheȱvariousȱpartiesȱinvolvedȱinȱtheȱreviewȱ
processȱandȱensuredȱthatȱtheȱinputsȱofȱeachȱoneȱwereȱavailableȱforȱtheȱ
othersȱtoȱincorporateȱintoȱtheirȱownȱconclusions.ȱAsȱtheȱreviewȱprocessȱ
unfolds,ȱitȱisȱlikelyȱthatȱpublicȱexpectationsȱwillȱchangeȱinȱresponseȱtoȱ
theȱavailabilityȱofȱmoreȱandȱbetterȱinformationȱaboutȱtheȱsituationȱofȱ
childrenȇsȱrights.ȱFromȱtheȱbeginning,ȱflexibilityȱmustȱbeȱestablishedȱinȱ
orderȱtoȱadjustȱeitherȱtheȱquestionsȱbeingȱaskedȱorȱtheȱmethodsȱ
employedȱasȱtheȱsituationȱevolves.ȱ
ȱ
Whetherȱtheȱinitialȱanalyticalȱphaseȱofȱtheȱreviewȱprocessȱisȱconductedȱ
byȱaȱsmallȱnumberȱofȱexpertsȱorȱtakesȱtheȱformȱofȱaȱbroaderȱandȱmoreȱ
publicȱexercise,ȱitȱwillȱbeȱimportantȱtoȱdefineȱtheȱscopeȱofȱtheȱexercise,ȱ
byȱidentifyingȱtheȱlegislationȱandȱanyȱrelatedȱpolicies,ȱprogrammesȱ
andȱinstitutionalȱstructuresȱthatȱwillȱbeȱsubjectȱtoȱreview.ȱItȱisȱselfȬ
evidentȱthatȱtheȱmoreȱlegislationȱthereȱisȱtoȱbeȱanalysed,ȱtheȱlongerȱtheȱ
reviewȱprocessȱwillȱtakeȱandȱtheȱmoreȱcomplexȱitȱwillȱbe.ȱThisȱ
considerationȱshouldȱbeȱbalancedȱagainstȱtheȱrecognitionȱthatȱitȱwillȱ
alsoȱresultȱinȱaȱmoreȱthoroughȱandȱcomprehensiveȱassessmentȱofȱtheȱ
waysȱinȱwhichȱlegislationȱaffectsȱchildrenȇsȱrights.ȱȱ
ȱ
Theȱendȱresultȱofȱtheȱreviewȱshouldȱbeȱtoȱpromoteȱfurtherȱactionȱasȱ
needed.ȱIfȱthereȱisȱaȱreport,ȱitȱshouldȱnotȱbeȱleftȱtoȱsitȱonȱaȱshelf,ȱ
unopened,ȱitsȱrecommendationsȱunimplemented.ȱFromȱtheȱbeginningȱ
ofȱtheȱreviewȱprocess,ȱthereȱshouldȱbeȱaȱfirmȱcommitmentȱfromȱtheȱ
63
governmentȱtoȱactȱinȱresponseȱtoȱtheȱconclusionsȱofȱtheȱreview.ȱThisȱ
willȱalsoȱmakeȱtheȱprocessȱmuchȱlivelier,ȱbecauseȱpeopleȱwhoȱ
participateȱwillȱknowȱthatȱtheirȱcontributionȱwillȱhaveȱsomeȱeffectȱonȱ
actionsȱthatȱwillȱbeȱtakenȱlater.ȱ
ȱ
2.2.9ȱ ReviewingȱLegislationȱ
ȱ
Asȱaȱpointȱofȱdepartureȱforȱtheȱreview,ȱconsiderationȱmayȱbeȱgivenȱtoȱ
theȱconstitutionalȱbasisȱforȱtheȱlegislation.ȱThisȱcanȱinvolveȱtheȱmoreȱ
technicalȱaspectsȱofȱtheȱconstitutionalȱstructure,ȱsuchȱasȱtheȱdivisionȱofȱ
powersȱandȱresponsibilityȱamongȱdifferentȱjurisdictionsȱinȱaȱfederalȱ
system,ȱasȱwellȱasȱanȱassessmentȱofȱtheȱwaysȱinȱwhichȱconstitutionalȱ
guaranteesȱandȱprotectionsȱofȱhumanȱrightsȱrelateȱtoȱtheȱprovisionsȱofȱ
theȱinternationalȱConventions.ȱItȱcanȱbeȱparticularlyȱusefulȱtoȱidentifyȱ
thoseȱareasȱinȱwhichȱnationalȱhumanȱrightsȱprotectionsȱsurpassȱthoseȱ
providedȱforȱinȱinternationalȱinstruments.ȱ
ȱ
Someȱnationalȱconstitutionsȱhaveȱclearlyȱdefinedȱprovisionsȱrelatingȱtoȱ
childrenȇsȱrights,ȱoutliningȱspecificȱgovernmentȱresponsibilitiesȱtoȱ
adoptȱandȱimplementȱlegislationȱtoȱgiveȱeffectȱtoȱthoseȱprovisions.ȱ
Suchȱprovisionsȱmayȱprovideȱtheȱimpetusȱforȱaȱreviewȱofȱlegislationȱasȱ
itȱrelatesȱtoȱchildren’sȱrights.ȱInȱotherȱcountries,ȱtheȱconstitutionalȱ
provisionsȱapplicableȱtoȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱmayȱbeȱgeneral,ȱinȱtheȱcontextȱ
ofȱtheȱrightsȱofȱtheȱbroaderȱpopulation,ȱsoȱinterpretationȱofȱtheȱrelevantȱ
guidanceȱmayȱbeȱneededȱtoȱclarifyȱhowȱtheyȱrelateȱtoȱtheȱspecificȱrightsȱ
ofȱchildren.ȱ(SeeȱChapterȱ3ȱbelowȱforȱfurtherȱexaminationȱofȱthisȱaspectȱ
ofȱtheȱreviewȱprocess).ȱ
ȱ
Sinceȱoneȱofȱtheȱgoalsȱofȱtheȱreviewȱisȱlikelyȱtoȱbeȱtoȱgenerateȱchangesȱ
inȱattitudes,ȱbehaviourȱand,ȱifȱnecessary,ȱlegislationȱinȱfavourȱofȱ
childrenȇsȱrights,ȱandȱtoȱdoȱthisȱasȱquicklyȱandȱeffectivelyȱasȱpossible,ȱ
theȱefficiencyȱofȱtheȱreviewȱisȱanȱimportantȱconsideration.ȱThisȱmeansȱ
carefullyȱselectingȱtheȱlegislationȱthatȱwillȱbeȱassessedȱasȱpartȱofȱtheȱ
termsȱofȱreferenceȱofȱtheȱreview.ȱTheȱselectionȱmayȱbeȱfairlyȱ
straightforward,ȱespeciallyȱifȱtheȱreviewȱisȱundertakenȱinȱresponseȱtoȱ
specificȱconcerns,ȱsuchȱasȱaȱgapȱinȱcoverageȱofȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱ
identifiedȱinȱtheȱcourseȱofȱreportingȱtoȱtheȱCommitteeȱonȱtheȱRightsȱofȱ
theȱChild,ȱorȱasȱaȱresultȱofȱaȱcourtȱchallengeȱbasedȱonȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱ
andȱaȱsubsequentȱjudicialȱdecisionȱthatȱcallsȱintoȱquestionȱsomeȱ
64
existingȱlegislation,ȱorȱbecauseȱofȱaȱconcernȱthatȱisȱbroughtȱtoȱtheȱ
public’sȱattentionȱbyȱmediaȱcoverage.ȱ
ȱ
Theȱlegislationȱtoȱbeȱreviewedȱmightȱbeȱdividedȱintoȱthreeȱcategoriesȱofȱ
decreasingȱpriority:ȱȱ
ȱ
1. Legislationȱatȱtheȱnationalȱlevelȱwhichȱdealsȱdirectlyȱwithȱ
mattersȱaffectingȱtheȱrightsȱofȱchildren,ȱsuchȱasȱlawsȱrelatingȱtoȱ
marriage,ȱdivorceȱandȱchildȱcustody;ȱjuvenileȱjustice;ȱandȱ
servicesȱforȱdisabledȱchildren;ȱȱȱ
2. Legislationȱatȱtheȱnationalȱlevelȱwhich,ȱwhileȱnotȱreferringȱ
specificallyȱtoȱchildren,ȱneverthelessȱhasȱanȱeffectȱonȱthemȱandȱ
theirȱrights,ȱsuchȱasȱlegislationȱonȱtheȱoperationȱofȱelectronicȱ
media;ȱregulationsȱforȱemploymentȱprogrammes;ȱandȱlawsȱ
governingȱtheȱsafetyȱofȱautomobiles;ȱandȱȱ
3. Legislationȱatȱotherȱlevelsȱofȱgovernmentȱthatȱhasȱanȱeffectȱonȱ
childrenȇsȱrights.ȱThisȱmayȱbeȱgivenȱincreasedȱpriorityȱinȱ
federalȱStatesȱinȱwhichȱtheȱlowerȱlevelsȱofȱgovernmentȱhaveȱ
primaryȱorȱsignificantȱrolesȱtoȱplayȱinȱtheȱareasȱcoveredȱbyȱtheȱ
CRC/CEDAWȱ(forȱinstance,ȱfamilyȱlaw,ȱeducationȱorȱhealthȱ
care),ȱorȱinȱdecentralizedȱStatesȱwhichȱmakeȱdistrictsȱorȱ
municipalitiesȱresponsibleȱforȱdeliveringȱservicesȱinȱsectorsȱ
affectingȱchildren.ȱThisȱisȱaȱbroadȱcategory,ȱwhichȱcanȱcoverȱ
everythingȱfromȱcriminalȱlaw,ȱtheȱorganizationȱandȱoperationȱ
ofȱpoliceȱandȱcorrectionalȱservicesȱ(inȱfederalȱStatesȱwithȱ
decentralizedȱresponsibilities),ȱtoȱtheȱsettingȱofȱspeedȱlimitsȱinȱ
schoolȱzonesȱandȱmunicipalȱrulesȱaboutȱtheȱoperationȱofȱstoresȱ
sellingȱproductsȱtoȱchildren.ȱ
ȱ
Inȱmanyȱjurisdictions,ȱsomeȱlegislationȱrelatingȱtoȱchildrenȱandȱtheirȱ
rightsȱmayȱalreadyȱbeȱassembledȱintoȱaȱcompendium,ȱforȱexampleȱ
dealingȱwithȱfamilyȱlawȱorȱjuvenileȱjustice.ȱInȱcommonȱlawȱcountries,ȱ
suchȱaȱcompendiumȱwouldȱalsoȱincludeȱrelevantȱjurisprudence,ȱandȱinȱ
Islamicȱlawȱcountriesȱitȱwouldȱnaturallyȱincorporateȱtheȱvariousȱ
elementsȱofȱShari’aȱthatȱareȱappliedȱthere.ȱCountriesȱwithȱpluralȱlegalȱ
systemsȱinvolvingȱtraditionalȱorȱcustomaryȱlawȱwouldȱincludeȱthoseȱ
practicesȱasȱwell.ȱ
ȱ
Ifȱsuchȱaȱcatalogueȱdoesȱnotȱexist,ȱitȱmightȱbeȱworthwhileȱtoȱcompileȱ
oneȱasȱtheȱfirstȱstepȱofȱtheȱreviewȱprocess.ȱSuchȱaȱcompilationȱwouldȱ
65
beȱusefulȱnotȱonlyȱforȱtheȱreviewȱbutȱalsoȱforȱtheȱworkȱofȱchildrenȇsȱ
advocatesȱinȱaȱvarietyȱofȱcontexts.ȱPreparationȱofȱsuchȱaȱcompendiumȱ
shouldȱbeȱdoneȱwithȱtheȱrecognitionȱthatȱlegislationȱaffectingȱchildrenȱ
andȱtheȱexerciseȱofȱtheirȱrightsȱdoesȱnotȱalwaysȱreferȱexplicitlyȱtoȱ
childrenȱinȱtitlesȱorȱshortȱdescriptions.ȱSomeȱknowledgeȱofȱtheȱgeneralȱ
contentȱandȱapplicationȱofȱsuchȱlawsȱwillȱhelpȱtoȱdetermineȱtheirȱ
applicabilityȱinȱtheȱcontextȱofȱtheȱreview.ȱ(Thisȱwouldȱbeȱaȱgoodȱ
exerciseȱforȱstudentsȱofȱlawȱorȱrelatedȱdisciplines).ȱ
ȱ
Challenges of Legislative Inȱcountriesȱwithȱpluralȱlegalȱsystemsȱthatȱ
Review
1. Differences between legal
haveȱaȱcomponentȱofȱtraditionalȱorȱ
systems customaryȱlaw,ȱtheȱchallengeȱmayȱbeȱtoȱpullȱ
2. Problems of enforcement togetherȱadequateȱinformationȱonȱtheȱ
(economic, geographic,
cultural, social) customaryȱlaw,ȱwhichȱmayȱnotȱbeȱwrittenȱorȱ
3. Lack of capacity to mayȱbeȱwrittenȱonlyȱinȱveryȱvagueȱterms.ȱ
implement laws
4. Implicit discrimination Theȱreviewȱmayȱhaveȱtoȱundertakeȱaȱ
5. Application of a compilationȱofȱcustomaryȱjurisprudenceȱbyȱ
relativistic approach which interviewingȱtraditionalȱchiefsȱorȱothersȱ
sets priorities among rights
whoȱadministerȱtheȱcustomaryȱlawȱifȱsuchȱ
informationȱisȱnotȱotherwiseȱavailable.ȱToȱtheȱextentȱthatȱtheȱ
customaryȱlawȱisȱaȱvalidȱandȱactiveȱdeterminantȱofȱchildrenȇsȱ
treatmentȱinȱsociety,ȱitȱneedsȱtoȱbeȱtakenȱfullyȱintoȱaccountȱatȱallȱstagesȱ
ofȱtheȱreview.ȱInȱGhana,ȱforȱexample,ȱtheȱlegislationȱreviewȱtookȱ
accountȱofȱsuchȱissuesȱasȱsuccessionȱunderȱcustomaryȱlaw,ȱforcedȱandȱ
earlyȱmarriages,ȱeconomicȱslaveryȱandȱotherȱmattersȱinȱwhichȱtheȱ
customaryȱlawȱhadȱaȱclearȱeffectȱonȱtheȱabilityȱofȱchildrenȱtoȱrealiseȱ
theirȱrights.ȱWithoutȱtakingȱsuchȱaspectsȱintoȱaccount,ȱanyȱanalysisȱofȱ
legislationȱasȱitȱisȱappliedȱtoȱchildrenȱinȱGhanaȱwouldȱhaveȱbeenȱ
incompleteȱandȱtheȱconclusionsȱreachedȱbyȱtheȱreviewȱwouldȱhaveȱ
beenȱlessȱrelevantȱasȱaȱresult. 122ȱ
ȱ
Itȱisȱalsoȱimportantȱtoȱconsiderȱtheȱimplicationsȱofȱlegislationȱwhichȱ
seemsȱpurelyȱtechnicalȱorȱirrelevantȱtoȱtheȱinterestsȱofȱchildren.ȱTheȱ
studyȱconductedȱinȱYemen,ȱforȱexample,ȱpointedȱoutȱthatȱaȱnewȱLawȱonȱ
LocalȱAdministrationȱwouldȱresultȱinȱaȱdecentralizationȱofȱresponsibilityȱ
forȱdeliveringȱgovernmentȱservices,ȱwhichȱwouldȱleadȱtoȱaȱgreaterȱ
chanceȱofȱgovernmentȱprogrammesȱmeetingȱtheȱrealȱneedsȱofȱchildrenȱ
inȱtheȱcommunityȱbecauseȱtheȱpeopleȱresponsibleȱforȱtheȱprogrammesȱ
122
Ghana, p. 16-9.
66
wouldȱbeȱfromȱtheȱcommunityȱtheȱprogrammesȱwereȱaffecting.ȱThisȱ
wouldȱbeȱpredicated,ȱhowever,ȱonȱtheȱavailabilityȱofȱadequateȱ
resourcesȱatȱtheȱlocalȱadministrationȱlevelȱtoȱdeliverȱtheȱnecessaryȱ
services. 123ȱ
ȱ
Asȱtheȱlegislationȱisȱassembledȱbyȱcategory,ȱoneȱthingȱthatȱisȱlikelyȱtoȱ
emergeȱisȱaȱlackȱofȱbalanceȱbetweenȱdifferentȱcategoriesȱofȱlegislation.ȱ
Forȱexample,ȱinȱHaiti 124 ȱandȱGabon 125 ȱmuchȱdetailedȱlegislationȱisȱinȱ
placeȱtoȱdetermineȱtheȱnatureȱofȱaȱchildȇsȱpaternityȱ(ȈlegitimateȈȱ
children,ȱȈnaturalȈȱchildren,ȱchildrenȱbornȱofȱadulteryȱorȱincest,ȱevenȱ
childrenȱbornȱtoȱtwoȱsuccessiveȱlegitimateȱmarriages) 126 ȱbutȱprovisionsȱ
toȱgovernȱtheȱinstitutionalȱcareȱofȱabandonedȱorȱorphanedȱchildrenȱareȱ
notablyȱinadequate. 127 ȱEvenȱatȱthisȱpreliminaryȱstageȱofȱtheȱanalysis,ȱitȱ
shouldȱbeȱpossibleȱtoȱidentifyȱgapsȱandȱareasȱwhereȱmoreȱattentionȱisȱ
needed.ȱTheȱaccumulationȱofȱconclusionsȱsuchȱasȱthisȱthroughoutȱtheȱ
review,ȱfedȱbackȱintoȱtheȱprocessȱofȱbothȱanalysisȱandȱconsultation,ȱ
willȱleadȱtoȱtheȱdevelopmentȱofȱclearȱrecommendationsȱforȱaction,ȱ
whichȱshouldȱbeȱtheȱfinalȱresultȱofȱtheȱreview.ȱ
ȱ
Itȱisȱinevitable,ȱwhereȱtwoȱorȱmoreȱdifferentȱlegalȱsystemsȱoperateȱinȱ
theȱsameȱcountry,ȱthatȱtheȱreviewȱofȱlegislationȱwillȱhaveȱtoȱaddressȱ
conflictsȱinȱbothȱprincipleȱandȱpracticeȱbetweenȱsystems.ȱEvenȱwhenȱ
theȱconstitutionȱestablishesȱwhichȱsystemȱ(usuallyȱtheȱlawȬbasedȱorȱ
123
Beatty, Sharon, Dr. Barbara Croken, Abdul Hakim Al Hamdani, Fatima Jibran, Saed al
Mahktafi, Impact of the Convention on the Rights of the Child in Yemen, Rädda Barnen/Save
the Children, Sana'a (25 August 1998) [henceforth: Yemen], p. 10.
124
Vieux, Serge-Henri and Bernard Gousse, Étude Comparative entre la Convention relative
aux droits de l'enfant et La législation haïtienne, publication details unknown, unpaginated
[henceforth: Haiti].
125
Plan Étude Comparative entre la Législation Gabonaise, La Convention relative aux
droits de l'enfant, La Charte Africaine des droits et du bien-être de l'enfant, UNICEF (internal
working document; no publication data) [henceforth: Gabon].
126
Haiti, p. 8-12, p. 56-9, p. 83-5, p. 113-6; Gabon p. 9-19.
127
Gabon, 17th page (being orphaned as a prerequisite for adoption) and 23rd and 24th pages
(guardianship), but the section on children in care of the State (22nd and 23rd page) refers
only to children removed from their parents' care, either for the child's protection or at the
request of their parents. There is no reference to orphans in institutional care. With regard to
abandoned children, the only reference is in connection with birth registration (10th page).
Haiti discusses adoption (11th and 12th pages) without mentioning orphans. Adoption is also
dealt with as a remedy for abandoned children (61st to 67th page). The 29th page contains a
reference to support for minor orphans of civilian or military employees of the State. The care
of abandoned children as vagabonds, who must be placed in re-education institutions until
they reach the age of majority, is referred to on the 31st page but no description is provided
for the structure and operation of such institutions, although the comment is made that there
are not enough of them.
67
judiciaryȬbasedȱone)ȱwillȱprevailȱinȱeventȱofȱdifferencesȱbetweenȱtheȱ
approachesȱtakenȱbyȱtheȱtwoȱsystemsȱtoȱtheȱsameȱsituation,ȱtraditionȱ
andȱcustomȱcanȱexertȱaȱstrongȱinfluenceȱonȱpeopleȇsȱbehaviour.ȱTheȱ
reviewȱmayȱwellȱhaveȱtoȱtakeȱaȱpositionȱonȱtheȱimplicationsȱofȱsuchȱ
differencesȱbetweenȱlawȱandȱcustomȱforȱchildrenȇsȱrights.ȱThoseȱ
conductingȱtheȱreviewȱwillȱhaveȱtoȱbeȱpreparedȱforȱtheȱpossibilityȱofȱ
conflictȱinȱresponsesȱtoȱtheȱreviewȇsȱpositionȱonȱwhatȱmayȱbeȱveryȱ
sensitiveȱissues.ȱ
ȱ
Equallyȱimportantȱasȱassessingȱlegislationȱasȱitȱisȱwritten,ȱinȱrelationȱtoȱ
theȱspecificȱConventionȱprovisions,ȱisȱassessingȱtheȱimplementationȱofȱ
thatȱlegislationȱandȱtheȱwayȱinȱwhichȱthatȱimplementationȱaffectsȱtheȱ
situationȱofȱchildrenȇsȱrights.ȱNonȬlegislativeȱinstrumentsȱofȱ
governmentȱmayȱalsoȱbeȱrelevantȱinȱassessingȱtheȱeffectivenessȱofȱ
legislationȱinȱspecificȱareas.ȱSuchȱinstrumentsȱcouldȱincludeȱsocialȱ
policyȱdeclarations,ȱoperationalȱplansȱofȱtheȱrelevantȱministries,ȱ
budgetsȱandȱotherȱfiscalȱdocumentsȱofȱgovernment,ȱandȱtheȱ
organisationalȱstructure,ȱmanagementȱandȱmonitoringȱofȱinstitutionsȱ
dealingȱwithȱchildren.ȱ
ȱ
Manyȱcountriesȱhaveȱwonderfulȱlawsȱonȱtheirȱbooksȱthatȱperfectlyȱ
reflectȱtheȱcommitmentȱtoȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱexpressedȱinȱCRC/CEDAW,ȱ
butȱinȱactualȱpracticeȱtheȱresultȱisȱlessȱthanȱideal.ȱInȱHaiti,ȱforȱexample,ȱ
theȱstudyȱfoundȱthatȱthereȱisȱaȱlegalȱrequirementȱthatȱallȱchildrenȱ
attendȱelementaryȱschool,ȱwithȱexplicitȱpenaltiesȱ(fineȱorȱ
imprisonment)ȱforȱparentsȱwhoseȱchildrenȱdoȱnotȱattendȱschool.ȱEvenȱ
so,ȱaȱlargeȱpercentageȱofȱchildrenȱdoȱnotȱattendȱschool,ȱandȱtheirȱ
parentsȱdoȱnotȱsufferȱpenalties.ȱIndeed,ȱitȱisȱdoubtfulȱthatȱtheȱpenaltiesȱ
wouldȱleadȱtoȱtheȱlegislatedȱgoalȱbecauseȱofȱtheȱeconomicȱfactorsȱ
whichȱprohibitȱschoolȱattendanceȱforȱpoorȱchildren. 128 ȱTheȱexistenceȱofȱ
aȱlawȱcompellingȱeducationȱdoesȱnot,ȱofȱitself,ȱfulfilȱtheȱrequirementsȱ
ofȱArticleȱ28ȱofȱtheȱCRCȱor,ȱforȱthatȱmatter,ȱArticleȱ10ȱofȱCEDAW.ȱ
ȱ
Theȱassessmentȱofȱlegislationȱrelatingȱtoȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱshouldȱtakeȱ
intoȱaccountȱaspectsȱofȱimplicitȱdiscriminationȱthroughȱtheȱunequalȱ
applicationȱofȱthoseȱlawsȱacrossȱgender,ȱgeographic,ȱeconomic,ȱsocialȱ
andȱculturalȱdifferences.ȱTheȱHaitiȱstudyȱprovidesȱanotherȱexampleȱofȱ
128
Haiti, p. 21-2.
68
thisȱinȱtheȱlegalȱprovisionsȱrelatingȱtoȱbirthȱregistration. 129 ȱTheȱlawȱ

establishesȱthatȱallȱchildrenȱareȱtoȱbeȱdulyȱregisteredȱatȱbirth.ȱTheȱ
registrationȱprocess,ȱhowever,ȱrequiresȱtheȱservicesȱofȱaȱcivilȱregistryȱ
official.ȱEveryȱcantonȱisȱsupposedȱtoȱhaveȱsuchȱanȱofficial,ȱbutȱalmostȱ
halfȱofȱthem,ȱprimarilyȱinȱisolatedȱruralȱareas,ȱdoȱnot.ȱAsȱaȱresult,ȱ
childrenȱbornȱinȱthoseȱcantonsȱareȱnotȱregisteredȱasȱrequiredȱbyȱlaw,ȱ
notȱbecauseȱofȱanyȱdeliberateȱneglectȱonȱtheȱpartȱofȱparents,ȱbutȱ
becauseȱofȱtheȱcircumstancesȱthatȱaffectȱtheȱimplementationȱofȱtheȱlaw.ȱ
Thisȱisȱaȱclearȱexampleȱofȱgeographicȱandȱperhapsȱalsoȱeconomicȱ
discriminationȱ(sinceȱthoseȱwithȱeconomicȱresourcesȱwouldȱbeȱableȱtoȱ
travelȱtoȱtownsȱwithȱaȱcivilȱregistryȱofficialȱtoȱregisterȱtheirȱchildrenȇsȱ
birth).ȱ
ȱ
Thereȱisȱstillȱaȱstrongȱsenseȱinȱmanyȱpartsȱofȱtheȱworldȱ–ȱnotȱjustȱinȱ
countriesȱwithȱcustomaryȱlegalȱsystemsȱ–ȱthatȱmattersȱconcerningȱ
childrenȱandȱtheȱfamily,ȱincludingȱsuchȱissuesȱasȱearlyȱmarriage,ȱ
femaleȱgenitalȱmutilationȱandȱchildȱlabour,ȱshouldȱnotȱbeȱdealtȱwith,ȱ
muchȱlessȱcontrolled,ȱbyȱtheȱauthoritiesȱofȱtheȱState.ȱTheȱvirtualȱwallȱ
thatȱhasȱdividedȱtheȱhousehold,ȱtheȱdomainȱofȱtheȱfamilyȱandȱ
traditionalȱpractices,ȱfromȱtheȱwiderȱsocietyȱgovernedȱbyȱlawsȱandȱ
conceptsȱofȱrightsȱremainsȱaȱsourceȱofȱcontroversyȱinȱmany,ȱifȱnotȱ
most,ȱcountriesȱregardlessȱofȱtheirȱtypeȱofȱlegalȱsystem.ȱItȱisȱthisȱwallȱ
thatȱisȱbeingȱdismantledȱbyȱtheȱapplicationȱofȱuniversalȱhumanȱrightsȱ
principlesȱtoȱchildrenȱ(and,ȱtoȱtheȱextentȱthatȱtheyȱareȱalsoȱconfinedȱ
withinȱtheȱhousehold,ȱtoȱwomen).ȱ
ȱ
Thisȱcanȱmakeȱtheȱreviewȱprocessȱmoreȱcomplicatedȱandȱitȱmayȱ
requireȱmoreȱtimeȱandȱpublicȱeducationȱtoȱcompleteȱsatisfactorily.ȱ
Throughout,ȱtheȱreviewȱprocessȱshouldȱmaintainȱtheȱprincipleȱthatȱallȱ
humanȱrightsȱareȱuniversalȱandȱindivisibleȱƺȱtheyȱapplyȱtoȱeveryoneȱ
equallyȱandȱrecognitionȱofȱoneȱrightȱentailsȱrecognitionȱofȱall.ȱThisȱisȱ
theȱcaseȱbecauseȱrightsȱareȱinherentȱinȱeachȱhumanȱbeing.ȱJustȱasȱeachȱ
rightȱappliesȱtoȱallȱpeopleȱequally,ȱinȱaccordanceȱwithȱtheȱprincipleȱofȱ
nonȬdiscrimination,ȱsoȱtooȱdoȱallȱrightsȱapplyȱequallyȱtoȱeachȱ
individual.ȱForȱthisȱreason,ȱtheȱopportunityȱforȱpublicȱeducationȱaboutȱ
childrenȇsȱrightsȱprovidedȱbyȱaȱdebateȱaboutȱtheȱapplicationȱofȱrightsȱ
inȱdifferentȱsocietiesȱmayȱbeȱoneȱofȱtheȱmoreȱsignificantȱbenefitsȱofȱtheȱ
reviewȱprocessȱitself.ȱ
129
Haiti, p. 8-9.
69
ȱ
2.2.10ȱ UsingȱCRCȱandȱCEDAWȱ
ȱ
Whateverȱtheȱreasonȱforȱundertakingȱaȱreviewȱofȱlegislationȱwithȱ
regardȱtoȱchildrenȇsȱrights,ȱtheȱConventionȱonȱtheȱRightsȱofȱtheȱChildȱ
(CRC)ȱandȱtheȱConventionȱonȱtheȱEliminationȱofȱallȱFormsȱofȱ
DiscriminationȱAgainstȱWomenȱ(CEDAW)ȱwillȱnaturallyȱbeȱaȱfocusȱforȱ
theȱexaminationȱofȱexistingȱlegislationȱandȱpractice.ȱThereȱareȱtwoȱ
complementaryȱwaysȱofȱusingȱCRC/CEDAWȱinȱthisȱprocess.ȱȱ
ȱ
Onȱtheȱoneȱhand,ȱtheȱConventionsȱcanȱbeȱusedȱasȱaȱȈchecklist,Ȉȱtakingȱ
eachȱarticleȱindividuallyȱandȱlookingȱtoȱseeȱifȱthereȱisȱexistingȱ
legislationȱthatȱrelatesȱtoȱtheȱrightsȱspecificallyȱmentionedȱinȱthatȱ
articleȱand,ȱifȱtheȱlegislationȱdoesȱexist,ȱdeterminingȱwhetherȱitȱsatisfiesȱ
theȱobligationsȱunderȱthatȱarticle,ȱbothȱinȱitsȱformalȱexpressionȱandȱtheȱ
wayȱinȱwhichȱitȱisȱenforcedȱandȱimplemented.ȱȱ
ȱ
Onȱtheȱotherȱhand,ȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAWȱcanȱbeȱusedȱasȱaȱstandardȱ
againstȱwhichȱallȱexistingȱlegislation,ȱprogrammes,ȱpoliciesȱandȱ
institutionsȱareȱmeasured.ȱThisȱapproachȱinvolvesȱstartingȱwithȱtheȱ
legislationȱandȱpracticeȱandȱassessingȱtheirȱappropriatenessȱagainstȱtheȱ
twoȱConventionsȱasȱaȱwhole.ȱ
ȱ
Withȱtheȱfirstȱapproach,ȱthereȱwillȱbeȱaȱclearȱlinkȱbetweenȱtheȱ
CRC/CEDAWȱandȱspecificȱmeasuresȱinȱplaceȱsoȱthatȱaȱStateȱwillȱbeȱ
ableȱtoȱdemonstrate,ȱifȱrequired,ȱtheȱextentȱtoȱwhichȱobligationsȱunderȱ
theȱConventionsȱhaveȱbeenȱmet.ȱHowever,ȱthisȱapproachȱdoesȱnotȱ
easilyȱtakeȱintoȱaccountȱanyȱlegislation,ȱpoliciesȱorȱprogrammesȱthatȱ
mayȱnotȱdirectlyȱrelateȱtoȱtheȱprovisionsȱofȱtheȱConventionsȱbutȱwhich,ȱ
nevertheless,ȱhaveȱanȱeffectȱonȱtheȱfulfilmentȱofȱcertainȱrights.ȱThatȱ
needȱisȱsatisfiedȱbyȱusingȱtheȱȈstandardȱofȱcomparisonȈȱapproach.ȱ
ȱ
Aȱnumberȱofȱusefulȱresourcesȱareȱavailableȱtoȱhelpȱwithȱtheȱanalysisȱofȱ
theȱlegislationȱonȱtheȱbasisȱofȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAW.ȱForȱeachȱ
Convention,ȱtheȱObservationsȱofȱtheirȱrespectiveȱCommitteesȱonȱtheȱ
reportsȱofȱtheȱStateȱPartyȱcanȱprovideȱguidanceȱasȱtoȱtheȱintentionȱandȱ
meaningȱofȱvariousȱarticles.ȱForȱtheȱCRC,ȱtheȱImplementationȱHandbookȱ
forȱtheȱConventionȱonȱtheȱRightsȱofȱtheȱChildȱisȱanȱextremelyȱvaluableȱ
reference.ȱItȱexplainsȱeachȱofȱtheȱarticlesȱinȱclearȱandȱreadilyȱaccessibleȱ
language,ȱwithȱcopiousȱreferencesȱtoȱtheȱObservationsȱofȱtheȱ
70
CommitteeȱonȱtheȱRightsȱofȱtheȱChildȱtoȱdemonstrateȱhowȱtheȱ
provisionsȱofȱtheȱCRCȱcanȱbeȱrealisedȱinȱpracticalȱterms,ȱincludingȱ
throughȱlegislativeȱaction.ȱTheȱGeneralȱCommentȱNumberȱ5ȱofȱtheȱ
CommitteeȱonȱtheȱRightsȱofȱtheȱChildȱisȱalsoȱaȱusefulȱreference,ȱ
addressingȱinȱsomeȱdetailȱtheȱGeneralȱMeasuresȱofȱImplementationȱofȱ
theȱConvention.ȱ
ȱ
TheȱeasiestȱwayȱtoȱuseȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAWȱasȱaȱchecklistȱforȱtheȱ
analysisȱofȱlegislationȱrelatingȱtoȱchildrenȱisȱtoȱbreakȱtheȱConventionsȱ
downȱnotȱjustȱbyȱarticleȱbutȱalsoȱbyȱtheȱindividualȱprovisionsȱwithinȱ
eachȱarticle.ȱForȱexample,ȱArticleȱ18ȱofȱtheȱCRCȱ(whichȱdescribesȱtheȱ
responsibilitiesȱofȱparentsȱforȱbringingȱupȱtheirȱchildrenȱandȱtheȱ
responsibilityȱofȱtheȱStateȱtoȱsupportȱtheȱparentsȱbyȱprovidingȱ
institutions,ȱfacilitiesȱandȱservicesȱforȱtheȱcareȱofȱchildren)ȱcouldȱbeȱ
addressedȱbyȱlookingȱforȱlegislationȱthat:ȱ
ȱ
x Providesȱmeasuresȱtoȱensureȱthatȱbothȱparentsȱareȱinvolvedȱinȱ
bringingȱupȱandȱcaringȱforȱtheirȱchild(ren);ȱthisȱcouldȱincludeȱ
legislationȱonȱrecognitionȱofȱpaternity,ȱchildȱcustodyȱandȱ
supportȱinȱcasesȱofȱseparationȱorȱdivorce,ȱandȱparentalȱleaveȱatȱ
theȱbirthȱorȱadoptionȱofȱaȱchild;ȱ
x Providesȱstandardsȱagainstȱwhichȱtoȱdetermineȱwhetherȱ
parentsȱhaveȱtheȱbestȱinterestsȱofȱtheirȱchild(ren)ȱasȱtheirȱbasicȱ
concernȱinȱtheȱtreatmentȱtheyȱaccordȱtoȱtheirȱchildren;ȱthisȱ
couldȱincludeȱlegislationȱdealingȱwithȱparentalȱfailureȱtoȱ
provideȱtheȱnecessitiesȱofȱlife,ȱwithȱexploitationȱofȱtheȱchildȱinȱ
familyȱbusinessesȱ(includingȱfarming)ȱatȱtheȱexpenseȱofȱotherȱ
activitiesȱsuchȱasȱeducation,ȱandȱwithȱchildȱabuseȱinȱvariousȱ
forms;ȱ
x ProvidesȱforȱgovernmentȬsupportedȱprogrammesȱofȱassistanceȱ
toȱparentsȱandȱlegalȱguardians;ȱthisȱcanȱincludeȱsuchȱmattersȱasȱ
accessȱtoȱsubsidizedȱfoodȱandȱhousing,ȱfinancialȱsupportȱforȱ
families,ȱfreeȱaccessȱtoȱbasicȱservicesȱsuchȱasȱhealthȱcareȱandȱ
education,ȱandȱanyȱspecialȱprogrammesȱtoȱhelpȱparentsȱofȱ
disabledȱchildrenȱobtainȱtheȱservicesȱtheyȱneedȱforȱtheirȱ
children;ȱ
x Providesȱforȱtheȱestablishmentȱandȱadequateȱfundingȱofȱ
institutions,ȱfacilitiesȱandȱservicesȱforȱtheȱcareȱofȱchildren;ȱtheseȱ
includeȱregulatedȱchildȱcare,ȱearlyȱchildhoodȱdevelopment,ȱ
programmesȱforȱdisabledȱandȱdisadvantagedȱchildren,ȱandȱ
71
rulesȱgoverningȱtheȱoperationȱofȱboardingȱschools,ȱrecreationȱ
programmesȱandȱȈsummerȱcampsȈȱthatȱhaveȱtheȱcareȱofȱ
childrenȱforȱextendedȱperiodsȱofȱtimeȱawayȱfromȱtheirȱparents.ȱ
ȱ
Itȱisȱtemptingȱtoȱstopȱtheȱcheckingȱprocessȱafterȱoneȱkeyȱpieceȱofȱ
legislationȱhasȱbeenȱidentifiedȱandȱsoȱneglectȱothersȱthatȱmightȱhaveȱ
importantȱrelationshipsȱtoȱtheȱConventionȱprovisionȱbeingȱaddressed.ȱ
Itȱisȱalsoȱtemptingȱtoȱstopȱwithȱtheȱstatementȱofȱtheȱlegislationȱandȱnotȱ
takeȱintoȱaccountȱitsȱeffectivenessȱinȱpractice.ȱInȱthisȱway,ȱtheȱ
relationshipȱbetweenȱcertainȱrightsȱandȱaȱrangeȱofȱlegislationȱandȱ
relatedȱmeasuresȱcanȱbeȱlost.ȱInȱparticular,ȱsuchȱaȱcurtailedȱreviewȱmayȱ
notȱcatchȱcontradictionsȱwithinȱtheȱtotalȱbodyȱofȱlegislation,ȱorȱbetweenȱ
legislationȱandȱpoliciesȱorȱcustomaryȱpractices,ȱwhichȱwouldȱhaveȱtheȱ
effectȱofȱundercuttingȱtheȱprovisionsȱofȱtheȱCRC/CEDAW.ȱForȱ
example,ȱanalysisȱusingȱtheȱCRC/CEDAWȱasȱaȱȈchecklistȈȱmayȱfind,ȱinȱ
relationȱtoȱArticleȱ16ȱofȱCEDAW,ȱthatȱwrittenȱlegislationȱsetsȱaȱ
minimumȱageȱforȱmarriageȱatȱ16ȱyearsȱforȱbothȱgirlsȱandȱboys.ȱButȱifȱ
theȱanalysisȱstopsȱthere,ȱitȱcouldȱfailȱtoȱtakeȱaccountȱofȱtheȱfactȱthat,ȱ
underȱcustomaryȱlaw,ȱgirlsȱasȱyoungȱasȱ12ȱyearsȱofȱageȱareȱroutinelyȱ
marriedȱtoȱmenȱthreeȱorȱfourȱtimesȱtheirȱageȱinȱcertainȱregions,ȱaȱ
situationȱwhichȱcertainlyȱviolatesȱtheȱrightsȱofȱthoseȱchildren.ȱ
ȱ
Allȱtheȱlegislationȱthatȱappliesȱtoȱaȱspecificȱprovisionȱofȱtheȱ
CRC/CEDAWȱshouldȱbeȱtakenȱintoȱconsideration.ȱInȱcountriesȱwithȱ
commonȱlawȱandȱIslamicȱlegalȱsystems,ȱjudicialȱdecisionsȱandȱotherȱ
relevantȱauthoritiesȱshouldȱalsoȱbeȱincluded.ȱCustomaryȱpracticesȱmayȱ
beȱgivenȱequalȱweightȱtoȱwrittenȱlegislationȱifȱthoseȱpracticesȱareȱ
consideredȱtoȱbeȱequivalentȱtoȱstatutoryȱlawȱinȱdeterminingȱpeopleȇsȱ
actions.ȱIfȱtheȱlegislationȱdealingȱwithȱchildrenȱisȱconsolidatedȱintoȱaȱ
comprehensiveȱlaw,ȱsuchȱasȱaȱChildrenȇsȱCode,ȱtheȱanalysisȱshouldȱ
drawȱoutȱthoseȱsectionsȱofȱtheȱCodeȱthatȱrelateȱtoȱtheȱspecificȱ
Conventionȱprovisions,ȱandȱtreatȱthoseȱsections,ȱforȱpurposesȱofȱtheȱ
analysis,ȱasȱifȱtheyȱwereȱtoȱsomeȱextentȱindependent.ȱTheyȱmayȱthenȱbeȱ
assessed,ȱnotȱinȱrelationȱtoȱtheȱrestȱofȱtheȱChildrenȇsȱCode,ȱbutȱbyȱtheȱ
wayȱinȱwhichȱtheyȱrelateȱtoȱandȱaffectȱtheȱimplementationȱofȱotherȱ
legislativeȱmeasures,ȱjurisprudenceȱandȱcustomaryȱlawsȱthatȱareȱ
connectedȱtoȱtheȱsameȱConventionȱprovision.ȱ
ȱ
Whereȱthereȱisȱaȱconflictȱbetweenȱpiecesȱofȱlegislation,ȱorȱbetweenȱlawsȱ
andȱjurisprudence,ȱIslamicȱlawȱprinciplesȱorȱcustomaryȱpractice,ȱtheȱ
72
reviewȱshouldȱdetermineȱwhichȱone(s)ȱtakesȱprecedence.ȱTheȱ
constitutionsȱofȱcountriesȱwithȱpluralȱlegalȱsystemsȱgenerallyȱcontainȱ
provisionsȱwhichȱclarifyȱtheȱrelationshipȱbetweenȱtheȱdifferentȱlegalȱ
systems.ȱInȱZambia,ȱforȱexample,ȱitȱisȱmadeȱclearȱthatȱtheȱcommonȱlawȱ
andȱtheȱformalȱsystemȱofȱlawȱcourtsȱandȱjudgesȱwillȱoverruleȱanyȱ
decisionȱmadeȱunderȱtheȱcustomaryȱlaw. 130 ȱConstitutionalȱstricturesȱ
andȱactualȱpracticeȱmayȱdiffer,ȱhowever,ȱandȱtheȱcommonȱlawȱsystemȱ
mayȱnotȱbeȱableȱtoȱoverruleȱdecisionsȱofȱtheȱcustomaryȱlawȱifȱpeopleȱ
affectedȱbyȱthoseȱdecisionsȱareȱdeterredȱbyȱsocialȱpressureȱorȱlackȱofȱ
resourcesȱfromȱtakingȱtheirȱcasesȱtoȱcourt.ȱCircumstancesȱthatȱpreventȱ
childrenȱfromȱclaimingȱtheirȱrightsȱinȱcountriesȱwithȱpluralȱlegalȱ
systemsȱshouldȱbeȱtakenȱintoȱfullȱaccountȱbyȱtheȱreview.ȱ
ȱ
Theȱanalysisȱshouldȱidentifyȱanyȱdivergencesȱbetweenȱtheȱ
Conventionsȇȱprovisionsȱandȱtheȱlegislationȱandȱpracticesȱwithinȱtheȱ
country.ȱForȱexample,ȱtheȱreviewȱofȱlegislationȱmightȱconsiderȱArticleȱ
28(a)ȱofȱtheȱCRC,ȱwhichȱrequiresȱthatȱeducationȱbeȱȈcompulsoryȱandȱ
availableȱfreeȱtoȱall,”ȱbyȱnotingȱtheȱexistenceȱofȱlegislationȱrequiringȱ
thatȱeveryȱchildȱgoȱtoȱschoolȱuntilȱtheȱageȱofȱ12,ȱandȱthatȱthereȱshouldȱ
beȱnoȱchargeȱforȱtoȱattend.ȱTheȱStateȱmightȱclaimȱthatȱArticleȱ28(a)ȱhadȱ
beenȱsatisfied.ȱButȱifȱtheȱfreeȱschoolsȱareȱovercrowdedȱandȱstaffedȱwithȱ
unqualifiedȱteachers,ȱtheyȱmayȱmeetȱtheȱletterȱofȱtheȱCRCȱwhileȱfailingȱ
toȱprovideȱtheȱsortȱofȱeducationȱchildrenȱneed.ȱTheȱeducationȱofferedȱ
mayȱnotȱbeȱsufficientȱtoȱfulfilȱtheȱrightsȱofȱtheȱchildrenȱandȱtheirȱ
community.ȱThus,ȱtheȱprovisionsȱofȱtheȱCRCȱshouldȱbeȱseenȱasȱmerelyȱ
theȱstartingȱpointȱforȱaȱcountryȇsȱeffortsȱtoȱdeliverȱtheȱbestȱeducationȱ
possibleȱforȱitsȱchildren.ȱ
ȱ
Theȱanalysisȱmayȱidentifyȱlegislationȱthatȱseemsȱtoȱdemonstrateȱ
complianceȱwithȱtheȱCRC/CEDAW,ȱbutȱomitsȱcertainȱgroupsȱorȱ
categoriesȱofȱchildren.ȱForȱexample,ȱaȱlawȱonȱchildȱlabourȱmayȱbeȱ
examinedȱinȱrelationȱtoȱArticleȱ32.1(a)ȱofȱtheȱCRC,ȱwhichȱrequiresȱ
StatesȱPartiesȱtoȱȈ[p]rovideȱforȱaȱminimumȱageȱorȱagesȱforȱadmissionȱtoȱ
employment.ȈȱTheȱlegislationȱmightȱbeȱfoundȱtoȱallowȱpaidȱ
employmentȱinȱagricultureȱonlyȱforȱchildrenȱoverȱ14ȱyearsȱofȱage.ȱThisȱ
wouldȱcertainlyȱcomplyȱwithȱtheȱwordsȱofȱtheȱCRC,ȱwithoutȱtakingȱ
intoȱaccountȱtheȱsituationȱofȱchildrenȱworkingȱwithoutȱpayȱonȱtheirȱ
130
Information acquired by author while preparing training manuals on CRC for use in
Zambia, 1996.
73
familiesȇȱfarmsȱorȱchildrenȱolderȱthanȱ14ȱworkingȱonȱfarmsȱtoȱtheȱ
detrimentȱofȱtheirȱeducation.ȱThus,ȱtheȱlawȱwouldȱnotȱnecessarilyȱbeȱ
theȱbestȱpossibleȱexpressionȱofȱsupportȱforȱchildrenȇsȱrights.ȱAȱmeasureȱ
whichȱwentȱbeyondȱtheȱlimitedȱtermsȱofȱtheȱCRC,ȱforȱexampleȱbyȱ
providingȱprotectionȱforȱchildrenȱworkingȱwithoutȱpayȱandȱchildrenȱ
caughtȱbetweenȱtheȱneedȱtoȱworkȱandȱtheȱneedȱtoȱattendȱschool,ȱwouldȱ
beȱmoreȱdesirable.ȱ
ȱ
Itȱisȱofȱinterestȱtoȱknowȱwhetherȱtheȱlawsȱand/orȱpracticeȱfallȱbelowȱtheȱ
standardȱsetȱbyȱtheȱConventionsȱorȱifȱtheyȱexceedȱtheȱstandard.ȱForȱ
purposesȱofȱlegislationȱreview,ȱtheȱstandardȱofȱcomparisonȱwillȱbeȱtheȱ
mostȱstringentȱinstrumentȱratifiedȱbyȱtheȱStateȱParty.ȱForȱexample,ȱaȱ
StateȱPartyȱwhichȱhasȱratifiedȱtheȱOptionalȱProtocolȱtoȱtheȱConventionȱ
onȱtheȱRightsȱofȱtheȱChildȱonȱInvolvementȱofȱChildrenȱinȱArmedȱ
Conflictȱshouldȱreviewȱitsȱlegislationȱonȱtheȱbasisȱofȱtheȱstandardȱofȱtheȱ
OptionalȱProtocol,ȱnotȱArticleȱ38ȱofȱtheȱCRC,ȱwhichȱsetsȱaȱlowerȱ
minimumȱageȱforȱmilitaryȱserviceȱandȱisȱlessȱstringentȱinȱtheȱ
restrictionsȱimposedȱonȱmilitaryȱactivityȱforȱthoseȱunderȱtheȱageȱofȱ18.ȱ
Theȱstandardsȱsetȱinȱinternationalȱagreementsȱshouldȱbeȱconsideredȱasȱ
theȱminimumȱgoalȱforȱrecognising,ȱprotectingȱandȱpromotingȱtheȱ
rightsȱofȱchildren.ȱAnyȱStateȱPartyȱwhichȱcanȱexceedȱthoseȱstandardsȱinȱ
theȱwayȱitȱtreatsȱitsȱchildrenȱshouldȱbeȱcommended.ȱ
ȱ
ThisȱraisesȱtheȱconcernȱthatȱrelianceȱonȱtheȱCRC/CEDAWȱexclusivelyȱ
asȱaȱchecklistȱforȱassessingȱlegislationȱcanȱresultȱinȱturningȱtheȱ
minimumȱstandardsȱsetȱoutȱinȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAWȱintoȱmaximumȱ
standardsȱforȱtheȱpurposesȱofȱnationalȱlegislation.ȱIfȱtheȱreviewȱ
assumesȱthatȱtheȱStateȇsȱobligationsȱunderȱtheȱCRC/CEDAWȱwillȱbeȱ
fullyȱsatisfiedȱbyȱcomplyingȱwithȱtheȱspecificȱprovisionsȱofȱeachȱ
Conventionȱarticle,ȱratherȱthanȱusingȱtheȱprinciplesȱofȱchildrenȇsȱandȱ
womenȇsȱrightsȱasȱguidanceȱforȱallȱgovernmentȱaction,ȱfulfillingȱtheȱ
letterȱofȱtheȱConventionsȱcanȱactuallyȱstifleȱtheirȱspirit.ȱTheȱ
Conventionsȱareȱstatementsȱofȱtheȱglobalȱconsensusȱonȱtheȱrightsȱofȱ
childrenȱandȱwomenȱatȱtheȱtimeȱtheyȱwereȱadopted.ȱBothȱtheȱCRCȱandȱ
CEDAWȱmakeȱitȱclearȱthatȱStatesȱareȱinvitedȱtoȱexceedȱtheȱstandardsȱ
setȱoutȱinȱeachȱConvention,ȱandȱtoȱadoptȱlegislationȱandȱpoliciesȱwhichȱ
provideȱmoreȱprotectionȱforȱtheȱrightsȱofȱchildrenȱandȱwomenȱandȱ
offerȱmoreȱopportunityȱforȱtheȱfullestȱpossibleȱexpressionȱofȱthoseȱ
rights.ȱȱ
ȱ
74
Theȱsituationȱmayȱariseȱinȱwhichȱnoȱlegislationȱisȱfoundȱthatȱrelatesȱ
directlyȱtoȱaȱspecificȱprovisionȱofȱtheȱCRC/CEDAW.ȱForȱexample,ȱtheȱ
constitutionȱofȱBosniaȱandȱHerzegovinaȱhasȱnoȱspecificȱprovisionȱ
dealingȱwithȱsocialȱprotectionȱ(theȱthemeȱofȱArticlesȱ26ȱandȱ27ȱofȱtheȱ
CRC),ȱalthoughȱsomeȱmeasuresȱexistȱatȱtheȱlevelȱofȱtheȱtwoȱentitiesȱthatȱ
composeȱtheȱcountryȱ(theȱFederationȱofȱBosniaȱandȱHerzegovinaȱandȱ
RepublikaȱSrpska). 131 ȱInȱsuchȱaȱcase,ȱtheȱlackȱofȱnationalȱlegislationȱ
wouldȱbeȱnotedȱbyȱtheȱreview,ȱandȱtheȱmeasuresȱinȱplaceȱwithȱtheȱ
lowerȱlevelsȱofȱgovernmentȱwouldȱbeȱtakenȱintoȱconsideration.ȱȱ
ȱ
Similarly,ȱanȱanalysisȱofȱtheȱCodeȱCivilȱofȱGabonȱidentifiedȱlinksȱ
betweenȱtheȱprovisionsȱofȱtheȱCodeȱandȱaȱrangeȱofȱrightsȱdrawnȱfromȱ
provisionsȱinȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAW.ȱTheȱassessmentȱgivenȱinȱtheȱ
reportȱonȱthisȱanalysisȱwasȱthatȱthereȱwereȱnoȱsignificantȱdivergencesȱ
betweenȱtheȱCodeȱCivilȱandȱtheȱConventions.ȱHowever,ȱthereȱisȱnoȱ
mentionȱinȱtheȱanalysisȱofȱlimitsȱtoȱmilitaryȱserviceȱbyȱchildrenȱorȱofȱ
servicesȱforȱchildrenȱwithȱdisabilities,ȱsoȱtheseȱwouldȱseemȱnotȱtoȱbeȱ
coveredȱbyȱwhatȱisȱpresentedȱasȱcomprehensiveȱlegislationȱforȱ
children. 132 ȱSuchȱomissionsȱbecomeȱobviousȱwhenȱtheȱchecklistȱ
methodȱisȱapplied.ȱȱ
ȱ
TheȱlegalȱanalysisȱinȱGabonȱalsoȱfoundȱthat,ȱunderȱcustomaryȱlaw,ȱ
childrenȱdidȱnotȱhaveȱfreedomȱofȱexpressionȱorȱfreedomȱofȱreligion,ȱ
whileȱunderȱtheȱcivilȱlawȱthereȱwasȱnoȱprotectionȱforȱchildrenȇsȱ
privacy. 133 ȱTheȱcategoryȱofȱparticipationȱrightsȱisȱlikelyȱtoȱbeȱtheȱoneȱ
mostȱoftenȱneglectedȱinȱnationalȱlegislation,ȱbecauseȱofȱtheȱprevalenceȱ
ofȱtraditionalȱattitudesȱtoȱchildrenȱasȱobjectsȱratherȱthanȱsubjectsȱofȱ
rights.ȱTheȱreviewȱshouldȱpayȱspecialȱattentionȱtoȱtheseȱrightsȱinȱ
assessingȱlegislation.ȱMeasuresȱthatȱaffectȱchildrenȇsȱparticipationȱ
rightsȱmayȱbeȱfoundȱinȱaȱwideȱrangeȱofȱlegislation,ȱincludingȱthatȱ
whichȱdealsȱwithȱhealthȱcareȱ(consentȱtoȱtreatment),ȱeducation,ȱfamilyȱ
status,ȱemployment,ȱpublicȱinformation,ȱlibraries,ȱtheȱInternet,ȱandȱ
massȱmedia,ȱamongȱotherȱthemes.ȱ
ȱ
Ifȱnoȱlegislationȱexistsȱthatȱfallsȱdirectlyȱunderȱaȱcertainȱprovisionȱofȱ
CRC/CEDAW,ȱtheȱanalysisȱshouldȱlookȱforȱmeasuresȱwhichȱ
131
UNICEF, Legal Aspects of Social Protection for Children in Bosnia and Herzegovina,
UNICEF Bosnia and Herzegovina, undated, p. 9.
132
Gabon, p. 83-92.
133
Gabon, p. 81-2.
75
approximateȱthatȱprovision.ȱForȱexample,ȱifȱnoȱlawsȱareȱfoundȱwhichȱ
coverȱtheȱconditionsȱunderȱwhichȱchildrenȱmayȱwork,ȱtheȱgeneralȱ
conditionsȱofȱworkȱasȱsetȱoutȱinȱaȱLabourȱCodeȱmayȱbeȱconsideredȱinȱ
theȱreview.ȱ
ȱ
Inevitably,ȱsomeȱlegislationȱwillȱcomeȱupȱagainȱandȱagainȱinȱrelationȱtoȱ
differentȱprovisionsȱofȱtheȱConventions,ȱespeciallyȱifȱthereȱisȱaȱ
ChildrenȇsȱCodeȱwhichȱconsolidatesȱaȱnumberȱofȱdifferentȱmeasuresȱ
forȱchildren.ȱThereȱmayȱalsoȱbeȱsomeȱlegislationȱwhichȱhasȱaȱbearingȱ
onȱtheȱlivesȱofȱchildrenȱbutȱwhichȱisȱnotȱidentifiedȱinȱtheȱcourseȱofȱtheȱ
checklistȱanalysis.ȱLegislationȱgoverningȱfoodȱquality,ȱforȱinstance,ȱhasȱ
anȱimportantȱimpactȱonȱchildȱnutritionȱbut,ȱsinceȱchildrenȱareȱprobablyȱ
notȱmentionedȱspecifically,ȱthatȱlegislationȱmayȱnotȱbeȱbroughtȱtoȱ
attentionȱbasedȱmerelyȱonȱtheȱanalysisȱofȱArticleȱ24ȱ(c)ȱofȱtheȱCRCȱ
(whichȱamongȱotherȱthings,ȱrequiresȱStatesȱtoȱassureȱtheȱprovisionȱofȱ
adequateȱnutritiousȱfoodȱtoȱcombatȱdiseaseȱandȱmalnutrition).ȱ
ȱ
Toȱcaptureȱthoseȱaspectsȱofȱtheȱsituationȱofȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱthatȱmayȱ
beȱmissedȱwithȱtheȱchecklistȱapproach,ȱaȱmoreȱextensiveȱsurveyȱofȱlawsȱ
canȱbeȱundertaken,ȱtakingȱeachȱelementȱofȱtheȱentireȱbodyȱofȱ
legislationȱandȱcomparingȱitȱtoȱtheȱCRC/CEDAWȱasȱaȱwhole.ȱAsȱaȱfirstȱ
step,ȱtheȱreverseȱcomparisonȱmethodȱmayȱbeȱanȱilluminatingȱwayȱtoȱ
lookȱatȱthoseȱlawsȱwhichȱmayȱalreadyȱhaveȱbeenȱidentifiedȱthroughȱtheȱ
checklist.ȱȱ
ȱ
Consider,ȱforȱexample,ȱaȱhypotheticalȱChildrenȇsȱCodeȱwhichȱdealsȱ
extensivelyȱwithȱtheȱrequirementsȱofȱbirthȱregistration,ȱnationalityȱandȱ
namingȱofȱtheȱchildȱbasedȱonȱpaternity,ȱtheȱresponsibilitiesȱofȱparentsȱ
toȱcareȱforȱtheirȱchildren,ȱprotectionȱofȱtheȱchildȱfromȱabuseȱorȱneglect,ȱ
andȱfosterȱcareȱandȱadoptionȱarrangementsȱforȱchildrenȱwhoȱareȱ
orphaned,ȱabandonedȱorȱremovedȱfromȱtheirȱfamilyȱforȱtheirȱownȱ
protection.ȱTheȱchecklistȱmethodȱmayȱidentifyȱlinksȱbetweenȱtheȱ
hypotheticalȱChildrenȇsȱCodeȱandȱArticlesȱ5,ȱ7,ȱ8,ȱ9,ȱ10,ȱ11,ȱ18,ȱ19,ȱ20ȱ
andȱ21ȱofȱtheȱCRCȱtakenȱindividually.ȱHowever,ȱaȱcomparisonȱofȱtheȱ
CodeȱagainstȱtheȱstandardsȱofȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAWȱmightȱrevealȱthatȱ
nameȱandȱnationalityȱcannotȱbeȱconferredȱonȱtheȱchildȱbyȱitsȱmother.ȱ
Theȱchildȱwouldȱstillȱhaveȱaȱguaranteeȱofȱnameȱandȱnationality,ȱsoȱtheȱ
letterȱofȱtheȱCRCȱmightȱbeȱconsideredȱtoȱbeȱfulfilled,ȱbutȱthereȱwouldȱ
beȱaȱsignificantȱshortfallȱinȱrelationȱtoȱtheȱfullȱrightsȱofȱbothȱtheȱchildȱ
andȱtheȱmother.ȱTherefore,ȱtheȱCodeȱcouldȱbeȱdeemedȱnotȱtoȱfulfilȱ
76
Articlesȱ7ȱofȱtheȱCRCȱandȱArticlesȱ5ȱandȱ16ȱofȱCEDAWȱtakenȱtogether.ȱ
Comparingȱeachȱlegislativeȱmeasureȱ(asȱwellȱasȱpolicies,ȱprogrammesȱ
andȱgovernmentȱbudgets)ȱtoȱtheȱConventionsȱasȱaȱwhole,ȱratherȱthanȱ
toȱeachȱindividualȱarticleȱseparately,ȱhelpsȱtoȱclarifyȱtheȱrealȱextentȱtoȱ
whichȱtheȱprovisionsȱofȱtheȱConventionsȱareȱbeingȱimplemented.ȱ
ȱ
Inȱanotherȱexample,ȱthereȱmayȱbeȱaȱprovisionȱinȱtheȱChildrenȇsȱCodeȱ
dealingȱwithȱtheȱoperationȱofȱchildȱcareȱinstitutionsȱunderȱtheȱ
responsibilityȱofȱtheȱState.ȱAnalysisȱwouldȱthenȱrelateȱthatȱsectionȱofȱ
theȱCodeȱbackȱdirectlyȱtoȱtheȱCRCȱprovisionsȱinȱArticleȱ25ȱ(onȱperiodicȱ
reviewȱofȱtreatment),ȱArticleȱ20ȱ(onȱprotectionȱofȱchildrenȱremovedȱ
fromȱtheirȱparentsȱinȱtheirȱownȱbestȱinterests)ȱandȱotherȱarticlesȱ
dealingȱwithȱprovisionȱtoȱchildrenȱofȱtheȱbasicȱnecessitiesȱofȱlifeȱ
(shelter,ȱhealthȱcare,ȱfoodȱandȱeducation).ȱTheȱassessmentȱofȱallȱthoseȱ
connectionsȱwouldȱshowȱtheȱextentȱtoȱwhichȱtheȱlegislationȱwasȱ
fulfillingȱchildrenȇsȱrights.ȱ
ȱ
AfterȱtheȱlegislationȱwithȱtheȱmostȱselfȬevidentȱconnectionȱtoȱtheȱCRCȱ
andȱCEDAWȱhasȱbeenȱassessed,ȱtheȱreviewȱcanȱconsiderȱotherȱ
legislationȱ(suchȱasȱtheȱfoodȱqualityȱlegislationȱreferredȱtoȱabove)ȱ
whichȱcanȱbeȱunderstoodȱtoȱbeȱofȱimportanceȱtoȱtheȱfulfilmentȱofȱ
childrenȇsȱrights.ȱForȱexample,ȱlegislationȱrelatingȱtoȱroads,ȱrailwaysȱ
andȱairȱtravel,ȱasȱwellȱasȱlegislationȱgoverningȱtheȱissuanceȱofȱ
passportsȱandȱotherȱtravelȱdocumentsȱcanȱaffectȱaȱchildȇsȱmobilityȱ
rights.ȱLegislationȱdealingȱwithȱpublicȱadministrationȱ(asȱwithȱtheȱLawȱ
onȱLocalȱAdministrationȱinȱYemen)ȱcanȱdetermineȱtheȱkindȱandȱqualityȱ
ofȱinstitutionsȱandȱstructuresȱthatȱareȱavailableȱtoȱmeetȱobligationsȱofȱ
careȱforȱallȱchildren.ȱȱ
ȱ
IfȱstrictlyȱfollowingȱtheȱCRC/CEDAWȱasȱaȱchecklistȱcarriesȱtheȱriskȱofȱ
becomingȱtooȱnarrowlyȱfocussedȱonȱtheȱspecificȱprovisionsȱofȱthoseȱ
Conventions,ȱtheȱsecondȱapproachȱofȱusingȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAWȱasȱ
standardsȱofȱcomparisonȱforȱallȱlegislation,ȱrunsȱtheȱriskȱofȱbecomingȱaȱ
diffuseȱandȱacademicȱexercise.ȱItȱisȱpossible,ȱfollowingȱthisȱapproachȱ
exclusively,ȱtoȱbuildȱupȱaȱmassiveȱamountȱofȱinformationȱaboutȱaȱ
wholeȱbodyȱofȱlegislationȱwithoutȱhavingȱtheȱanalyticalȱtoolsȱtoȱ
determineȱwhatȱinformationȱisȱmostȱrelevantȱandȱhelpfulȱforȱtheȱ
planningȱofȱactionȱtoȱimproveȱtheȱsituationȱofȱchildrenȱandȱwomenȱinȱ
regardȱtoȱtheirȱrights.ȱȱ
ȱ
77
UsingȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAWȱasȱstandardsȱofȱcomparisonȱforȱaȱbroadȱ
reviewȱofȱlegislationȱhasȱtheȱvirtueȱofȱcomprehensiveness,ȱbutȱbenefitsȱ
fromȱpriorityȬsetting,ȱwithȱtheȱfirstȱpriorityȱbeingȱtheȱlegislationȱwhichȱ
isȱseenȱasȱhavingȱtheȱmostȱdirectȱrelationshipȱtoȱchildrenȇsȱrights.ȱThisȱ
approach,ȱbyȱstartingȱwithȱtheȱlegislationȱitself,ȱwillȱfindȱthatȱmanyȱ
lawsȱmayȱrelateȱtoȱandȱreflectȱtheȱsameȱConventionȱprovisions.ȱItȱcanȱ
alsoȱtakeȱintoȱaccountȱotherȱaspectsȱofȱimplementationȱofȱtheȱCRCȱandȱ
CEDAWȱmoreȱeasily,ȱsuchȱasȱgovernmentȱpolicies,ȱprogrammes,ȱandȱ
administrativeȱmeasuresȱthatȱmayȱfallȱoutsideȱevenȱtheȱbroadȱ
definitionȱofȱlegislation.ȱAsȱaȱresult,ȱaȱnetworkȱofȱconnectionsȱamongȱ
allȱgovernmentȱmeasuresȱandȱtheȱCRC/CEDAWȱcanȱbeȱcreated,ȱratherȱ
thanȱtheȱoneȬtoȬoneȱcorrespondenceȱthatȱisȱmostȱlikelyȱtoȱresultȱfromȱ
theȱchecklistȱapproach.ȱHowever,ȱitȱisȱpossibleȱthat,ȱifȱcertainȱrightsȱareȱ
notȱreflectedȱatȱallȱinȱlegislation,ȱthisȱapproachȱwillȱmissȱsomeȱ
importantȱobligations.ȱ
ȱ
Inȱpractice,ȱaȱblendȱofȱtheȱtwoȱapproachesȱseemsȱtheȱmostȱeffectiveȱandȱ
useful.ȱUsingȱCRC/CEDAWȱasȱaȱchecklistȱensuresȱthatȱallȱtheȱrightsȱofȱ
childrenȱareȱtakenȱintoȱaccount;ȱusingȱtheȱConventionsȱasȱaȱstandardȱ
forȱassessingȱallȱlegislation,ȱpolicyȱandȱadministrativeȱactionȱmeansȱ
thatȱtheȱimportantȱconnectionsȱamongȱthoseȱmeasuresȱandȱbetweenȱtheȱ
legislationȱandȱvariousȱrightsȱsetȱoutȱinȱtheȱConventionsȱwillȱbeȱgivenȱ
theirȱdueȱrecognition.ȱChildrenȱandȱtheirȱrightsȱcannotȱbeȱseparatedȱ
fromȱtheȱsocietyȱofȱwhichȱtheyȱareȱanȱintegralȱpart.ȱInȱaȱveryȱrealȱsense,ȱ
everythingȱthatȱaȱgovernmentȱdoes,ȱincludingȱtheȱlegislation,ȱpoliciesȱ
andȱregulationsȱitȱadopts,ȱwillȱaffectȱchildrenȱinȱsomeȱwayȱandȱsoȱ
shouldȱbeȱtestedȱagainstȱtheȱguaranteesȱinȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAW.ȱ
ȱ
2.2.11ȱ OtherȱSourcesȱofȱGuidanceȱforȱReviewȱandȱReformȱ
ȱ
Regionalȱagreementsȱonȱchildrenȇsȱrights,ȱdevelopedȱinȱtheȱcontextȱofȱ
similarȱculturalȱandȱtraditionalȱattitudesȱbutȱwithȱprinciplesȱandȱ
commitmentsȱbasedȱonȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAW,ȱmayȱprovideȱinsightsȱ
andȱmeasuresȱthatȱwillȱsupportȱtheȱlegislationȱreviewȱinȱitsȱeffortsȱtoȱ
makeȱrecommendationsȱaboutȱwaysȱtoȱchangeȱattitudesȱandȱ
behavioursȱthatȱareȱunfavourableȱtoȱchildrenȇsȱrights.ȱRegionalȱhumanȱ
rightsȱinstruments,ȱsuchȱasȱtheȱAfricanȱCharterȱonȱtheȱRightsȱandȱ
WelfareȱofȱChildren,ȱprovideȱaȱregionallyȬfocusedȱamplificationȱofȱtheȱ
CRC.ȱInȱaddition,ȱactionȱplansȱbasedȱonȱtheȱCRC,ȱsuchȱasȱtheȱBelizeȱ
CommitmentȱtoȱActionȱforȱtheȱRightsȱofȱtheȱChild,ȱmayȱofferȱideasȱ
78
whichȱcanȱbeȱincorporatedȱintoȱrecommendationsȱforȱnationalȱ
measures.ȱ
ȱ
Additionally,ȱtheȱlegislationȱreviewȱshouldȱtakeȱintoȱaccountȱtheȱfullȱ
rangeȱofȱinternationalȱinstrumentsȱwhichȱcomplementȱandȱamplifyȱ
certainȱaspectsȱofȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAW,ȱifȱtheȱStateȱisȱpartyȱtoȱthem.ȱ
TheseȱmightȱincludeȱtheȱcoreȱUnitedȱNationsȱCovenants,ȱonȱCivilȱandȱ
PoliticalȱRightsȱandȱonȱEconomic,ȱSocialȱandȱCulturalȱRights,ȱwhich,ȱ
togetherȱwithȱtheȱUniversalȱDeclarationȱofȱHumanȱRights,ȱconstituteȱ
theȱȈInternationalȱBillȱofȱRightsȈȱandȱareȱtheȱfoundationȱforȱallȱUnitedȱ
Nationsȱhumanȱrightsȱagreements.ȱInternationalȱLabourȱOrganizationȱ
(ILO)ȱConventionsȱthatȱdealȱwithȱchildȱlabourȱandȱworkingȱwomenȱ
willȱbeȱhelpfulȱinȱidentifyingȱspecificȱmeasuresȱwhichȱcanȱbeȱtakenȱtoȱ
protectȱchildrenȱfromȱexploitationȱandȱneglect.ȱTheȱHagueȱConventionȱ
onȱtheȱProtectionȱofȱChildrenȱandȱCooperationȱinȱRespectȱofȱ
IntercountryȱAdoptionȱamplifiesȱtheȱCRCȇsȱprotectionsȱforȱchildrenȱ
withoutȱparents.ȱUNESCOȱresolutionsȱandȱagreementsȱrelatingȱtoȱbothȱ
protectionȱofȱcultureȱandȱeducationȱprovideȱaddedȱdimensionsȱtoȱthatȱ
aspectȱofȱchildȱdevelopment.ȱThreeȱkeyȱUnitedȱNationsȱinstrumentsȱ
provideȱextremelyȱhelpfulȱrecommendationsȱforȱtheȱtreatmentȱofȱ
childrenȱinȱconflictȱwithȱtheȱlaw:ȱtheȱUnitedȱNationsȱMinimumȱ
StandardȱRulesȱforȱtheȱAdministrationȱofȱJuvenileȱJusticeȱ(theȱȈBeijingȱ
RulesȈ),ȱtheȱUnitedȱNationsȱGuidelinesȱforȱtheȱPreventionȱofȱJuvenileȱ
Delinquencyȱ(theȱȈRiyadhȱGuidelinesȈ)ȱandȱtheȱUnitedȱNationsȱRulesȱ
forȱtheȱProtectionȱofȱJuvenilesȱDeprivedȱofȱtheirȱLiberty.ȱȱ
ȱ
Theȱreviewȱofȱlegislationȱmayȱalsoȱbeȱguidedȱbyȱtheȱcommentsȱandȱ
recommendationsȱmadeȱbyȱtheȱCommitteeȱonȱtheȱRightsȱofȱtheȱChildȱ
inȱresponseȱtoȱtheȱperiodicȱreportsȱsubmittedȱbyȱtheȱStateȱParty,ȱasȱwellȱ
asȱbyȱtheȱGeneralȱCommentsȱissuedȱbyȱtheȱCommitteeȱtoȱprovideȱ
interpretationsȱofȱspecificȱarticlesȱinȱtheȱConventionȱorȱtoȱguideȱStatesȱ
PartiesȱinȱtheirȱimplementationȱofȱtheȱConvention’sȱprovisions.ȱTheȱ
Committeeȇsȱownȱanalysisȱofȱtheȱinformationȱpresentedȱtoȱitȱcanȱ
provideȱideasȱandȱinspirationȱforȱbothȱtheȱdirectionȱofȱtheȱreviewȱandȱ
itsȱeventualȱconclusions.ȱInȱparticular,ȱtheȱCommitteeȇsȱObservationsȱ
shouldȱserveȱtoȱdirectȱattentionȱtoȱtheȱareasȱinȱwhichȱtheȱmostȱ
immediateȱactionȱinȱfavourȱofȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱisȱneeded,ȱincludingȱ
legislation.ȱFromȱthis,ȱtheȱreviewȱcanȱdevelopȱitsȱownȱ
recommendations,ȱbasedȱonȱaȱstudyȱofȱtheȱexistingȱlegislationȱinȱ
79
theoryȱandȱinȱpractice,ȱforȱrevisionsȱandȱnewȱlegislationȱneededȱtoȱ
fulfilȱtheȱStateȇsȱobligationsȱunderȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAW.ȱ
ȱ
2.2.12ȱ GeneralȱPrinciplesȱ
ȱ
Atȱeachȱstageȱofȱtheȱanalysisȱofȱlegislation,ȱnoȱmatterȱwhatȱtheȱspecificȱ
rightȱorȱrightsȱbeingȱaddressed,ȱitȱisȱextremelyȱimportantȱtoȱbearȱinȱ
mindȱtheȱfourȱgeneralȱprinciplesȱthatȱtheȱCommitteeȱonȱtheȱRightsȱofȱ
theȱChildȱhasȱidentifiedȱasȱbeingȱcrucialȱtoȱtheȱimplementationȱofȱeveryȱ
elementȱofȱtheȱCRC:ȱȱ
ȱ
x NonȬdiscriminationȱisȱtheȱprincipleȱthatȱtheȱCRCȱappliesȱtoȱ
everyȱchild,ȱnoȱmatterȱwhatȱthatȱȈtheȱchildȇsȱorȱhisȱorȱherȱ
parentȇsȱorȱlegalȱguardianȇsȱrace,ȱcolour,ȱsex,ȱlanguage,ȱreligion,ȱ
politicalȱorȱotherȱopinion,ȱnational,ȱethnicȱorȱsocialȱorigin,ȱ
property,ȱdisability,ȱbirthȱorȱotherȱstatusȈȱ(Articleȱ2).ȱTheȱ“otherȱ
status”ȱisȱimportant;ȱitȱmeansȱthatȱtheȱlistȱofȱtheȱcharacteristicsȱ
onȱtheȱbasisȱofȱwhichȱitȱisȱnotȱpermittedȱtoȱdiscriminateȱagainstȱ
childrenȱisȱnotȱlimited.ȱItȱcanȱbeȱexpandedȱasȱcircumstancesȱ
dictate.ȱAsȱanȱexampleȱofȱthis,ȱdiscriminationȱonȱtheȱbasisȱofȱ
healthȱstatus,ȱwouldȱbeȱaȱcategoryȱofȱnonȬdiscriminationȱ
coveredȱbyȱthisȱprincipleȱinȱcountriesȱwhereȱHIV/AIDSȱisȱaȱ
significantȱissue.ȱȱ
ȱ
x TheȱBestȱInterestsȱofȱtheȱChildȱisȱtoȱbeȱȈaȱprimaryȱconsiderationȈȱ
Ȉinȱallȱactionȱconcerningȱchildren,ȱwhetherȱundertakenȱbyȱ
publicȱorȱprivateȱsocialȱwelfareȱinstitutions,ȱcourtsȱofȱlaw,ȱ
administrativeȱauthoritiesȱorȱlegislativeȱbodies,Ȉȱaccordingȱtoȱ
Articleȱ3.ȱTherefore,ȱaȱjudgementȱaboutȱtheȱextentȱtoȱwhichȱ
legislationȱgivesȱappropriateȱweightȱtoȱtheȱbestȱinterestsȱofȱtheȱ
childȱisȱanȱessentialȱpartȱofȱtheȱanalysisȱofȱeachȱlawȱexaminedȱinȱ
theȱcourseȱofȱtheȱreview.ȱTheȱphraseȱȈprimaryȱconsiderationȈȱ
meansȱthatȱtheȱbestȱinterestȱofȱtheȱchildȱwouldȱnotȱnecessarilyȱ
determineȱtheȱactionȱtoȱbeȱtaken,ȱsinceȱotherȱconsiderationsȱ
wouldȱnaturallyȱbeȱtakenȱintoȱaccount.ȱHowever,ȱdecisionsȱ
shouldȱatȱleastȱincorporateȱanȱunderstandingȱofȱtheirȱeffectȱonȱ
childrenȇsȱbestȱinterests.ȱ
ȱ
x TheȱRightȱtoȱLife,ȱSurvivalȱandȱDevelopmentȱrepresentsȱaȱ
significantȱextensionȱofȱtheȱcommonlyȱacceptedȱhumanȱrightȱ
80
notȱtoȱbeȱkilledȱarbitrarily.ȱInȱArticleȱ6ȱofȱtheȱCRC,ȱitȱisȱrecastȱasȱ
anȱactiveȱcommitmentȱonȱtheȱpartȱofȱtheȱStateȱtoȱtakeȱtheȱ
measuresȱneededȱtoȱensureȱthatȱchildrenȱwillȱbeȱableȱtoȱsurviveȱ
andȱdevelopȱtheirȱfullȱpotential.ȱLaterȱinȱtheȱCRC,ȱthereȱareȱ
severalȱreferencesȱtoȱȈphysical,ȱmental,ȱspiritual,ȱmoralȱandȱ
socialȱdevelopmentȈȱ(asȱinȱArticleȱ27),ȱsoȱthisȱfundamentalȱ
principleȱappliesȱnotȱonlyȱtoȱtheȱnecessitiesȱforȱbareȱsurvivalȱ
(food,ȱshelterȱandȱhealthȱcare)ȱbutȱtoȱeveryȱaspectȱofȱaȱchildȇsȱ
lifeȱand,ȱconsequently,ȱtoȱallȱlegislationȱaffectingȱtheȱchild.ȱ
ȱ
x TheȱRightȱtoȱbeȱHeardȱforȱallȱchildrenȱisȱtheȱfundamentalȱȈrightȱ
toȱexpress.ȱ.ȱ.ȱviewsȱfreelyȱinȱallȱmattersȱaffectingȱtheȱchildȈȱ
(Articleȱ12).ȱThisȱisȱtheȱprincipleȱwhichȱliftsȱtheȱchildȱfromȱaȱ
positionȱofȱsubservienceȱandȱpowerlessnessȱinȱsocietyȱtoȱbeingȱ
aȱfullȱparticipantȱinȱallȱaspectsȱofȱtheȱpolitical,ȱsocialȱandȱ
culturalȱlifeȱofȱhisȱorȱherȱcommunity.ȱAlthoughȱtheȱrightȱisȱ
temperedȱbyȱtheȱqualificationȱthatȱtheȱchildȇsȱviewsȱshouldȱbeȱ
Ȉgivenȱdueȱweightȱinȱaccordanceȱwithȱtheȱageȱandȱmaturityȱofȱ
theȱchild,Ȉȱitȱisȱnecessary,ȱespeciallyȱforȱthoseȱlawsȱthatȱleadȱtoȱ
decisionsȱthatȱdirectlyȱaffectȱaȱchildȇsȱlife,ȱtoȱprovideȱtheȱ
opportunityȱforȱallȱchildrenȱtoȱexpressȱtheirȱviews.ȱ
ȱ
Everyȱpieceȱofȱlegislationȱreviewedȱforȱitsȱapplicationȱtoȱtheȱrightsȱofȱ
childrenȱcanȱbeȱassessedȱinȱtermsȱofȱtheȱextentȱtoȱwhichȱitȱrespectsȱ
theseȱfourȱfundamentalȱprinciples.ȱArticleȱ3ȱofȱtheȱCRCȱmakesȱitȱclearȱ
thatȱtheȱprimaryȱimportanceȱofȱtheȱbestȱinterestsȱofȱtheȱchildȱappliesȱtoȱ
theȱworkȱofȱlegislativeȱbodies,ȱwhichȱincludesȱtheȱapprovalȱandȱ
adoptionȱofȱlegislation,ȱandȱArticleȱ12ȱrefersȱtoȱȈallȱmattersȱaffectingȱ
theȱchild,Ȉȱandȱasȱsuchȱitȱshouldȱbeȱtakenȱintoȱaccountȱinȱallȱlegislationȱ
affectingȱchildren,ȱtheȱdevelopmentȱofȱgovernmentȱpolicies,ȱtheȱactionsȱ
ofȱStateȱagenciesȱandȱjudicialȱdeliberations.ȱ
ȱ
TheȱprincipleȱofȱnonȬdiscriminationȱisȱfundamentalȱnotȱonlyȱtoȱtheȱCRCȱ
butȱtoȱeverythingȱtoȱdoȱwithȱhumanȱrights.ȱSinceȱrightsȱareȱinherentȱinȱ
allȱhumanȱbeings,ȱtheyȱmustȱbeȱappliedȱwithoutȱanyȱdiscrimination.ȱ
TheȱrecognitionȱofȱthisȱprincipleȱisȱtheȱbasisȱforȱCEDAW,ȱwhichȱhasȱasȱ
itsȱgoalȱtheȱeliminationȱofȱdiscriminationȱagainstȱwomen.ȱInȱmanyȱ
partsȱofȱtheȱworld,ȱwomenȱandȱgirlsȱcontinueȱtoȱbeȱtheȱvictimsȱofȱ
persistent,ȱsometimesȱsubtle,ȱbutȱalwaysȱpresentȱdiscriminationȱbasedȱ
solelyȱonȱtheirȱgender,ȱdenyingȱtheirȱcapacityȱasȱindividualsȱandȱtheirȱ
81
statusȱasȱhumanȱbeings.ȱAȱreviewȱofȱnationalȱlegislationȱbasedȱonȱtheȱ
CRCȱandȱCEDAWȱconsideredȱtogether,ȱasȱtwoȱdimensionsȱofȱtheȱsameȱ
objective,ȱwillȱnaturallyȱtakeȱtheȱpositionȱthatȱthereȱshouldȱbeȱnoȱ
discriminationȱagainstȱwomenȱandȱgirls.ȱItȱisȱimportant,ȱinȱthisȱ
connection,ȱthatȱtheȱreviewȱconsiderȱwomenȱnotȱonlyȱinȱtheirȱcapacityȱ
asȱmothersȱ(althoughȱthisȱisȱclearlyȱimportant)ȱbutȱalsoȱasȱroleȬmodelsȱ
forȱgirls,ȱwhoseȱrightsȱguaranteeȱthatȱtheyȱshouldȱbeȱableȱtoȱdevelopȱ
theirȱfullestȱpotentialȱasȱmembersȱofȱsocietyȱinȱwhateverȱtheyȱchoseȱtoȱ
doȱwithȱtheirȱlives.ȱ
ȱ
Theȱbestȱinterestsȱofȱtheȱchildȱisȱaȱconceptȱthatȱhasȱgenerallyȱbeenȱappliedȱ
inȱmattersȱconcerningȱchildȱcareȱandȱcustody,ȱforȱexampleȱwhenȱ
parentsȱseparateȱandȱtheȱdecisionȱmustȱbeȱmadeȱaboutȱhowȱtheȱ
childrenȱwillȱbeȱcaredȱforȱandȱwhereȱ(withȱwhom)ȱtheyȱwillȱlive.ȱItȱhasȱ
beenȱextended,ȱinȱsomeȱcountries,ȱtoȱdecisionsȱmadeȱaboutȱwhoȱwillȱbeȱ
responsibleȱforȱaȱchildȇsȱcareȱinȱsituationsȱofȱconflictȱbetweenȱmedicallyȱ
necessaryȱproceduresȱandȱreligiousȱorȱethicalȱprinciplesȱofȱtheȱchildȱ
andȱhisȱorȱherȱparents.ȱThisȱhappens,ȱforȱinstance,ȱwhenȱchildrenȱwhoȱ
areȱJehovahȇsȱWitnesses,ȱorȱtheirȱparentsȱonȱtheirȱbehalf,ȱrefuseȱlifeȬ
savingȱbloodȱtransfusionsȱonȱreligiousȱgrounds.ȱInȱsuchȱcases,ȱtheȱ
childrenȱareȱmadeȱwardsȱofȱtheȱStateȱforȱpurposesȱofȱauthorizingȱtheȱ
treatmentȱthatȱisȱobjectionable,ȱonȱtheȱbasisȱthatȱthisȱisȱinȱtheȱbestȱ
interestsȱofȱtheȱchild,ȱwhetherȱorȱnotȱtheȱchildȱagrees.ȱȱ
ȱ
Evenȱinȱtheȱrestrictedȱsphereȱofȱfamilyȱlaw,ȱtheȱconceptȱofȱtheȱbestȱ
interestsȱofȱtheȱchildȱisȱoftenȱaȱdifficultȱoneȱtoȱdealȱwith.ȱDeterminationȱ
ofȱbestȱinterestȱisȱgenerallyȱmadeȱbyȱadults,ȱonȱtheȱbasisȱofȱtheirȱownȱ
experienceȱandȱsocietalȱexpectations.ȱThus,ȱweȱcanȱsometimesȱfindȱaȱ
situationȱinȱwhichȱadultsȱmayȱargueȱinȱfavourȱofȱaȱpracticeȱsuchȱasȱ
femaleȱgenitalȱmutilation,ȱwhichȱisȱclearlyȱprohibitedȱinȱtheȱCRC,ȱonȱ
theȱbasisȱthatȱitȱisȱinȱtheȱbestȱinterestsȱofȱtheȱchildȱtoȱfollowȱtraditionalȱ
practiceȱsoȱthatȱsheȱwillȱbeȱacceptedȱasȱpartȱofȱtheȱcommunity,ȱ
whateverȱtheȱdangerȱtoȱherȱpresentȱandȱfutureȱhealth.ȱ
ȱ
TheȱCRC,ȱhowever,ȱextendsȱtheȱprincipleȱofȱbestȱinterestsȱofȱtheȱchildȱ
farȱbeyondȱtheȱrealmȱofȱfamilyȱlaw.ȱItȱisȱnowȱtoȱbeȱappliedȱȈ[to]ȱallȱ
actionsȱconcerningȱchildren.ȈȱThisȱcanȱbeȱtakenȱtoȱmeanȱallȱactionsȱ
takenȱbyȱaȱgovernment,ȱsinceȱvirtuallyȱeverythingȱaȱgovernmentȱdoesȱ
willȱconcernȱchildrenȱinȱsomeȱway.ȱThisȱprincipleȱaffectsȱnotȱjustȱ
82
legislation,ȱbutȱalsoȱgovernmentȱpolicies,ȱadministrativeȱarrangementsȱ
andȱbudgetaryȱprovisions.ȱȱ
ȱ
Theȱquestionȱofȱwhatȱconstitutesȱtheȱbestȱinterestsȱofȱtheȱchildȱcanȱbeȱaȱ
challengeȱforȱthoseȱundertakingȱaȱreviewȱofȱlegislationȱinȱtheȱlightȱofȱ
theȱCRCȱandȱCEDAW.ȱTheȱsolutionȱtoȱthisȱquandaryȱisȱsimple:ȱtheȱbestȱ
interestsȱofȱtheȱchildȱareȱdefinedȱthroughoutȱtheȱCRCȱbyȱtheȱspecificȱ
provisionsȱwhichȱidentifyȱtheȱconditionsȱunderȱwhichȱaȱchildȱwillȱbeȱ
ableȱtoȱdevelopȱasȱfullyȱasȱpossible.ȱThus,ȱitȱisȱinȱtheȱbestȱinterestsȱofȱ
theȱchildȱtoȱhaveȱaȱnameȱandȱnationality,ȱtoȱknowȱhisȱorȱherȱparents,ȱtoȱ
haveȱasȱstableȱaȱhomeȱasȱpossible,ȱtoȱbeȱcaredȱforȱinȱaȱwayȱthatȱmeetsȱ
allȱofȱhisȱorȱherȱbasicȱneeds,ȱtoȱhaveȱanȱopportunityȱtoȱparticipateȱinȱ
societyȱtoȱtheȱmaximumȱofȱhisȱorȱherȱcapacity,ȱtoȱreceiveȱaȱwellȬ
roundedȱeducation,ȱtoȱbeȱprotectedȱfromȱallȱformsȱofȱexploitation,ȱ
abuseȱorȱviolence,ȱtoȱbeȱtreatedȱfairlyȱbyȱtheȱpoliceȱandȱjusticeȱsystem,ȱ
toȱbeȱableȱtoȱplay.ȱIfȱtheȱprovisionsȱofȱtheȱCRCȱ(andȱrelatedȱprovisionsȱ
inȱCEDAW)ȱareȱallȱfulfilled,ȱthenȱtheȱbestȱinterestsȱofȱtheȱchildȱwillȱbeȱ
satisfied. 134ȱ
ȱ
Theȱrightȱtoȱlife,ȱsurvivalȱandȱdevelopmentȱconnectsȱtheȱCRCȱtoȱotherȱ
majorȱinternationalȱhumanȱrightsȱinstruments,ȱsuchȱasȱtheȱCovenantȱ
onȱCivilȱandȱPoliticalȱRightsȱ(forȱtheȱrightȱtoȱlife)ȱandȱtheȱCovenantȱonȱ
Economic,ȱSocialȱandȱCulturalȱRightsȱ(forȱsurvivalȱandȱdevelopment).ȱ
Theȱextentȱtoȱwhichȱthisȱrightȱisȱrespectedȱandȱputȱintoȱpracticeȱinȱ
regardȱtoȱtheȱCRCȱwillȱalsoȱaffectȱtheȱfulfilmentȱofȱtheȱrelatedȱ
provisionsȱinȱtheȱotherȱinstruments.ȱThisȱisȱaȱrightȱwhichȱrequiresȱnotȱ
justȱthatȱStatesȱrefrainȱfromȱnegativeȱactionsȱthatȱwouldȱcauseȱinjuryȱ
andȱdeathȱtoȱchildren.ȱItȱalsoȱrequiresȱthatȱagentsȱofȱtheȱState,ȱnotablyȱ
theȱgovernment,ȱputȱinȱplaceȱpositiveȱmeasuresȱwhichȱwillȱactivelyȱ
promoteȱtheȱfullestȱpossibleȱdevelopmentȱofȱtheirȱchildren,ȱasȱwellȱasȱ
ensureȱtheirȱcontinuedȱsurvival.ȱAsȱaȱdirectȱresultȱofȱthisȱprinciple,ȱtheȱ
publicȱserviceȱsectorsȱofȱhealthȱandȱeducationȱhaveȱanȱimportantȱroleȱ
toȱplayȱinȱfulfillingȱcommitmentsȱtoȱchildrenȇsȱrights.ȱȱ
ȱ
InȱtheȱCRC,ȱtheȱrightȱtoȱsurvivalȱandȱdevelopmentȱisȱgivenȱspecificȱ
definitionȱfromȱArticleȱ23ȱtoȱArticleȱ29.ȱTheseȱareȱtheȱarticlesȱthatȱ
outlineȱtheȱresponsibilitiesȱofȱtheȱStateȱforȱtheȱphysicalȱwellȬbeingȱandȱ
134
Christine Lundy, An Introduction to the Convention on the Rights of the Child, St.
Thomas, Full Circle Press, 1998, p. 51-4.
83
developmentȱandȱtheȱintellectualȱdevelopmentȱofȱtheȱchild.ȱInȱ
analysingȱlegislationȱfromȱtheȱperspectiveȱofȱtheȱrightȱtoȱsurvivalȱandȱ
development,ȱitȱisȱimportantȱtoȱbearȱinȱmindȱtheȱfullȱspectrumȱofȱ
Ȉphysical,ȱmental,ȱspiritual,ȱmoralȱandȱsocialȱdevelopmentȈȱwhichȱisȱ
referredȱtoȱexplicitlyȱinȱArticleȱ27.ȱ
ȱ
Referenceȱhasȱalreadyȱbeenȱmadeȱtoȱtheȱchallengesȱinherentȱinȱcreatingȱ
adequateȱmechanismsȱforȱchildrenȱtoȱȈexpressȱ[their]ȱviewsȱfreelyȱinȱallȱ
mattersȱaffectingȱtheȱchildȈȱinȱrelationȱtoȱtheȱprocessȱofȱlegislationȱ
review.ȱHowever,ȱtheȱprincipleȱofȱhearingȱtheȱviewsȱofȱtheȱchildȱshouldȱ
alsoȱbeȱtakenȱintoȱaccountȱinȱtheȱanalysisȱofȱtheȱextentȱtoȱwhichȱ
legislationȱmeetsȱtheȱstandardsȱsetȱbyȱtheȱCRC.ȱTheȱcontentȱofȱlawsȱ
andȱregulations,ȱtheȱinstitutionsȱsetȱupȱtoȱprovideȱforȱchildrenȱandȱtheȱ
actualȱpracticesȱthatȱdealȱwithȱchildrenȱinȱallȱcontextsȱneedȱtoȱbeȱ
assessedȱnotȱonlyȱinȱtermsȱofȱtheȱwayȱinȱwhichȱtheyȱserveȱorȱpromoteȱ
theȱrightȱtoȱlife,ȱsurvivalȱandȱdevelopmentȱinȱtheȱbestȱinterestsȱofȱtheȱ
child,ȱwithoutȱdiscrimination,ȱbutȱalsoȱonȱtheȱbasisȱofȱtheȱwaysȱinȱ
whichȱchildrenȱthemselvesȱareȱableȱtoȱparticipateȱinȱbothȱtheȱ
developmentȱofȱtheȱlawsȱandȱregulationsȱandȱtheirȱimplementation,ȱtoȱ
theȱextentȱthatȱthisȱisȱreasonableȱandȱappropriate.ȱSomeȱsubjectiveȱ
judgementȱwillȱlikelyȱbeȱinvolvedȱinȱassessingȱtheȱextentȱofȱ
participationȱbyȱchildren,ȱbutȱtheȱeffortȱshouldȱbeȱmadeȱnevertheless.ȱ
ȱ
2.2.13ȱ ResultsȱofȱtheȱReviewȱ
ȱ
Toȱbeȱeffective,ȱtheȱreviewȱprocessȱshouldȱnotȱbeȱmerelyȱanȱabstractȱ
exerciseȱinȱlegalȱanalysis.ȱTheȱconclusionsȱofȱtheȱreviewȱshouldȱleadȱtoȱ
specificȱactionȱonȱbehalfȱofȱchildrenȇsȱrights,ȱandȱtheseȱshouldȱbeȱ
outlinedȱclearlyȱinȱtheȱrecommendationsȱthatȱresultȱfromȱbothȱtheȱ
analysisȱandȱtheȱpublicȱconsultationȱdimensionsȱofȱtheȱreview.ȱTheȱ
recommendationsȱshouldȱbeȱasȱspecificȱasȱpossible,ȱsoȱasȱtoȱguideȱ
subsequentȱgovernmentalȱactions,ȱincludingȱtheȱdraftingȱofȱanyȱnewȱorȱ
revisedȱlegislationȱasȱwellȱasȱanyȱpolicies,ȱadministrativeȱarrangementsȱ
orȱbudgetaryȱprovisionsȱthatȱmayȱbeȱneededȱtoȱgiveȱeffectȱtoȱtheȱnewȱ
orȱexistingȱlegislation.ȱTheȱrecommendationsȱshouldȱalsoȱprovideȱaȱ
directionȱforȱcontinuedȱpublicȱdiscussionȱofȱtheȱprinciplesȱofȱchildrenȇsȱ
rightsȱandȱtheirȱdirectȱapplication.ȱForȱexample,ȱtheȱinitialȱreviewȱinȱ
84
JamaicaȱrecommendedȱtheȱcreationȱandȱadoptionȱofȱaȱChildȱCareȱandȱ
ProtectionȱAct,ȱsomethingȱthatȱeventuallyȱcameȱtoȱpass. 135ȱ
ȱ
IfȱinadequaciesȱinȱtermsȱofȱimplementationȱofȱtheȱCRC/CEDAWȱhaveȱ
beenȱidentifiedȱinȱtheȱcourseȱofȱtheȱreviewȱ(andȱthereȱisȱnoȱcountryȱinȱ
theȱworldȱinȱwhichȱsomeȱinadequaciesȱwouldȱnotȱbeȱidentifiedȱbyȱaȱ
thoroughȱreview,ȱgivenȱtheȱaspirationalȱnaturesȱofȱtheȱCRCȱandȱ
CEDAW),ȱitȱisȱnotȱenoughȱmerelyȱtoȱidentifyȱthem.ȱTheȱconclusionsȱofȱ
theȱreviewȱshouldȱtryȱtoȱdirectȱtheȱresponseȱtoȱthoseȱinadequaciesȱbyȱ
suggestingȱpossibleȱlegislativeȱandȱadministrativeȱmeasuresȱthatȱcouldȱ
beȱtaken,ȱinȱtheȱspiritȱofȱArticleȱ4ȱofȱtheȱCRC.ȱBeyondȱchangesȱinȱ
legislationȱandȱtheȱadoptionȱofȱnewȱlaws,ȱremedyingȱinadequaciesȱ
mightȱinvolve,ȱforȱexample,ȱidentifyingȱareasȱofȱtheȱcountryȇsȱbudgetȱ
whereȱgreaterȱresourcesȱcouldȱbeȱallocatedȱtoȱinstitutionsȱandȱ
programmesȱwhichȱserveȱtoȱmakeȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱaȱreality.ȱ
Recommendationsȱaboutȱeducation,ȱinformationȱandȱtrainingȱinȱ
childrenȇsȱrightsȱforȱbothȱtheȱgeneralȱpublicȱandȱtheȱstaffȱofȱ
governmentalȱandȱnonȬgovernmentalȱagenciesȱworkingȱwithȱchildrenȱ
wouldȱalsoȱbeȱappropriate.ȱ
ȱ
Theȱconclusionsȱmayȱtakeȱintoȱaccountȱanyȱlimitationsȱthatȱmayȱexistȱ
onȱaȱStateȇsȱabilityȱtoȱimplementȱtheȱmeasuresȱsuggested,ȱbutȱthisȱ
shouldȱnotȱbeȱusedȱasȱanȱexcuseȱforȱinaction.ȱTheȱrecommendationsȱ
mayȱoutlineȱaȱphasedȱprocessȱofȱimplementationȱforȱtheȱConventionsȱ
butȱitȱshouldȱbeȱclearȱatȱallȱtimesȱthatȱtheȱcompleteȱfulfilmentȱofȱ
commitmentsȱunderȱCRC/CEDAWȱisȱaȱminimallyȱacceptableȱresponseȱ
toȱtheȱsituationȱofȱchildrenȱandȱthatȱtheȱgoal,ȱwithȱclearlyȱdefinedȱtimeȱ
linesȱforȱachievement,ȱisȱtoȱmeetȱallȱobligationsȱasȱquicklyȱasȱpossible.ȱ
ȱ
Inȱmakingȱtheseȱrecommendations,ȱthoseȱconductingȱtheȱreviewȱ
shouldȱalsoȱindicateȱwhoȱwillȱbeȱresponsibleȱforȱensuringȱthatȱtheȱ
recommendationsȱareȱrealised.ȱResponsibilityȱmayȱbeȱvestedȱinȱoneȱ
institutionȱ(suchȱasȱtheȱnationalȱcoordinatingȱbodyȱforȱchildrenȇsȱrights,ȱ
aȱspecificȱgovernmentȱministryȱwithȱauthorityȱinȱtheȱareaȱofȱtheȱ
recommendationȱorȱaȱlegislativeȱcommitteeȱorȱappointee)ȱorȱitȱmayȱbeȱ
apportionedȱdependingȱonȱtheȱactionȱrecommended.ȱWithoutȱaȱclearlyȱ
identifiedȱagentȱtoȱcarryȱtheȱrecommendationsȱforward,ȱtheyȱmayȱ
135
Jamaica, p. 13.
85
languishȱunfulfilled,ȱneglectedȱforȱlackȱofȱaȱdedicatedȱadvocateȱonȱ
theirȱbehalf.ȱ
ȱ
Throughoutȱtheȱreviewȱprocess,ȱandȱinȱtheȱpreparationȱandȱpublicationȱ
ofȱtheȱconclusionsȱreached,ȱtheȱprimacyȱofȱtheȱinternationalȱstandardsȱ
forȱhumanȱrightsȱshouldȱbeȱmaintainedȱatȱallȱtimes.ȱWhereȱthereȱareȱ
divergencesȱbetweenȱtheȱinternationallyȱagreedȱstandardsȱandȱnationalȱ
orȱlocalȱpractice,ȱthereȱmayȱbeȱaȱtemptationȱtoȱargueȱspecialȱ
circumstancesȱwhichȱwouldȱobviateȱanyȱneedȱtoȱchangeȱthoseȱpracticesȱ
toȱmetȱtheȱstandardsȱset.ȱOneȱresultȱofȱtheȱreviewȱprocessȱmayȱbeȱtoȱ
enableȱaȱStateȱtoȱwithdrawȱreservationsȱwhichȱmayȱhaveȱbeenȱenteredȱ
uponȱratificationȱofȱtheȱCRCȱorȱCEDAW,ȱonceȱtheȱrelationshipȱofȱ
nationalȱlegislationȱtoȱobligationsȱunderȱtheȱConvention(s)ȱhasȱbeenȱ
clarified.ȱThisȱwouldȱhelpȱtoȱsatisfyȱtheȱunwaveringȱcontentionsȱofȱȱtheȱ
CommitteeȱonȱtheȱRightsȱofȱtheȱChildȱthatȱreservationsȱareȱ
undesirable,ȱȱurgingȱallȱcountriesȱwhichȱhaveȱenteredȱreservationsȱtoȱ
withdrawȱthem,ȱinȱtheȱbestȱinterestsȱofȱchildren. 136 ȱȱ
ȱ
Thereȱcanȱbeȱnoȱexceptionsȱtoȱtheȱuniversalityȱofȱhumanȱrightsȱ
principles,ȱespeciallyȱonesȱwhichȱhaveȱbeenȱasȱwidelyȱadoptedȱasȱthoseȱ
containedȱinȱtheȱCRC.ȱEverydayȱpracticesȱwhichȱcontradictȱtheȱ
CRC/CEDAWȱareȱjustȱasȱmuchȱsubjectȱtoȱreview,ȱcriticism,ȱandȱreform,ȱ
ifȱrequired,ȱasȱformalȱlaws.ȱTheȱreviewȱprocessȱshouldȱbeȱundertakenȱ
withȱthisȱprincipleȱinȱmind.ȱAnyȱactionȱorȱattitudeȱwhichȱcompromisesȱ
theȱrightsȱofȱchildren,ȱespeciallyȱasȱidentifiedȱinȱtheȱfourȱfundamentalȱ
principlesȱofȱnonȬdiscrimination,ȱtheȱbestȱinterestsȱofȱtheȱchildȱ(theȱ
rightȱtoȱlife,ȱsurvivalȱandȱdevelopment,ȱandȱtheȱrightȱofȱtheȱchildȱtoȱbeȱ
heard)ȱshouldȱbeȱdealtȱwithȱinȱtheȱsameȱwayȱasȱlegislation.ȱTheȱ
conclusionsȱofȱtheȱreviewȱofȱlegislationȱmayȱequallyȱassessȱthoseȱ
attitudesȱandȱproposeȱmeasuresȱtoȱchangeȱthem. 137ȱ
ȱ
Theȱroleȱofȱlegislationȱinȱinfluencingȱbehaviourȱisȱanȱimportantȱ
explanationȱforȱtheȱCRCȇsȱattentionȱtoȱlegislativeȱmeasuresȱinȱArticleȱ4ȱ
136
The Committee on the Rights of the Child, General Guidelines Regarding the Form and
Contents of Periodic Reports to Be Submitted by States Parties Under Article 44, Paragraph
1(B) of the Convention [henceforth: Guidelines], paragraph 11 under General Measures of
Implementation.
137
The whole challenge of "cultural relativism" remains one of the major restrictions on full
implementation of the CRC and CEDAW. This was clear from comments in the Haitian
study. By contrast, the Gabon study makes the point that cultural attitudes can and should be
changed.
86
andȱforȱtheȱentireȱlegislationȱreviewȱprocessȱadvocatedȱsoȱstronglyȱbyȱ
theȱCommitteeȱonȱtheȱRightsȱofȱtheȱChild. 138 ȱTheȱpurposeȱofȱlegislationȱ
reformȱisȱnotȱonlyȱtoȱachieveȱStateȱPartyȱcomplianceȱonȱpaperȱwithȱitsȱ
obligationsȱunderȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAW,ȱbutȱalsoȱtoȱgenerateȱanyȱ
neededȱtransformationȱinȱpublicȱattitudesȱandȱbehavioursȱwithȱregardȱ
toȱchildrenȱthatȱtendȱinȱanyȱwayȱtoȱundercutȱtheȱrightsȱofȱchildren.ȱInȱ
theȱcourseȱofȱtheȱreviewȱofȱlegislation,ȱtheȱidentificationȱofȱcustoms,ȱ
traditionalȱpracticesȱandȱattitudesȱwhichȱcontradictȱtheȱprovisionsȱofȱ
theȱCRCȱandȱCEDAWȱshouldȱnotȱbeȱusedȱtoȱquestionȱtheȱinternationalȱ
standardsȱbutȱtoȱguideȱrecommendationsȱforȱmeasuresȱ(legislative,ȱ
administrativeȱandȱothers)ȱwhichȱcouldȱbeȱtakenȱbyȱtheȱgovernmentȱinȱ
orderȱtoȱadvanceȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱbyȱchangingȱthoseȱpracticesȱandȱ
attitudes.ȱ
ȱ
2.3ȱ ReformȱofȱLegislationȱ
ȱ
2.3.1ȱ FromȱReviewȱtoȱReformȱ
ȱ
Onceȱtheȱlegislationȱreviewȱisȱcompletedȱandȱtheȱrecommendationsȱforȱ
improvementsȱtoȱlegislationȱdealingȱwithȱchildrenȱareȱinȱhand,ȱtheȱ
processȱbecomesȱmoreȱpreciselyȱfocusedȱonȱtheȱdetailsȱofȱreformȱofȱ
legislationȱtoȱincorporateȱtheȱprovisionsȱofȱtheȱCRC/CEDAWȱdirectlyȱ
inȱnationalȱlaw,ȱsoȱthatȱtheȱrightsȱguaranteedȱtoȱchildrenȱwillȱbeȱ
justiciableȱ–ȱsubjectȱtoȱdueȱprocessȱinȱaȱcourtȱofȱlaw.ȱ
ȱ
Theȱvarietyȱofȱlegislativeȱandȱadministrativeȱsystemsȱcurrentlyȱ
operatingȱinȱtheȱworldȱmeansȱthatȱthereȱareȱmanyȱdifferentȱmethodsȱ
byȱwhichȱcountriesȱcanȱensureȱthatȱtheȱrightsȱofȱchildrenȱasȱsetȱoutȱinȱ
theȱCRCȱandȱCEDAWȱwillȱbeȱenforceableȱbyȱlaw.ȱTheȱpreciseȱnatureȱofȱ
specificȱlegislationȱwillȱdependȱonȱtheȱsituationȱofȱanȱindividualȱ
countryȱandȱitsȱtraditions,ȱexpectationsȱandȱpoliticalȱrealities.ȱ
However,ȱthereȱareȱcertainȱcommonȱobjectivesȱwhichȱshouldȱbeȱ
achievedȱbyȱeveryȱStateȱPartyȱandȱsomeȱcommonȱapproachesȱwhichȱ
mayȱbeȱusedȱevenȱinȱcountriesȱwithȱdifferentȱlegalȱsystems.ȱTogether,ȱ
theseȱcanȱhelpȱinȱtheȱcreationȱofȱlegislationȱwhichȱbenefitsȱchildrenȱandȱ
theirȱfamiliesȱbyȱputtingȱintoȱlegalȱeffectȱtheȱrightsȱandȱobligationsȱ
definedȱinȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAW.ȱ
ȱ
138
Guidelines, paragraphs 12-4, 18 and 20.
87
Inȱidentifyingȱtheȱelementsȱofȱreformȱwhichȱareȱimportantȱforȱeveryȱ
countryȱtoȱincorporateȱintoȱtheirȱlegislativeȱprocess,ȱtheȱguidanceȱofȱ
theȱCommitteeȱonȱtheȱRightsȱofȱtheȱChildȱisȱparticularlyȱhelpful.ȱBothȱ
inȱtermsȱofȱindividualȱcountries,ȱforȱwhichȱtheȱCommitteeȱprovidesȱ
specificȱdirectionȱinȱtheȱConcludingȱObservationsȱonȱeveryȱreportȱ
receivedȱfromȱtheȱStatesȱParties,ȱandȱinȱtheȱgeneralȱguidelinesȱtheȱ
CommitteeȱhasȱprovidedȱforȱtheȱuseȱofȱallȱStatesȱParties,ȱtheȱ
Committeeȱoffersȱinsightsȱintoȱbothȱtheȱpracticalitiesȱofȱandȱtheȱ
philosophyȱbehindȱtheȱlegislationȱneededȱtoȱmakeȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱaȱ
realityȱthroughoutȱtheȱworld.ȱThisȱsectionȱofȱtheȱHandbookȱwill,ȱ
therefore,ȱdrawȱheavilyȱonȱtheȱrichȱresourceȱofȱcommentsȱandȱ
recommendationsȱfromȱtheȱCommitteeȱonȱtheȱRightsȱofȱtheȱChildȱtoȱ
informȱconsiderationȱofȱtheȱprocessȱandȱtheȱgeneralȱcontentȱofȱ
legislationȱreformȱmeasuresȱinȱfavourȱofȱchildrenȇsȱrights.ȱ
ȱ
EvenȱinȱcountriesȱwhereȱtheȱprovisionsȱofȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAWȱareȱ
selfȬexecutingȱ–ȱbecomingȱpartȱofȱdomesticȱlawȱasȱaȱconsequenceȱofȱ
ratificationȱorȱaccessionȱ–ȱthereȱareȱvariationsȱinȱtheȱwaysȱthatȱtheȱ
provisionsȱofȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAWȱareȱappliedȱinȱjudicialȱ
proceedings.ȱThereȱareȱalsoȱmanyȱinstancesȱofȱconflictȱinȱbothȱactionȱ
andȱintentionȱbetweenȱtheȱCRC/CEDAW,ȱincorporatedȱintoȱnationalȱ
law,ȱandȱotherȱlegislationȱstillȱinȱforceȱwhichȱmayȱworkȱagainstȱtheȱ
rightsȱofȱchildren.ȱThus,ȱthereȱmayȱbeȱconfusionȱaboutȱtheȱrelativeȱ
weightȱthatȱcanȱbeȱbroughtȱtoȱbearȱinȱtheȱmakingȱofȱaȱdecisionȱinȱcourtȱ
betweenȱtheȱstandardsȱofȱdomesticȱlegislationȱandȱtheȱinternationalȱ
obligations.ȱThisȱsituationȱcanȱonlyȱbeȱresolvedȱbyȱclarifyingȱtheȱ
domesticȱlegislationȱtoȱbringȱitȱintoȱharmonyȱwithȱtheȱConventions.ȱȱ
ȱ
ForȱcountriesȱinȱwhichȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAWȱareȱnotȱautomaticallyȱ
justiciable,ȱitȱisȱequallyȱimportantȱtoȱtakeȱtheȱnecessaryȱstepsȱtoȱ
enshrineȱtheȱprovisionsȱofȱthoseȱConventionsȱinȱdomesticȱlegislation.ȱ
Withoutȱthisȱcrucialȱmeasure,ȱtheȱstandardsȱsetȱbyȱtheȱCRCȱandȱ
CEDAWȱwouldȱbeȱusedȱbyȱjudgesȱconsideringȱcasesȱrelevantȱtoȱtheȱ
Conventionsȱmerelyȱasȱaȱreferenceȱforȱpurposesȱofȱinterpretingȱ
domesticȱlegislation,ȱandȱnoȱlegalȱargumentsȱcouldȱbeȱbroughtȱtoȱbearȱ
specificallyȱinȱregardȱtoȱtheȱStateȱPartyȇsȱobligationsȱunderȱtheȱ
Conventions.ȱAsȱaȱresult,ȱoneȱofȱtheȱmostȱconsistentȱthemesȱinȱtheȱ
ConcludingȱObservationsȱofȱtheȱCommitteeȱonȱtheȱRightsȱofȱtheȱChildȱ
forȱeveryȱcountryȱreportingȱonȱtheȱimplementationȱofȱtheȱCRCȱisȱaȱ
88
strongȱrecommendationȱthatȱdomesticȱlegislationȱbeȱharmonisedȱwithȱ
theȱprovisionsȱofȱtheȱCRC.ȱ
ȱ
Especiallyȱimportant,ȱforȱtheȱCommitteeȱandȱforȱtheȱpromotionȱandȱ
protectionȱofȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱinȱgeneral,ȱisȱtheȱneedȱtoȱensureȱthatȱtheȱ
fourȱgeneralȱprinciplesȱareȱincorporatedȱintoȱandȱreflectedȱbyȱallȱ
legislationȱthatȱdealsȱwithȱchildren.ȱParticularȱstressȱisȱplacedȱonȱ
freedomȱfromȱdiscrimination,ȱmakingȱtheȱbestȱinterestsȱofȱtheȱchildȱaȱ
primaryȱconsideration,ȱandȱrespectingȱtheȱviewsȱofȱtheȱchild.ȱTheȱ
ConcludingȱObservationsȱonȱtheȱInitialȱReportȱofȱtheȱUnitedȱKingdomȱ
areȱtypical:ȱȱ
ȱ
“TheȱCommitteeȱwouldȱlikeȱtoȱsuggestȱthatȱgreaterȱpriorityȱbeȱgivenȱtoȱ
incorporatingȱtheȱgeneralȱprinciplesȱofȱtheȱConvention,ȱespeciallyȱtheȱ
provisionsȱofȱitsȱarticleȱ3,ȱrelatingȱtoȱtheȱbestȱinterestsȱofȱtheȱchild,ȱandȱ
articleȱ12,ȱconcerningȱtheȱchild’sȱrightȱtoȱmakeȱtheirȱviewsȱknownȱandȱ
toȱhaveȱthoseȱviewsȱgivenȱdueȱweight,ȱinȱtheȱlegislativeȱandȱ
administrativeȱmeasuresȱandȱinȱpoliciesȱundertakenȱtoȱimplementȱtheȱ
rightsȱofȱtheȱchild.”ȱ(UnitedȱKingdomȱInitialȱReportȱConcludingȱ
Observations,ȱAdd.ȱ34,ȱpara.ȱ27.) 139ȱ
ȱ
Theseȱthreeȱfundamentalȱprinciplesȱareȱsoȱimportantȱthatȱtheyȱshouldȱ
beȱtakenȱintoȱaccountȱinȱanyȱandȱallȱlegislationȱdealingȱwithȱchildren.ȱ
ȱ
Theȱrightȱtoȱlife,ȱsurvivalȱandȱdevelopmentȱisȱtreatedȱsomewhatȱ
differentlyȱfromȱtheȱotherȱthreeȱfundamentalȱprinciplesȱwhenȱitȱcomesȱ
toȱtheȱexpectationsȱofȱtheȱCommitteeȱonȱtheȱRightsȱofȱtheȱChildȱforȱ
implementation.ȱTheȱrightȱtoȱsurvivalȱandȱdevelopmentȱisȱaȱsuccinctȱ
expressionȱofȱtheȱeconomic,ȱsocialȱandȱculturalȱrightsȱofȱchildren.ȱTheȱ
fulfilmentȱofȱtheȱsurvivalȱandȱdevelopmentȱrightsȱofȱchildrenȱrequiresȱ
Stateȱinvestmentȱinȱservicesȱsuchȱasȱeducation,ȱprimaryȱandȱadvancedȱ
healthȱcareȱandȱaȱrangeȱofȱsocialȱservices,ȱforȱwhichȱmanyȱcountriesȱ
lackȱtheȱeconomicȱorȱhumanȱresources.ȱItȱisȱnotȱexpectedȱthatȱStatesȱ
withȱlimitedȱresourcesȱwillȱbeȱableȱtoȱachieveȱtheȱfullȱimplementationȱ
ofȱtheseȱrightsȱeasilyȱorȱquickly.ȱTheȱCommitteeȱonȱtheȱRightsȱofȱtheȱ
Childȱtends,ȱtherefore,ȱtoȱtakeȱaȱlessȱstringentȱviewȱofȱlegislationȱandȱ
otherȱactionsȱStatesȱmayȱundertakeȱinȱorderȱtoȱfulfilȱtheȱrightȱtoȱ
139
89
survivalȱandȱdevelopment. 140 ȱHowever,ȱthereȱisȱalwaysȱtheȱexpectationȱ

thatȱStates,ȱwhateverȱtheirȱmeans,ȱwillȱbeȱsteadilyȱmovingȱtowardȱtheȱ
fullȱimplementationȱofȱtheseȱrights,ȱbyȱgraduallyȱintroducingȱtheȱ
measuresȱnecessaryȱtoȱprovideȱtheȱservicesȱchildrenȱareȱentitledȱto.ȱInȱ
this,ȱtheȱCRCȱalsoȱprovidesȱtheȱrequirementȱthatȱcountriesȱthatȱofferȱ
internationalȱassistanceȱshouldȱbeȱtailoringȱtheirȱprogrammesȱtoȱ
supportȱfulfilmentȱofȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱtoȱsurvivalȱandȱdevelopmentȱ
elsewhereȱinȱtheȱworld. 141 ȱ(Aspectsȱofȱthisȱwillȱbeȱdiscussedȱlaterȱinȱ
thisȱHandbook,ȱunderȱtheȱheadingȱofȱȈFollowȬupȱandȱ
Implementation.Ȉ)ȱ
ȱ
Theȱlegislationȱreviewȱprocessȱwillȱhaveȱidentifiedȱthoseȱaspectsȱofȱ
legislationȱwhichȱneedȱtoȱbeȱclarifiedȱorȱexpandedȱorȱamended,ȱasȱwellȱ
asȱlegislationȱthatȱneedsȱtoȱbeȱrepealedȱ(suchȱasȱdiscriminatoryȱ
legislation).ȱInȱaddition,ȱtheȱprocessȱshouldȱoutlineȱanyȱnewȱlegislationȱ
thatȱmayȱbeȱneededȱinȱorderȱtoȱensureȱthatȱallȱlegislationȱisȱcompatibleȱ
withȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAWȱandȱthatȱallȱofȱtheȱprovisionsȱofȱtheȱ
Conventionsȱareȱfullyȱaddressed.ȱTheȱconclusionsȱofȱtheȱreviewȱmayȱ
provideȱrecommendationsȱaboutȱspecificȱmeasuresȱtoȱbeȱrevisedȱorȱ
newȱlegislationȱtoȱbeȱadopted,ȱasȱhappenedȱinȱGhana 142 ȱandȱJamaica. 143 ȱ
Draftȱbillsȱmayȱalsoȱbeȱprovidedȱasȱaȱstartingȱpointȱforȱreformȱofȱ
legislation.ȱ
ȱ
Otherȱfactorsȱmayȱalsoȱenterȱintoȱtheȱlegislationȱreformȱprocess.ȱInȱfact,ȱ
reformsȱofȱlegislationȱmayȱbeȱproposedȱandȱundertakenȱbeforeȱaȱ
reviewȱisȱstarted.ȱTheȱdecisionȱthatȱreformȱisȱneededȱmayȱbeȱtheȱ
impulseȱforȱreview.ȱHowever,ȱtheȱimpulseȱtoȱreformȱlegislationȱisȱnotȱ
selfȬgenerating.ȱChangingȱlawsȱtoȱreflectȱchangedȱsocialȱconditionsȱandȱ
evolvingȱpublicȱattitudesȱusuallyȱhappensȱasȱaȱresultȱofȱsomeȱpressureȱ
fromȱoutsideȱtheȱlegalȱsystem.ȱThisȱcanȱbeȱtheȱresultȱofȱtheȱadoptionȱofȱ
aȱnewȱpoliticalȱdirectionȱinȱtheȱcountry,ȱorȱitȱcanȱrespondȱtoȱpressureȱ
fromȱcivilȱsocietyȱbasedȱonȱincreasedȱawarenessȱofȱbothȱtheȱexistingȱ
situationȱandȱtheȱpossibilityȱofȱcreatingȱchange,ȱinȱwhichȱtheȱmediaȱ
mayȱplayȱaȱsignificantȱrole.ȱȱ
ȱ
140
Guidelines, paragraph 20.
141
Guidelines, paragraph 21.
142
Ghana, p. 14-6.
143
Jamaica, p. 13-5.
90
InȱVenezuela,ȱtheȱfirstȱstepȱtowardȱcomprehensiveȱreformȱofȱnationalȱ
legislationȱwithȱregardȱtoȱchildrenȱtookȱtheȱformȱofȱaȱdraftȱbillȱ
introducedȱintoȱtheȱlegislatureȱbyȱaȱpoliticalȱpartyȱinȱopposition.ȱThisȱ
ledȱtoȱtheȱcreationȱofȱaȱSpecialȱCongressionalȱCommissionȱtoȱreviewȱ
theȱproposedȱlegislation.ȱWhenȱthatȱlostȱmomentum,ȱtheȱNationalȱ
InstituteȱforȱChildrenȱ(aȱgovernmentȱagency)ȱassumedȱleadershipȱofȱ
theȱprocess.ȱInȱtheȱfinalȱstages,ȱtheȱprimaryȱforceȱforȱreformȱofȱ
legislationȱbecameȱaȱcoalitionȱofȱ25ȱNGOs,ȱȈUnitedȱforȱaȱLawȱforȱ
ChildrenȱandȱAdolescents.ȈȱAlongȱtheȱway,ȱelementsȱofȱaȱreviewȱofȱ
existingȱlegislationȱwereȱemployed,ȱprimarilyȱtoȱserveȱasȱwayȱofȱ
generatingȱsupportȱforȱtheȱproposedȱnewȱlaw.ȱAtȱtheȱsameȱtime,ȱtheȱ
debateȱandȱdiscussionȱaboutȱtheȱproposedȱlegislationȱgeneratedȱaȱ
participatoryȱanalysisȱofȱexistingȱlegislationȱandȱledȱtoȱaȱseriesȱofȱ
revisionsȱofȱtheȱproposedȱlegislationȱthatȱbroughtȱitȱcloserȱtoȱtheȱfullȱ
realisationȱofȱchildrenȇsȱrights.ȱThus,ȱreviewȱandȱreformȱproceededȱ
togetherȱandȱsupportedȱeachȱother,ȱresultingȱinȱgreaterȱpublicȱ
understandingȱofȱandȱsupportȱforȱtheȱnewȱmeasure,ȱandȱstrongerȱ
governmentȱcommitmentȱtoȱenforcingȱtheȱlegislation. 144ȱ
ȱ
2.3.2ȱ DevelopingȱNewȱorȱAmendedȱLegislationȱ
ȱ
Dependingȱonȱtheȱwaysȱinȱwhichȱdifferentȱlegalȱsystemsȱframeȱtheirȱ
legislation,ȱthereȱareȱessentiallyȱtwoȱpracticalȱmethodsȱbyȱwhichȱ
reformȱofȱlegislationȱrelatingȱtoȱchildrenȱisȱundertaken.ȱForȱmanyȱ
States,ȱtheȱmostȱefficientȱwayȱtoȱachieveȱtheȱgoalȱofȱharmonisingȱ
legislationȱwithȱtheȱCRC/CEDAWȱtakesȱtheȱformȱofȱaȱcomprehensiveȱ
overhaulȱofȱallȱrelevantȱlegislationȱbyȱmeansȱofȱaȱsingleȱomnibusȱbillȱorȱ
ChildrenȇsȱCodeȱor,ȱmoreȱpractically,ȱoneȱcodeȱforȱtheȱlegalȱregimeȱ
relatingȱtoȱchildȱprotectionȱandȱfamilyȱrelationshipsȱandȱanotherȱ
dealingȱwithȱcriminalȱlawȱandȱjuvenileȱjustice.ȱThisȱmethodȱisȱoftenȱ
usedȱinȱcountriesȱwithȱcivilȱlawȱsystems,ȱwhereȱthereȱisȱaȱwellȬ
establishedȱtraditionȱofȱcodifiedȱlaw.ȱElsewhere,ȱespeciallyȱinȱsomeȱ
commonȱlawȱcountries,ȱtheȱpreferenceȱhasȱbeenȱforȱlawȱbyȱlawȱreviewȱ
andȱrevision,ȱwithȱeachȱpieceȱofȱlegislationȱamendedȱindividuallyȱorȱinȱ
smallȱrelatedȱclusters.ȱCountriesȱwithȱanȱIslamicȱlawȱsystemȱorȱpluralȱ
legalȱsystemȱmayȱtakeȱeitherȱapproach,ȱdependingȱonȱtheȱstructureȱofȱ
theirȱlegalȱandȱjusticeȱsystem.ȱ
ȱ
144
Garate, p. 14-20.
91
ȱ
ȱ
1.ȱChildrenȇsȱCodeȱ
ȱ
Approachingȱlegislationȱreformȱbyȱmeansȱofȱaȱcomprehensiveȱ
ChildrenȇsȱCodeȱhasȱtheȱadvantageȱofȱimmediatelyȱcreatingȱaȱ
substantialȱbodyȱofȱlegislationȱdealingȱwithȱvirtuallyȱallȱaspectsȱofȱ
childrenȇsȱlives.ȱThereȱisȱaȱclearȱcomplementaryȱrelationshipȱamongȱallȱ
partsȱofȱtheȱlegislationȱandȱtheȱdifferentȱcomponentsȱshouldȱbeȱ
mutuallyȱsupportive.ȱTheȱCommitteeȱonȱtheȱRightsȱofȱtheȱChildȱhasȱ
shownȱaȱstrongȱpreferenceȱforȱthisȱmeansȱofȱincorporatingȱtheȱCRCȱ
intoȱdomesticȱlegislation.ȱInȱtheȱConcludingȱObservationsȱonȱtheȱInitialȱ
CountryȱReportȱofȱtheȱLaoȱPeople’sȱDemocraticȱRepublic,ȱforȱinstance,ȱ
theȱCommitteeȇsȱattitudeȱwasȱexplicit.ȱ
ȱ
ȈTheȱ Committeeȱ alsoȱ suggestsȱ thatȱ theȱ Stateȱ Partyȱ
envisageȱtheȱadoptionȱofȱaȱspecificȱcodeȱorȱlegislationȱforȱ
children,ȱwithȱaȱseparateȱsectionȱonȱchildrenȱwhoȱneedȱaȱ
specialȱprotection.Ȉȱ(LaoȱPeople’sȱDemocraticȱRepublicȱInitialȱ
ReportȱConcludingȱObservations,ȱAdd.ȱ78,ȱpara.ȱ30.) 145ȱ
ȱ
AlthoughȱaȱcomprehensiveȱChildren’sȱCodeȱdoesȱmakeȱitȱeasierȱtoȱ
implementȱtheȱCRCȱasȱaȱwhole,ȱtheȱveryȱbreadthȱofȱcoverageȱmayȱ
presentȱchallenges.ȱInȱGuatemala,ȱforȱexample,ȱtheȱdifficultyȱofȱ
includingȱallȱaspectsȱofȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱ(notablyȱtheȱprovisionsȱ
relatingȱtoȱadoption)ȱintoȱoneȱcomprehensiveȱpieceȱofȱlegislationȱmeantȱ
thatȱtheȱGuatemalaȱChildrenȇsȱCode,ȱasȱitȱwasȱfinallyȱpassed,ȱdidȱnotȱ
includeȱsomeȱimportantȱelements;ȱAȱseparateȱlawȱonȱadoptionȱwasȱ
approvedȱlater. 146ȱ
ȱ
ThisȱsituationȱdemonstratesȱthatȱtheȱveryȱcomplexityȱofȱsuchȱanȱallȬ
encompassingȱlawȱcanȱmakeȱitȱdifficultȱtoȱadopt.ȱThereȱisȱalwaysȱtheȱ
riskȱthatȱsomeȱsegmentsȱofȱsocietyȱmayȱopposeȱcertainȱpartsȱofȱtheȱ
Codeȱandȱsoȱendȱupȱderailingȱitȱinȱitsȱentirety,ȱorȱsucceedȱinȱdilutingȱ
thusȱminimisingȱitsȱeffectiveness.ȱȱ
ȱ
145
146
Garate, p. 23-8.
92
TheȱexperienceȱinȱNicaraguaȱwasȱmoreȱpositive,ȱwithȱtheȱadoptionȱofȱaȱ
comprehensiveȱChildrenȇsȱLegalȱCodeȱinȱ1998.ȱTheȱCodeȱreplacedȱaȱ
numberȱofȱobsoleteȱlawsȱwhichȱdidȱnotȱfitȱwithȱtheȱprinciplesȱofȱtheȱ
CRC,ȱandȱitȱcreatedȱaȱnewȱlegalȱframeworkȱforȱallȱaspectsȱofȱtheȱStateȇsȱ
dealingsȱwithȱchildren.ȱTheȱCode,ȱwhichȱdealsȱwithȱfamilyȱlaw,ȱ
childrenȱinȱsocietyȱandȱtheȱtreatmentȱofȱchildrenȱbyȱtheȱjusticeȱsystem,ȱ
coversȱmostȱofȱtheȱbasicȱelementsȱofȱtheȱCRCȱandȱchildrenȇsȱrights,ȱ
including:ȱ
ȱ
x theȱregulationȱofȱfullȱprotectionȱofȱchildrenȱbyȱfamilies,ȱsociety,ȱ
theȱgovernmentȱandȱprivateȱinstitutions;ȱ
x theȱdefinitionȱofȱchildrenȱasȱthoseȱlessȱthanȱ13ȱyearsȱoldȱandȱ
adolescentsȱasȱthoseȱbetweenȱ13ȱandȱ18;ȱ
x theȱdefinitionȱofȱchildrenȱandȱadolescentsȱasȱsocialȱindividualsȱ
withȱrights;ȱ
x provisionȱforȱequalityȱofȱconditionȱandȱopportunity,ȱfreeȱfromȱ
discrimination,ȱexploitation,ȱviolenceȱorȱotherȱfactorsȱthatȱ
violateȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱandȱliberties;ȱ
x theȱdefinitionȱofȱtheȱfamilyȱasȱtheȱfundamentalȱandȱnaturalȱ
entityȱtoȱguaranteeȱtheȱgrowth,ȱdevelopmentȱandȱwellbeingȱofȱ
childrenȱandȱadolescents;ȱ
x establishmentȱofȱtheȱbestȱinterestsȱofȱchildrenȱandȱadolescentsȱ
asȱaȱnationalȱconcern,ȱwithȱfullȱentitlementȱofȱallȱtoȱfullȱ
physical,ȱpsychological,ȱmoral,ȱculturalȱandȱsocialȱ
development;ȱ
x specialȱattentionȱtoȱchildrenȱwhoȱbelongȱtoȱindigenousȱ
communitiesȱorȱminorityȱethnic,ȱreligiousȱorȱlinguisticȱgroups;ȱ
andȱ
x identificationȱofȱtheȱroleȱofȱtheȱStateȱinȱallȱofȱitsȱformsȱasȱtheȱ
guarantorȱofȱtheȱsurvivalȱandȱdevelopmentȱofȱchildren. 147ȱ
ȱ
TheȱcomprehensivenessȱofȱaȱChildrenȇsȱCodeȱrequiresȱaȱthoroughȱ
examinationȱofȱallȱpotentialȱimplicationsȱofȱeachȱprovision,ȱbothȱ
individuallyȱandȱforȱitsȱinfluenceȱonȱtheȱimplementationȱofȱotherȱpartsȱ
ofȱtheȱCode.ȱItȱisȱalsoȱimportantȱtoȱdetermineȱtheȱimpactȱofȱtheȱCodeȱ
onȱanyȱotherȱlegislationȱthatȱmayȱcontinueȱinȱforce,ȱatȱallȱlevelsȱofȱ
147
Vijil, Mireille and Noemi Danao Cabuslay, The Convention on the Rights of the Child
Impact Study: The Study of Nicaragua, Rädda Barnen/Swedish Save the Children, Managua,
(November 1998) [henceforth: Nicaragua], p. 23-4.
93
government.ȱAnyȱlegislationȱwhichȱwillȱcounteractȱtheȱprovisionsȱofȱ
theȱnewȱChildrenȇsȱCodeȱwillȱhaveȱtoȱbeȱeitherȱrepealedȱandȱreplacedȱ
byȱtheȱprovisionsȱofȱtheȱCodeȱorȱrevisedȱtoȱbringȱitȱintoȱconformityȱ
withȱtheȱnewȱlegislation.ȱInȱNicaragua,ȱforȱinstance,ȱtheȱreviewȱofȱotherȱ
existingȱlegislationȱmeantȱcloseȱconsultationȱwithȱmunicipalȱauthoritiesȱ
toȱavoidȱcontradictionsȱbetweenȱtheȱChildrenȇsȱCodeȱandȱlocalȱ
legislation.ȱTheȱmultiplicityȱofȱelementsȱinȱaȱChildrenȇsȱCodeȱcanȱmakeȱ
itȱmoreȱdifficultȱtoȱpredictȱtheȱlongȬtermȱeffectȱitȱwillȱhaveȱonȱtheȱlivesȱ
ofȱchildrenȱandȱonȱtheȱcountryȱasȱaȱwhole.ȱȱ
ȱ
Itȱshouldȱalsoȱbeȱnotedȱthat,ȱevenȱwithȱaȱcomprehensiveȱChildrenȇsȱ
Code,ȱthereȱwillȱinevitablyȱbeȱotherȱlegislationȱ(forȱexample,ȱtechnicalȱ
legislationȱonȱmicronutrientȱdeficiencies,ȱorȱbroaderȱlegislativeȱ
measuresȱdealingȱwithȱhealthȱcareȱorȱmarriageȱandȱdivorce)ȱwhich,ȱ
whileȱnotȱspecificallyȱmentioningȱchildren,ȱwillȱhaveȱaȱsignificantȱ
effectȱonȱtheȱrightsȱofȱchildren.ȱEvenȱwithȱaȱChildrenȇsȱCode,ȱtherefore,ȱ
someȱattentionȱwillȱhaveȱtoȱbeȱpaidȱtoȱotherȱspecificȱitemsȱofȱ
legislation.ȱ
ȱ
2.ȱLawȬbyȬLawȱReformȱ
ȱ
Inȱmanyȱcountries,ȱsuchȱasȱthoseȱthatȱfollowȱtheȱcommonȱlawȱtradition,ȱ
theȱoptionȱofȱadoptingȱaȱcomprehensiveȱChildrenȇsȱCodeȱwouldȱnotȱbeȱ
easilyȱworkable.ȱSuchȱcountriesȱwillȱchooseȱtheȱotherȱapproachȱtoȱ
incorporationȱofȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAWȱintoȱdomesticȱlegislation.ȱThisȱ
isȱtoȱenshrineȱeachȱprovision,ȱorȱaȱcombinationȱofȱrelatedȱprovisions,ȱinȱ
individualȱlawsȱthatȱcanȱbeȱdeveloped,ȱdebatedȱandȱadoptedȱ
separately.ȱTheȱchangesȱinȱlegislationȱmayȱbeȱproposedȱnotȱonlyȱasȱaȱ
resultȱofȱtheȱreviewȱofȱexistingȱlawsȱbutȱalsoȱtoȱaccommodateȱjudicialȱ
decisionsȱandȱperceivedȱchangesȱinȱpublicȱattitudesȱandȱbehaviour.ȱ
Separateȱmeasuresȱmayȱbeȱnecessaryȱtoȱbringȱtheȱcustomaryȱlawȱintoȱ
harmonyȱwithȱtheȱprinciplesȱofȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAW.ȱȱ
ȱ
Withȱregardȱtoȱcommonȱlawȱcountries,ȱitȱshouldȱbeȱborneȱinȱmindȱthatȱ
changesȱinȱlawȱdoȱnotȱnecessarilyȱinvolveȱchangesȱinȱlegislation.ȱ
Becauseȱtheȱcommonȱlawȱisȱcreatedȱasȱmuchȱthroughȱjudicialȱdecisionȱ
andȱprecedentȱasȱthroughȱlegislation,ȱitȱisȱimportantȱtoȱinvolveȱtheȱ
judgesȱinȱtheȱreformȱprocess,ȱthroughȱeducationȱandȱactiveȱ
engagement.ȱSimilarȱmeasuresȱmayȱbeȱnecessaryȱwithȱtraditionalȱ
leadersȱwhoȱimplementȱandȱdetermineȱcustomaryȱlaw.ȱȱWhereȱbothȱ
94
writtenȱstatutesȱandȱjudicialȱorȱtraditionalȱdecisionsȱhaveȱaȱroleȱtoȱplayȱ
inȱtheȱdevelopmentȱofȱlawȱandȱestablishingȱtheȱbasisȱforȱlegalȱpractice,ȱ
legislationȱreformȱcanȱcreateȱtheȱcontextȱinȱwhichȱtheȱcommonȱorȱ
customaryȱlawȱisȱdeveloped.ȱ
ȱ
Jamaicaȱprovidesȱoneȱexampleȱofȱthisȱapproach.ȱTheȱprocessȱofȱ
revisingȱlawsȱfollowingȱratificationȱofȱtheȱCRCȱinȱ1991ȱinvolvedȱtheȱ
adoptionȱofȱaȱseriesȱofȱmeasures,ȱincluding:ȱ
ȱ
1. TheȱInheritanceȱ(ProvisionȱforȱFamilyȱandȱDependants)ȱAct,ȱ
1993;ȱȱ
2. theȱDomesticȱViolenceȱAct,ȱ1994;ȱȱ
3. theȱFamilyȱPropertyȱAct,ȱ1995;ȱȱ
4. theȱLegalȱAidȱAct,ȱ1997;ȱȱ
5. theȱMaintenanceȱOrdersȱ(FacilitiesȱforȱEnforcementȱ
(Amendment)ȱAct,ȱ1999;ȱandȱȱ
6. theȱCitizenshipȱ(ConstitutionalȱAmendment)ȱAct,ȱ1999. 148 ȱȱ
ȱ
Aȱreviewȱofȱlegislationȱconductedȱinȱ1994,ȱundertakenȱbyȱaȱlegalȱexpertȱ
onȱbehalfȱofȱtheȱJamaicaȱCoalitionȱforȱtheȱRightsȱofȱtheȱChild,ȱproducedȱ
aȱrecommendationȱforȱtheȱadoptionȱofȱaȱȈChildȱCareȱandȱProtectionȱ
Act.ȈȱSuchȱanȱActȱwasȱadoptedȱinȱ2004,ȱrepealingȱtheȱ45ȬyearȬoldȱ
JuvenileȱActȱandȱprovidingȱaȱlegalȱframeworkȱforȱtheȱcareȱandȱ
protectionȱofȱchildrenȱthatȱemphasisesȱtheȱbestȱinterestsȱofȱtheȱchild. 149ȱ
ȱ
AlthoughȱMoroccoȱincludesȱtheȱcivilȱlawȱtraditionȱasȱpartȱofȱitsȱlegalȱ
system,ȱitȱalsoȱfollowsȱIslamicȱlawȱandȱtheȱnatureȱofȱitsȱmonarchicalȱ
constitutionȱmakesȱtheȱlawȬbyȬlawȱapproachȱmoreȱappropriate.ȱTheȱ
adoptionȱofȱspecificȱlawsȱtoȱdealȱwithȱparticularȱsituations,ȱsuchȱasȱtheȱ
AbandonedȱChildrenȱActȱandȱtheȱSocialȱProtectionȱofȱDisabledȱ
ChildrenȱAct,ȱhasȱhelpedȱtoȱputȱsomeȱelementsȱofȱtheȱCRCȱintoȱeffect,ȱ
andȱfurtherȱlegislativeȱchangesȱareȱplanned. 150ȱ
ȱ
Theȱmultipleȱlawȱoption,ȱasȱopposedȱtoȱtheȱChildrenȇsȱCodeȱapproach,ȱ
providesȱforȱaȱmoreȱgradualȱchangeȱinȱtheȱexistingȱlegislation.ȱAtȱeachȱ
148
Jamaica, p. 9.
149
Jamaica, p. 14.
150
Ali, Shakeen Sarder, Implementation of Child Rights in Muslim Jurisdictions: A
Comparative Perspective of the CRC and Principles of Islamic Law, UNICEF(internal
document), New York, date unknown [henceforth: Shaheen Sardar Ali], p. 39-40.
95
step,ȱitȱwillȱbeȱnecessaryȱtoȱdetermineȱwhichȱofȱseveralȱlawsȱorȱ
interpretationsȱwillȱprevailȱinȱtheȱeventȱofȱaȱlegalȱchallengeȱinȱtheȱ
courts.ȱGenerally,ȱtheȱlegislationȱshouldȱspecifyȱthatȱtheȱnewerȱlaw,ȱtheȱ
oneȱmoreȱinȱlineȱwithȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAW,ȱwillȱhaveȱpriorityȱoverȱ
otherȱlegislationȱwhichȱmayȱdealȱwithȱsimilarȱissues.ȱȱ
ȱ
Suchȱaȱprocessȱmayȱtakeȱaȱlongerȱtimeȱtoȱcompleteȱthanȱtheȱadoptionȱ
ofȱaȱsingleȱChildrenȇsȱCode,ȱbutȱitȱisȱpossibleȱforȱtheȱlegislationȱthatȱisȱ
ofȱmostȱurgentȱimportanceȱtoȱbeȱdealtȱwithȱmoreȱquickly,ȱatȱtheȱ
beginningȱofȱtheȱprocess.ȱWhatȱthisȱprocessȱlacksȱinȱ
comprehensivenessȱitȱmakesȱupȱinȱattentionȱtoȱdetail,ȱasȱeachȱpieceȱofȱ
legislationȱisȱaddressedȱonȱitsȱownȱmerits.ȱItȱcanȱalsoȱbeȱmoreȱsensitiveȱ
toȱtheȱchangingȱperceptionȱofȱchildrenȱthatȱshouldȱresultȱfromȱtheȱ
applicationȱofȱnewerȱlawsȱbasedȱonȱtheȱCRC,ȱalongȱwithȱtheȱpublicȱ
educationȱandȱinformationȱcampaignsȱthatȱaccompanyȱtheȱreviewȱandȱ
reformȱofȱlegislation.ȱTheȱchangingȱperceptionȱmayȱalsoȱbeȱreflectedȱinȱ
judicialȱdecisionsȱbeforeȱitȱreachesȱtheȱlevelȱofȱlegislation.ȱ
ȱ
Thereȱmayȱbeȱduplicationȱasȱtheȱreformȱprocessȱgoesȱon,ȱbecauseȱmanyȱ
differentȱlegislativeȱmeasuresȱhaveȱoverlappingȱeffects,ȱsoȱthisȱprocessȱ
isȱnotȱasȱneatlyȱcontainedȱasȱtheȱuseȱofȱaȱChildrenȇsȱCode.ȱHowever,ȱitȱ
isȱusuallyȱpossible,ȱwithȱtheȱdetailedȱanalysisȱ(byȱParliamentaryȱ
Committees,ȱforȱexample,ȱasȱwellȱasȱcivilȱservantsȱandȱtheȱinterestedȱ
membersȱofȱtheȱpublic)ȱthatȱcomesȱwithȱeachȱpieceȱofȱlegislation,ȱtoȱ
ensureȱthatȱthereȱareȱnoȱconflictsȱwithȱotherȱexistingȱorȱplannedȱ
legislation.ȱȱ
ȱ
TheȱlawȬbyȬlawȱapproachȱmayȱalsoȱserveȱtoȱgenerateȱgreaterȱsupportȱ
forȱtheȱimplementationȱofȱchildrenȇsȱrights.ȱSinceȱeachȱindividualȱpieceȱ
ofȱlegislationȱdealsȱwithȱclearlyȱdefinedȱandȱoftenȱlimitedȱobjectives,ȱitȱ
shouldȱbeȱpossibleȱtoȱdevelopȱaȱconstituencyȱofȱsupportȱforȱeachȱoneȱ
basedȱonȱitsȱownȱmerits.ȱAlthoughȱtheȱdifferentȱmeasuresȱmayȱattractȱ
differentȱconstituencies,ȱthereȱshouldȱalwaysȱbeȱaȱclearȱbaseȱofȱpublicȱ
supportȱforȱeachȱone,ȱwhichȱwillȱmakeȱeventualȱimplementationȱmoreȱ
effective.ȱAlso,ȱitȱisȱoftenȱeasierȱtoȱeducateȱtheȱgeneralȱpublicȱaboutȱ
specificȱprovisionsȱofȱoneȱlawȱdealingȱwithȱaȱwellȬdefinedȱaspectȱofȱ
childrenȇsȱrightsȱthanȱtoȱtryȱtoȱcoverȱtheȱwholeȱgamutȱofȱrightsȱatȱonce,ȱ
asȱwithȱaȱChildrenȇsȱCode.ȱ
ȱ
ȱ
96
ȱ
ȱ
2.3.3ȱ LegislationȱReformȱProcessȱ
ȱ
Asȱhasȱbeenȱnoted,ȱtheȱLawȱReformȱCommissionsȱofȱKenyaȱandȱ
Lesothoȱplayedȱkeyȱrolesȱinȱreviewingȱlegislationȱrelatingȱtoȱchildrenȱ
andȱtheirȱrightsȱinȱthoseȱcountries.ȱInȱcountriesȱwithȱsuchȱbodies,ȱtheȱ
roleȱofȱtheȱCommissionȱisȱtoȱreviewȱallȱlegislationȱandȱmakeȱ
recommendationsȱtoȱtheȱgovernmentȱforȱrevisionȱofȱexistingȱlawsȱandȱ
adoptionȱofȱnewȱonesȱ(forȱbothȱcivilȱandȱcriminalȱlaw)ȱasȱneededȱtoȱ
meetȱtheȱevolvingȱnatureȱofȱsociety.ȱSpecificȱlegislationȱemergedȱfromȱ
theȱreviewsȱinȱKenyaȱandȱLesothoȱtoȱgiveȱeffectȱtoȱtheȱCRCȱinȱnationalȱ
legislation:ȱTheȱChildren’sȱAct,ȱ2001ȱinȱKenyaȱandȱtheȱChildren’sȱ
ProtectionȱandȱWelfareȱBillȱinȱLesotho. 151 ȱȱ
ȱ
Otherȱcountriesȱhaveȱestablishedȱspecialisedȱbodiesȱwithȱaȱmandateȱtoȱ
concentrateȱonȱreformȱofȱlegislationȱrelatingȱtoȱchildren.ȱInȱGhana,ȱtheȱ
ChildȱLawȱReformȱAdvisoryȱCommitteeȱwasȱestablishedȱinȱ1996ȱtoȱ
makeȱrecommendationsȱforȱlegislationȱintendedȱtoȱeffectȱtheȱ
implementationȱofȱtheȱprovisionsȱofȱtheȱCRC.ȱThisȱwasȱaȱmixedȱbody,ȱ
withȱinstitutionalȱrepresentationȱfromȱgovernmentȱ(theȱMinistryȱofȱ
Justice,ȱtheȱGhanaȱEducationȱServiceȱandȱtheȱDepartmentȱofȱSocialȱ
Welfare),ȱtheȱlegalȱsystemȱ(theȱjudiciary,ȱlegalȱpractitionersȱandȱtheȱ
GhanaȱPoliceȱService),ȱcivilȱsocietyȱ(theȱ31stȱDecemberȱWomenȇsȱ
Movement,ȱtheȱCommissionȱonȱHumanȱRightsȱandȱAdministrativeȱ
Justice)ȱandȱchildrenȱ(NationalȱYouthȱCouncil).ȱThisȱgroupȱreviewedȱ
nationalȱlegislationȱinȱlightȱofȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAWȱandȱmadeȱ
proposalsȱforȱseveralȱlawsȱthatȱtheyȱexpectedȱwouldȱeffectivelyȱ
translateȱtheȱobligationsȱofȱtheȱConventionsȱintoȱGhanaianȱlawȱandȱ
practice. 152ȱ
ȱ
InȱNicaragua,ȱtheȱdraftingȱofȱtheȱChildrenȇsȱLegalȱCodeȱwasȱ
coordinatedȱbyȱtheȱNationalȱCommissionȱforȱtheȱPromotionȱandȱ
DefenceȱofȱChildrenȇsȱRights,ȱaȱmixedȱstructureȱthatȱinvolvedȱvariousȱ
ministries,ȱgovernmentȱagenciesȱdealingȱwithȱchildren,ȱchurchȱ
representativesȱandȱtheȱNGOȱCoalitionȱforȱtheȱRightsȱofȱChildren.ȱAsȱ
partȱofȱtheȱdraftingȱprocess,ȱtheȱCoalitionȱheldȱseveralȱconsultationsȱ
151
African Child Policy Forum, Harmonisation of Laws Relating to Children in East and
Southern Africa: A Summary Report, 2006 (draft), p.17.
152
Ghana, p. 13-4.
97
withȱcommunityȱleaders,ȱeducators,ȱstudents,ȱparents,ȱvolunteers,ȱ
professionalȱassociations,ȱrepresentativesȱofȱNGOs,ȱpoliticiansȱandȱ
MunicipalȱChildrenȇsȱCommissions.ȱInformationȱworkshopsȱonȱtheȱ
proposedȱlegislationȱresultedȱinȱtheȱformationȱofȱtheȱNetworkȱofȱ
PromotersȱofȱtheȱChildrenȇsȱLegalȱCode,ȱcomposedȱofȱpeopleȱwhoȱhadȱ
experienceȱinȱtrainingȱandȱcommunityȱdevelopment.ȱTheyȱconductedȱ
moreȱworkshopsȱatȱtheȱcommunityȱlevel,ȱtoȱspreadȱtheȱinformationȱ
aboutȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱandȱtheȱnewȱlegalȱregimeȱforȱchildrenȱasȱwidelyȱ
asȱpossible. 153ȱ
ȱ
TheȱinitialȱdraftȱofȱtheȱChildrenȇsȱLegalȱCodeȱwasȱpresentedȱinȱ1996ȱ
butȱapprovalȱwasȱdelayedȱbyȱtheȱelectionȱinȱ1997ȱandȱtheȱneedȱtoȱbeginȱ
lobbyingȱagainȱwithȱtheȱnewȱNationalȱAssembly.ȱTheȱadoptionȱofȱtheȱ
Codeȱwas,ȱinȱlargeȱmeasure,ȱdueȱtoȱtheȱeffectivenessȱofȱtheȱnetworkȱofȱ
NGOsȱandȱgovernmentȱagenciesȱthatȱsupportedȱandȱpromotedȱit.ȱTheȱ
extensiveȱpublicȱinformationȱandȱeducationȱprogrammeȱundoubtedlyȱ
servedȱtoȱbuildȱtheȱnecessaryȱpopularȱconsensusȱinȱfavourȱofȱtheȱ
legislationȱevenȱbeforeȱitȱwasȱpassed,ȱwhichȱinȱturnȱfacilitatedȱitsȱ
approvalȱbyȱtheȱnewlyȱelectedȱlegislators.ȱThisȱshowsȱtheȱimportanceȱ
ofȱextendingȱtheȱlegislationȱreformȱprocessȱbeyondȱtheȱimmediateȱ
confinesȱofȱtheȱlegislature,ȱtoȱengageȱtheȱgeneralȱpublicȱasȱwellȱasȱ
specialȱinterestȱgroupsȱinȱmakingȱlegislationȱmoreȱrespectfulȱofȱ
childrenȇsȱrights.ȱItȱsometimesȱtakesȱthisȱbaseȱofȱsupportȱtoȱconvinceȱ
legislatorsȱofȱtheȱimportanceȱofȱtakingȱactionsȱwhichȱmayȱchallengeȱ
establishedȱpractices. 154 ȱȱ
ȱ
AȱmoreȱformalȱlegislatureȬledȱreformȱprocessȱwasȱundertakenȱinȱ
China.ȱTheȱInternalȱandȱJudicialȱAffairsȱCommitteeȱofȱtheȱPeople’sȱ
NationalȱCongressȱbeganȱlookingȱintoȱrevisionȱofȱlegislationȱdealingȱ
withȱchildrenȱinȱ2005,ȱwithȱtheȱintentionȱofȱpresentingȱtheȱrevisedȱ
legislationȱinȱ2006.ȱAsȱaȱkeyȱpartȱofȱtheȱprocess,ȱhowever,ȱtheȱNPCȱ
calledȱforȱproposalsȱforȱtheȱnewȱlegislationȱfromȱgovernmentȱagenciesȱ
andȱsocialȱorganisations.ȱTheȱAllȱChinaȱWomen’sȱFederationȱtookȱaȱ
leadingȱroleȱinȱpromotingȱcommunityȬlevelȱconsultations,ȱregionalȱ
workshopsȱandȱchildren’sȱforumsȱtoȱgenerateȱcontributionsȱtoȱtheȱnewȱ
legislation.ȱAsȱaȱresult,ȱtheȱproposedȱlegislationȱreflectedȱaȱbroadȬ
153
Nicaragua, p. 23.
154
Ibid.
98
basedȱpublicȱunderstandingȱofȱtheȱrightsȱofȱchildrenȱasȱprovidedȱforȱinȱ
theȱCRC,ȱincludingȱtheȱgeneralȱprinciples. 155ȱ
ȱ
Theȱimpetusȱforȱreformȱofȱlegislationȱcanȱcomeȱfromȱalmostȱanyȱsourceȱ
withinȱsociety.ȱTheȱexampleȱfromȱCanada,ȱȈMakingȱtheȱGrade,Ȉȱshowsȱ
howȱtheȱmediaȱandȱschoolsȱcanȱempowerȱchildrenȱthemselvesȱtoȱtakeȱ
theȱinitiativeȱinȱpromotingȱnewȱandȱrevisedȱlegislationȱforȱtheirȱownȱ
benefit.ȱThereȱhasȱbeenȱstrongȱpublicȱsupportȱforȱtheȱentireȱprocess,ȱ
andȱstudentsȱ(withȱguidanceȱfromȱtheirȱteachersȱandȱexpertsȱinȱdealingȱ
withȱpoliticalȱmatters)ȱhaveȱbeenȱsuccessfulȱinȱlobbyingȱpoliticiansȱandȱ
civilȱservants.ȱAlthoughȱonȱaȱsmallȱscale,ȱthisȱisȱaȱgoodȱexampleȱofȱhowȱ
toȱmakeȱitȱpossibleȱforȱchildrenȱtoȱparticipateȱdirectlyȱinȱtheȱreformȱofȱ
legislationȱthatȱisȱimportantȱtoȱthem. 156 ȱȱ
ȱ
Inȱtheȱexperienceȱofȱmanyȱcountries,ȱtheȱinitiativeȱforȱlegislationȱ
reformȱhasȱcomeȱfromȱtheȱgovernment,ȱwhichȱisȱoftenȱtheȱbestȱ
organisedȱadvocateȱforȱchildrenȇsȱrights.ȱInȱMorocco,ȱtheȱinterestȱofȱtheȱ
kingȱinȱpromotingȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱhasȱbeenȱaȱsignificantȱfactorȱinȱtheȱ
developmentȱandȱadoptionȱofȱseveralȱnewȱlawsȱdirectlyȱinspiredȱbyȱ
theȱCRC. 157 ȱHowever,ȱevenȱwithȱsuchȱstrongȱgovernmentalȱsupport,ȱ
effectiveȱimplementationȱofȱtheȱCRCȱstillȱrequiresȱbroaderȱpublicȱ
involvement.ȱTheȱculturalȱandȱsocialȱsensitivityȱofȱsoȱmanyȱofȱtheȱ
principlesȱinȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAWȱmeanȱthatȱtheyȱareȱunlikelyȱtoȱbeȱ
fullyȱimplementedȱwithoutȱbroadȬbasedȱagreementȱwithinȱtheȱgeneralȱ
population.ȱThisȱhighlightsȱtheȱearlierȱassertionȱthatȱmerelyȱchangingȱaȱ
lawȱwillȱnot,ȱofȱitself,ȱchangeȱtheȱsituationȱofȱchildren.ȱReformȱofȱ
legislationȱisȱnotȱeffectiveȱwithoutȱadequateȱprovisionȱforȱensuringȱthatȱ
theȱlawsȱareȱfullyȱenforced.ȱ
ȱ
2.3.4ȱ EnsuringȱImplementationȱofȱLegislationȱReformȱ
ȱ
Evenȱwhenȱconsideringȱwrittenȱstatutes,ȱlawsȱareȱonlyȱasȱeffectiveȱasȱ
theirȱenforcementȱallowsȱthemȱtoȱbe.ȱWhetherȱitȱisȱaȱcomprehensiveȱ
ChildrenȇsȱCodeȱorȱaȱseriesȱofȱindividualȱlaws,ȱanyȱlegislationȱadoptedȱ
155
Hodges, Anthony, UNICEF support for the review and revision of China’s Law on the
Protection of Minors, UNICEF China Country Office, Beijing, 2006.
156
Based on the author's correspondence with reporter Mike Wise, content of televised
reports, and information available at www.cbc.ca/torontoatsix/. The government poster and
other information about labour rights of children can be found at
www.labour.gov.on.ca/English/site/youngworkers.html.
157
Shaheen Sardar Ali, p. 44-5.
99
toȱgiveȱeffectȱtoȱtheȱprovisionsȱofȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAWȱinȱfavourȱofȱ
childrenȇsȱrightsȱshouldȱalsoȱincludeȱadequateȱprovisionȱforȱitsȱownȱ
enforcement.ȱThisȱcouldȱincludeȱbudgetaryȱallocations,ȱadministrativeȱ
organisation,ȱcreationȱorȱreinforcementȱofȱinstitutionalȱstructuresȱandȱ
promulgationȱofȱregulationsȱasȱneeded.ȱWhenȱlegislationȱspecifiesȱtheȱ
creationȱofȱaȱparticularȱstructureȱtoȱprovideȱaȱserviceȱorȱimplementȱaȱ
policy,ȱthereȱshouldȱalsoȱbeȱaȱclearȱindicationȱofȱhowȱthatȱstructureȱwillȱ
beȱfundedȱandȱwhatȱresourcesȱitȱwillȱneedȱinȱorderȱtoȱoperateȱasȱ
required.ȱ
ȱ
Forȱexample,ȱtheȱlegislationȱinȱHaitiȱthatȱdealsȱwithȱchildrenȱinȱconflictȱ
withȱtheȱlawȱmandatesȱaȱspecialȱTribunalȱforȱChildrenȱtoȱbeȱcreatedȱinȱ
fiveȱjurisdictionsȱdistributedȱthroughoutȱtheȱcountry.ȱInȱpractice,ȱ
accordingȱtoȱtheȱstudy,ȱÉtudeȱComparativeȱentreȱlaȱConventionȱrelativeȱauxȱ
droitsȱdeȱlȇenfantȱetȱLaȱlégislationȱhaïtienne,ȱonlyȱoneȱsuchȱtribunalȱisȱinȱ
operation,ȱinȱtheȱcapital,ȱPortȬauȬPrince.ȱTheȱlaw,ȱtherefore,ȱisȱnotȱ
beingȱfulfilled.ȱSimilarly,ȱinȱBosniaȱandȱHerzegovina,ȱtheȱlegalȱ
mandateȱforȱprovisionȱofȱsocialȱservicesȱforȱchildrenȱandȱtheirȱfamiliesȱ
restsȱwithȱtheȱmunicipalities,ȱthatȱprovideȱsocialȱprotectionȱservicesȱ
throughȱCentresȱforȱSocialȱWork.ȱHowever,ȱtheȱlegislationȱmakesȱnoȱ
provisionȱforȱtheȱfinancingȱofȱtheseȱservices,ȱandȱtheȱCSWsȱare,ȱinȱ
consequence,ȱchronicallyȱunderȬfunded. 158ȱ
ȱ
Therefore,ȱasȱnewȱlegislationȱinȱfavourȱofȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱisȱdrafted,ȱ
debatedȱandȱapproved,ȱitȱshouldȱmakeȱprovisionȱforȱtheȱmechanismsȱ
necessaryȱforȱimplementation.ȱThisȱwasȱdoneȱwithȱtheȱChildȱCareȱandȱ
ProtectionȱActȱinȱJamaica.ȱAȱspecificȱgovernmentȱexecutiveȱbody,ȱtheȱ
ChildȱDevelopmentȱAgency,ȱwasȱcreatedȱthroughȱaȱmergerȱofȱpreȬ
existingȱbodiesȱ(theȱChildrenȱServicesȱDivision,ȱtheȱAdoptionȱBoardȱ
andȱtheȱChildȱSupportȱUnit).ȱTheȱChildȱDevelopmentȱAgencyȱisȱ
chargedȱwithȱimplementingȱtheȱChildȱCareȱandȱProtectionȱAct.ȱAlsoȱ
givenȱclearȱresponsibilitiesȱunderȱtheȱActȱisȱtheȱChildrenȇsȱAdvocate,ȱ
whoseȱofficeȱwasȱestablishedȱtoȱactȱinȱlegalȱmattersȱonȱbehalfȱofȱ
children.ȱFurther,ȱtheȱActȱestablishedȱaȱCentralȱRegistryȱtoȱmaintainȱ
recordsȱofȱallȱreportedȱcasesȱofȱchildȱabuse.ȱTheȱChildȱDevelopmentȱ
AgencyȱsubmitsȱbudgetaryȱrequestsȱdirectlyȱtoȱtheȱMinistryȱofȱFinance,ȱ
operatingȱonȱtheȱsameȱlevelȱasȱlineȱministriesȱwhenȱitȱcomesȱtoȱ
considerationȱforȱtheȱgovernmentȇsȱbudget.ȱToȱtheȱextentȱpossible,ȱ
158
Haiti, 37th page.
100
withinȱtheȱlimitationsȱthatȱareȱnaturallyȱimposedȱbyȱtheȱoperationȱofȱaȱ
democraticȱpoliticalȱsystem,ȱtheȱChildȱCareȱandȱProtectionȱActȱ
containsȱtheȱprovisionsȱwhichȱshouldȱmakeȱitsȱimplementationȱ
effective. 159ȱ
ȱ
Legislationȱisȱmadeȱrealȱonlyȱwhenȱitȱisȱputȱintoȱpractice.ȱForȱthatȱtoȱ
workȱeffectively,ȱtheȱpeopleȱresponsibleȱforȱimplementingȱtheȱnewȱorȱ
revisedȱlegislationȱneedȱtoȱunderstandȱwhatȱtheȱlegislationȱsaysȱandȱtoȱ
haveȱtheȱskillsȱnecessaryȱtoȱfulfilȱwhatȱtheȱlegislationȱrequires.ȱTheȱ
peopleȱaffectedȱincludeȱcivilȱservantsȱworkingȱforȱtheȱministriesȱ
responsibleȱforȱactionȱunderȱtheȱlegislation,ȱsocialȱserviceȱstaffȱandȱ
managersȱ(particularlyȱinȱchildȱcareȱagencies),ȱteachersȱandȱschoolȱ
administrators,ȱhealthȱcareȱworkersȱandȱadministrators,ȱandȱevenȱ
privateȱsectorȱemployersȱandȱtheȱmediaȱwhoȱmayȱbeȱchargedȱwithȱ
providingȱinformationȱaboutȱtheȱnewȱorȱrevisedȱlegislation.ȱȱ
ȱ
Forȱallȱtheseȱgroups,ȱtrainingȱandȱprovisionȱofȱinformationȱcanȱbeȱ
criticalȱtoȱtheȱsuccessȱofȱtheȱreform.ȱTheyȱneedȱtoȱknowȱmoreȱthanȱtheȱ
detailsȱofȱtheȱnewȱlegislationȱandȱtheirȱroleȱinȱitsȱimplementation.ȱItȱisȱ
alsoȱimportantȱforȱthemȱtoȱgraspȱtheȱunderlyingȱprinciplesȱofȱ
childrenȇsȱrightsȱwhichȱareȱreflectedȱinȱtheȱlegislation,ȱwithȱspecialȱ
emphasisȱonȱnonȬdiscrimination,ȱtheȱbestȱinterestsȱofȱtheȱchild,ȱaȱ
commitmentȱtoȱchildȱsurvivalȱandȱdevelopmentȱandȱtheȱimportanceȱofȱ
payingȱattentionȱtoȱtheȱviewsȱofȱtheȱchild.ȱThisȱinformationȱcanȱbeȱ
providedȱthroughȱaȱdedicatedȱgovernmentȱpublicityȱcampaign,ȱreportsȱ
inȱtheȱnewsȱmedia,ȱstudyȱmaterialsȱpreparedȱforȱschoolsȱandȱ
professionalȱtrainingȱinstitutionsȱ(includingȱlawȱschools),ȱandȱ
appropriateȱpostersȱandȱadvertisements.ȱ
ȱ
Itȱisȱparticularlyȱimportantȱtoȱengageȱjudgesȱandȱotherȱactorsȱinȱtheȱ
legalȱsystemȱ(includingȱlawyers,ȱcourtȱclerksȱandȱotherȱstaff,ȱcustodialȱ
officersȱinȱbothȱprisonsȱandȱremandȱcentresȱandȱpoliceȱofficersȱatȱallȱ
levels)ȱinȱtheȱfullȱimplementationȱofȱtheȱprovisionsȱofȱtheȱnewȱorȱ
revisedȱlegislation.ȱThisȱmayȱbeȱespeciallyȱimportantȱinȱcommonȱlawȱ
countries,ȱwhereȱtheȱroleȱofȱtheȱjudiciaryȱisȱcrucialȱtoȱtheȱdefinitionȱofȱ
theȱlawȱinȱallȱrespects.ȱTheȱabilityȱofȱtheȱcourtsȱtoȱpassȱjudgementȱonȱ
theȱvalidityȱofȱlawsȱinȱthoseȱcountriesȱmeansȱthatȱjudges,ȱespecially,ȱ
needȱtoȱbeȱfullyȱawareȱofȱtheȱcommitmentsȱmadeȱbyȱtheirȱStateȱtoȱ
159
Jamaica, p. 15-7.
101
childrenȇsȱrightsȱandȱtheȱimportanceȱofȱtheȱlegislationȱinȱtheȱfulfilmentȱ
ofȱthoseȱcommitments.ȱȱ
ȱ
Itȱisȱalsoȱimportantȱtoȱinvolveȱtheȱauthoritiesȱwhoȱareȱresponsibleȱforȱ
theȱapplicationȱofȱIslamicȱlawȱinȱthoseȱcountriesȱwhereȱthisȱisȱaȱpartȱofȱ
theȱlegalȱsystem,ȱwithȱparticularȱemphasisȱonȱtheȱrelationshipȱbetweenȱ
theȱlegislationȱandȱtheȱprecedentsȱinȱtheȱoralȱtraditionȱandȱ
commentariesȱonȱtheȱQur’an.ȱWhereȱcustomaryȱlawȱisȱpractised,ȱtheȱ
practitionersȱshouldȱalsoȱbeȱgivenȱcomprehensiveȱtrainingȱinȱtheȱnewȱ
legislationȱandȱitsȱrelationshipȱtoȱtraditionalȱways,ȱespeciallyȱifȱtheȱnewȱ
legislationȱrunsȱcounterȱtoȱthoseȱways.ȱInȱorderȱtoȱensureȱthatȱadequateȱ
trainingȱandȱinformationȱareȱprovidedȱasȱneeded,ȱitȱwouldȱbeȱbestȱifȱ
provisionȱforȱsuchȱeducationalȱandȱinformationȱactivitiesȱwereȱ
includedȱasȱessentialȱcomponentsȱofȱtheȱnewȱlegislationȱorȱitsȱattendantȱ
regulations.ȱ
ȱ
2.3.5ȱȱ MonitoringȱandȱPublicȱInformationȱ
ȱ
ChangesȱtoȱlawsȱorȱlongȬestablishedȱcustomsȱcanȱgenerateȱoppositionȱ
andȱresistance.ȱThisȱisȱespeciallyȱtheȱcaseȱifȱthoseȱchangesȱareȱseenȱasȱ
undercuttingȱwellȬestablishedȱattitudesȱorȱifȱtheyȱchallengeȱpowerȱ
relationshipsȱthat,ȱforȱexample,ȱdefineȱanȱinferiorȱorȱrestrictedȱpositionȱ
forȱwomenȱinȱsociety.ȱAsȱpartȱofȱtheȱlegislationȱreformȱprocess,ȱcareȱ
mustȱbeȱtakenȱtoȱprovideȱforȱanȱeffectiveȱcounterȱtoȱresponsesȱthatȱmayȱ
seekȱtoȱhinderȱorȱpreventȱtheȱenforcementȱofȱtheȱnewȱlegislation.ȱȱ
ȱ
ThisȱcanȱbeȱdoneȱbyȱundertakingȱaȱbroadȬbasedȱpublicȱinformationȱ
programmeȱthatȱstressesȱtheȱpositiveȱvalueȱofȱtheȱchangesȱembodiedȱinȱ
theȱreformedȱlegislation,ȱnotȱjustȱinȱtermsȱofȱinternationalȱobligationsȱ
toȱbeȱmetȱbutȱalso,ȱandȱmoreȱimportantly,ȱinȱtermsȱofȱtheȱbenefitsȱthatȱ
willȱaccrueȱtoȱtheȱcountryȱandȱitsȱcommunitiesȱasȱaȱresultȱofȱtheȱ
legislation.ȱWhileȱnotȱnecessarilyȱpartȱofȱtheȱlegislationȱorȱitsȱ
regulations,ȱsuchȱanȱextensiveȱpublicȱeducationȱprogrammeȱcouldȱbeȱ
incorporatedȱintoȱtheȱplanningȱforȱtheȱlegislationȱandȱmightȱbeȱ
implementedȱthroughoutȱtheȱconsiderationȱofȱtheȱbillȱbyȱtheȱ
legislature.ȱSuchȱeducationȱactivitiesȱcouldȱfollowȱtheȱpatternȱofȱtheȱ
publicȱinformationȱandȱeducationȱmeasuresȱemployedȱinȱbothȱ
Nicaragua 160 ȱandȱVenezuela 161 ȱwhichȱaccompaniedȱandȱinformedȱtheȱ
160
Nicaragua, p. 30-1, p. 44-5 and p. 5.
102
processȱofȱdebatingȱandȱadoptingȱnewȱlegislationȱdealingȱwithȱ
childrenȱandȱtheirȱrights.ȱInȱthisȱendeavour,ȱtheȱengagementȱofȱcivilȱ
societyȱgroupsȱthatȱsupportȱtheȱlegislationȱwouldȱbeȱextremelyȱhelpful.ȱ
Theseȱgroupsȱmayȱbeȱencouragedȱtoȱexpandȱtheirȱlobbyingȱofȱ
legislatorsȱinȱfavourȱofȱtheȱlegislationȱtoȱaȱbroaderȱpublicȱinformationȱ
campaign,ȱpossiblyȱwithȱsupportȱfromȱtheȱgovernmentȱorȱinternationalȱ
organisationsȱcommittedȱtoȱtheȱpromotionȱofȱchildrenȇsȱrights.ȱTheȱroleȱ
ofȱtheȱmediaȱnotȱonlyȱinȱdisseminatingȱinformationȱbutȱalsoȱinȱshapingȱ
publicȱopinionȱshouldȱnotȱbeȱoverlooked.ȱ
ȱ
Theȱinformationȱprovidedȱtoȱtheȱgeneralȱpublicȱasȱpartȱofȱaȱspecificȱ
campaignȱtoȱpromoteȱacceptanceȱofȱnewȱorȱrevisedȱlegislationȱthatȱ
incorporatesȱtheȱprovisionsȱofȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAWȱintoȱdomesticȱ
legislationȱisȱoneȱelementȱofȱwhatȱshouldȱbeȱaȱbroaderȱeffortȱtoȱincreaseȱ
overallȱawarenessȱofȱchildrenȇsȱrights.ȱThisȱcanȱcreateȱaȱfavourableȱ
environmentȱforȱallȱlegislationȱreformȱinitiativesȱtakenȱtoȱfulfilȱ
obligationsȱunderȱtheȱConventions,ȱperhapsȱevenȱgeneratingȱpopularȱ
demandȱforȱsuchȱreforms.ȱThisȱwouldȱbeȱparticularlyȱhelpfulȱinȱ
countriesȱthatȱfollowȱcustomaryȱlawȱasȱwellȱasȱstatute,ȱsinceȱtheȱ
changesȱinȱpublicȱattitudeȱthatȱcouldȱbeȱprovokedȱbyȱsuchȱaȱcampaignȱ
wouldȱsupportȱeffortsȱtoȱchangeȱtheȱcustomȱasȱwell.ȱ
ȱ
Inȱthisȱprocess,ȱasȱwithȱspecificȱreformsȱmentionedȱabove,ȱtheȱ
involvementȱofȱNGOsȱandȱcivilȱsocietyȱinȱgeneralȱisȱextremelyȱ
important.ȱPromotionȱofȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱshouldȱinvolveȱnotȱonlyȱ
advocacyȱorganisationsȱworkingȱonȱbehalfȱofȱchildrenȱwhichȱhaveȱ
longȬstandingȱengagementȱinȱtheȱCRC/CEDAW,ȱbutȱaȱwholeȱrangeȱofȱ
groups,ȱincludingȱreligiousȱbodiesȱ(especiallyȱimportantȱinȱcountriesȱ
withȱIslamicȱlaw),ȱprofessionalȱassociationsȱandȱorganisationsȱwhichȱ
touchȱchildrenȇsȱlivesȱinȱareasȱsuchȱasȱsports,ȱculture,ȱeducationȱandȱ
familyȱlife.ȱAllȱavailableȱformsȱofȱcommunicationȱshouldȱbeȱused,ȱ
includingȱ(inȱthoseȱcountriesȱwhereȱtheȱfacilitiesȱexist)ȱnewȱmediaȱsuchȱ
asȱtheȱInternetȱandȱtextȱmessaging.ȱManyȱUNICEFȱNationalȱ
CommitteesȱandȱorganisationsȱsuchȱasȱSaveȱtheȱChildrenȱhaveȱusedȱ
theirȱInternetȱsitesȱnotȱonlyȱtoȱprovideȱinformationȱaboutȱchildrenȇsȱ
rightsȱbutȱalsoȱtoȱgenerateȱactionȱonȱbehalfȱofȱchildrenȱbothȱlocallyȱandȱ
internationally.ȱ
ȱ
161
Garate, p. 14-8.
103
Accountabilityȱandȱtheȱeffectivenessȱofȱeachȱreformȱasȱitȱisȱ
implementedȱcanȱbuildȱaȱgeneralȱconsensusȱinȱfavourȱofȱchildrenȇsȱ
rights,ȱwhichȱwillȱinȱturnȱsupportȱeachȱnewȱreformȱasȱitȱisȱmade.ȱ
Monitoringȱtheȱeffectȱofȱreformedȱlegislationȱonȱtheȱlivesȱofȱchildrenȱ
canȱserveȱnotȱonlyȱtoȱjustifyȱtheȱchangesȱmadeȱbutȱalsoȱtoȱpromoteȱ
furtherȱreformsȱinȱtheȱsameȱdirection.ȱToȱprovideȱtheȱkindȱofȱobjectiveȱ
analysisȱneededȱtoȱvalidateȱtheȱreforms,ȱmonitoringȱresponsibilityȱ
shouldȱbeȱvestedȱinȱanȱauthorityȱwhichȱisȱindependentȱfromȱpoliticalȱ
activityȱandȱidentifiedȱspecificallyȱasȱanȱadvocateȱforȱchildrenȱandȱtheirȱ
rights.ȱTheȱmodelȱofȱaȱChildrenȇsȱOmbudsperson,ȱfollowingȱonȱtheȱ
exampleȱofȱNorwayȱthatȱhasȱbeenȱadoptedȱinȱotherȱcountries,ȱhasȱbeenȱ
aȱpreferredȱoptionȱbyȱtheȱCommitteeȱonȱtheȱRightsȱofȱtheȱChild,ȱwhichȱ
encouragesȱtheȱestablishmentȱofȱsuchȱanȱofficialȱpositionȱinȱmanyȱofȱ
theȱConcludingȱObservationsȱonȱcountryȱreports.ȱȱ
ȱ
Oneȱexampleȱofȱsuchȱaȱmonitoringȱbodyȱforȱtheȱrightsȱofȱchildrenȱisȱtheȱ
NationalȱObservatoryȱforȱtheȱRightsȱofȱtheȱChildȱinȱMorocco,ȱformedȱ
underȱroyalȱpatronage. 162 ȱTheȱinterestȱofȱtheȱHeadȱofȱStateȱmeansȱthatȱ
thisȱbodyȱhasȱtheȱauthorityȱtoȱmonitorȱtheȱimplementationȱofȱtheȱCRCȱ
andȱtoȱmakeȱnecessaryȱandȱappropriateȱrecommendationsȱforȱ
improvementsȱtoȱlegislationȱtoȱmeetȱMoroccoȇsȱobligationsȱunderȱtheȱ
CRC.ȱ
ȱ
Aȱmonitoringȱofficialȱorȱbodyȱcanȱassessȱlegislation,ȱtrackȱtheȱstateȱofȱ
childrenȇsȱrightsȱinȱrelationȱtoȱallȱaspectsȱofȱtheȱCRC/CEDAWȱandȱ
produceȱreportsȱforȱtheȱpublicȱandȱtheȱgovernmentȱoutliningȱbothȱ
positiveȱandȱnegativeȱconditionsȱforȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱinȱtheȱcountry.ȱ
Thereȱmayȱbeȱspecialȱvalueȱforȱsuchȱaȱmonitoringȱstructureȱinȱ
countriesȱwithȱpluralȱlegalȱsystems,ȱincludingȱthoseȱwithȱstrongȱ
traditionsȱofȱcustomaryȱlaw.ȱTheȱinvestigationsȱconductedȱbyȱtheȱ
ChildrenȇsȱOmbudspersonȱcouldȱdrawȱattentionȱnotȱonlyȱtoȱtheȱ
situationȱofȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱwithȱregardȱtoȱwrittenȱlawȱbutȱalsoȱtoȱtheȱ
waysȱinȱwhichȱcustomaryȱlawȱaffectsȱchildrenȇsȱrights.ȱTheȱpublicityȱ
providedȱbyȱtheȱreportsȱofȱtheȱOmbudspersonȱforȱtheȱtreatmentȱofȱ
childrenȇsȱrightsȱunderȱcustomaryȱlawȱcouldȱbeȱaȱmajorȱforceȱinȱtheȱ
reformȱofȱcustomaryȱlawȱinȱfavourȱofȱchildrenȇsȱrights.ȱ
ȱ
162
Shaheen Sardar Ali, p. 44-5.
104
Monitoringȱtheȱsituationȱofȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱwillȱalsoȱhelpȱprovideȱ
practicalȱinformationȱonȱtheȱeffectȱofȱnewȱorȱrevisedȱlegislationȱ
producedȱbyȱtheȱreformȱprocessesȱweȱhaveȱbeenȱconsidering.ȱ
Continuousȱfeedbackȱonȱtheȱwaysȱthatȱlegislationȱactuallyȱtouchesȱtheȱ
livesȱofȱchildrenȱwillȱrevealȱcontradictionsȱandȱgapsȱbetweenȱandȱ
amongȱlawsȱthatȱmayȱnotȱhaveȱbeenȱnoticedȱbeforeȱtheȱlegislationȱwasȱ
adopted.ȱTheȱroleȱofȱtheȱOmbudspersonȱwouldȱnotȱbeȱtoȱcriticiseȱorȱ
provokeȱcontroversy,ȱbutȱtoȱidentifyȱproblemsȱbeforeȱtheyȱreachȱaȱ
crucialȱstageȱandȱrecommendȱsolutions.ȱThisȱsortȱofȱattention,ȱbroughtȱ
toȱbearȱinȱregularȱpublicȱreportsȱonȱissuesȱofȱcommonȱinterestȱandȱ
concern,ȱwouldȱalsoȱserveȱtoȱidentifyȱatȱanȱearlyȱstageȱtheȱopportunityȱ
forȱfurtherȱreformȱofȱlegislationȱthatȱmayȱariseȱasȱaȱresultȱofȱtheȱ
changingȱcircumstancesȱofȱchildrenȇsȱlives,ȱincludingȱchangesȱbroughtȱ
aboutȱbyȱtheȱreformsȱinitiallyȱadoptedȱtoȱmeetȱobligationsȱunderȱtheȱ
CRC/CEDAW.ȱ
ȱ
2.4ȱ Conclusionȱ
ȱ
Asȱdemographicȱtrendsȱevolve,ȱglobalȱeconomicȱintegrationȱadvancesȱ
apaceȱandȱtheȱenvironmentalȱconditionsȱinȱwhichȱchildrenȱareȱbornȱ
andȱgrowȱundergoȱdramaticȱtransformation,ȱtheȱattitudesȱofȱ
individuals,ȱcommunitiesȱandȱgovernmentsȱtowardȱbothȱtheirȱownȱ
childrenȱandȱtheirȱinternationalȱobligationsȱcanȱalsoȱbeȱexpectedȱtoȱ
change.ȱTheȱchange,ȱinȱthisȱcase,ȱisȱmediatedȱand,ȱtoȱsomeȱextent,ȱ
generatedȱbyȱtheȱrealisationȱinȱpracticeȱofȱtheȱprinciplesȱenshrinedȱinȱ
theȱCRCȱandȱCEDAW,ȱasȱaȱresultȱofȱaȱwellȬthoughtȬoutȱandȱbroadlyȱ
participatoryȱprocessȱofȱlegislationȱreviewȱandȱreform.ȱ
ȱ
LegislationȱthatȱisȱadoptedȱatȱleastȱinȱpartȱtoȱmeetȱaȱStateȱPartyȇsȱ
commitmentsȱtoȱchildrenȱasȱaȱresultȱofȱratificationȱofȱorȱaccessionȱtoȱtheȱ
CRCȱandȱCEDAWȱshouldȱserveȱasȱmoreȱthanȱaȱtechnicalȱorȱevenȱ
politicalȱmeasureȱtoȱsatisfyȱinternationalȱrequirements.ȱItȱcan,ȱandȱ
should,ȱgiveȱriseȱtoȱchangesȱinȱgenerallyȱheldȱattitudesȱandȱbehaviourȱ
withȱregardȱtoȱchildrenȱonȱtheȱpartȱofȱadults,ȱwhetherȱtheyȱareȱparents,ȱ
teachers,ȱhealthȱworkers,ȱsocialȱserviceȱworkers,ȱpoliceȱofficers,ȱpartȱofȱ
theȱlegalȱsystemȱorȱjustȱmembersȱofȱtheȱcommunityȱthatȱincludesȱ
children,ȱandȱalsoȱonȱtheȱpartȱofȱchildrenȱthemselves.ȱȱ
ȱ
105
Becauseȱsoȱmanyȱpeopleȱareȱaffectedȱbyȱlegislationȱthatȱdealsȱwithȱ
children,ȱtheȱprocessȱofȱreviewingȱandȱreformingȱthatȱlegislationȱ
shouldȱreflectȱtheȱbroadestȱpossibleȱsocialȱconsensus.ȱThisȱisȱwhyȱtheȱ
processȱshouldȱincorporateȱaȱsignificantȱelementȱofȱpublicȱinformationȱ
andȱeducationȱaboutȱchildrenȇsȱrightsȱandȱtheȱcommitmentsȱtheȱStateȱ
hasȱundertakenȱinȱbecomingȱpartyȱtoȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAWȱ(whereȱ
applicable).ȱTheȱprocessȱalsoȱneedsȱtoȱbeȱoneȱinȱwhichȱallȱconcernedȱ
canȱexpressȱtheirȱopinionsȱandȱfeelȱthatȱtheirȱviewsȱhaveȱbeenȱheardȱ
andȱtakenȱintoȱaccountȱinȱtheȱfinalȱlegalȱmeasures.ȱInȱparticular,ȱtheȱ
processȱneedsȱtoȱincludeȱchildrenȱandȱtheirȱviews,ȱasȱaȱclearȱ
demonstrationȱofȱtheȱimportanceȱplacedȱonȱtheȱrightsȱofȱchildrenȱtoȱ
participateȱinȱdiscussionsȱaboutȱissuesȱthatȱmatterȱtoȱthem.ȱ
ȱ
Reformȱofȱlegislationȱcanȱtakeȱmanyȱdifferentȱforms,ȱdependingȱonȱtheȱ
natureȱofȱtheȱcountryȇsȱlegalȱsystem,ȱtheȱsituationȱofȱchildrenȱandȱtheȱ
politicalȱprocess.ȱTheȱcontentȱofȱtheȱlegislationȱmayȱvary,ȱbutȱitȱshouldȱ
alwaysȱreflectȱtheȱprinciplesȱofȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAW.ȱTheȱfourȱ
fundamentalȱprinciplesȱofȱtheȱCRCȱshouldȱunderlieȱbothȱtheȱreviewȱ
andȱreformȱprocessȱandȱtheȱsubstanceȱofȱallȱlegislation.ȱTheseȱ
principlesȱ–ȱnonȬdiscrimination,ȱtheȱbestȱinterestsȱofȱtheȱchild,ȱtheȱrightȱ
toȱlife,ȱsurvivalȱandȱdevelopment,ȱandȱtheȱrightȱofȱtheȱchildȱtoȱhaveȱhisȱ
orȱherȱviewsȱheardȱonȱallȱmattersȱaffectingȱtheȱchildȱ–ȱareȱatȱtheȱheartȱ
ofȱtheȱCRCȱandȱessentialȱtoȱtheȱunderstandingȱandȱrealisationȱofȱallȱ
childrenȇsȱrights.ȱTheȱprocessȱitselfȱshouldȱbeȱaȱdemonstrationȱofȱtheȱ
rightsȱofȱchildren,ȱwhichȱisȱwhyȱitȱisȱsoȱimportantȱtoȱcreateȱ
opportunitiesȱforȱchildrenȱtoȱparticipateȱinȱbothȱtheȱreviewȱofȱexistingȱ
legislationȱandȱtheȱdevelopmentȱofȱnewȱmeasuresȱofȱwhateverȱkind,ȱ
whetherȱtheyȱbeȱwrittenȱlaws,ȱgovernmentȱpolicies,ȱadministrativeȱ
proceduresȱorȱpublicȱattitudesȱandȱexpectations.ȱ
ȱ
Theȱpublicȱconsensusȱdevelopedȱthroughȱtheȱprocessȱleadingȱupȱtoȱtheȱ
adoptionȱofȱlegislationȱreformsȱisȱanȱimportantȱdeterminantȱofȱtheȱ
effectivenessȱofȱtheȱlegislationȱasȱitȱisȱenforced.ȱAȱchangeȱinȱlegalȱ
measuresȱdealingȱwithȱchildren,ȱmadeȱtoȱrespectȱchildrenȇsȱrights,ȱwillȱ
beȱeffectiveȱonlyȱifȱthereȱisȱsufficientȱpublicȱsupportȱtoȱensureȱthatȱtheȱ
legislationȱisȱrespectedȱinȱpractice.ȱEffectivenessȱalsoȱrequiresȱthatȱ
provisionȱbeȱmade,ȱpreferablyȱinȱtheȱcontextȱofȱtheȱlegislationȱitself,ȱforȱ
theȱnecessaryȱstructuresȱandȱresourcesȱtoȱbeȱputȱinȱplaceȱsoȱtheȱ
legislationȱcanȱbeȱimplementedȱasȱintended.ȱAmongȱtheȱstructuresȱ
neededȱtoȱmakeȱreformȱofȱlegislationȱasȱeffectiveȱasȱpossibleȱisȱaȱ
106
systemȱforȱmonitoringȱtheȱsituationȱofȱchildrenȇsȱrights,ȱpossiblyȱ
throughȱaȱChildrenȇsȱOmbudspersonȱorȱChildrenȇsȱCommissioner.ȱ
ȱ
Legislationȱreformȱisȱanȱongoingȱconcern.ȱAsȱsituationsȱandȱattitudesȱ
change,ȱthereȱwillȱneedȱtoȱbeȱaȱreviewȱofȱtheȱwayȱinȱwhichȱnewȱ
legislationȱaffectsȱchildrenȇsȱrights,ȱandȱfurtherȱreformsȱtoȱthatȱ
legislationȱwillȱlikelyȱbeȱneededȱasȱtimeȱgoesȱon.ȱ
107
Chapterȱ3ȱ
ȱ
CONSTITUTIONALȱREFORMSȱINȱ
FAVOURȱOFȱCHILDRENȱ
ȱ
Thisȱsectionȱpresentsȱaȱsetȱofȱbroadȱguidelinesȱtoȱcountriesȱonȱpossibleȱ
optionsȱforȱtheȱformulationȱandȱinterpretationȱofȱConstitutionsȱasȱ
integralȱpartsȱofȱcomprehensiveȱlawȱreformȱmeasuresȱinȱfavourȱofȱ
children.ȱTheȱrationaleȱbehindȱpresentingȱ“broadȱguidelines”ȱisȱtoȱ
ensureȱthatȱusersȱbenefitȱfromȱaȱrangeȱofȱoptionsȱbasedȱuponȱtheirȱ
specificȱneeds.ȱTheȱextentȱofȱdetail,ȱelaborationȱandȱsimplicityȱwouldȱ
dependȱonȱtheȱpolitical,ȱsocial,ȱeconomicȱandȱculturalȱcircumstancesȱofȱ
theȱcountryȱconcerned.ȱImportantly,ȱtheȱchapterȱacknowledgesȱthatȱ
constitutionalȱreforms,ȱinȱcomparisonȱwithȱlegislativeȱreforms,ȱareȱ
moreȱcomplexȱandȱrequireȱmoreȱconsensusȱbuildingȱprocesses.ȱ
Whereasȱlegislativeȱreformsȱcouldȱbeȱinitiatedȱunderȱtheȱauspicesȱofȱaȱ
governmentȱministryȱorȱcivilȱsociety,ȱconstitutionalȱreformsȱareȱusuallyȱ
moreȱpoliticalȱinȱcharacter,ȱandȱoftenȱtriggeredȱbyȱmajorȱpoliticalȱ
eventsȱorȱmilestones.ȱComparatively,ȱtheȱfinancialȱcostsȱinvolvedȱinȱtheȱ
typeȱofȱreformsȱtoȱbeȱdiscussedȱareȱalsoȱpotentiallyȱhighȱandȱtheȱtimeȱ
appliedȱtoȱsuchȱexercisesȱveryȱprolonged.ȱȱTheȱchapterȱdoesȱnotȱ
thereforeȱintendȱtoȱurgeȱcountriesȱtoȱundertakeȱreforms.ȱOnȱtheȱ
contrary,ȱitsȱpurposeȱisȱtoȱprovideȱadviceȱandȱadvocacyȱmessagesȱforȱ
occasionsȱwhenȱconstitutionalȱreformȱdoesȱtakeȱplace,ȱandȱalsoȱserveȱasȱ
aȱwakeȱupȱcallȱtoȱcountriesȱthatȱhaveȱyetȱtoȱconsiderȱreform.ȱ
ȱ
Asȱwithȱotherȱchapters,ȱthisȱchapterȱadoptsȱaȱrightsȬbasedȱapproach,ȱ
byȱusingȱtheȱprinciplesȱandȱprovisionsȱofȱhumanȱrightsȱinstrumentsȱasȱ
basicȱreferenceȱpointsȱforȱproposingȱconstitutionalȱreforms,ȱwhichȱ
shouldȱultimatelyȱleadȱtoȱtheȱfulfilmentȱofȱhumanȱrights.ȱTheȱchapterȱ
alsoȱrecognisesȱtheȱimmenseȱconstitutionalȱreformȱinterventionsȱacrossȱ
theȱglobeȱandȱusesȱspecificȱcountryȱcaseȱstudiesȱtoȱillustrateȱpotentialȱ
bestȱpracticeȱandȱlessons.ȱTheȱsectionȱalsoȱaddressesȱtheȱpotentialȱrolesȱ
thatȱcustomȱandȱreligionȱcanȱplayȱinȱconstitutionalȱlawȱandȱpolicyȱ
developmentȱwithinȱtheȱcontextȱofȱtheȱtwoȱmainȱlegalȱtraditionsȱ
108
presentedȱinȱtheȱintroduction.ȱItȱcontributesȱtoȱtheȱoverallȱobjectiveȱofȱ
theȱhandbookȱbyȱsupportingȱtheȱviewȱthatȱlegalȱreforms,ȱofȱwhichȱ
constitutionalȱreformsȱformȱanȱessentialȱpart,ȱmustȱbeȱgearedȱtowardsȱ
theȱfulfilmentȱofȱtheȱrightsȱofȱtheȱchild.ȱȱȱ
ȱ
ȱ
Partȱ1ȱ CONSTITUTIONSȱASȱTOOLSȱOFȱ
LEGISLATIVEȱANDȱPOLICYȱREFORMSȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ
ȱ
Thisȱpartȱbrieflyȱdiscussesȱtheȱroleȱofȱconstitutionsȱinȱtheȱoverallȱ
runningȱofȱaȱStateȱandȱdemonstratesȱhowȱthisȱdovetailsȱintoȱlawȱandȱ
policyȱformulationȱinȱfavourȱofȱchildren.ȱInȱessenceȱitȱshowsȱanȱ
importantȱcorrelationȱbetweenȱconstitutionsȱofȱStatesȱandȱtheirȱ
obligationsȱunderȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAW.ȱ
ȱ
1.1ȱ TheȱRoleȱofȱConstitutionsȱinȱStateȱAffairsȱ
ȱ
Inȱtheȱbroadestȱsense,ȱaȱconstitutionȱrefersȱtoȱaȱcountry’sȱsupremeȱlaw,ȱ
whichȱcontainsȱtheȱguidingȱprinciplesȱaccordingȱtoȱwhichȱthatȱcountryȱ
isȱgoverned.ȱMoreȱspecifically,ȱitȱisȱaȱtextȱwhichȱoutlinesȱtheȱpowersȱofȱ
parliament,ȱtheȱexecutive,ȱjudiciaryȱandȱotherȱnationalȱinstitutions.ȱItȱisȱ
characteristicȱ ofȱ writtenȱ constitutions,ȱ especiallyȱ thoseȱ guaranteeingȱ
fundamentalȱrights,ȱthatȱtheyȱalsoȱimposeȱconstraintsȱonȱtheȱpowersȱofȱ
theȱlegislatureȱandȱtheȱgovernmentȱ(Barendt,ȱ1998). 163 ȱȱȱ
ȱ
Aȱusefulȱexampleȱofȱhowȱaȱconstitutionȱcanȱbeȱdefinedȱcomesȱfromȱtheȱ
caseȱ ofȱ Botswana.ȱ Inȱ theȱ caseȱ ofȱ Unityȱ Dowȱ vs.ȱ theȱ Courtȱ ofȱ Appeal 164 ȱ
(1991),ȱtheȱCourtȱofȱAppealȱ(theȱhighestȱcourtȱinȱthatȱcountry),ȱdefinedȱ
aȱwrittenȱconstitutionȱinȱtheȱfollowingȱway:ȱ
ȱ
“Aȱ writtenȱ constitutionȱ isȱ theȱ legislationȱ orȱ compactȱ whichȱ
establishesȱ theȱ stateȱ itself.ȱ Itȱ paintsȱ inȱ broadȱ strokesȱ onȱ aȱ largeȱ
canvassȱtheȱinstitutionsȱofȱtheȱstate;ȱallocatingȱpowers,ȱdefiningȱ
relationshipsȱ betweenȱ suchȱ institutionsȱ andȱ theȱ peopleȱ withinȱ
theȱ jurisdictionȱ ofȱ theȱ state,ȱ andȱ theȱ peopleȱ themselves.ȱ Aȱ
constitutionȱ oftenȱ providesȱ forȱ theȱ protectionȱ ofȱ theȱ rightsȱ andȱ
163
Barendt, E, An Introduction to Constitutional Law, Oxford University Press (1998).
164
Appeals Court, 1994 (6) BCLR 1.
109
freedomsȱofȱtheȱpeople,ȱwhichȱrightsȱandȱfreedomsȱhaveȱthusȱtoȱ
beȱrespectedȱinȱallȱfutureȱstateȱaction.”ȱ
ȱ
Whileȱ itȱ isȱ theȱ generalȱ practiceȱ ofȱ Statesȱ toȱ produceȱ theirȱ respectiveȱ
Constitutionsȱ inȱ oneȱ consolidatedȱ writtenȱ text,ȱ theȱ Unitedȱ Kingdomȱ
(UK)ȱ representsȱ aȱ uniqueȱ exampleȱ ofȱ aȱ Stateȱ withoutȱ suchȱ aȱ codifiedȱ
writtenȱ instrument.ȱ Contraryȱtoȱ generalȱpractice,ȱ theȱUKȱConstitutionȱ
consistsȱ ofȱ aȱ collectionȱ ofȱ legalȱ andȱ nonȬlegalȱ rules,ȱ whichȱ defineȱ theȱ
powersȱofȱtheȱarmsȱofȱtheȱStateȱandȱtheȱrelationsȱbetweenȱthem.ȱȱ
ȱ
Constitutionsȱ mayȱ beȱ broadlyȱ classifiedȱ intoȱ unitaryȱ andȱ federalȱ
constitutionsȱdependingȱuponȱtheȱtypeȱofȱgovernmentȱinȱplace.ȱFederalȱ
Statesȱ suchȱ asȱ theȱ Unitedȱ States,ȱ Canada,ȱ Australiaȱ andȱ Nigeriaȱ areȱ
governedȱ byȱ federalȱ constitutions,ȱ whereasȱ unitaryȱ Statesȱ suchȱ asȱ
Uganda,ȱ Theȱ Gambiaȱ andȱ Ghana,ȱ operateȱ uponȱ singleȱ unitaryȱ
constitutions.ȱInȱtheȱcaseȱofȱtheȱformer,ȱstakeholdersȱshouldȱappreciateȱ
theȱ interfaceȱ betweenȱ theȱ constitutionȱ ofȱ theȱ Federationȱ andȱ theȱ
constitutionȱ ofȱ theȱ individualȱ federalȱ states.ȱ Theȱ generalȱ operativeȱ
principleȱ isȱ thatȱ federalȱ constitutionsȱ applyȱ withȱ overridingȱ forceȱ
throughoutȱ theȱ country,ȱ invalidatingȱ allȱ inconsistentȱ lawsȱ includingȱ
theȱ constitutionsȱ ofȱ individualȱ federalȱ states.ȱ Subjectȱ toȱ consistencyȱ
withȱtheȱfederalȱconstitution,ȱstateȱconstitutionsȱshouldȱalsoȱoperateȱasȱ
theȱ supremeȱ lawȱ ofȱ theȱ region,ȱ toȱ whichȱ allȱ otherȱ localȱ lawsȱ mustȱ
conformȱinȱorderȱtoȱbeȱvalid.ȱ
ȱ
Countriesȱwithȱelaborateȱsystemsȱofȱdecentralisationȱ(forȱexample,ȱ
Uganda)ȱgenerallyȱreferȱtoȱtheirȱrespectiveȱnationalȱconstitutionsȱasȱtheȱ
basisȱforȱallȱactions.ȱDecentralisedȱpoliticalȱunitsȱ(forȱexample,ȱDistrictȱ
Assemblies,ȱMunicipalitiesȱorȱCouncils)ȱareȱtherebyȱgenerallyȱnotȱ
permittedȱtoȱcreateȱtheirȱownȱconstitutions.ȱPowersȱofȱlawmakingȱareȱ
oftenȱrestrictedȱtoȱtheȱcreationȱofȱbylawsȱforȱaddressingȱspecificȱissues,ȱ
suchȱasȱsanitationȱandȱeducation.ȱSuchȱlocalȱinitiativesȱmust,ȱhowever,ȱ
complyȱwithȱtheȱletterȱandȱspiritȱofȱtheȱstateȱconstitution.ȱ
ȱ
Inȱ additionȱ toȱ theȱ threeȱ armsȱ ofȱ theȱ State,ȱ namely,ȱ theȱ executive,ȱ
legislatureȱandȱjudiciary,ȱconstitutionsȱalsoȱlayȱoutȱmandatesȱforȱotherȱ
independentȱconstitutionalȱbodiesȱsuchȱasȱhumanȱrightsȱcommissions.ȱ
Givenȱ theȱ increasingȱ influenceȱ ofȱ internationalȱ law,ȱ constitutionsȱ
110
furtherȱserveȱasȱopportunitiesȱforȱdefiningȱtheȱrelationshipȱbetweenȱtheȱ
domesticȱlawȱofȱaȱStateȱandȱitsȱtreatyȱobligations. 165 ȱȱ
ȱ
Inȱspecificȱrelationȱtoȱchildren,ȱconstitutionsȱalsoȱserveȱasȱframeworksȱ
forȱ theȱ formulationȱ andȱ implementationȱ ofȱ nationalȱ legislationȱ andȱ
policiesȱ inȱ favourȱ ofȱ children.ȱ Becauseȱ theyȱ possessȱ theȱ statusȱ ofȱ theȱ
highestȱ standardsȱ byȱ whichȱ allȱ actsȱ andȱ omissionsȱ areȱ evaluatedȱ andȱ
alsoȱhaveȱtheȱbindingȱforceȱofȱtheȱlaw,ȱtheirȱroleȱasȱtoolsȱofȱchangeȱinȱ
favourȱofȱchildrenȱcannotȱbeȱunderestimated.ȱWithinȱtheȱcontextȱofȱtheȱ
rightsȱofȱtheȱchild,ȱtheyȱbecomeȱtheȱbasicȱstandardȱbyȱwhichȱallȱactions,ȱ
“whetherȱ undertakenȱ byȱ publicȱ orȱ privateȱ socialȱ welfareȱ institutions,ȱ
courtsȱ ofȱ law,ȱ administrativeȱ authoritiesȱ orȱ legislativeȱ bodies”ȱ (articleȱ
3(1)ȱ ofȱ theȱ CRC)ȱ areȱ evaluated.ȱ Forȱ theȱ authoritativeȱ positionȱ ofȱ theȱ
constitutionȱtoȱbeȱsafeguardedȱandȱsustainedȱacrossȱtimeȱandȱregimes,ȱ
itȱwouldȱbeȱnecessaryȱtoȱdesignȱ“supremacyȱclauses”ȱtoȱgiveȱeffectȱtoȱ
this.ȱ Withoutȱ supremacyȱ clauses,ȱ theȱ rightsȱ ofȱ childrenȱ mayȱ notȱ beȱ
guaranteed.ȱ
ȱ
Boxȱ15:ȱSupremacyȱclauses:ȱȱ
ExamplesȱfromȱIraq,ȱNigeria,ȱEastȱTimorȱandȱUkraineȱ
Articleȱ 13ȱ (1)ȱ ofȱ theȱ Constitutionȱ ofȱ Iraqȱ regardsȱ theȱ Constitutionȱ asȱ theȱ “supremeȱ
andȱhighestȱlaw…andȱshallȱbeȱbindingȱthroughoutȱtheȱcountryȱwithoutȱexceptions.”ȱ
ȱ
Articleȱ 1ȱ (3)ȱ ofȱ theȱ Constitutionȱ ofȱ Nigeria,ȱ providesȱ thatȱ “ifȱ anyȱ otherȱ lawȱ isȱ
inconsistentȱwithȱtheȱprovisionsȱofȱthisȱConstitution,ȱthisȱConstitutionȱshallȱprevail,ȱ
andȱthatȱotherȱlawȱshallȱtoȱtheȱextentȱofȱtheȱinconsistencyȱbeȱvoid.”ȱ
ȱ
Sectionȱ 2ȱ (3)ȱ ofȱ theȱ Constitutionȱ ofȱ Eastȱ Timorȱ statesȱ thatȱ “theȱ validityȱ ofȱ theȱ lawsȱ
andȱotherȱactionsȱofȱtheȱStateȱdependȱonȱcomplianceȱwithȱtheȱConstitution.”ȱ
ȱ
Articleȱ8(2)ȱofȱtheȱConstitutionȱofȱUkraineȱestablishesȱitsȱConstitutionȱasȱhavingȱtheȱ
“highestȱlegalȱforce.ȱLawsȱandȱotherȱnormativeȱlegalȱactsȱareȱadoptedȱonȱtheȱbasisȱofȱ
theȱConstitutionȱofȱUkraineȱandȱshallȱconformȱtoȱit.”ȱ
ȱ
Toȱsecureȱtheȱefficacyȱofȱanyȱconstitution,ȱremedialȱactionȱforȱpotentialȱ
orȱactualȱbreachesȱshouldȱbeȱavailableȱthroughȱadministrativeȱandȱ
judicialȱdueȱprocesses.ȱSuchȱrecourseȱenhancesȱtheȱstatusȱofȱ
constitutionsȱasȱprotectiveȱinstrumentsȱinȱfavourȱofȱchildren.ȱȱAnȱ
exampleȱofȱaȱremedialȱactionȱclauseȱcomesȱfromȱtheȱConstitutionȱofȱ
TheȱGambia:ȱȱ
165
See sub-section below on the interface between international law and constitutional
reforms for more details.
111
ȱ
“AȱpersonȱwhoȱallegesȱthatȬȱ
(a) anyȱActȱofȱtheȱNationalȱAssemblyȱorȱanythingȱcontainedȱ
inȱorȱdone,ȱunderȱtheȱauthorityȱofȱanȱActȱofȱtheȱNationalȱ
Assembly,ȱorȱ
(b) ȱanyȱ actȱ orȱ omissionȱ ofȱ anyȱ personȱ orȱ authorityȱ isȱ
inconsistentȱ with,ȱ orȱ isȱ inȱ contraventionȱ ofȱ aȱ provisionȱ
thisȱ Constitution,ȱ mayȱ bringȱ anȱ actionȱ inȱ aȱ courtȱ ofȱ
competentȱjurisdictionȱforȱaȱdeclarationȱtoȱthatȱeffect.”ȱ
ȱ
1.2ȱ ConstitutionsȱasȱFrameworksȱforȱLegislativeȱReformȱ
ȱ
Constitutionsȱserveȱasȱreferenceȱpointsȱforȱtheȱformulationȱofȱlawsȱandȱ
regulationsȱinȱfavourȱofȱchildren.ȱTheyȱdoȱthisȱbyȱfirstȱofȱallȱdefiningȱ
whatȱtheȱlawȱisȱwithinȱtheȱcontextȱofȱStateȱjurisprudence.ȱConstitutionsȱ
ofȱsomeȱcommonȱlawȱjurisdictionsȱmakeȱexpressȱprovisionȱforȱwhatȱ
constitutesȱtheȱscopeȱofȱlaw.ȱTheȱcommonȱlawȱexperienceȱshowsȱthatȱ
whatȱconstitutesȱ‘law’ȱmayȱinclude,ȱbutȱnotȱbeȱlimitedȱto:ȱtheȱ
constitution,ȱstatutoryȱlaw,ȱreceivedȱlawȱ(colonialȱlaw),ȱjudgeȬmadeȱ
lawȱ(judgmentsȱofȱtheȱcourts),ȱcustomaryȱlawȱandȱIslamicȱLaw,ȱwithȱ
variationsȱacrossȱjurisdictions.ȱUnderȱthisȱheading,ȱconstitutionsȱ
broadlyȱspeakingȱshouldȱalsoȱprovideȱdirectionȱonȱtheȱinterȬ
relationshipȱbetweenȱmodernȱlaw,ȱcustomaryȱlaw,ȱIslamicȱlawȱandȱ
internationalȱlaw.ȱ
ȱ
AȱclearȱexampleȱofȱhowȱtheȱlawȱcanȱbeȱdefinedȱcomesȱfromȱGhana,ȱ
whereȱArticleȱ11ȱ(1)ȱofȱtheȱConstitutionȱstatesȱthatȱ“[T]heȱlawsȱofȱ
Ghanaȱshallȱcomprise:ȱ(a)ȱthisȱconstitution,ȱ(b)ȱenactmentsȱmadeȱbyȱorȱ
underȱtheȱauthorityȱofȱtheȱParliamentȱestablishedȱbyȱthisȱConstitution;ȱ
(c)ȱanyȱOrders,ȱRulesȱandȱRegulationsȱmadeȱbyȱanyȱpersonȱorȱ
authorityȱunderȱaȱpowerȱconferredȱbyȱthisȱConstitution;ȱ(d)ȱtheȱ
existingȱlawȱandȱ(e)ȱtheȱcommonȱlaw.”ȱ
ȱ
Apartȱfromȱprovidingȱtheȱgeneralȱparametersȱofȱtheȱlawȱandȱdefiningȱ
theȱrelationshipȱbetweenȱtheȱconstitution,ȱcustomȱandȱreligion,ȱsomeȱ
constitutionsȱalsoȱprovideȱaȱgeneralȱframeworkȱforȱfutureȱlegislativeȱ
interventionsȱinȱfavourȱofȱchildrenȱandȱwomen.ȱȱWhileȱinȱsomeȱ
countriesȱ(forȱexample,ȱGhana)ȱthisȱisȱprovidedȱinȱexpressȱterms,ȱinȱ
othersȱ(forȱexample,ȱSouthȱAfricaȱandȱEthiopia),ȱthisȱmayȱbeȱinferred.ȱȱ
112
ȱ
Boxȱ16:ȱConstitutionalȱmandatesȱforȱlegislativeȱreform:ȱȱ
CaseȱstudiesȱfromȱSouthȱAfrica,ȱEthiopia 166 ȱandȱGhanaȱ
SouthȱAfrica:ȱArticleȱ28ȱofȱtheȱConstitutionȱoutlinesȱspecificȱrightsȱforȱchildren:ȱTheȱ
rightȱ toȱ aȱ name,ȱ nationality,ȱ familyȱ care,ȱ nutrition,ȱ shelter,ȱ health,ȱ juvenileȱ care,ȱ
protectionȱfromȱneglect,ȱmaltreatment,ȱexploitativeȱlabourȱandȱarmedȱconflict.ȱȱ
ȱ
Ethiopia:ȱArticleȱ36ȱofȱtheȱConstitutionȱaffirmsȱtheȱrightȱofȱtheȱchildȱtoȱlife,ȱaȱname,ȱ
nationality,ȱ parentalȱ care,ȱ andȱ protectionȱ fromȱ economicȱ exploitationȱ andȱ corporalȱ
punishment.ȱ
ȱ
Ghana:ȱArticleȱ22ȱofȱtheȱConstitutionȱexpresslyȱmandatesȱParliamentȱtoȱenactȱlawsȱtoȱ
secureȱtheȱequalȱrightsȱofȱmenȱandȱwomenȱtoȱpropertyȱacquiredȱduringȱmarriage.ȱ
ȱ
Inȱ addition,ȱ Articleȱ 28ȱ ofȱ Ghana’sȱ Constitutionȱ expresslyȱ mandatesȱ Parliamentȱ toȱ
enactȱ suchȱ lawsȱ asȱ areȱ necessaryȱ toȱ ensureȱ theȱ realisationȱ ofȱ theȱ rightsȱ ofȱ children.ȱ
Theseȱ rightsȱincludeȱ theȱ rightsȱ to:ȱ Specialȱ care,ȱassistanceȱandȱalimony,ȱ inheritance,ȱ
protectionȱ fromȱ economicȱ andȱ sexualȱ exploitationȱ andȱ deprivationȱ ofȱ medicalȱ
treatmentȱonȱgroundsȱofȱreligiousȱbeliefs.ȱ
ȱ
1.3ȱ ConstitutionsȱasȱFrameworksȱforȱPolicyȱReformȱ
ȱ
Constitutionsȱ giveȱ expressionȱ toȱ Stateȱ prioritiesȱ inȱ theȱ areaȱ ofȱ policy.ȱ
Manyȱ commonȱ lawȱ jurisdictionsȱ provideȱ statementsȱ ofȱ theirȱ
developmentȱ prioritiesȱ throughȱ “Principlesȱ ofȱ Stateȱ Policy.”ȱ Broadȱ
provisionsȱ areȱ usuallyȱ providedȱ onȱ issuesȱ thatȱ areȱ political,ȱ social,ȱ
economic,ȱ educationalȱ andȱ cultural,ȱ orȱ thatȱ concernȱ foreignȱ relationsȱ
andȱ budgeting.ȱ Suchȱ principlesȱ serveȱ asȱ yardsticksȱ forȱ judgingȱ andȱ
criticisingȱtheȱactionsȱofȱgovernmentȱbyȱbothȱStateȱandȱnonȬStateȱactorsȱ
andȱ furtherȱ provideȱ anȱ indicationȱ ofȱ theȱ principlesȱ thatȱ driveȱ aȱ
government’sȱdevelopmentalȱprocess.ȱȱȱ
ȱ
Boxȱ17:ȱPrinciplesȱofȱStateȱPolicy:ȱȱ
CaseȱExamplesȱfromȱtheȱRepublicȱofȱIreland,ȱIndia,ȱPakistan,ȱTheȱGambia,ȱ
Ghana,ȱNigeriaȱandȱUgandaȱ
Irelandȱ hasȱ playedȱ aȱ pioneeringȱ roleȱ inȱ constitutionalȱ incorporationȱ ofȱ theseȱ
principles.ȱOthers,ȱwhichȱhaveȱfollowedȱthisȱexample,ȱincludeȱTheȱGambia,ȱGhana,ȱ
India,ȱ Nigeria,ȱ Pakistanȱ andȱ Uganda.ȱ Withȱ respectȱ toȱ Ghana,ȱ introductoryȱ
provisionsȱprovideȱthatȱDirectiveȱPrinciplesȱofȱStateȱPolicyȱareȱtoȱ“guideȱallȱcitizens,ȱ
Parliament,ȱ theȱ President,ȱ theȱ judiciary,ȱ theȱ Councilȱ ofȱ State,ȱ theȱ Cabinet,ȱ politicalȱ
partiesȱ andȱ otherȱ bodiesȱ andȱ personsȱ inȱ applyingȱ orȱ interpretingȱ thisȱ Constitutionȱ
orȱ anyȱ otherȱ lawȱ andȱ inȱ takingȱ andȱ implementingȱ anyȱ policyȱ decisions,ȱ forȱ theȱ
establishmentȱofȱaȱjustȱandȱfreeȱsociety”ȱ(articleȱ34ȱ(1)).ȱInȱgeneral,ȱtheseȱprinciplesȱ
166
All provisions have been summarised.
113
moreȱorȱlessȱbindȱtogetherȱandȱelaborateȱsegmentsȱofȱtheȱInternationalȱBillȱofȱRightsȱ
forȱ purposesȱ ofȱ socialȱ cohesion,ȱ resourceȱ allocationȱ andȱ development.ȱ Theseȱ
principlesȱ haveȱ theȱ potentialȱ toȱ serveȱ asȱ broadȱ frameworksȱ forȱ implementationȱ ofȱ
theȱMillenniumȱDevelopmentȱGoals.ȱȱȱȱ
ȱ
Underȱ theȱ Socialȱ Objectivesȱ ofȱ itsȱ Directiveȱ Principlesȱ ofȱ Stateȱ Policy,ȱ Theȱ Gambiaȱ
hasȱ madeȱ aȱ constitutionalȱ commitmentȱ toȱ pursueȱ policiesȱ toȱ protectȱ theȱ rightsȱ ofȱ
childrenȱ andȱ otherȱ vulnerableȱ groupsȱ andȱ inȱ doingȱ so,ȱ isȱ toȱ beȱ guidedȱ byȱ
“internationalȱ humanȱ rightsȱ instruments…,ȱ whichȱ recognizeȱ andȱ applyȱ particularȱ
categoriesȱofȱbasicȱhumanȱrightsȱtoȱdevelopmentȱprocesses.ȱUnderȱtheȱsameȱsection,ȱ
theȱStateȱisȱtoȱworkȱtowardsȱtheȱprovisionȱofȱcleanȱandȱsafeȱwater,ȱadequateȱhealth,ȱ
shelterȱandȱsufficientȱfoodȱandȱsecurityȱtoȱallȱpersons”ȱ(Articleȱ216).ȱ
ȱ
TheȱPrinciplesȱinȱpractice:ȱAȱcaseȱstudyȱfromȱGhanaȱ
Directiveȱ Principlesȱ ofȱ Stateȱ Policyȱ ofȱ 1992ȱ guidedȱ theȱ Multisectoralȱ Childȱ Lawȱ
ReformȱCommitteeȱinȱtheȱformulationȱofȱtheȱfirstȱChildren’sȱActȱofȱ1998ȱ(Actȱ560).ȱ
Thisȱ ensuredȱ theȱ inclusionȱ ofȱ civilȱ andȱ politicalȱ rightsȱ inȱ additionȱ toȱ economic,ȱ
socialȱ andȱ culturalȱ rightsȱ inȱ theȱ textȱ ofȱ theȱ instrument.ȱ Inȱ theȱ areaȱ ofȱ socialȱ policyȱ
theyȱ haveȱ alsoȱ servedȱ asȱ aȱ frameworkȱ forȱ theȱ designȱ andȱ implementationȱ ofȱ
nationalȱpolicyȱinstruments,ȱnotably,ȱallȱpostȬ1992ȱPovertyȱReductionȱStrategiesȱandȱ
theȱ draftȱ Nationalȱ Socialȱ Protectionȱ Strategyȱ currentlyȱ undergoingȱ finalisationȱ byȱ
theȱ Ministryȱ ofȱ Manpower,ȱ Youthȱ andȱ Employment.ȱ Significantly,ȱ articleȱ 34(2)ȱ ofȱ
theȱConstitutionȱrequiresȱofȱtheȱPresidentȱtoȱreportȱtoȱParliamentȱatȱleastȱonceȱaȱyear,ȱ
allȱstepsȱtakenȱtoȱensureȱtheȱrealisationȱofȱtheȱpolicyȱobjectivesȱcontainedȱunderȱtheȱ
Directiveȱ Principlesȱ ofȱ Stateȱ Policy;ȱ inȱ particular,ȱ theȱ realisationȱ ofȱ basicȱ humanȱ
rights,ȱaȱhealthyȱeconomy,ȱtheȱrightȱtoȱwork,ȱtheȱrightȱtoȱgoodȱhealthȱcareȱandȱtheȱ
rightȱtoȱeducation.ȱTheȱPresidentialȱpresentationȱisȱopenȱtoȱallȱsectorsȱofȱtheȱpublicȱ
includingȱcivilȱsociety,ȱchildrenȱandȱtheȱUN.ȱ
ȱ
1.4ȱ ConstitutionsȱShouldȱReinforceȱtheȱStatusȱofȱ
ChildrenȱasȱSubjectsȱofȱHumanȱRightsȱ
ȱ
Theȱ statusȱ ofȱ constitutionsȱ asȱ frameworksȱ forȱ legitimisingȱ lawsȱ andȱ
policiesȱ inȱ favourȱ ofȱ children,ȱ presentsȱ themȱ withȱ theȱ opportunityȱ toȱ
reinforceȱtheȱstatusȱofȱchildrenȱasȱsubjectsȱofȱrightsȱasȱopposedȱtoȱbeingȱ
objectsȱofȱcharity.ȱByȱincorporatingȱgeneralȱprovisionsȱ(forȱexample,ȱtheȱ
InternationalȱBillȱofȱRights)ȱandȱspecificȱprovisionsȱ(withȱrespectȱtoȱtheȱ
CRCȱ andȱ CEDAW),ȱ Statesȱ areȱ therebyȱ admittingȱ thatȱ theȱ citizenryȱ
(includingȱ children)ȱ areȱ rightsȱ holdersȱ withȱ theȱ capacityȱ toȱ makeȱ
claimsȱagainstȱdutyȱbearers.ȱ
ȱ
Thisȱ isȱ anȱ essentialȱ componentȱ ofȱ theȱ rightsȬbasedȱ approachȱ andȱ fallsȱ
inȱ lineȱ withȱ Stateȱ obligationsȱ underȱ internationalȱ humanȱ rightsȱ law.ȱ
Theȱ Constitutionȱ ofȱ Venezuelaȱ providesȱ deepȱ insightȱ intoȱ howȱ
114
countriesȱ canȱ craftȱ provisionsȱ thatȱ reinforceȱ childrenȱ asȱ subjectsȱ ofȱ
rights.ȱ
ȱȱ
“Childrenȱareȱfullȱsubjectsȱofȱrightsȱandȱshallȱbeȱprotectedȱbyȱtheȱ
lawȱ andȱ byȱ specialisedȱ organsȱ andȱ courts,ȱ whichȱ shallȱ respect,ȱ
guaranteeȱ andȱ developȱ theȱ provisionsȱ ofȱ thisȱ Constitution,ȱ theȱ
Conventionȱ onȱ theȱ Rightsȱ ofȱ theȱ Childȱ andȱ otherȱ internationalȱ
treatiesȱonȱthisȱsubject,ȱsignedȱandȱratifiedȱbyȱtheȱRepublic.ȱTheȱ
State,ȱ familiesȱ andȱ societyȱ shallȱ giveȱ absoluteȱ priorityȱ toȱ
ensuringȱholisticȱprotectionȱandȱinȱsoȱdoing,ȱshallȱtakeȱtheȱbestȱ
interestsȱ ofȱ theȱ childȱ intoȱ accountȱ inȱ allȱ decisionsȱ andȱ actionsȱ
thatȱ concernȱ them.ȱ Theȱ Stateȱ shallȱ promoteȱ theirȱ progressiveȱ
assumptionȱ ofȱ anȱ activeȱ roleȱ inȱ societyȱ andȱ aȱ nationalȱ
orientationȱsystemȱshallȱdirectȱpoliciesȱforȱtheȱholisticȱprotectionȱ
ofȱ children.ȱ Theȱ Conventionȱ onȱ theȱ Rightsȱ ofȱ theȱ Childȱ isȱ thusȱ
incorporatedȱintoȱtheȱnationalȱlawȱatȱtheȱhighestȱlevel,ȱasȱpartȱofȱ
theȱConstitution”ȱ(articleȱ78).ȱ
ȱ
Inȱ anȱ articleȱ onȱ theȱ rightsȱ ofȱ theȱ childȱ inȱ relationȱ toȱ theȱ finalȱ
Constitutionȱ ofȱ Southȱ Africa,ȱ Mosikatsanaȱ (1998)ȱ drawsȱ outȱ howȱ
ConstitutionsȱinfluenceȱholisticȱimplementationȱofȱtheȱCRC,ȱusingȱtheȱ
lensȱofȱaȱrightsȬbasedȱapproach.ȱ
ȱ
Boxȱ18:ȱHowȱConstitutionsȱcanȱpositivelyȱinfluenceȱCRCȱimplementation:ȱ
1. Constitutionalȱprovisionsȱspecificȱtoȱchildrenȱprovideȱaȱtriggerȱandȱ
springboardȱforȱlegislativeȱreform.ȱ
2. Asȱaȱminimum,ȱconstitutionalizationȱlegitimisesȱpoliticalȱdiscourseȱonȱ
children’sȱrightsȱandȱprovidesȱpoliticalȱjustificationȱforȱgovernmentȱ
expenditureȱonȱsocialȱprogrammesȱforȱchildren.ȱȱȱ
3. Withȱtheȱlocationȱofȱtheȱrightsȱofȱtheȱchildȱinȱtheȱsupremeȱlawȱofȱtheȱland,ȱ
childrenȱcanȱbeȱlegallyȱandȱproperlyȱviewedȱasȱsubjectsȱofȱrights.ȱ
4. Itȱenablesȱtheȱrightsȱclaimants,ȱwhoȱareȱchildren,ȱtoȱmakeȱsubstantialȱclaimsȱ
againstȱtheȱState,ȱusingȱtheȱlawȱasȱaȱsword.ȱ
5. Itȱenablesȱchildrenȱtoȱuseȱtheȱlawȱasȱaȱshieldȱtoȱprotectȱthemselvesȱfromȱ
erosionȱofȱsocialȱbenefitsȱbyȱtheȱState.ȱ
6. ItȱcanȱcreateȱjusticiableȱrightsȱthatȱchildrenȱmayȱenforceȱagainstȱtheȱState.ȱ
7. Itȱoffersȱtheȱgovernmentȱpoliticalȱjustificationȱforȱprovidingȱsocialȱwelfareȱ
benefitsȱtoȱchildrenȱasȱtheyȱcompeteȱforȱscarceȱresources.ȱ
8. Itȱprovidesȱgovernmentȱwithȱusefulȱmoralȱandȱlegalȱjustificationsȱforȱitsȱ
socialȱwelfareȱexpendituresȱwhenȱconservativeȱandȱliberalsȱdemandȱfiscalȱ
restraintȱthroughȱreducedȱexpendituresȱonȱsocialȱprogrammes.ȱ
ȱ
Source:ȱMosikatsanaȱT.Lȱ(1998);ȱChildren’sȱRightsȱandȱFamilyȱAutonomyȱinȱtheȱSouthȱAfricanȱ
115
Context:ȱAȱCommentȱonȱChildren’sȱRightsȱunderȱtheȱFinalȱConstitution;ȱMichiganȱJournalȱofȱ
RaceȱandȱLaw,ȱsymposiumȱarticle.ȱ
ȱ
1.5ȱȱ KeyȱConsiderationsȱinȱtheȱFormulationȱofȱtheȱ
SubstanceȱandȱProcessȱofȱConstitutionsȱinȱFavourȱofȱ
Childrenȱ
ȱ
Whenȱconsideringȱtheȱformulationȱofȱaȱnewȱconstitutionȱorȱtheȱreviewȱ
ofȱ anȱ existingȱ one,ȱ Statesȱ areȱ generallyȱ influencedȱ byȱ theirȱ specificȱ
political,ȱ economic,ȱ socialȱ andȱ culturalȱ circumstances.ȱ Historically,ȱ
politicalȱ perspectivesȱ have,ȱ however,ȱ farȱ outweighedȱ otherȱ
considerationsȱinȱtheȱdevelopmentȱofȱconstitutionalȱlaw.ȱEmancipationȱ
fromȱcolonialȱruleȱinȱcountriesȱsuchȱasȱIndiaȱ(1950),ȱGhanaȱ(1957)ȱandȱ
Nigeriaȱ(1963)ȱprovidesȱsuchȱexamples.ȱTheȱestablishmentȱofȱprinciplesȱ
ofȱ aȱ newȱ systemȱ ofȱ governmentȱ subsequentȱ toȱ aȱ revolution,ȱ asȱ inȱ theȱ
caseȱofȱtheȱFrenchȱconstitutionȱofȱ1791,ȱprovidesȱanotherȱpoliticalȱbasis.ȱ
Fromȱ aȱ rightsȬbasedȱ perspectiveȱ however,ȱ issuesȱ ofȱ substanceȱ andȱ
processȱmayȱalsoȱbeȱconsideredȱandȱintegratedȱintoȱconstitutionalȱlawȱ
formulationȱandȱreviews.ȱȱ
ȱ
1.5.1ȱ TheȱSubstanceȱ
ȱ
Boxȱ19:ȱThreeȱH’sȱtoȱConsiderȱinȱtheȱFormulationȱofȱtheȱSubstanceȱofȱ
Constitutionsȱȱ
Historicalȱcircumstancesȱshouldȱprovideȱmoralȱjustificationȱforȱanȱimprovementȱinȱ
theȱstatusȱandȱconditionsȱofȱchildren.ȱHistoryȱwillȱaidȱaȱStateȱinȱascertainingȱwhichȱ
groupsȱ haveȱ beenȱ traditionallyȱ excludedȱ fromȱ participationȱ andȱ accessȱ toȱ socialȱ
services.ȱ Historicallyȱ excludedȱ groupsȱ suchȱ asȱ women,ȱ children,ȱ theȱ disabledȱ andȱ
minoritiesȱshouldȱbeȱprotectedȱunderȱtheȱumbrellaȱofȱconstitutionalȱlaw.ȱȱȱ
Humanȱ Rightsȱ treatyȱ obligationsȱ shouldȱ beȱ addressedȱ byȱ expressȱ constitutionalȱ
provisions.ȱArticleȱ31ȱofȱtheȱConstitutionȱofȱCambodia,ȱforȱexample,ȱstatesȱthatȱ“theȱ
Kingdomȱ ofȱ Cambodiaȱ shallȱ recognizeȱ andȱ respectȱ humanȱ rightsȱ asȱ stipulatedȱ inȱ
theȱ UNȱ Charter,ȱ theȱ Universalȱ Declarationȱ ofȱ Humanȱ Rights,ȱ theȱ Covenantsȱ andȱ
Conventionsȱrelatedȱtoȱhumanȱrights,ȱwomen’sȱandȱchildren’sȱrights.”ȱ
Humanȱ Developmentȱ priorities,ȱ asȱ setȱ outȱ byȱ globalȱ standards,ȱ espouseȱ aȱ broadȱ
arrayȱ ofȱ developmentȱ concerns.ȱ Examplesȱ includeȱ theȱ Millenniumȱ Developmentȱ
GoalsȱandȱtheȱDeclarationȱonȱtheȱRightȱtoȱDevelopment. 167 ȱȱȱ
ȱ
167
The emphasis here should be on the general content of these global standards and not on
their time-bound specific provisions.
116
1.5.2ȱ TheȱProcessȱ
ȱ
Legalȱreformȱwithinȱtheȱcontextȱofȱconstitutionalȱlawȱcouldȱbeȱinitiatedȱ
throughȱtwoȱbroadȱprocesses:ȱ(a)ȱtheȱformulationȱofȱtheȱveryȱfirstȱ
constitutionȱofȱaȱStateȱand/orȱ(b)ȱtheȱrevisionȱorȱamendmentȱofȱanȱ
existingȱconstitution.ȱTheȱbindingȱandȱuniversalȱcharacterȱofȱ
constitutionsȱcallsȱforȱbroadȬbasedȱparticipationȱofȱallȱsectorsȱofȱtheȱ
State:ȱPoliticalȱ(includingȱtraditionalȱauthorities),ȱeconomicȱ(suchȱasȱ
TradeȱUnions),ȱreligiousȱ(especiallyȱfaithȬbasedȱorganizations)ȱandȱtheȱ
socialȱservicesȱsubȬsectorsȱ(whichȱoftenȱintersectȱwithȱchildren’sȱ
interests)ȱandȱcivilȱsociety.ȱSuchȱaȱcrossȬsectoralȱapproachȱwouldȱ
ensureȱinclusionȱofȱethnicȱandȱgeographicȱsubȬgroups,ȱconstitutionalȱ
sustainabilityȱandȱstabilityȱacrossȱtime.ȱWhileȱspecificȱinterestȱgroupsȱ
suchȱasȱfaithȬbasedȱorganizationsȱandȱtradeȱunionsȱhaveȱtraditionallyȱ
beenȱvisibleȱduringȱsuchȱprocesses,ȱsomeȱgroups,ȱsuchȱasȱchildȬrelatedȱ
institutions,ȱchildrenȱandȱyoungȱpeople,ȱhaveȱhadȱlessȱofȱaȱrole.ȱTheirȱ
visibilityȱthroughoutȱtheȱprocessȱisȱaȱmeansȱofȱensuringȱthatȱtheirȱ
concernsȱreceiveȱdueȱattention.ȱ
ȱ
Proceduresȱforȱconstitutionalȱreviewsȱwillȱdiffer,ȱbasedȱuponȱtheȱ
politicalȱsystemȱinȱquestion.ȱInȱgeneral,ȱtheyȱinvolveȱmoreȱcomplexȱ
proceduresȱandȱconsultationsȱasȱcomparedȱtoȱlegislativeȱreviews. 168 ȱAȱ
recentȱexampleȱofȱaȱconstitutionalȱreviewȱinitiativeȱisȱfoundȱinȱKenya,ȱ
whereȱTheȱConstitutionȱofȱKenyaȱReviewȱCommissionȱspearheadedȱaȱ
nationwideȱconsultativeȱprocessȱforȱobtainingȱconstitutionalȱproposalsȱ
onȱaȱwideȱrangeȱofȱhumanȱrightsȱandȱpolicyȱissues.ȱȱ
ȱ
TheȱKenyanȱreformȱbeganȱwithȱtheȱstruggleȱtoȱchangeȱtheȱpoliticalȱ
systemȱfromȱoneȱpartyȱtoȱaȱmultiȬpartyȱdemocracy.ȱThisȱmovementȱ
gatheredȱgreatȱmomentumȱinȱtheȱ1990s,ȱbringingȱtogetherȱindividualsȱ
andȱorganizationsȱfromȱmanyȱsectorsȱofȱsocietyȱandȱmanyȱpartsȱofȱtheȱ
country.ȱAtȱtheȱforefrontȱofȱtheȱmovementȱwereȱreligious,ȱgenderȱandȱ
humanȱrightsȱorganizations,ȱandȱtheȱConstitutionalȱCommissionȱ
chargedȱwithȱspearheadingȱtheȱprocessȱfacilitatedȱaȱbroadȱ
participatoryȱprocess.ȱItȱencouragedȱnumerousȱcivilȱsocietyȱ
organizationsȱtoȱprovideȱcivicȱeducationȱandȱenteredȱintoȱformalȱ
168
The United Kingdom presents an exception to this general observation. There is no
difference between the review of the Constitution and an ordinary piece of legislation as both
can be carried out with the same level of flexibility. See Barendt (1998).
117
arrangementsȱwithȱotherȱgroupsȱtoȱassistȱinȱprovidingȱcivicȱeducationȱ
byȱprovidingȱfinancialȱandȱotherȱresources.ȱȱTheȱCommissionȱpreparedȱ
aȱnationalȱcurriculumȱandȱteachingȱmaterialsȱforȱcivicȱeducation,ȱ
includingȱReviewingȱtheȱConstitution,ȱallȱofȱwhichȱwereȱwidelyȱ
distributed.ȱItȱalsoȱdistributedȱaȱbooklet,ȱentitledȱTheȱConstitutionalȱ
ReviewȱProcessȱinȱKenya:ȱIssuesȱandȱQuestionsȱforȱPublicȱHearing,ȱtoȱ
stimulateȱreflectionsȱonȱreformȱandȱtoȱelicitȱrecommendations.ȱTheȱ
processȱmadeȱitȱpossibleȱforȱtheȱCommissionȱtoȱgatherȱinformationȱforȱ
craftingȱspecificȱprovisionsȱonȱtheȱrightsȱofȱchildren. 169 ȱȱ
ȱ
Broadlyȱspeaking,ȱtwoȱtypesȱofȱconstitutionalȱreviewsȱmayȱbeȱ
envisaged:ȱa)ȱaȱholisticȱreview,ȱinvolvingȱtheȱconstitutionȱinȱitsȱentiretyȱ
orȱb)ȱaȱreviewȱofȱspecificȱprovisions.ȱTheȱKenyanȱexampleȱcitedȱaboveȱ
fitsȱintoȱtheȱformerȱcategory,ȱwhereasȱIndiaȱandȱtheȱUnitedȱStatesȱmayȱ
beȱcitedȱasȱexamplesȱofȱtheȱlatter.ȱSomeȱconstitutionsȱsetȱoutȱtheȱ
circumstancesȱandȱlegalȱproceduresȱtoȱbeȱfollowedȱinȱanyȱgivenȱ
constitutionalȱreviewȱandȱhaveȱevenȱdefinedȱsomeȱareasȱasȱ
“entrenched,”ȱrequiringȱaȱnationalȱreferendumȱtoȱapproveȱvalidȱ
amendments.ȱInȱallȱcases,ȱhowever,ȱtheȱLegislatureȱplaysȱaȱkeyȱroleȱinȱ
theȱconstitutionalȱreformȱprocess.ȱ
ȱ
Boxȱ20:ȱAmendmentsȱtoȱentrenchedȱprovisions:ȱȱ
CaseȱstudiesȱformȱtheȱUnitedȱStates,ȱCanadaȱandȱGhanaȱ
UnitedȱStates:ȱArticleȱVȱofȱtheȱConstitutionȱofȱtheȱUnitedȱStatesȱsetsȱoutȱaȱcomplexȱ
procedureȱforȱamendmentsȱtoȱtakeȱeffect.ȱItȱspellsȱoutȱtwoȱbroadȱmethods:ȱȱTheȱfirstȱ
isȱforȱaȱBillȱtoȱpassȱbothȱhousesȱofȱtheȱlegislatureȱbyȱaȱtwoȬthirdsȱmajorityȱinȱeach.ȱ
Onceȱ theȱ Billȱ hasȱ passedȱ bothȱ housesȱ itȱ isȱ thenȱ referredȱ toȱ theȱ states.ȱ Theȱ secondȱ
methodȱ isȱ forȱ aȱ constitutionalȱ conventionȱ toȱ beȱ calledȱ byȱ twoȬthirdsȱ ofȱ theȱ
legislaturesȱ ofȱ theȱ statesȱ andȱ forȱ thatȱ conventionȱ toȱ proposeȱ oneȱ orȱ moreȱ
amendments.ȱ Theseȱ amendmentsȱ areȱ thenȱ sentȱ toȱ theȱ statesȱ toȱ beȱ approvedȱ byȱ
threeȬfourthsȱ ofȱ theȱ legislatures.ȱ Thisȱ routeȱ hasȱ neverȱ beenȱ takenȱ andȱ thereȱ haveȱ
beenȱdiscussionsȱinȱpoliticalȱscienceȱcirclesȱaboutȱhowȱsuchȱaȱconventionȱwouldȱbeȱ
convenedȱandȱwhatȱkindȱofȱchangesȱitȱwouldȱbringȱabout.ȱRegardlessȱofȱwhichȱofȱ
theȱtwoȱmethodsȱareȱchosenȱtheȱamendmentȱasȱpassedȱmustȱbeȱapprovedȱbyȱthreeȬ
fourthsȱ ofȱ states.ȱ Theȱ amendmentȱ asȱ passedȱ mayȱ specifyȱ whetherȱ theȱ Billȱ mustȱ beȱ
passedȱbyȱtheȱstateȱlegislatureȱorȱbyȱaȱstateȱconvention. 170 ȱȱ
169
Summarized from The People’s Choice. The Report of the Constitution of Kenya Review
Commission. Short Version (2002).
170
See http://www.uscontitution.net/constam.html for more details.
118
Canada:ȱ Sectionsȱ 38Ȭ49ȱ ofȱ theȱ Constitutionȱ Actȱ ofȱ 1982ȱ outlineȱ proceduresȱ forȱ
amendingȱ theȱ Constitution.ȱ Amendmentsȱ canȱ onlyȱ beȱ passedȱ byȱ theȱ Canadianȱ
Houseȱ ofȱ Commonsȱ theȱ Senateȱ andȱ aȱ twoȬthirdsȱ majorityȱ ofȱ theȱ provincialȱ
legislaturesȱ
representingȱ atȱ leastȱ 50ȱ perȱ centȱ ofȱ theȱ nationalȱ population.ȱ Thoughȱ notȱ
constitutionallyȱ mandatedȱ aȱ popularȱ referendumȱ inȱ everyȱ provinceȱ isȱ alsoȱ
consideredȱtoȱbeȱnecessaryȱbyȱmanyȱespeciallyȱfollowingȱtheȱprecedentȱestablishedȱ
byȱ theȱ Charlottetownȱ Accord. 171 ȱ Ifȱ aȱ constitutionalȱ amendmentȱ affectsȱ onlyȱ oneȱ
province,ȱ however,ȱ onlyȱ theȱ assentȱ ofȱ theȱ legislatureȱ ofȱ thatȱ provinceȱ isȱ required.ȱȱ
Nonetheless,ȱthereȱareȱsomeȱpartsȱofȱtheȱConstitutionȱthatȱcanȱonlyȱbeȱmodifiedȱbyȱaȱ
unanimousȱvoteȱofȱallȱtheȱprovinces.ȱThisȱmayȱincludeȱchangesȱtoȱtheȱcompositionȱ
ofȱtheȱSupremeȱCourtȱchangesȱtoȱtheȱprocessȱforȱamendingȱtheȱConstitutionȱitselfȱorȱ
abolitionȱofȱtheȱMonarchyȱinȱCanada.ȱ
ȱ
Ghana:ȱ Theȱ generalȱ responsibilityȱ forȱ initiatingȱ constitutionalȱ reformȱ liesȱ withȱ
Parliament.ȱ Byȱ articleȱ 289ȱ Parliamentȱ isȱ mandatedȱ toȱ amendȱ anyȱ provisionȱ ofȱ theȱ
Constitutionȱ providedȱ itȱ receivesȱ approvalȱ ofȱ twoȱ thirdsȱ ofȱ allȱ membersȱ atȱ theȱ
secondȱ andȱ thirdȱ readings.ȱ Howeverȱ specificȱ clausesȱ inȱ theȱ Constitutionȱ (forȱ
exampleȱ thoseȱ pertainingȱ toȱ fundamentalȱ humanȱ rightsȱ includingȱ articleȱ 28ȱ inȱ
relationȱ toȱ children’sȱ rights)ȱ cannotȱ beȱ amendedȱ byȱ aȱ mereȱ Actȱ ofȱ Parliament.ȱ
Articleȱ290ȱ(4)ȱrequiresȱsuchȱproposalsȱbeȱsubmittedȱtoȱaȱreferendumȱatȱwhichȱthereȱ
isȱatȱleastȱaȱ40ȱperȱcentȱturnoutȱofȱthoseȱentitledȱtoȱvoteȱandȱatȱleastȱ75ȱperȱcentȱofȱ
thoseȱvotingȱcastȱtheirȱvotesȱinȱfavourȱofȱpassageȱofȱtheȱBill.ȱ
ȱ
1.6ȱ TheȱRelationshipȱbetweenȱConstitutions,ȱCustomaryȱ
LawȱandȱIslamicȱLawȱ
ȱ
Inȱtheȱdesignȱofȱconstitutions,ȱcountriesȱareȱtoȱtakeȱintoȱaccountȱtheȱ
valuesȱofȱtheirȱrespectiveȱsocietiesȱinȱdeterminingȱpotentialȱfactorsȱthatȱ
areȱlikelyȱtoȱinfluenceȱtheȱdirectionȱofȱconstitutionalȱdebatesȱandȱtheȱ
substanceȱofȱprovisions.ȱWhileȱthereȱareȱmanyȱfactorsȱthatȱhaveȱtheȱ
potentialȱtoȱaffectȱconstitutionalȱreforms,ȱthisȱsectionȱisȱlimitedȱtoȱ
customaryȱlawȱandȱIslamicȱlawȱasȱimportantȱkeysȱtoȱtheȱdeterminationȱ
ofȱconstitutionalȱrightsȱinȱmanyȱcountries.ȱInȱthisȱregardȱitȱisȱcriticalȱtoȱ
startȱfromȱtheȱunderstandingȱthatȱbothȱcustomaryȱlawȱandȱIslamicȱLawȱ
offerȱpotentialȱopportunitiesȱinȱfavourȱofȱchildrenȱandȱthatȱ
stakeholdersȱshouldȱthereforeȱexploreȱtheȱpositiveȱpotentialȱofȱeach.ȱ
Onȱtheȱotherȱhand,ȱwhereȱcertainȱaspectsȱofȱcultureȱandȱreligionȱareȱ
likelyȱtoȱnegateȱtheȱprinciplesȱofȱhumanȱrightsȱlawȱandȱevenȱtheȱ
constitutionȱitself,ȱtheȱlatterȱshouldȱprovideȱguidanceȱonȱhowȱtoȱ
171
The Charlottetown Accord was a package of constitutional amendments proposed by the
Canadian Federal and Provincial government in 1992. It was submitted to a public
referendum on October 26 of that year and was defeated.
119
handleȱconflictsȱwhich,ȱinȱallȱcases,ȱshouldȱbeȱresolvedȱinȱfavourȱofȱ
children.ȱȱȱ
ȱ
1.6.1ȱ CountryȱCaseȱstudiesȱonȱConstitutionsȱandȱCustomaryȱLawȱ
ȱ
Itȱ isȱ toȱ beȱ notedȱ that,ȱ dueȱ toȱ historical,ȱ politicalȱ andȱ culturalȱ
differences,ȱ theȱ treatmentȱ ofȱ customaryȱ lawȱ inȱ relationȱ toȱ countryȱ
constitutionsȱ willȱ vary.ȱ Theȱ importanceȱ ofȱ customaryȱ lawȱ withinȱ aȱ
constitutionȱwouldȱdependȱuponȱwhetherȱitȱhasȱmaturedȱtoȱtheȱlevelȱofȱ
law.ȱȱAsȱnotedȱabove,ȱtheȱintegrationȱofȱcustomaryȱlawȱwithinȱtheȱlegalȱ
definitionȱ ofȱ “law,”ȱ isȱ uniqueȱ toȱ commonȱ lawȱ countries.ȱ Whatȱ isȱ
needed,ȱ inȱ theȱ processȱ ofȱ integratingȱ suchȱ provisions,ȱ isȱ theȱ inclusionȱ
ofȱ specificȱ clausesȱ toȱ resolveȱ possibleȱ conflictsȱ betweenȱ modernȱ lawȱ
(includingȱtheȱconstitution)ȱandȱcustomaryȱlaw.ȱ
ȱ
Theȱ constitutionsȱ ofȱ Ghana,ȱ Iraq,ȱ Nigeria,ȱ Southȱ Africa,ȱ TimorȬLesteȱ
andȱ Ugandaȱ provideȱ forȱ theȱ rightȱ ofȱ theȱ individualȱ toȱ enjoy,ȱ practiceȱ
andȱ professȱ anyȱ cultureȱ ofȱ hisȱ orȱ herȱ choice,ȱ providedȱ thisȱ doesȱ notȱ
conflictȱ withȱ theȱ provisionsȱ ofȱ theȱ constitution,ȱ particularlyȱ thoseȱ
whichȱpertainȱtoȱFundamentalȱHumanȱRightsȱandȱFreedoms.ȱȱ
ȱ
Boxȱ21:ȱTheȱsupremacyȱofȱtheȱconstitutionȱoverȱcustom:ȱȱ
CaseȱstudiesȱfromȱGhana,ȱTimorȬLesteȱandȱUgandaȱ
Ghana:ȱ“Everyȱpersonȱisȱentitledȱtoȱenjoy,ȱpractice,ȱprofess,ȱmaintainȱandȱpromoteȱ
anyȱ culture,ȱ language,ȱ traditionȱ orȱ religionȱ subjectȱ toȱ theȱ provisionsȱ ofȱ thisȱ
Constitution.ȱ ȱ Allȱ customaryȱ practicesȱ whichȱ dehumanizeȱ orȱ areȱ injuriousȱ toȱ theȱ
physicalȱandȱmentalȱwellȬbeingȱofȱaȱpersonȱareȱprohibited”ȱ(Articleȱ26).ȱ
ȱ
TimorȬLeste:ȱ“TheȱStateȱshallȱrecognizeȱcustomaryȱlawsȱofȱEastȱTimor,ȱsubjectȱtoȱtheȱ
Constitutionȱ andȱ atȱ anyȱ legislationȱ dealingȱ withȱ specificallyȱ withȱ customaryȱ law”ȱ
(Sectionȱ2ȱ(4)).ȱ
ȱ
Uganda:ȱ“Ifȱanyȱotherȱlawȱorȱanyȱcustomȱisȱinconsistentȱwithȱanyȱofȱtheȱprovisionsȱ
ofȱ thisȱ Constitution,ȱ theȱ Constitutionȱ shallȱ prevail,ȱ andȱ thatȱ otherȱ lawȱ orȱ customȱ
shallȱtoȱtheȱextentȱofȱtheȱinconsistencyȱbeȱvoid”ȱ(Articleȱ(2)ȱ(2)).ȱ
ȱ
Theȱapproachȱtakenȱbyȱtheseȱcountriesȱstrengthensȱtheȱfundamentalȱ
positionȱofȱtheȱconstitutionȱasȱsupremeȱtoȱallȱlaw,ȱincludingȱcustomaryȱ
law.ȱIndeed,ȱtheȱratificationȱofȱinternationalȱinstrumentsȱprovidesȱ
furtherȱbasisȱforȱaȱStateȱtoȱsituateȱlocalȱcustomsȱandȱtraditionsȱwithinȱ
theȱauthoritativeȱframeworkȱofȱtheȱconstitution.ȱȱȱ
ȱ
120
Articleȱ5ȱ(a)ȱofȱCEDAWȱspecificallyȱmentionsȱthatȱ“StatesȱPartiesȱshallȱ
takeȱallȱappropriateȱmeasuresȱtoȱmodifyȱtheȱsocialȱandȱculturalȱ
patternsȱofȱconductȱofȱmenȱandȱwomen,ȱwithȱaȱviewȱtoȱachievingȱtheȱ
eliminationȱofȱprejudicesȱandȱcustomaryȱandȱallȱotherȱpracticesȱwhichȱ
areȱbasedȱonȱtheȱideaȱofȱtheȱinferiorityȱorȱsuperiorityȱofȱeitherȱofȱtheȱ
sexesȱorȱonȱstereotypedȱrolesȱforȱandȱmenȱandȱwomen.”ȱ
ȱ
Manyȱcustomsȱandȱtraditionsȱareȱbasedȱonȱpatriarchalȱprinciples,ȱ
placingȱmalesȱinȱaȱsuperiorȱpositionȱtoȱfemales.ȱInȱBotswana,ȱforȱ
instance,ȱcustomaryȱlawȱtreatsȱwomenȱasȱminorsȱsubjectȱtoȱtheȱ
guardianshipȱofȱtheȱmaleȱheadȱofȱfamily.ȱInȱGhana,ȱpatrilinealȱ
principlesȱofȱsuccessionȱinȱselectedȱpartsȱofȱtheȱcountryȱ(forȱexampleȱinȱ
Eweȱcommunities)ȱsubjugateȱtheȱinheritanceȱrightsȱofȱfemalesȱtoȱthatȱofȱ
malesȱevenȱwhereȱtheȱlatterȱareȱyoungerȱthanȱtheȱformer.ȱ
ȱ
Boxȱ 22:ȱ Howȱ judgesȱ haveȱ treatedȱ conflictsȱ betweenȱ customaryȱ lawȱ andȱ theȱ
constitution:ȱFromȱtheȱBotswanaȱcaseȱofȱUnityȱDowȱvs.ȱAttorneyȱGeneral 172
“Aȱconstitutionalȱguaranteeȱcannotȱbeȱoverriddenȱbyȱcustom.ȱOfȱcourse,ȱtheȱcustomȱ
willȱasȱfarȱasȱpossibleȱbeȱreadȱsoȱasȱtoȱconformȱtoȱtheȱConstitution.ȱButȱwhereȱthisȱisȱ
impossible,ȱitȱisȱcustomȱnotȱtheȱConstitutionȱwhichȱmustȱgo.ȱ
ȬextractedȱfromȱtheȱdecisionȱofȱJusticeȱAmissah,ȱtheȱpresidingȱjudge.ȱȱ
ȱ
“Customs,ȱtraditionsȱandȱcultureȱofȱaȱsocietyȱmustȱbeȱborneȱinȱmindȱandȱaffordedȱ
dueȱrespect,ȱbutȱtheyȱcannotȱprevailȱwhenȱtheyȱconflictȱwithȱtheȱexpressȱprovisionsȱ
ofȱtheȱConstitution.ȱInȱrelationȱtoȱtheȱprotectionȱofȱpersonalȱandȱpoliticalȱrightsȱtheȱ
primaryȱinstrumentȱtoȱdetermineȱtheȱheartbeatȱofȱBotswanaȱisȱitsȱConstitution.”ȱ
ȬextractedȱfromȱtheȱconcurringȱdecisionȱofȱJudgeȱBizos.ȱ
ȱ
Systemsȱwhichȱfailȱtoȱprovideȱequalȱopportunitiesȱforȱmenȱandȱwomenȱ
areȱdiscriminatoryȱinȱcontent,ȱpurposeȱandȱeffect,ȱandȱmustȱbeȱ
eliminated.ȱTheȱfollowingȱprovisionsȱfromȱCEDAWȱprovideȱampleȱ
legalȱjustificationȱforȱincorporatingȱprovisionsȱagainstȱdiscriminationȱ
occasionedȱbyȱcustom.ȱ
ȱ
Boxȱ23:ȱDefinitionȱofȱdiscriminationȱbyȱCEDAWȱ
“ForȱpurposesȱofȱtheȱpresentȱConvention,ȱtheȱtermȱ‘discriminationȱagainstȱwomen’ȱ
shallȱmeanȱanyȱdistinction,ȱexclusionȱorȱrestrictionȱmadeȱonȱtheȱbasisȱofȱsexȱwhichȱ
hasȱ theȱ effectȱ orȱ purposeȱ ofȱ impairingȱ orȱ nullifyingȱ theȱ recognition,ȱ enjoymentȱ orȱ
exerciseȱbyȱwomen,ȱirrespectiveȱofȱtheirȱmaritalȱstatus,ȱonȱaȱbasisȱofȱequalityȱofȱmenȱ
andȱwomen,ȱofȱhumanȱrightsȱandȱfundamentalȱfreedomsȱinȱtheȱpolitical,ȱeconomic,ȱ
social,ȱcultural,ȱcivilȱorȱanyȱotherȱfield”ȱ(Articleȱ1).ȱ
172
Cited in Court Documents, Judgements Cases and Materials, edited by Unity Dow
(1995), p20.
121
ExpressȱprohibitionȱofȱdiscriminationȱthroughȱconstitutionalȱreformȱbyȱCEDAWȱ
“Statesȱ Partiesȱ condemnȱ discriminationȱ againstȱ womenȱ inȱ allȱ itsȱ forms,ȱ agreeȱ toȱ
pursueȱ byȱ allȱ appropriateȱ meansȱ andȱ withoutȱ delayȱ aȱ policyȱ ofȱ eliminatingȱ
discriminationȱ againstȱ womenȱ and,ȱ toȱ thisȱ end,ȱ undertake:ȱ (a)ȱ toȱ embodyȱ theȱ
principleȱ ofȱ equalityȱ ofȱ menȱ andȱ womenȱ inȱ theirȱ nationalȱ constitutionsȱ orȱ otherȱ
appropriateȱ legislationȱ ifȱ notȱ yetȱ incorporatedȱ thereinȱ andȱ toȱ ensure,ȱ throughȱ lawȱ
andȱ otherȱ appropriateȱ means,ȱ theȱ practicalȱ realizationȱ ofȱ thisȱ principle”ȱ (Articleȱ 2ȱ
(a)).ȱ
ȱ
TheȱConstitutionȱofȱTheȱGambiaȱmakesȱexpressȱprovisionsȱforȱequalityȱ
beforeȱtheȱlawȱandȱnonȬdiscrimination.ȱHowever,ȱtheȱConstitutionȱ
appearsȱtoȱgiveȱwithȱoneȱhandȱandȱtakeȱwithȱtheȱother:ȱInȱoneȱsectionȱ
provisionsȱareȱmadeȱtoȱproscribeȱdiscriminationȱandȱatȱtheȱsameȱtimeȱ
exceptionsȱareȱcreatedȱinȱrelationȱtoȱpersonalȱlawȱwhichȱnegateȱtheȱ
essenceȱofȱtheȱsameȱsection.ȱ
ȱ
Boxȱ24:ȱTheȱeffectȱofȱambiguitiesȱinȱconstitutionalȱprovisions:ȱȱ
TheȱcaseȱofȱTheȱGambiaȱ
Articleȱ33ȱ(2)ȱandȱ(3)ȱofȱtheȱ1997ȱConstitutionȱstatesȱasȱfollows:ȱ
“Subjectȱtoȱtheȱprovisionsȱofȱsubsectionȱ(5),ȱnoȱlawȱshallȱmakeȱanyȱprovisionȱwhichȱ
isȱdiscriminatoryȱeitherȱofȱitselfȱorȱinȱitsȱeffect.”ȱ
ȱ
“Subjectȱ toȱ theȱ provisionsȱ ofȱ subsectionȱ (5),ȱ noȱ personȱ shallȱ beȱ treatedȱ inȱ aȱ
discriminatoryȱ mannerȱ byȱ anyȱ personȱ actingȱ byȱ virtueȱ ofȱ anyȱ lawȱ orȱ inȱ theȱ
performanceȱofȱtheȱfunctionsȱofȱanyȱpublicȱofficeȱorȱanyȱpublicȱauthority.”ȱ
ȱ
Subsectionȱ5ȱstatesȱasȱfollows:ȱ
“Subsectionȱ(2)ȱshallȱnotȱapplyȱtoȱanyȱlawȱinȱsoȱfarȱasȱthatȱlawȱmakesȱprovisionȬȱ(c)ȱ
withȱrespectȱtoȱadoption,ȱmarriage,ȱdivorce,ȱburial,ȱdevolutionȱofȱpropertyȱonȱdeathȱ
orȱotherȱmattersȱofȱpersonalȱlaw.”ȱ
ȱ
Theseȱprovisionsȱclearlyȱsuggestȱthatȱcustomaryȱlawȱandȱreligionȱ(asȱ
theȱcaseȱmayȱbe)ȱwillȱtrumpȱtheȱConstitutionȱwhenȱtheyȱareȱinȱconflict.ȱ
Thisȱisȱboundȱtoȱhaveȱaȱnegativeȱimpactȱonȱwomenȱandȱgirls,ȱwhoseȱ
livesȱareȱoftenȱcompromisedȱbyȱmattersȱofȱadoption,ȱmarriage,ȱdivorce,ȱ
burialȱandȱdevolutionȱofȱproperty,ȱdueȱtoȱtheȱinherentȱtendencyȱonȱtheȱ
partȱofȱcustomaryȱlawȱtoȱdiscriminateȱagainstȱthem. 173 ȱHawaȱSisayȬ
Saballyȱnotesȱinȱconnectionȱwithȱarticleȱ33ȱofȱtheȱConstitutionȱofȱTheȱ
Gambiaȱthatȱ“thisȱconstitutionalȱprovision,ȱwhichȱisȱcontainedȱinȱtheȱ
entrenchedȱfundamentalȱhumanȱrightsȱchapter,ȱimpliesȱthatȱaȱperson’sȱ
173
The UN system and counterparts operating in the country arrived at a general consensus to
reform this aspect of the Constitution at a workshop on mainstreaming gender into the CCA in
October 2005.
122
personalȱorȱcustomaryȱlawȱmayȱdiscriminateȱagainstȱhimȱorȱherȱandȱ
suchȱpersonȱshallȱhaveȱnoȱrecourseȱunderȱtheȱConstitutionȱorȱanyȱotherȱ
law.” 174 ȱȱ
ȱ
Forȱtheȱpurposesȱofȱimplementationȱofȱcustomaryȱlaw,ȱtheȱ
ConstitutionȱofȱNigeriaȱmakesȱprovisionȱforȱCustomaryȱCourtsȱofȱ
AppealȱofȱaȱStateȱwithȱappellateȱandȱsupervisoryȱjurisdictionȱinȱcivilȱ
proceedingsȱinvolvingȱquestionsȱofȱcustomaryȱlaw.ȱAȱjudgeȱofȱsuchȱaȱ
courtȱisȱrequiredȱtoȱpossessȱconsiderableȱknowledgeȱof,ȱandȱexperienceȱ
in,ȱtheȱpracticeȱofȱcustomaryȱlawȱ(articlesȱ265Ȭ269).ȱStateȱCouncilsȱofȱ
Chiefsȱareȱalsoȱprovidedȱforȱunderȱtheȱthirdȱscheduleȱofȱtheȱ
ConstitutionȱtoȱadviseȱtheȱGovernorȱonȱmattersȱrelatingȱtoȱcustomaryȱ
law,ȱculturalȱaffairsȱandȱotherȱrelatedȱmatters.ȱSimilarȱprovisionȱhasȱ
beenȱmadeȱunderȱarticleȱ272ȱofȱtheȱConstitutionȱofȱGhana,ȱwhichȱ
providesȱforȱtheȱcontinuedȱexistenceȱofȱtheȱNationalȱHouseȱofȱChiefsȱ
withȱtheȱmandateȱtoȱinterȱaliaȱundertakeȱtheȱ“progressiveȱstudy,ȱ
interpretationȱandȱcodificationȱofȱcustomaryȱlawȱwithȱaȱviewȱtoȱ
evolving,ȱinȱappropriateȱcases,ȱaȱunifiedȱsystemȱofȱrulesȱofȱcustomaryȱ
lawȱandȱanȱevaluationȱofȱtraditionalȱcustomsȱandȱusagesȱwithȱaȱviewȱ
toȱeliminatingȱthoseȱcustomsȱandȱusagesȱthatȱareȱoutmodedȱandȱ
sociallyȱharmful.”ȱAlthoughȱtheseȱprovisionsȱcallȱforȱrepresentationȱofȱ
femaleȱtraditionalȱrulersȱinȱtheȱNationalȱHouseȱofȱChiefsȱforȱeffectiveȱ
reviewȱofȱcustomaryȱlaw,ȱfemaleȱparticipationȱhasȱremainedȱanȱ
illusion.ȱȱȱ
ȱ
Theȱexistenceȱofȱsuchȱinstitutions,ȱhowever,ȱcallsȱforȱeffectiveȱtrainingȱ
ofȱpersonnelȱandȱpanelȱmembersȱinȱmattersȱofȱhumanȱrightsȱandȱ
constitutionalȱlawȱtoȱensureȱthatȱactivitiesȱandȱdecisionsȱresultȱinȱ
improvementsȱinȱbothȱtheȱstatusȱofȱwomenȱandȱchildren,ȱgivenȱtheȱfactȱ
thatȱtheseȱtwoȱgroupsȱareȱtheȱhardestȱhitȱbyȱharmfulȱtraditionalȱ
practices.ȱȱȱ
ȱ
1.6.2ȱ CountryȱCaseȱStudiesȱonȱConstitutionsȱandȱIslamȱ
ȱ
AȱdistinctionȱisȱtoȱbeȱmadeȱbetweenȱStatesȱthatȱprofessȱIslamȱasȱaȱStateȱ
religionȱandȱthoseȱthatȱprovideȱforȱtheȱpracticeȱofȱotherȱreligionsȱbutȱ
makeȱspecialȱprovisionsȱforȱIslamȱonȱaccountȱofȱitsȱdominanceȱamongȱ
174
Sisay-Sabally, Hawa, Women and Law in West Africa: Situational Analysis of Some Key
Issues Affecting Women, ed. Akua Kuenyehia (1998), P. 123 at p. 128.
123
theȱgeneralȱpopulace.ȱIraqȱrepresentsȱanȱexampleȱofȱanȱIslamicȱState,ȱ
withȱspecificȱconstitutionalȱprovisionsȱonȱIslam.ȱByȱarticleȱ2ȱofȱtheȱ
ConstitutionȱofȱIraq,ȱ“IslamȱisȱtheȱofficialȱreligionȱofȱtheȱStateȱandȱisȱaȱ
basicȱsourceȱofȱlegislation.”ȱByȱvirtueȱofȱ2ȱ(a)ȱandȱ2ȱ(c),ȱnoȱlawȱcanȱbeȱ
passedȱ“thatȱcontradictsȱtheȱundisputedȱrulesȱofȱIslamȱandȱtheȱrightsȱ
andȱbasicȱfreedomsȱoutlinedȱinȱtheȱConstitution.”ȱ
ȱ
InȱTheȱGambia,ȱShari’aȱformsȱpartȱofȱtheȱmainȱbodyȱofȱlawȱinȱ“mattersȱ
ofȱmarriage,ȱdivorceȱandȱinheritanceȱamongȱmembersȱofȱtheȱ
Communitiesȱtoȱwhichȱitȱapplies”ȱ(articleȱ7ȱ(f)).ȱToȱfacilitateȱtheȱ
implementationȱofȱIslamicȱprinciples,ȱIslamicȱStates,ȱinȱadditionȱtoȱ
thoseȱthatȱrecogniseȱtheȱpracticeȱofȱIslam,ȱhaveȱmadeȱprovisionȱforȱ
IslamicȱCourtsȱwithȱtheȱmandateȱtoȱapplyȱIslamicȱlawȱinȱallȱmattersȱ
broughtȱbeforeȱthem.ȱInȱTheȱGambiaȱandȱNigeria,ȱjusticeȱ
administrationȱincludesȱIslamicȱorȱCadiȱCourts.ȱInȱtheȱspecificȱcaseȱofȱ
TheȱGambia,ȱtheȱindependenceȱofȱallȱcourtsȱisȱguaranteedȱand,ȱinȱtheȱ
exerciseȱofȱtheirȱfunctions,ȱtheyȱareȱsubjectȱtoȱtheȱConstitution,ȱwhichȱ
includesȱarticleȱ33ȱ(5)ȱcitedȱabove.ȱSpecifically,ȱaȱCadiȱCourtȱhasȱ
jurisdictionȱtoȱapplyȱtheȱShari’aȱ“inȱmattersȱofȱmarriage,ȱdivorceȱandȱ
inheritanceȱwhereȱtheȱpartiesȱorȱotherȱpersonsȱinterestedȱareȱMuslims.”ȱ
Itȱalsoȱhasȱtheȱpowerȱtoȱreviewȱitsȱownȱdecisionsȱwhereȱanȱapplicationȱ
isȱmadeȱbyȱaȱgrievingȱpartyȱ(articleȱ137ȱ(4)ȱandȱ(5)).ȱ
ȱ
ȱ“AnotherȱsetȱbackȱisȱthatȱSectionȱ6ȱofȱCapȱ6:04ȱ(Mohammedanȱ
Recognitionȱ Act)ȱ permitsȱ aȱ Cadiȱ toȱ sitȱ aloneȱ toȱ presideȱ overȱ
issuesȱ ofȱ marriage,ȱ divorceȱ andȱ inheritance.ȱ Itȱ isȱ thereforeȱ
possibleȱforȱhisȱdecisionȱtoȱbeȱsubjective.ȱTheȱConstitutionȱofȱtheȱ
secondȱ Republic,ȱ whichȱ isȱ nowȱ inȱ force,ȱ requiresȱ aȱ Cadiȱ toȱ sitȱ
withȱ twoȱ scholarsȱ ofȱ theȱ Shari’aȱ orȱ Ulamasȱ forȱ hearingȱ atȱ firstȱ
instance.ȱInȱorderȱforȱsectionȱ137ȱtoȱeffectivelyȱamendȱorȱrepealȱ
sectionȱ 6ȱ ofȱ theȱ Mohammedanȱ Lawȱ Recognitionȱ Act,ȱ theȱ
Constitutionȱ requiresȱ thatȱ theȱ Presidentȱ mayȱ byȱ Orderȱ
publishedȱ inȱ theȱ Gazetteȱ andȱ madeȱ withȱ theȱ approvalȱ ofȱ theȱ
Nationalȱ Assembly,ȱ atȱ anyȱ timeȱ withinȱ twelveȱ monthsȱ ofȱ theȱ
comingȱ intoȱ forceȱ ofȱ thisȱ Constitutionȱ makeȱ suchȱ provisionȱ asȱ
mayȱ appearȱ necessaryȱ forȱ repealing,ȱ modifying,ȱ addingȱ toȱ orȱ
adaptingȱanyȱexistingȱlawȱforȱpurposesȱofȱbringingȱitȱinȱaccordȱ
withȱtheȱprovisionsȱofȱthisȱConstitution.ȱSinceȱthisȱactionȱhasȱnotȱ
yetȱbeenȱtaken,ȱtheȱCadiȱcontinuesȱtoȱsitȱaloneȱthoughȱtheȱpanelȱ
cameȱintoȱexistenceȱonȱ4thȱNovemberȱ1997.ȱ
124
ȱ
Inȱ theȱ caseȱ ofȱ Hardingȱ vȱ Harding,ȱ inȱ whichȱ oneȱ Mohammedȱ H.ȱ
Hardingȱ (deceased),ȱ aȱ Muslimȱ andȱ citizenȱ ofȱ Theȱ Gambiaȱ diedȱ
intestate,ȱleavingȱtwoȱsetsȱofȱissuesȱfromȱhisȱwidowȱandȱformerȱ
wife.ȱ Aȱ Cadiȱ Courtȱsittingȱ aloneȱ atȱ theȱ Kanifingȱ Muslimȱ Court,ȱ
administeredȱtheȱ deceasedȱintestateȱestate.ȱAlthoughȱ allȱsetsȱ ofȱ
childrenȱ wereȱ cateredȱ for,ȱ theȱ formerȱ wife,ȱ believingȱ thatȱ herȱ
childrenȱ wereȱ shortȱ changedȱ appliedȱ forȱ anȱ orderȱ ofȱ certiorari.ȱ
SheȱwantedȱtheȱproceedingsȱtoȱbeȱtransferredȱtoȱtheȱHighȱCourtȱ
soȱthatȱtheyȱmightȱthereȱbeȱquashed.ȱTheȱjudgeȱruledȱthatȱthereȱ
wasȱnoȱerrorȱofȱlawȱonȱtheȱfaceȱofȱtheȱrecordȱtoȱsuggestȱthatȱtheȱ
Cadiȱ sittingȱ aloneȱ exceededȱ orȱ lackedȱ jurisdictionȱ forȱ whichȱ
certiorariȱcanȱbeȱapplied.” 175 ȱȱ
ȱ
Islamicȱlawȱisȱsubjectȱtoȱvariedȱinterpretations.ȱInasmuchȱasȱitȱhasȱbeenȱ
recognisedȱunderȱconstitutionsȱofȱStatesȱwhichȱprofessȱIslam,ȱanȱ
opportunityȱexistsȱforȱensuringȱconsistencyȱofȱinterpretationȱwithȱtheȱ
constitutionȱinȱitsȱgeneralȱformȱratherȱthanȱtheȱtreatmentȱofȱIslamicȱlawȱ
asȱaȱseparateȱtext.ȱȱ
ȱ
1.7ȱȱ TheȱInterfaceȱbetweenȱInternationalȱLawȱandȱ
ConstitutionalȱReformsȱ
ȱ
Asȱstatedȱinȱtheȱintroduction,ȱtheȱultimateȱgoalȱofȱaȱconstitutionȱshouldȱ
beȱtheȱfulfilmentȱofȱhumanȱrights.ȱForȱthisȱtoȱoccur,ȱconstitutionsȱmustȱ
findȱethicalȱandȱsubstantiveȱexpressionȱinȱtheȱprinciplesȱandȱprovisionsȱ
ofȱinternationalȱhumanȱrightsȱlaw.ȱWhileȱconstitutionsȱareȱpoliticalȱ
documents,ȱtheȱfactȱthatȱtheyȱpossessȱaȱlegalȱcharacterȱalsoȱprovidesȱ
considerableȱopportunityȱforȱtheȱincorporationȱofȱchildȱrightsȱ
considerations.ȱȱInȱotherȱwords,ȱitȱisȱpossibleȱforȱconstitutionsȱtoȱbeȱ
proȬchildrenȱbyȱreflectingȱtheȱprinciplesȱofȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAW.ȱInȱ
theȱdesignȱofȱconstitutions,ȱStatesȱshouldȱobserveȱthatȱchildrenȱareȱ
subjectsȱofȱbothȱgeneralȱinternationalȱlawȱandȱofȱspecificȱtreatiesȱ
affectingȱthem.ȱȱȱ
ȱ
175
Gaye et al. Women and Law in West Africa: Situational Analysis of Some Key Issues
Affecting Women, ed. Akua Kuenyehia. P. 2 at p.7-8.
125
AȱrightsȬbasedȱapproachȱtoȱconstitutionalȱformulationȱtakesȱintoȱ
accountȱbothȱgeneralȱandȱspecificȱinternationalȱnormsȱinȱfavourȱofȱ
children,ȱasȱchildrenȱareȱsubjectsȱofȱbothȱsetsȱofȱstandards.ȱBecauseȱitȱ
wouldȱnotȱbeȱpossibleȱtoȱadoptȱaȱwholesaleȱincorporationȱofȱ
internationalȱhumanȱrightsȱlaw,ȱStatesȱshouldȱbeȱguidedȱmoreȱbyȱtheȱ
generalȱandȱspecificȱprinciplesȱassociatedȱwithȱtheseȱstandards.ȱ
ȱ
Theȱfollowingȱprovidesȱanȱoverviewȱofȱtheȱgeneralȱandȱspecificȱhumanȱ
rightsȱtreatiesȱaffectingȱchildrenȱandȱtheȱprinciplesȱthatȱguideȱthem.ȱȱ
Countriesȱareȱtoȱnoteȱthatȱtheȱlistȱisȱnotȱexhaustiveȱandȱthatȱmanyȱotherȱ
guidelines,ȱdeclarationsȱandȱconventionsȱmayȱbeȱusedȱasȱtoolsȱduringȱ
constitutionalȱreviewȱprocesses.ȱ
ȱ
Boxȱ25(a):ȱGeneralȱtreatyȱobligationsȱaffectingȱchildrenȱ
x TheȱInternationalȱBillȱofȱRightsȱ(encompassingȱtheȱUniversalȱDeclarationȱofȱ
HumanȱRights,ȱtheȱCovenantȱonȱEconomic,ȱSocialȱandȱCulturalȱRightsȱandȱ
theȱCovenantȱonȱCivilȱandȱPoliticalȱRights)ȱ
x TheȱConventionȱonȱtheȱEliminationȱofȱallȱFormsȱofȱRacialȱDiscriminationȱ
x TheȱConventionȱonȱtheȱEliminationȱofȱAllȱformsȱofȱDiscriminationȱAgainstȱ
Womenȱ
x TheȱConventionȱagainstȱTortureȱandȱotherȱCruel,ȱInhumanȱorȱDegradingȱ
TreatmentȱorȱPunishmentȱ
ȱ
Boxȱ25(b):ȱSpecificȱtreatyȱobligationsȱaffectingȱchildrenȱȱ
x TheȱConventionȱonȱtheȱRightsȱofȱtheȱChildȱȱ
x TheȱOptionalȱProtocolȱtoȱtheȱConventionȱonȱtheȱRightsȱofȱtheȱChild,ȱonȱtheȱ
SaleȱofȱChildren,ȱChildȱProstitutionȱandȱChildȱPornographyȱ
x TheȱOptionalȱProtocolȱtoȱtheȱConventionȱonȱtheȱRightsȱofȱtheȱChildȱonȱtheȱ
InvolvementȱofȱChildrenȱinȱArmedȱConflictȱ
x ILOȱConventionȱonȱMinimumȱAgeȱ(no.ȱ138)ȱ
x ILOȱConventionȱonȱtheȱWorstȱFormsȱofȱChildȱLabourȱ(no.ȱ182)ȱ
x TheȱHagueȱConventionȱonȱtheȱProtectionȱofȱChildrenȱandȱCooperationȱinȱ
respectȱofȱinterȬcountryȱadoptionȱ
x TheȱProtocolȱtoȱPrevent,ȱSuppressȱandȱPunishȱTraffickingȱinȱPersons,ȱ
EspeciallyȱWomenȱandȱChildrenȱ
ȱ
Theȱfollowingȱprinciplesȱapplyȱtoȱtheȱoverallȱbodyȱofȱgeneralȱandȱ
humanȱrightsȱlaw:ȱ
ȱ
x Universalityȱ
x Indivisibilityȱ
x Accountabilityȱ
x Participationȱ
126
ȱ
WhereasȱtheȱfollowingȱprinciplesȱapplyȱinȱspecificȱrelationȱtoȱchildȬ
specificȱtreatyȱstandards:ȱ
ȱ
x NonȬdiscriminationȱ
x TheȱRightȱtoȱlife,ȱsurvivalȱandȱdevelopmentȱ
x Theȱbestȱinterestsȱofȱtheȱchildȱ
x Respectȱforȱtheȱviewsȱofȱtheȱchild.ȱ
ȱ
Inȱkeepingȱwithȱtheȱunderlyingȱfactȱthatȱchildren’sȱrightsȱareȱhumanȱ
rights,ȱStatesȱareȱenabledȱbyȱtheseȱbroadȱprinciplesȱtoȱdesignȱtwoȱ
broadȱsetsȱofȱconstitutionalȱprovisions:ȱOneȱderivedȱfromȱtheȱ
principlesȱofȱgeneralȱhumanȱrightsȱlawȱandȱtheȱotherȱfromȱtheȱ
principlesȱofȱspecificȱhumanȱrightsȱlawȱaffectingȱchildren.ȱThisȱ
approachȱwillȱultimatelyȱresultȱinȱtheȱformulationȱofȱconstitutionsȱthatȱ
reflectȱtheȱgeneralȱcorpusȱofȱhumanȱrightsȱtreatiesȱinȱfavourȱofȱ
children.ȱTheȱaforementionedȱgeneralȱandȱspecificȱprinciplesȱwillȱ
thereforeȱconstituteȱtheȱfoundationȱforȱtheȱconsiderationȱofȱproposalsȱ
underȱPartsȱIIȱandȱIII.ȱȱȱ
ȱ
Partȱ2ȱ GENERALȱCONSTITUTIONALȱ
PROVISIONSȱINȱFAVOURȱOFȱCHILDRENȱȱ
ȱ
2.1ȱ Principleȱ1:ȱUniversalityȱ
ȱ
Provisionsȱthatȱcaptureȱtheȱprincipleȱofȱuniversalityȱofȱrightsȱshouldȱbeȱ
aimedȱatȱensuringȱinclusiveness,ȱespeciallyȱinȱfavourȱofȱtraditionallyȱ
excludedȱgroups.ȱInȱkeepingȱwithȱhumanȱrightsȱinstrumentsȱsuchȱasȱ
theȱUDHR,ȱtheȱConventionȱonȱtheȱEliminationȱofȱallȱFormsȱofȱRacialȱ
DiscriminationȱandȱCEDAW,ȱprovisionsȱcouldȱbeȱcreatedȱtoȱcaptureȱ
nonȬdiscriminationȱ(includingȱtheȱmeaningȱofȱdiscrimination),ȱ
affirmativeȱactionȱ(forȱpurposesȱofȱcreatingȱaȱlevelȱplayingȱfieldȱforȱtheȱ
excluded)ȱandȱequalȱprotectionȱ(toȱreinforceȱequalityȱbeforeȱtheȱlawȱ
andȱequalȱopportunitiesȱforȱall).ȱInȱadditionȱtoȱprovisionsȱonȱ
discriminationȱwithȱrespectȱtoȱCEDAWȱalreadyȱdiscussedȱabove,ȱStatesȱ
areȱalsoȱtoȱtakeȱaccountȱofȱthoseȱcontainedȱinȱtheȱConventionȱonȱtheȱ
EliminationȱofȱAllȱFormsȱofȱRacialȱDiscrimination.ȱBelowȱisȱtheȱfullȱtextȱ
ofȱtheȱdefinitionȱcontainedȱinȱtheȱlatter.ȱ
127
ȱ
“Theȱ termȱ “racialȱ discrimination”ȱ shallȱ meanȱ anyȱ distinction,ȱ
exclusion,ȱ restrictionȱ orȱ preferenceȱ basedȱ onȱ race,ȱ colour,ȱ
descentȱ orȱ nationalȱ orȱ ethnicȱ origin,ȱ whichȱ hasȱ theȱ purposeȱ orȱ
effectȱ ofȱ nullifyingȱ ofȱ impairingȱ theȱ recognition,ȱ enjoymentȱ orȱ
exercise,ȱonȱanȱequalȱfooting,ȱofȱhumanȱrightsȱandȱfundamentalȱ
freedomsȱinȱtheȱpolitical,ȱeconomic,ȱsocial,ȱculturalȱorȱanyȱotherȱ
fieldȱofȱpublicȱlife”ȱ(Articleȱ1).ȱ
ȱ
Aȱdefinitionȱofȱdiscriminationȱleadsȱtheȱwayȱtowardsȱidentifyingȱ
specificȱgroundsȱorȱbasisȱforȱdiscriminationȱtoȱpreventȱtheȱdenialȱofȱ
rightsȱofȱanyȱgroup.ȱExamplesȱofȱgroundsȱforȱdiscriminationȱareȱ
expressedȱinȱtheȱdefinitionȱofȱracialȱdiscriminationȱcitedȱabove.ȱȱ
However,ȱinȱdeclaringȱthatȱ“everyoneȱisȱentitledȱtoȱallȱtheȱrightsȱandȱ
freedomsȱsetȱforthȱinȱthisȱdeclaration”ȱtheȱUDHRȱsetsȱmoreȱgroundsȱ
forȱdiscriminationȱbyȱcitingȱtheȱfollowingȱcategoriesȱunderȱarticleȱ2:ȱ
ȱ
x Raceȱ
x Sexȱ
x Languageȱ
x Religionȱ
x Politicalȱorȱotherȱopinionȱ
x Nationalȱorȱsocialȱoriginȱ
x Birthȱ
x Orȱotherȱstatusȱ
ȱ
Byȱ providingȱ forȱ orȱ otherȱ status,ȱ theȱ declarationȱ makesȱ itȱ possibleȱ forȱ
Statesȱ toȱ deriveȱ additionalȱ categoriesȱ orȱ classificationsȱ basedȱ onȱ localȱ
circumstances.ȱ Theseȱ provisionsȱ haveȱ indeedȱ madeȱ itȱ possibleȱ forȱ
statesȱ toȱ craftȱ comprehensiveȱ provisionsȱ onȱ nonȬdiscriminationȱ basedȱ
onȱ theirȱ specificȱ needsȱ andȱ priorities.ȱ Belowȱ areȱ caseȱ examplesȱ fromȱ
Ghana,ȱfollowedȱbyȱSouthȱAfrica:ȱ
ȱ
“Forȱpurposesȱofȱthisȱarticle,ȱ‘discriminate’ȱmeansȱgiveȱdifferentȱ
treatmentȱ toȱ differentȱ personsȱ attributableȱ onlyȱ mainlyȱ toȱ theirȱ
respectiveȱ descriptionsȱ byȱ race,ȱ placeȱ ofȱ origin,ȱ politicalȱ
opinions,ȱcolour,ȱgender,ȱoccupation,ȱreligionȱorȱcreed,ȱwherebyȱ
personsȱ ofȱ oneȱ descriptionȱ areȱ subjectedȱ toȱ disabilitiesȱ orȱ
restrictionsȱ toȱ whichȱ personsȱ ofȱ anotherȱ descriptionȱ areȱ notȱ
128
madeȱsubjectȱorȱareȱgrantedȱprivilegesȱorȱadvantagesȱwhichȱareȱ
notȱgrantedȱtoȱpersonsȱofȱanotherȱdescription”ȱ(articleȱ17ȱ(3)).ȱȱ
ȱ
Southȱ Africaȱ hasȱ modelȱ provisionsȱ whichȱ takeȱ holisticȱ advantageȱ ofȱ
theȱ orȱ otherȱ statusȱ clauseȱ ofȱ theȱ UDHR.ȱ Articleȱ 9ȱ (3)ȱ onȱ nonȬ
discriminationȱ takesȱ criticalȱ accountȱ ofȱ children,ȱ womenȱ andȱ otherȱ
potentiallyȱexcludedȱgroups:ȱȱ
ȱ
“Theȱ stateȱ mayȱ notȱ unfairlyȱ discriminateȱ directlyȱ orȱ indirectlyȱ
againstȱanyoneȱonȱoneȱorȱmoreȱgrounds,ȱincludingȱrace,ȱgender,ȱ
sex,ȱ pregnancy,ȱ maritalȱ status,ȱ ethnicȱ orȱ socialȱ origin,ȱ colour,ȱ
sexualȱ orientation,ȱ age,ȱ disability,ȱ religion,ȱ conscience,ȱ belief,ȱ
culture,ȱlanguageȱandȱbirth.”ȱȱ
ȱ
TheȱinclusionȱofȱbothȱsexȱandȱgenderȱwithinȱtheȱSouthȱAfricanȱ
ConstitutionȱconnotesȱtheȱdesireȱofȱtheȱStateȱtoȱeliminateȱ
discriminationȱagainstȱwomenȱandȱgirlsȱonȱtheȱbasisȱofȱbothȱtheirȱ
biologicalȱandȱperceivedȱstatusȱwithinȱsociety.ȱThisȱmeansȱthatȱtheȱ
existenceȱofȱpervasiveȱformsȱofȱgenderȱstereotypingȱandȱtraditionalȱ
rolesȱforȱtheȱsexesȱcannotȱbeȱanȱexcuseȱforȱdeprivingȱwomenȱandȱgirlsȱ
ofȱequalȱprotectionȱbeforeȱtheȱlaw.ȱȱAdditionally,ȱtheȱinclusionȱofȱ
pregnancy,ȱageȱandȱbirthȱasȱgroundsȱforȱnonȬdiscriminationȱfurtherȱ
reflectsȱanȱattemptȱonȱtheȱpartȱofȱtheȱStateȱtoȱensureȱrespectȱforȱtheȱ
reproductiveȱstatusȱofȱwomenȱandȱgirls,ȱwhereasȱthoseȱonȱageȱandȱ
birthȱseekȱtoȱprotectȱallȱcategoriesȱofȱchildrenȱandȱyouth.ȱ
ȱ
Inȱlineȱwithȱtheȱneedȱtoȱsupportȱtraditionallyȱexcludedȱgroups,ȱ
constitutionsȱcouldȱalsoȱhaveȱexpressȱclausesȱthatȱpermitȱpositiveȱ
discriminationȱorȱaffirmativeȱactionȱunderȱspecialȱcircumstances.ȱInȱ
India,ȱforȱexample,ȱtheȱStateȱisȱconstitutionallyȱempoweredȱtoȱmakeȱ
specialȱprovisionsȱforȱwomenȱandȱchildrenȱandȱforȱtheȱadvancementȱofȱ
anyȱsociallyȱandȱeducationallyȱdisadvantagedȱclassesȱofȱcitizensȱorȱforȱ
theȱScheduledȱCastesȱandȱTribes 176 ȱwithinȱitsȱnonȬdiscriminationȱ
clause. 177 ȱInȱGhana,ȱaȱsimilarȱclauseȱisȱbeingȱusedȱasȱtheȱconstitutionalȱ
justificationȱforȱtheȱattainmentȱofȱgenderȱparityȱinȱeducation.ȱTheȱ
governmentȱisȱenabledȱbyȱarticleȱ17ȱ(4)ȱ“toȱimplementȱpoliciesȱandȱ
176
Similar provisions are contained in article 22 (4) of the Constitution of Pakistan.
177
Part III, article 15 (3) and 10 (4).
129
programmesȱaimedȱatȱredressingȱsocial,ȱeconomicȱorȱeducationalȱ
imbalanceȱinȱtheȱGhanaianȱsociety.”ȱȱ
ȱ
EqualȱProtectionȱclausesȱlendȱcomplementaryȱsupportȱtoȱprovisionsȱonȱ
nonȬdiscrimination.ȱEqualȱprotectionȱcanȱcoverȱequalȱaccessȱtoȱsocialȱ
servicesȱandȱequalȱopportunitiesȱforȱparticipation.ȱSomeȱstatesȱalsoȱ
expressȱthisȱinȱrelationȱtoȱtheȱlaw.ȱTheȱprovisionsȱofȱtheȱConstitutionȱofȱ
Iraqȱstate,ȱforȱinstance,ȱthatȱ“Iraqisȱareȱequalȱbeforeȱtheȱlawȱwithoutȱ
discriminationȱbecauseȱofȱsex,ȱethnicity,ȱnationality,ȱorigin,ȱcolour,ȱ
religion,ȱsect,ȱbelief,ȱopinionȱorȱsocialȱorȱeconomicȱstatus.” 178ȱ
ȱ
2.2ȱ Principleȱ2:ȱInalienability,ȱIndivisibilityȱandȱ
Interdependencyȱ
ȱ
Theȱprinciplesȱofȱinalienability,ȱindivisibilityȱandȱinterdependencyȱ
affordȱStatesȱtheȱopportunityȱtoȱcreateȱaȱ“basketȱofȱrights”ȱthatȱ
incorporatesȱthoseȱenshrinedȱinȱhumanȱrightsȱconventions,ȱ
declarationsȱandȱcommitments.ȱȱThisȱbasketȱshouldȱincludeȱtheȱbroadȱ
rangeȱofȱcivilȱandȱpoliticalȱrights,ȱandȱeconomic,ȱsocialȱandȱculturalȱ
rightsȱaffordedȱbyȱtheseȱtreatiesȱandȱrequiredȱforȱtheȱproperȱandȱ
harmoniousȱdevelopmentȱofȱtheȱindividual.ȱAsȱsuchȱtheseȱrightsȱ
immenselyȱimpactȱtheȱrightsȱofȱtheȱchild.ȱThisȱisȱmanifestȱinȱtheȱ
followingȱtwoȱways:ȱ
ȱ
1. Asȱaȱcollective,ȱhumanȱrightsȱtreatiesȱwhileȱuniqueȱinȱtheirȱ
purposeȱandȱdirection,ȱareȱalsoȱinterrelatedȱtoȱandȱ
interdependentȱonȱeachȱother.ȱForȱexample,ȱtheȱCRCȱandȱ
CEDAWȱareȱseparateȱinstruments,ȱbutȱareȱnonethelessȱlinkedȱ
byȱvirtueȱofȱtheȱimpactȱtheyȱbothȱhaveȱonȱspecificȱgroups,ȱsuchȱ
asȱtheȱgirlȱchild,ȱpregnantȱwomenȱandȱnursingȱmothers.ȱForȱ
purposesȱofȱthisȱhandbook,ȱtheȱprocessȱofȱusingȱtheȱbroadȱ
spectrumȱofȱhumanȱrightsȱinstrumentsȱforȱtheȱformulationȱofȱ
constitutionalȱprovisionsȱmayȱbeȱreferredȱtoȱasȱtheȱinterȬ
conventionȱapproach.ȱȱ
ȱ
2. Asȱseparateȱinstrumentsȱinȱthemselves,ȱtheȱprovisionsȱcontainedȱ
withinȱthemȱareȱalsoȱdeeplyȱconnectedȱtoȱeachȱother,ȱtoȱtheȱ
extentȱthatȱrecognisingȱandȱfulfillingȱoneȱandȱneglectingȱ
178
Article 14.
130
anotherȱwouldȱresultȱinȱaȱdistortionȱofȱimplementationȱofȱthatȱ
particularȱtreaty.ȱȱForȱinstance,ȱdenyingȱtheȱchildȱtheȱrightȱtoȱ
birthȱregistrationȱasȱcontainedȱinȱarticleȱ7ȱofȱtheȱCRCȱcouldȱ
affectȱtheȱchild’sȱrightȱtoȱeducationȱasȱsetȱoutȱunderȱarticlesȱ28ȱ
andȱ29.ȱForȱpurposesȱofȱthisȱhandbook,ȱtheȱprocessȱofȱusingȱtheȱ
broadȱspectrumȱofȱprovisionsȱwithinȱaȱparticularȱhumanȱrightsȱ
instrumentȱforȱtheȱformulationȱofȱconstitutionalȱprovisionsȱmayȱ
beȱreferredȱtoȱasȱtheȱintraȬconventionȱapproach.ȱ
ȱ
Theȱ combinedȱ effectȱ ofȱ bothȱ approachesȱ wouldȱ resultȱ inȱ theȱ
identificationȱ ofȱ theȱ followingȱ fourȱ keyȱ areasȱ aroundȱ whichȱ
constitutionalȱprovisionsȱmayȱbeȱformulated: 179ȱ
ȱ
x Civilȱandȱpoliticalȱrightsȱ
x Economic,ȱSocialȱandȱCulturalȱRightsȱ
x TheȱRightsȱofȱWomenȱ
x TheȱRightsȱofȱChildrenȱȱ
ȱ
Theȱensuingȱwillȱfocusȱonȱtheȱfirstȱthree,ȱasȱ“children’sȱrights”ȱareȱ
coveredȱseparatelyȱunderȱpartȱ3ȱofȱthisȱchapter.ȱ
ȱ
2.2.1ȱ CivilȱandȱPoliticalȱRightsȱ
ȱ
TheȱCovenantȱonȱCivilȱandȱPoliticalȱRightsȱmakesȱprovisionȱforȱtheȱ
rightȱtoȱlife,ȱprotectionȱfromȱtortureȱorȱfromȱcruel,ȱinhumanȱorȱ
degradingȱtreatmentȱorȱpunishment,ȱprotectionȱfromȱslaveryȱandȱtheȱ
slaveȱtrade,ȱprotectionȱofȱpersonalȱliberty,ȱtheȱrightȱtoȱfairȱtrial,ȱrespectȱ
forȱhumanȱdignity,ȱandȱrespectȱforȱgeneralȱfundamentalȱfreedomsȱ
(freedomsȱofȱspeech,ȱthought,ȱconscience,ȱbelief,ȱassembly,ȱassociation,ȱ
informationȱandȱmovement).ȱTheȱCovenantȱallowsȱforȱderogationȱofȱ
rightsȱduringȱperiodsȱofȱpublicȱemergency,ȱbutȱonlyȱunderȱveryȱ
restrictedȱcircumstancesȱ(seeȱarticleȱ4).ȱItȱalsoȱmakesȱspecialȱreferenceȱ
toȱchildrenȱinȱspecificȱsituations.ȱForȱexample,ȱunderȱarticleȱ6ȱ(5),ȱtheȱ
deathȱpenaltyȱcannotȱbeȱimposedȱonȱchildrenȱandȱpregnantȱwomenȱ
andȱunderȱarticleȱ10(2)(b),ȱ“accusedȱjuvenileȱpersonsȱshallȱbeȱseparatedȱ
fromȱadultsȱandȱbroughtȱasȱspeedilyȱasȱpossibleȱforȱadjudication.”ȱAllȱ
theseȱprovisionsȱareȱcriticalȱforȱensuringȱtheȱwellȬbeingȱofȱchildrenȱandȱ
179
These thematic areas have been chosen to meet the desired objectives of this Handbook.
However, countries should expand or reduce based on local circumstances.
131
shouldȱthereforeȱbeȱincorporatedȱintoȱcountryȱconstitutionsȱtoȱtheȱ
greatestȱextentȱpossible.ȱȱȱ
ȱ
x Ireland,ȱonȱtheȱrightȱtoȱlife:ȱȱ“TheȱStateȱacknowledgesȱtheȱrightȱ
toȱlifeȱofȱtheȱunbornȱand,ȱwithȱdueȱregardȱtoȱtheȱequalȱrightȱtoȱ
lifeȱofȱtheȱmother,ȱguaranteesȱinȱitsȱlawsȱtoȱrespectȱandȱasȱfarȱasȱ
practicable,ȱbyȱitsȱlawsȱtoȱdefendȱandȱvindicateȱthatȱright”ȱ
(Articleȱ40ȱ(3)ȱ(iii)).ȱ
x Sweden,ȱonȱtheȱdeathȱpenalty:ȱ“Thereȱshallȱbeȱnoȱcapitalȱ
punishment”ȱ(Articleȱ4).ȱ
x SouthȱAfrica,ȱonȱtheȱrightȱtoȱhumanȱdignity:ȱȱ“Everyoneȱhasȱtheȱ
rightȱtoȱbodilyȱandȱpsychologicalȱintegrity,ȱwhichȱincludesȱ(a)ȱ
theȱrightȱtoȱmakeȱdecisionsȱconcerningȱreproduction”ȱ(Articleȱ
12ȱ(2)ȱ(a)).ȱ
x Pakistan,ȱonȱtheȱabolitionȱofȱslavery:ȱ“SlaveryȱisȱnonȬexistentȱ
andȱforbiddenȱandȱnoȱlawȱshallȱpermitȱorȱfacilitateȱitsȱ
introductionȱintoȱPakistanȱinȱanyȱform”ȱ(Articleȱ11ȱ(1)).ȱ
x Ghana,ȱonȱtheȱprotectionȱofȱjuveniles:ȱ“Aȱjuvenileȱoffenderȱwhoȱ
isȱkeptȱinȱlawfulȱcustodyȱorȱdetention,ȱshallȱbeȱkeptȱseparatelyȱ
fromȱanȱadultȱoffender”ȱ(Articleȱ15ȱ(4)).ȱ
ȱ
Inȱsomeȱcases,ȱchildrenȱhaveȱtoȱbeȱprotectedȱfromȱtheȱcivilȱandȱpoliticalȱ
activitiesȱofȱadults.ȱTheȱdecisionȱofȱtheȱcourtȱinȱtheȱNigerianȱcaseȱofȱ
CheranciȱvȱCheranciȱpresentedȱbelowȱsuggestsȱthatȱchildrenȱcanȱbeȱ
protectedȱfromȱengagementȱinȱpoliticalȱactivityȱwhereȱitȱisȱestablishedȱ
thatȱtheyȱwillȱbeȱvulnerableȱtoȱabuse.ȱ
ȱ
Boxȱ26:ȱAȱNigerianȱjudicialȱcaseȱstudyȱonȱtheȱinterfaceȱbetweenȱconstitutionalȱ
derogationȱandȱchildȬrelatedȱlegislationȱ
InȱtheȱNigerianȱcaseȱofȱCheranciȱvȱCheranci,ȱ[1960],ȱNRNLRȱ24,ȱDahiruȱCherananciȱ
hadȱ beenȱ prosecutedȱ forȱ incitingȱ aȱ childȱ toȱ participateȱ inȱ politicsȱ contraryȱ toȱ theȱ
provisionsȱ ofȱ theȱ Northernȱ Region,ȱ Childrenȱ andȱ Youngȱ Personsȱ Law,ȱ 1958ȱ (Partȱ
VIII),ȱ whichȱ prohibitedȱ childrenȱ agedȱ 15ȱ andȱ belowȱ fromȱ participatingȱ inȱ politicalȱ
activity.ȱTheȱaccusedȱappliedȱtoȱtheȱHighȱCourtȱNorthernȱRegion,ȱbyȱwayȱofȱmotionȱ
toȱhaveȱtheȱprovisionsȱinȱquestionȱdeclaredȱvoid,ȱonȱgroundsȱofȱbeingȱinȱderogationȱ
ofȱ theȱ freedomsȱ ofȱ expression,ȱ peacefulȱ assembly,ȱ associationȱ andȱ conscienceȱ
guaranteedȱbyȱtheȱConstitution.ȱȱȱ
ȱ
Theȱ Courtȱ heldȱ thatȱ aȱ restrictionȱuponȱaȱfundamentalȱ humanȱ rightȱ must,ȱ beforeȱ itȱ
mayȱ beȱ consideredȱ justifiable,ȱ (a)ȱ beȱ necessaryȱ inȱ theȱ interestȱ ifȱ publicȱ defense,ȱ
publicȱ order,ȱ etc.ȱ andȱ (b)ȱ mustȱ notȱ beȱ excessiveȱ orȱ outȱ ofȱ proportionȱ toȱ theȱ objectȱ
whichȱitȱsoughtȱtoȱachieve.ȱItȱheldȱthisȱlawȱtoȱhaveȱpassedȱtheȱtest.ȱIfȱjuvenilesȱareȱ
132
allowedȱtoȱtakeȱpartȱinȱpolitics,ȱtheirȱreceptiveȱandȱuncriticalȱmindsȱmakeȱthemȱeasyȱ
victimsȱofȱthoughtlessȱorȱunscrupulousȱpeopleȱwhoȱwishȱtoȱtakeȱadvantageȱofȱtheirȱ
youthȱinȱorderȱtoȱindoctrinateȱthemȱwithȱaȱparticularȱideologyȱbeforeȱtheyȱareȱoldȱ
enoughȱ toȱ formȱ theirȱ ownȱ opinionsȱ onȱ theȱ matter.ȱ Juvenilesȱ mayȱ beȱ attractedȱ toȱ
ideasȱ thatȱ areȱ presentedȱ inȱ anȱ interestingȱ form;ȱ Theyȱ haveȱ neitherȱ theȱ experienceȱ
norȱ theȱ standardsȱ ofȱ comparisonȱ toȱ enableȱ themȱ toȱ fullyȱ discriminate.ȱ Theirȱ
enthusiasmsȱ areȱ easilyȱ arousedȱ andȱ theirȱ naturalȱ highȱ spiritsȱ leadȱ themȱ toȱ
thoughtlessȱexcesses.ȱȱȱ
ȱ
1.ȱTheȱRightȱtoȱIdentityȱȱ
ȱ
Theȱ rightȱ toȱ identityȱ throughȱ birthȱ registrationȱ andȱ citizenshipȱ isȱ anȱ
importantȱcomponentȱofȱcivilȱandȱpoliticalȱrightsȱandȱveryȱpertinentȱtoȱ
childrenȱ becauseȱ itȱ ensuresȱ accessȱ toȱ basicȱ socialȱ servicesȱ andȱ
minimisesȱsocialȱexclusion.ȱȱ
ȱȱ
BirthȱRegistrationȱ
ȱ
Boxȱ27:ȱȱ
Articleȱ24ȱofȱtheȱCovenantȱonȱCivilȱandȱPoliticalȱRightsȱnotesȱthat:ȱ
“(1)ȱEveryȱchildȱshallȱhave,ȱwithoutȱanyȱdistinctionȱasȱtoȱrace,ȱcolour,ȱsex,ȱlanguage,ȱ
religion,ȱ nationalȱ orȱ socialȱ origin,ȱ propertyȱ orȱ birth,ȱ theȱ rightȱ toȱ suchȱ measuresȱ ofȱ
protectionȱasȱareȱrequiredȱbyȱhisȱstatusȱasȱaȱminor,ȱonȱtheȱpartȱofȱhisȱfamily,ȱsocietyȱ
andȱ theȱ State;ȱ (2)ȱ Everyȱ childȱ shallȱ beȱ registeredȱ immediatelyȱ afterȱ birthȱ andȱ shallȱ
haveȱaȱname;ȱ(3)ȱEveryȱchildȱhasȱtheȱrightȱtoȱacquireȱaȱnationality.Ȉȱ
ȱ
Articleȱ7ȱofȱtheȱCRCȱstatesȱthat:ȱ
“[T]heȱ childȱ shallȱ beȱ registeredȱ immediatelyȱ afterȱ birthȱ andȱ shallȱ haveȱ theȱ rightȱ
fromȱ birthȱ toȱ aȱ name,ȱ theȱ rightȱ toȱ acquireȱ aȱ nationalityȱ andȱ asȱ farȱ asȱ possible,ȱ theȱ
rightȱtoȱknowȱandȱbeȱcaredȱforȱbyȱhisȱorȱherȱparents.”ȱ
ȱ
Constitutionalȱprovisionsȱonȱbirthȱregistrationȱwouldȱpositivelyȱimpactȱ
aȱ State’sȱ provisionȱ ofȱ registrationȱ servicesȱ byȱ compellingȱ relevantȱ
agenciesȱ toȱ accelerateȱ attainmentȱ ofȱ universalȱ registration.ȱ Generalȱ
constitutionalȱ provisionsȱ withȱ respectȱ toȱ discriminationȱ asȱ alreadyȱ
discussed,ȱwouldȱfacilitateȱtheȱreviewȱofȱlegislationȱwithȱclausesȱwhichȱ
discriminateȱ againstȱ womenȱ andȱ girlsȱ inȱ theȱ registrationȱ process.ȱȱ
Brazilȱ andȱ Ugandaȱ areȱ amongȱ veryȱ fewȱ countriesȱ withȱ constitutionalȱ
provisionsȱonȱbirthȱregistration.ȱȱEachȱofȱthemȱplacesȱanȱobligationȱonȱ
theȱ Stateȱ toȱ fulfillȱ thisȱ rightȱ andȱ inȱ theȱ caseȱ ofȱ Brazil,ȱ toȱ provideȱ thisȱ
freeȱofȱchargeȱwhereȱnecessary.ȱTheȱConstitutionȱofȱUgandaȱstatesȱthatȱ
“[t]heȱStateȱshallȱregisterȱeveryȱbirth,ȱmarriageȱandȱdeathȱoccurringȱinȱ
Uganda”ȱ(Articleȱ18).ȱSimilarly,ȱtheȱConstitutionȱofȱBrazilȱcontainsȱtheȱ
133
followingȱprovision:ȱ“TheȱStateȱprovidesȱfreeȱbirthȱregistrationȱtoȱthoseȱ
whoȱareȱacknowledgedȱtoȱbeȱpoor”ȱ(SectionȱLXXVI).ȱ
ȱ
Citizenshipȱ
ȱ
Basedȱonȱglobalȱexperience,ȱtheȱfollowingȱsectionȱpresentsȱtheȱpossibleȱ
waysȱbyȱwhichȱcitizenshipȱorȱnationalityȱmayȱbeȱacquired:ȱȱȱȱ
ȱ
Citizenshipȱbyȱbirth:ȱChildrenȱbornȱwithinȱorȱoutsideȱtheȱcountryȱmayȱ
becomeȱ aȱ citizenȱ whereȱ eitherȱ parentsȱ orȱ grandparentsȱ isȱ orȱ wasȱ aȱ
citizen. 180 ȱȱ
ȱ
Citizenshipȱ byȱ registration:ȱ Theȱ Registrationȱ ofȱ differentȱ categoriesȱ ofȱ
personsȱasȱcitizens:ȱ(i)ȱaȱmarriedȱpartnerȱofȱaȱcitizenȱmayȱregisterȱasȱaȱ
citizenȱuponȱfulfillmentȱofȱspecificȱlegalȱrequirements,ȱ(ii)ȱpersonsȱbornȱ
withinȱtheȱState,ȱneitherȱofȱwhoseȱparentsȱorȱgrandparentsȱisȱaȱcitizenȱ
andȱ(iii)ȱaȱmigrant,ȱwhoȱhasȱspentȱaȱspecifiedȱnumberȱofȱyearsȱwithinȱ
theȱState.ȱ
ȱ
Presumptionȱ ofȱ citizenship:ȱ Aȱ childȱ foundȱ withinȱ theȱ jurisdictionȱ ofȱ
unknownȱparentageȱcanȱbeȱpresumedȱtoȱbeȱaȱcitizen.ȱȱ
ȱ
Citizenshipȱ byȱ adoption:ȱ ȱ Aȱ child, 181 ȱ neitherȱ ofȱ whoseȱ parentsȱ isȱ aȱ
citizenȱ ofȱ theȱ State,ȱ butȱ isȱ adoptedȱ byȱ aȱ citizenȱ ofȱ theȱ Stateȱ can,ȱ byȱ
virtueȱofȱthatȱadoption,ȱbecomeȱaȱcitizen.ȱ
ȱ
Citizenshipȱbyȱnaturalization:ȱAȱnonȬcitizenȱmayȱapplyȱtoȱbeȱaȱcitizenȱ
throughȱ naturalizationȱ uponȱ meetingȱ specificȱ requirementsȱ (forȱ
example,ȱresidenceȱoverȱaȱperiodȱofȱtimeȱandȱgoodȱbehaviour).ȱȱȱ
ȱ
Foreignersȱandȱstatelessȱpersons:ȱForeignersȱandȱstatelessȱpersonsȱwhoȱ
areȱ inȱ theȱ countryȱ onȱ legalȱ groundsȱ canȱ enjoyȱ theȱ sameȱ rightsȱ andȱ
freedomsȱandȱalsoȱbearȱtheȱsameȱdutiesȱasȱcitizens.ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ
ȱ
Theȱpresumptionȱofȱcitizenshipȱisȱaȱuniqueȱchildȱprotectionȱprovision,ȱ
whichȱ servesȱ toȱ supportȱ childrenȱ affectedȱ byȱ conflicts.ȱ Statesȱ are,ȱ
180
In Brazil, citizenship by birth to foreign parents is also possible, provided they are not in
the service of their country of origin.
181
Limited to children below 16 years of age in the case of Ghana (article 6 (4)) and below 18
years of age in Uganda (article 11 (2).
134
however,ȱencouragedȱtoȱintegrateȱtheȱfullȱrangeȱofȱoptionsȱprovidedȱtoȱ
minimiseȱ opportunitiesȱ forȱ exclusionȱ ofȱ marginalizedȱ children.ȱ Theȱ
Botswanaȱ caseȱ ofȱ Unityȱ Dowȱ vs.ȱ Attorneyȱ General,ȱ alreadyȱ cited,ȱ
demonstratesȱ theȱ realityȱ pertainingȱ inȱ someȱ countries,ȱ ofȱ overlookingȱ
constitutionalȱ provisionsȱ inȱ theȱ formulationȱ ofȱ legislationȱ onȱ
citizenship.ȱ Itȱ presentsȱ aȱ classicȱ testȱ caseȱ onȱ theȱ interfaceȱ betweenȱ
constitutions,ȱgender,ȱchildren’sȱrightsȱandȱcitizenshipȱlegislation.ȱ
ȱ
Boxȱ28:ȱInȱthisȱcase,ȱUnityȱDowȱchallengedȱtheȱCitizenshipȱ(Amendment)ȱActȱofȱ
1984ȱwhichȱprovidedȱamongȱotherȱthingsȱthat: 182
“4.ȱ (1)ȱ Aȱ personȱ bornȱ inȱ Botswanaȱ shallȱ beȱ aȱ citizenȱ ofȱ Botswanaȱ byȱ birthȱ andȱ
descentȱif,ȱatȱtheȱtimeȱofȱhisȱbirth:ȱ
a.ȱhisȱfatherȱwasȱaȱcitizenȱofȱBotswana;ȱorȱ
b.ȱinȱtheȱcaseȱofȱaȱpersonȱbornȱoutȱofȱwedlock,ȱhisȱmotherȱwasȱaȱcitizenȱofȱBotswanaȱ
(2)ȱ Aȱ personȱ bornȱ beforeȱ theȱ commencementȱ ofȱ thisȱ Actȱ shallȱ notȱ beȱ aȱ citizenȱ byȱ
virtueȱofȱthisȱsectionȱunlessȱheȱwasȱaȱcitizenȱatȱtheȱtimeȱofȱsuchȱcommencement.ȱ
a)ȱhisȱfatherȱwasȱaȱcitizenȱofȱBotswana;ȱ
b)ȱinȱtheȱcaseȱofȱaȱpersonȱbornȱoutȱofȱwedlock,ȱhisȱmotherȱwasȱaȱcitizenȱofȱBotswana.ȱ
ȱ
5.ȱ(1)ȱAȱpersonȱbornȱoutsideȱBotswanaȱshallȱbeȱaȱcitizenȱofȱBotswanaȱbyȱdescent,ȱifȱ
atȱtheȱtimeȱofȱhisȱbirth;ȱ
hisȱfatherȱwasȱaȱcitizenȱofȱBotswanaȱ
inȱtheȱcaseȱofȱaȱpersonȱbornȱoutsideȱwedlock,ȱthisȱmotherȱwasȱaȱcitizenȱofȱBotswana.ȱ
(2)ȱ Aȱ personȱ bornȱ beforeȱ theȱ commencementȱ ofȱ thisȱ Actȱ shallȱ notȱ beȱ aȱ citizenȱ byȱ
virtueȱofȱthisȱsectionȱunlessȱheȱwasȱaȱcitizenȱatȱtheȱtimeȱofȱsuchȱcommencement.”ȱ
ȱ
Amongȱ otherȱ things,ȱ Unityȱ Dowȱ questionedȱ theȱ constitutionalityȱ ofȱ theȱ aboveȱ
provisionsȱbyȱadvancingȱtheȱfollowingȱarguments,ȱamongȱothers:ȱ
x Thatȱsectionȱ4ȱ(1)ȱofȱtheȱCitizenshipȱActȱprecludedȱherȱfromȱpassingȱ
citizenshipȱtoȱherȱtwoȱchildrenȱonȱgroundsȱofȱsex.ȱȱȱ
x Thatȱsheȱwasȱprejudicedȱbyȱtheȱdiscriminatoryȱeffectȱofȱtheȱlawȱgivenȱthatȱ
herȱchildrenȱwereȱaliensȱthoughȱbornȱinȱherȱnativeȱcountryȱ(Botswana)ȱandȱ
thusȱenjoyedȱlimitedȱrightsȱandȱlegalȱprotections.ȱȱȱ
x TheȱdiscriminatoryȱeffectȱofȱSectionsȱ4ȱandȱ5ȱisȱinȱconflictȱwithȱSectionȱ3ȱ(a)ȱ
ofȱtheȱConstitutionȱofȱtheȱRepublicȱofȱBotswana.ȱȱ
x Sectionȱ13ȱofȱtheȱCitizenshipȱActȱonlyȱmakesȱspecialȱprovisionȱforȱ
applicationȱforȱnaturalizationȱbyȱaȱwomanȱmarriedȱtoȱBotswanaȱcitizenȱ
menȱandȱnoȱsuchȱspecialȱprovisionȱexistsȱforȱforeignȱhusbandsȱofȱBotswanaȱ
citizenȱwomen.ȱȱ
x Thatȱsheȱwasȱdesirousȱofȱbeingȱaffordedȱtheȱsameȱprotectionȱofȱlawȱasȱaȱ
maleȱBotswanaȱcitizenȱandȱinȱthisȱregard,ȱdesirousȱthatȱherȱchildrenȱbeȱ
accordedȱBotswanaȱcitizenshipȱandȱthatȱherȱspouseȱbeȱinȱaȱpositionȱtoȱ
182
Summarised from Unity Dow v. Attorney General of the Republic of Botswana; found in
Court Documents, Judgements Cases and Materials, edited by Unity Dow (1995).
135
makeȱapplicationȱforȱBotswanaȱcitizenship,ȱshouldȱheȱsoȱwishȱasȱprovidedȱ
forȱunderȱSectionȱ13ȱofȱtheȱCitizenshipȱAct.ȱȱ
x FurthermoreȱSectionsȱ4ȱandȱ5ȱ[andȱ13]ȱrelegatedȱher,ȱbyȱreasonȱofȱbeingȱ
femaleȱtoȱtheȱstatusȱofȱaȱchildȱorȱanȱidiotȱandȱthatȱtheȱcitedȱsectionsȱareȱinȱ
contradictionȱofȱsectionȱ7ȱofȱtheȱConstitutionȱofȱtheȱRepublicȱofȱBotswanaȱ
insofarȱasȱtheyȱsubjectȱherȱtoȱdegradingȱtreatment.”ȱ
ȱ
Byȱ referringȱ toȱ bothȱ localȱ statutesȱ andȱ internationalȱ treatiesȱ (forȱ
example,ȱCEDAW,ȱtheȱCRC,ȱtheȱUNDHRȱandȱtheȱAfricanȱCharterȱonȱ
HumanȱandȱPeoplesȱRights),ȱbothȱtheȱHighȱCourtȱandȱCourtȱofȱAppealȱ
(theȱ highestȱ court)ȱ foundȱ amongȱ otherȱ thingsȱ thatȱ theȱ Actȱ
discriminatedȱagainstȱwomenȱandȱthereforeȱwasȱinconsistentȱwithȱtheȱ
Constitution.ȱȱ
ȱ
2.2.2ȱ Economic,ȱSocialȱandȱCulturalȱRightsȱ
ȱ
Closelyȱ linkedȱ toȱ civilȱ andȱ politicalȱ rightsȱ areȱ economic,ȱ socialȱ andȱ
culturalȱrights,ȱwhichȱareȱcriticalȱforȱtheȱsurvivalȱandȱdevelopmentȱofȱ
theȱ child.ȱ Theȱ Covenantȱ onȱ Economic,ȱ Socialȱ andȱ Culturalȱ Rightsȱ
providesȱ generalȱ guidanceȱ toȱ Statesȱ onȱ materialȱ issuesȱ toȱ considerȱ inȱ
theȱformulationȱofȱprovisionsȱonȱeconomic,ȱsocialȱandȱculturalȱrights.ȱȱȱ
ȱ
Boxȱ29:ȱCriticalȱareasȱofȱconcernȱexpressedȱinȱtheȱCESCRȱinclude:ȱ
x Protectionȱandȱassistanceȱtoȱtheȱfamilyȱasȱtheȱbasicȱunitȱofȱsocietyȱandȱ
responsibilityȱforȱtheȱcareȱandȱeducationȱofȱtheȱchildȱ(Articleȱ10ȱ(1)).ȱ
x Socialȱprotectionȱmeasuresȱforȱmothersȱduring,ȱbeforeȱandȱafterȱpregnancyȱ
(Articleȱ10ȱ(2)).ȱ
x Protectionȱofȱchildrenȱandȱyoungȱpersonsȱfromȱeconomicȱandȱsocialȱ
exploitationȱ(Articleȱ10ȱ(3)).ȱ
x Provisionȱofȱsocialȱprotectionȱinȱtheȱareasȱofȱadequateȱstandardȱofȱlivingȱ
(includingȱfood,ȱhousingȱandȱclothing)ȱ(Articleȱ11(1)),ȱtheȱrightȱtoȱtheȱ
highestȱattainableȱstandardȱofȱphysicalȱandȱmentalȱhealthȱ(Articleȱ12),ȱandȱ
theȱrightȱtoȱeducationȱ(Articleȱ13).ȱ
ȱ
Brazil’sȱ constitutionalȱ provisionsȱ onȱ economic,ȱ socialȱ andȱ culturalȱ
rightsȱ haveȱ beenȱ formulatedȱ withinȱ theȱ contextȱ ofȱ socialȱ protection.ȱ
Withinȱ theȱ publicȱ sector,ȱ socialȱ protectionȱ isȱ aȱ policyȱ frameworkȱ thatȱ
fostersȱ supportȱ forȱ vulnerableȱ andȱ excludedȱ groupsȱ suchȱ asȱ ethnicȱ
minorities,ȱtheȱdisabledȱandȱruralȱcommunities.ȱThisȱensuresȱinclusion,ȱ
andȱ makesȱ exclusionȱ ofȱ specialȱ groupsȱ ofȱ childrenȱ aȱ constitutionalȱ
violation,ȱtherebyȱstrengtheningȱtheȱprincipleȱofȱuniversalityȱandȱnonȬ
discrimination.ȱ Socialȱ protectionȱ isȱ increasinglyȱ becomingȱ theȱ mostȱ
136
effectiveȱ wayȱ ofȱ protectingȱ vulnerableȱ groupsȱ fromȱ shocksȱ andȱ risksȱ
(forȱexample,ȱillnessȱandȱnaturalȱdisasters).ȱ
ȱ
Brazilȱ servesȱ asȱ anȱ exampleȱ ofȱ aȱ countryȱ withȱ anȱ elaborateȱ socialȱ
protectionȱ programmeȱ foundedȱ onȱ theȱ Constitution.ȱ Fromȱ itsȱ chapterȱ
onȱSocialȱRightsȱ(chapterȱII),ȱ“education,ȱhealth,ȱwork,ȱleisure,ȱsecurity,ȱ
socialȱsecurity,ȱprotectionȱofȱmotherhoodȱandȱchildhoodȱandȱassistanceȱ
toȱ theȱ destitute,ȱ areȱ socialȱ rights,ȱ asȱ setȱ forthȱ byȱ thisȱ Constitution.”ȱ
Someȱ ofȱ theȱ socialȱ protectionȱ clausesȱ includeȱ maternityȱ andȱ paternityȱ
leave,ȱ freeȱ assistanceȱ forȱ childrenȱ andȱ dependantsȱ fromȱ birthȱ toȱ sixȱ
yearsȱ ofȱ age,ȱ dayȱ careȱ centresȱ andȱ preȬschoolȱ facilities,ȱ prohibitionȱ ofȱ
night,ȱdangerousȱorȱunhealthyȱworkȱforȱminorsȱunderȱ18ȱyearsȱofȱageȱ
andȱ ofȱ anyȱ workȱ forȱ minorsȱ underȱ 14ȱ yearsȱ ofȱ ageȱ exceptȱ asȱ anȱ
apprentice.ȱUnderȱaȱspecialȱchapterȱonȱtheȱFamily,ȱAdolescentsȱandȱtheȱ
Elderly,ȱ theȱ Brazilianȱ Constitutionȱ alsoȱ placesȱ anȱ obligationȱ onȱ theȱ
family,ȱ societyȱ andȱ theȱ Stateȱ toȱ ensureȱ childrenȱ andȱ adolescentsȱ areȱ
givenȱ priority:ȱ “theȱ rightȱ toȱ life,ȱ health,ȱ nourishment,ȱ education,ȱ
leisure,ȱ professionalȱ training,ȱ culture,ȱ dignity,ȱ respect,ȱ freedomȱ andȱ
familyȱandȱcommunityȱlife,ȱasȱwellȱasȱtoȱguardȱthemȱfromȱallȱformsȱofȱ
negligence,ȱ discrimination,ȱ exploitation,ȱ violence,ȱ crueltyȱ andȱ
oppression”ȱ(articleȱ227).ȱ
ȱ
Theȱ Covenantȱ alsoȱ setsȱ outȱ provisionsȱ onȱ culturalȱ rightsȱ withinȱ theȱ
broadȱ contextȱ ofȱ culturalȱ lifeȱ andȱ scientificȱ progressȱ (articleȱ 15).ȱ
Countriesȱ besetȱ byȱ problemsȱ ofȱ harmfulȱ traditionalȱ practicesȱ shouldȱ
notȱ feelȱ restrictedȱ fromȱ providingȱ appropriateȱ constitutionalȱ
provisionsȱtoȱdeterȱsuchȱpracticesȱunderȱthisȱumbrella.ȱ
ȱȱȱ
2.2.3ȱ Women’sȱRightsȱ
ȱ
Specificȱ provisionsȱ onȱ nonȬdiscriminationȱ onȱ theȱ basisȱ ofȱ genderȱ asȱ
alreadyȱ discussed,ȱ wouldȱ paveȱ theȱ wayȱ forȱ specificȱ legislativeȱ andȱ
policyȱ reformsȱ inȱ lineȱ withȱ CEDAW.ȱ Inȱ accordȱ withȱ theȱ principleȱ ofȱ
interdependencyȱ ofȱ humanȱ rightsȱ treaties,ȱ theȱ linkagesȱ betweenȱ
womenȱ andȱ childrenȱ canȱ beȱ underscoredȱthroughȱ relevantȱprovisionsȱ
suchȱ asȱ thoseȱ pertainingȱ toȱ theȱ rightȱ toȱ health.ȱ However,ȱ whileȱ
upholdingȱ theȱ principleȱ ofȱ interdependencyȱ willȱ beȱ necessary,ȱ
ensuringȱthatȱspecificȱprovisionsȱareȱincludedȱtoȱadvanceȱtheȱpolitical,ȱ
economic,ȱsocialȱandȱculturalȱrightsȱofȱwomenȱasȱaȱdistinctȱgroupȱwillȱ
beȱ imperative.ȱ Thisȱ approachȱ wouldȱ resultȱ inȱ aȱ holisticȱ expressionȱ ofȱ
137
women’sȱ rightsȱ asȱ theȱ letterȱ andȱ spiritȱ ofȱ CEDAWȱ demand.ȱ Inȱ itsȱ
preamble,ȱCEDAWȱgivesȱexpressionȱtoȱtheȱimportantȱroleȱofȱwomenȱinȱ
“theȱ welfareȱ ofȱ theȱ family”ȱ andȱ inȱ particular,ȱ theȱ “theȱ socialȱ
significanceȱofȱmaternity.”ȱInȱsoȱdoing,ȱhowever,ȱitȱacknowledgesȱthatȱ
“aȱchangeȱinȱtheȱtraditionalȱroleȱofȱmenȱasȱwellȱasȱtheȱroleȱofȱwomenȱinȱ
societyȱ andȱ inȱ theȱ familyȱ isȱ neededȱ toȱ achieveȱ fullȱ equalityȱ betweenȱ
menȱ andȱ women.”ȱ Thisȱ suggestsȱ thatȱ constitutionalȱ provisionsȱ
reinforcingȱtheȱmaternalȱrolesȱofȱwomenȱaloneȱwillȱnotȱsufficeȱandȱthatȱ
States,ȱ mustȱ moveȱ towardsȱ aȱ moreȱ holisticȱ approachȱ toȱ addressingȱ
women’sȱrightsȱwithinȱtheirȱrespectiveȱConstitutions.ȱ
ȱ
Boxȱ30(a):ȱExamplesȱofȱprovisionsȱwhichȱdemonstrateȱtheȱcomplementarityȱ
betweenȱCEDAWȱandȱtheȱCRCȱ
x Ghana:ȱ“Specialȱcareȱshallȱbeȱaccordedȱtoȱmothersȱduringȱaȱreasonableȱ
periodȱbeforeȱandȱafterȱchildbirth;ȱandȱduringȱthoseȱperiods,ȱworkingȱ
mothersȱshallȱbeȱaccordedȱpaidȱleave.”ȱ
x Ghana:ȱ“FacilitiesȱshallȱbeȱprovidedȱforȱtheȱcareȱofȱchildrenȱbelowȱschoolȬ
goingȱageȱtoȱenableȱwomen,ȱwhoȱhaveȱtheȱtraditionalȱcareȱofȱchildren,ȱ
realiseȱtheirȱfullȱpotential”ȱ(Articleȱ27ȱ(1)ȱandȱ(2)). 183 ȱ
ȱ
Boxȱ30(b):ȱExamplesȱofȱSpecificȱProvisionsȱonȱWomen’sȱRightsȱwithoutȱReferenceȱ
toȱChildrenȱ
x Uganda:ȱ“Womenȱshallȱhaveȱtheȱrightȱtoȱequalȱtreatmentȱwithȱmenȱinȱallȱ
aspectsȱofȱpolitical,ȱeconomicȱandȱsocialȱlife”ȱ(Articleȱ33ȱ(4)).ȱ
x Ghana:ȱȱ“[T]heȱStateȱshallȱtakeȱstepsȱsoȱasȱtoȱensureȱtheȱfullȱintegrationȱofȱ
womenȱintoȱtheȱmainstreamȱofȱeconomicȱdevelopment”ȱ(Articleȱ36(6)).ȱȱ
x Kenyaȱhasȱalsoȱtakenȱadvantageȱofȱitsȱrecentȱconstitutionalȱreviewȱtoȱ
accordȱmoreȱeconomicȱ(forȱexample,ȱaccessȱtoȱland)ȱandȱpoliticalȱrightsȱtoȱ
women. 184 ȱ
ȱ
Clausesȱ thatȱ mayȱ resultȱ inȱ theȱ perpetuationȱ ofȱ discriminationȱ orȱ
uncertaintyȱinȱinterpretation,ȱasȱtheȱcaseȱmayȱbe,ȱshouldȱbeȱremovedȱorȱ
excluded.ȱInȱPakistan,ȱforȱinstance,ȱsexȱdiscriminationȱinȱappointmentsȱ
inȱ theȱ serviceȱ ofȱ theȱ countryȱ isȱ notȱ permissible.ȱ However,ȱ “specifiedȱ
postsȱ orȱ servicesȱ mayȱ beȱ reservedȱ forȱ aȱ memberȱ ofȱ eitherȱ sexȱ ifȱ suchȱ
183
Duncan has criticized the inclusion of the phrase “women, who have the traditional care of
children,” in a study on Women and Agriculture (2004, sponsored by Freidricht Erbert and
Stiftung and the Federation of International Women Lawyers), suggesting that the provision
perpetuates the perception that childcare is a role strictly reserved for women. This is contrary
to commitments made at the 1994 Cairo conference on population and development, during
which childcare was categorized as a joint responsibility between men and women.
184
For instance, the draft constitution introduced a Mixed Member Proportional system,
requiring that 50% of “top-up” members be women and also ensures fair representation of
women in the second legislative chamber and in district and local councils. See the Report of
the Constitution of Kenya Review Commission (short version, p. 16, 2002).
138
postsȱorȱservicesȱentailȱtheȱperformanceȱofȱdutiesȱandȱfunctionsȱwhichȱ
cannotȱbeȱadequatelyȱperformedȱbyȱmembersȱofȱtheȱotherȱsex”ȱ(Articleȱ
27ȱ (1)).ȱ Suchȱ aȱ provisionȱ mayȱ resultȱ inȱ actsȱ ofȱ directȱ orȱ indirectȱ
discriminationȱagainstȱwomen.ȱ
ȱ
2.2.4ȱ ConstitutionalȱRedressȱinȱCasesȱofȱViolationsȱofȱFundamentalȱ
HumanȱRightsȱ
ȱ
1.ȱRedressȱinȱmattersȱofȱaȱcivilȱandȱpoliticalȱnatureȱ
ȱ
TheȱcaseȱofȱUnityȱDow,ȱcitedȱabove,ȱdemonstratesȱthatȱitȱisȱpossibleȱtoȱ
addressȱ constitutionalȱ violationsȱ ofȱ rightsȱ throughȱ dueȱ process.ȱ
Remediesȱ canȱ beȱ madeȱ availableȱ toȱ victimsȱ ofȱ suchȱ violationsȱ andȱ
additionalȱprovisionsȱmadeȱforȱexpeditiousȱexecutionȱofȱdueȱprocessȱtoȱ
preventȱ furtherȱ violations.ȱ Theȱ followingȱ constituteȱ examplesȱ ofȱ
remediesȱappropriateȱinȱconstitutionalȱcases:ȱ
ȱ ȱ
1. Habeasȱcorpus:ȱtoȱproduceȱtheȱbodyȱofȱaȱvictimȱ
2. Certiorari:ȱtoȱoverturnȱtheȱdecisionsȱofȱaȱpersonȱorȱbodyȱ
3. Mandamus:ȱtoȱcompelȱaȱpersonȱorȱbodyȱtoȱperformȱitsȱfunctionsȱ
4. Prohibition:ȱtoȱpreventȱaȱpersonȱorȱbodyȱfromȱbreakingȱtheȱlawȱ
5. Quoȱwarranto:ȱtoȱmaintainȱtheȱstatusȱquoȱ
6. Declaration:ȱanȱexplicitȱformalȱpronouncementȱbyȱtheȱcourtȱonȱ
theȱissueȱinȱquestionȱ
ȱ
Ghana,ȱIndia,ȱIreland,ȱNigeria,ȱSouthȱAfrica,ȱTimorȬLeste,ȱUgandaȱandȱ
Ukraineȱ areȱ examplesȱ ofȱ Statesȱwithȱ specificȱ constitutionalȱ provisionsȱ
thatȱ allowȱ individualsȱ orȱ groupȱ ofȱ personsȱ (forȱ example,ȱ interestȱ
groups)ȱ toȱ seekȱ redressȱ inȱ aȱ courtȱ ofȱ competentȱ jurisdictionȱ onȱ theȱ
groundȱofȱactualȱorȱpotentialȱviolationȱofȱaȱfundamentalȱhumanȱright.ȱ
InȱSouthȱAfrica,ȱforȱinstance,ȱitȱisȱpossibleȱunderȱarticleȱ38ȱfor:ȱ
ȱ
1. anyoneȱactingȱinȱtheirȱownȱinterest;ȱ
2. anyoneȱactingȱonȱbehalfȱofȱanotherȱpersonȱwhoȱcannotȱactȱinȱ
theirȱownȱname;ȱ
3. anyoneȱactingȱasȱaȱmemberȱof,ȱorȱinȱtheȱinterestȱof,ȱaȱgroupȱorȱ
classȱofȱpersons;ȱ
4. anyoneȱactingȱinȱtheȱpublicȱinterest;ȱandȱ
5. anȱassociationȱactingȱinȱtheȱinterestȱifȱitsȱmembers.ȱ
ȱ
139
Fundamentalȱ Humanȱ Rightsȱ areȱ toȱ beȱ interpretedȱ inȱ accordanceȱ withȱ
theȱ Universalȱ Declarationȱ ofȱ Humanȱ Rightsȱ (TimorȬLeste,ȱ sectionȱ 23).ȱ
Inȱseekingȱjudicialȱredress,ȱinsufficientȱeconomicȱmeansȱcannotȱbeȱusedȱ
asȱ anȱ excuseȱ orȱ theȱ denialȱ ofȱ justiceȱ (Seeȱ Constitutionȱ ofȱ TimorȬLeste,ȱ
sectionȱ26ȱ(2)).ȱ
ȱ
Theseȱprovisionsȱmakeȱitȱpossibleȱforȱindividualsȱorȱgroupsȱofȱpersonsȱ
toȱinitiateȱactionȱwithinȱanȱappropriateȱlegalȱforumȱforȱtheȱpurposesȱofȱ
correctingȱanȱabuseȱofȱtheȱconstitution.ȱItȱmustȱbeȱnoted,ȱhowever,ȱthatȱ
constitutionalȱcasesȱinȱrelationȱtoȱtheȱrightsȱofȱchildrenȱhaveȱgenerallyȱ
notȱbeenȱcommon.ȱSouthȱAfricaȱappearsȱtoȱbeȱanȱexampleȱofȱaȱcountryȱ
withȱ progressiveȱ constitutionalȱ judicialȱ reformsȱ inȱ favourȱ ofȱ children.ȱ
Itȱ isȱ hopedȱ thatȱ thisȱ Handbookȱ andȱ otherȱ materialsȱ onȱ humanȱ rightsȱ
lawȱwouldȱcontributeȱtoȱchangingȱthisȱstateȱofȱaffairs.ȱȱȱ
ȱ
2.ȱRedressȱinȱmattersȱofȱaȱsocial,ȱeconomicȱandȱculturalȱnatureȱ
ȱ
AlthoughȱmanyȱStatesȱhaveȱincorporatedȱsocial,ȱeconomicȱandȱculturalȱ
rightsȱ inȱ theirȱ constitutions’ȱ Billsȱ ofȱ Rightsȱ orȱ separateȱ sectionsȱ onȱ
Fundamentalȱ Humanȱ Rights,ȱ issuesȱ ofȱ justiciabilityȱ andȱ enforcementȱ
haveȱbeenȱlessȱclear.ȱThisȱmayȱhaveȱbeenȱtheȱreasoningȱbehindȱarticleȱ2ȱ
(1)ȱ ofȱ theȱ Internationalȱ Covenantȱ onȱ Economic,ȱ Socialȱ andȱ Culturalȱ
Rightsȱwhichȱstatesȱthatȱ“[e]achȱStateȱParty…undertakesȱtoȱtakeȱsteps,ȱ
individuallyȱ andȱ throughȱ internationalȱ assistanceȱ andȱ coȬoperation,ȱ
especiallyȱ economicȱ andȱ technical,ȱ toȱ theȱ maximumȱ ofȱ itsȱ availableȱ
resourcesȱwithȱaȱviewȱtoȱachievingȱprogressivelyȱtheȱfullȱrealizationȱofȱ
theȱrightsȱrecognizedȱinȱtheȱpresentȱCovenant.” 185 ȱȱ
ȱ
However,ȱ afterȱ 40ȱ yearsȱ ofȱ globalȱ operationȱ ofȱ thisȱ Covenantȱ andȱ anȱ
almostȱ equalȱ periodȱ ofȱ internationalȱ assistanceȱ andȱ cooperation,ȱ anȱ
evolutionȱofȱtheȱapplicationȱofȱthisȱprincipleȱappearsȱtoȱbeȱtakingȱplaceȱ
underȱ theȱ auspicesȱ ofȱ theȱ UNȱ Committeeȱ onȱ theȱ Covenantȱ ofȱ
Economic,ȱ Socialȱ andȱ Culturalȱ Rights. 186 ȱ Theȱ Committeeȱ hasȱ
consideredȱtheȱquestionȱofȱjusticiabilityȱinȱconnectionȱwithȱtheȱroleȱofȱ
185
See article 4 of the CRC for similar provisions.
186
The beginning of this analysis, including the extract in Box 3, is to be credited to Human
Rights in the Administration of Justice: A Manual on Human Rights for Judges, Prosecutors,
and Lawyers, produced by the Office of the High Commissioner for Human rights in
collaboration with the International Bar Association, Professional Training Series No. 9
(2003).
140
legalȱ remediesȱ inȱ itsȱ Generalȱ Commentȱ No.ȱ 9.ȱ Althoughȱ itȱ considersȱ
thatȱ“theȱrightȱtoȱanȱeffectiveȱremedyȱneedȱnotȱbeȱinterpretedȱasȱalwaysȱ
requiringȱaȱjudicialȱremedy”ȱandȱthatȱ“administrativeȱremediesȱwill,ȱinȱ
manyȱ cases,ȱ beȱ adequate,”ȱ itȱ isȱ alsoȱ ofȱ theȱ viewȱ thatȱ “wheneverȱ aȱ
Covenantȱ rightȱ cannotȱ beȱ madeȱ fullyȱ effectiveȱ withoutȱ someȱ roleȱ forȱ
theȱjudiciary,ȱjudicialȱremediesȱareȱnecessary.”ȱ
ȱ
Inȱ thisȱ Generalȱ Comment,ȱ theȱ Committeeȱ regretsȱ that,ȱ inȱ contrastȱ toȱ
civilȱ andȱ politicalȱ rights,ȱ theȱ “assumptionȱ isȱ tooȱ oftenȱ made”ȱ thatȱ
judicialȱ remediesȱ areȱ notȱ essentialȱ withȱ regardȱ toȱ violationsȱ ofȱ
economic,ȱsocialȱandȱculturalȱrights,ȱalthoughȱ“thisȱdiscrepancyȱisȱnotȱ
warrantedȱ eitherȱ byȱ theȱ natureȱ ofȱ theȱ rightsȱ orȱ byȱ theȱ relevantȱ
Covenantȱ provisions.”ȱ Theȱ Committeeȱ notesȱ thatȱ itȱ hasȱ alreadyȱ madeȱ
clearȱ “thatȱ itȱ considersȱ manyȱ ofȱ theȱ provisionsȱ inȱ theȱ Covenantȱ toȱ beȱ
capableȱofȱimmediateȱimplementation,”ȱforȱinstance,ȱarticlesȱ3,ȱ7(a)(i),ȱ
8,ȱ 10(3),ȱ 13(2)(a),ȱ 13(3),ȱ 13(4)ȱ andȱ 15(3).ȱ Theseȱ provisions,ȱ whichȱ theȱ
Committeeȱ citesȱ byȱ wayȱ ofȱ example,ȱ containȱ rightsȱ inȱ relationȱ toȱ
children:ȱ
ȱ
1. 1.ȱTheȱrightȱofȱchildrenȱandȱyoungȱpeopleȱtoȱspecialȱmeasureȱofȱ
protectionȱandȱassistance,ȱtoȱbeȱtakenȱwithoutȱdiscriminationȱ
(articleȱ10ȱ(3));ȱ
2. 2.ȱTheȱrightȱtoȱfreeȱcompulsoryȱprimaryȱeducationȱforȱallȱ
(articleȱ13ȱ(2)ȱ(a))ȱand;ȱ
3. 3.ȱTheȱrightȱofȱparentsȱorȱlegalȱguardiansȱtoȱchooseȱforȱtheirȱ
children,ȱschoolsȱotherȱthanȱpublicȱschoolsȱtoȱensureȱreligiousȱ
andȱmoralȱeducationȱinȱconformityȱwithȱtheirȱconvictionsȱ
(articleȱ13ȱ(3)).ȱ
ȱ
TheȱCommitteeȱconsidersȱthatȱ“itȱisȱimportantȱtoȱdistinguishȱbetweenȱ
justiciabilityȱ (whichȱ refersȱ toȱ thoseȱ mattersȱ whichȱ areȱ appropriatelyȱ
resolvedȱbyȱtheȱcourts)ȱandȱnormsȱwhichȱareȱselfȬexecutingȱ(capableȱofȱ
beingȱ appliedȱ byȱ theȱ courtsȱ withoutȱ furtherȱ elaboration).ȱ Whileȱ theȱ
generalȱapproachȱofȱeachȱlegalȱsystemȱneedsȱtoȱbeȱtakenȱintoȱaccount,ȱ
thereȱ isȱ noȱ Covenantȱ right,ȱ whichȱ couldȱ not,ȱ inȱ theȱ greatȱ majorityȱ ofȱ
systems,ȱ beȱ consideredȱ toȱ possessȱ atȱ leastȱ someȱ significantȱ justiciableȱ
dimensions.ȱ Itȱ isȱ sometimesȱ suggestedȱ thatȱ mattersȱ involvingȱ theȱ
allocationȱofȱresourcesȱshouldȱbeȱleftȱtoȱtheȱpoliticalȱauthoritiesȱratherȱ
thanȱ theȱ courts.ȱ Whileȱ theȱ respectiveȱ competenciesȱ ofȱ theȱ variousȱ
branchesȱ ofȱ governmentȱ mustȱ beȱ respected,ȱ itȱ isȱ appropriateȱ toȱ
141
acknowledgeȱ thatȱ courtsȱ areȱ generallyȱ alreadyȱ involvedȱ inȱ aȱ

considerableȱ rangeȱ ofȱ matters,ȱ whichȱ haveȱ importantȱ resourceȱ
applications.ȱTheȱadoptionȱofȱaȱ rigidȱ classificationȱofȱeconomic,ȱsocialȱ
andȱculturalȱrightsȱwhichȱputsȱthem,ȱbyȱdefinition,ȱbeyondȱtheȱreachȱofȱ
theȱcourtsȱwouldȱthusȱbeȱarbitraryȱandȱincompatibleȱwithȱtheȱprincipleȱ
thatȱtheȱtwoȱsetsȱofȱhumanȱrightsȱareȱindivisibleȱandȱinterdependent.ȱItȱ
wouldȱ alsoȱ drasticallyȱ curtailȱ theȱ capacityȱ ofȱ theȱ courtsȱ toȱ protectȱ theȱ
rightsȱofȱtheȱmostȱvulnerableȱandȱdisadvantagedȱgroupsȱinȱsociety.” 187 ȱȱ
ȱ
Theseȱ importantȱ observationsȱ demonstrateȱ thatȱ interpretationȱ ofȱ theȱ
enforcementȱ ofȱ social,ȱ economicȱ andȱ culturalȱ rightsȱ isȱ evolvingȱ andȱ
thatȱ countriesȱ needȱ toȱ takeȱ noteȱ ofȱ emergingȱ internationalȱ
guidelines. 188 ȱKenyaȱtookȱadvantageȱofȱitsȱrecentȱconstitutionalȱreviewȱ
toȱ removeȱ theȱ perceivedȱ riftȱ betweenȱ civilȱ andȱ politicalȱ rightsȱ andȱ
economic,ȱ socialȱ andȱ culturalȱ rightsȱ withinȱ itsȱ formerȱ constitutionalȱ
provisions.ȱByȱmakingȱextensiveȱreferenceȱtoȱtheȱGeneralȱCommentȱofȱ
theȱ Committee,ȱ theȱ Constitutionalȱ Commissionȱ expressedȱ theȱ viewȱ
thatȱthereȱwasȱnoȱhierarchyȱofȱrightsȱwithȱsomeȱbeingȱmoreȱimportantȱ
thanȱ others. 189 ȱ Kenyaȱ alsoȱ recognisedȱ theȱ existenceȱ ofȱ newȱ
internationalȱ proceduresȱ forȱ enforcingȱ humanȱ rightsȱ thatȱ wouldȱ needȱ
toȱ beȱ reflectedȱ inȱ theȱ newȱ Constitutionȱ asȱ wellȱ asȱ correspondingȱ
institutionsȱtoȱoverseeȱtheirȱenforcement. 190ȱ
ȱ
2.3ȱ Principleȱ3:ȱAccountabilityȱ
ȱ
Duringȱconstitutionalȱformulationsȱandȱreviewsȱitȱisȱimportantȱforȱ
stakeholdersȱtoȱagreeȱonȱwhatȱmechanismsȱwillȱbeȱusedȱtoȱholdȱ
governmentsȱaccountableȱtoȱtheirȱconstitutionalȱobligations.ȱInȱ
additionȱtoȱotherȱcriteria,ȱcountriesȱcouldȱconsiderȱtheȱfollowing:ȱ
ȱ
x Commitmentȱtoȱinternationalȱlawȱ
x Commitmentȱtoȱgoodȱgovernanceȱ
x Dutiesȱandȱresponsibilitiesȱofȱtheȱindividual,ȱfamilyȱandȱsocietyȱ
187
Human Rights in the Administration of Justice: A Manual on Human Rights for Judges,
Prosecutors, and Lawyers, produced by the Office of the High Commissioner for Human
rights in collaboration with the International Bar Association, Professional Training Series
No. 9 (2003), p. 707-710.
188
Mosikatsana (supra) asserts that judicial constitutional developments in South Africa may
not rule out such a possibility in South Africa (see footnote 63).
189
Report on the Constitution of Kenya Review Commission (short version), (2002), p. 30.
190
Ibid. p. 29.
142
ȱ
2.3.1ȱ CommitmentȱtoȱInternationalȱLawȱȱ
ȱ
Constitutionsȱ shouldȱ indicateȱ theȱ relationshipȱ betweenȱ internationalȱ
lawȱ andȱ domesticȱ lawȱ andȱ atȱ whichȱ stageȱ ofȱ theȱ legalȱ processȱ theȱ
formerȱ becomesȱ integratedȱ intoȱ theȱ latter.ȱ Theȱ introductionȱ toȱ thisȱ
Handbookȱ hasȱ shownȱ thatȱ theȱ monistȱ andȱ dualistȱ approachesȱ areȱ theȱ
principleȱmeansȱbyȱwhichȱStatesȱwithȱcivilȱandȱcommonȱlawȱtraditionsȱ
haveȱ expressedȱ theȱ interfaceȱ betweenȱ internationalȱ lawȱ andȱ domesticȱ
law.ȱ Inȱ additionȱ toȱ theseȱ broadȱ distinctions,ȱ itȱ isȱ alsoȱ importantȱ toȱ
recogniseȱhowȱconstitutionalȱmonarchiesȱincorporateȱinternationalȱlawȱ
intoȱ domesticȱ law,ȱ whenȱ suchȱ anȱ approachȱ differsȱ fromȱ theȱ twoȱ thatȱ
haveȱalreadyȱbeenȱoutlined.ȱBelowȱisȱanȱoverviewȱofȱtheȱconstitutionalȱ
provisionsȱofȱsomeȱcountries:ȱ
ȱ
1.ȱExamplesȱofȱtheȱmonistȱapproachȱ
ȱ
Ukraine:ȱ“Internationalȱtreatiesȱthatȱareȱinȱforce,ȱagreedȱtoȱbeȱbindingȱ
byȱtheȱVekhovnaȱRadaȱofȱUkraine,ȱareȱpartȱofȱtheȱnationalȱlegislationȱofȱ
Ukraine.ȱ Theȱ conclusionȱ ofȱ internationalȱ treatiesȱ thatȱ contraveneȱ theȱ
Constitutionȱ ofȱ Ukraineȱ isȱ possibleȱ onlyȱ afterȱ introducingȱ relevantȱ
amendmentsȱtoȱtheȱConstitutionȱofȱUkraine”ȱ(Articleȱ9).ȱ
ȱ
TimorȬLeste:ȱ“TheȱlegalȱsystemȱofȱTimorȬLesteȱshallȱadoptȱtheȱgeneralȱ
orȱ customaryȱ principlesȱ ofȱ internationalȱ law.ȱ Rulesȱ providedȱ forȱ inȱ
internationalȱ conventions,ȱ treatiesȱ andȱ agreementsȱ shallȱ applyȱ inȱ theȱ
internalȱ legalȱ systemȱ ofȱ TimorȬLesteȱ followingȱ theirȱ approval,ȱ
ratificationȱ orȱ accessionȱ byȱ theȱ respectiveȱ competentȱ organsȱ andȱ afterȱ
publicationȱ inȱ theȱ officialȱ gazette.ȱ Allȱ rulesȱ thatȱ areȱ contraryȱ toȱ theȱ
provisionsȱ ofȱ internationalȱ conventions,ȱ treatiesȱ andȱ agreementsȱ
appliedȱ inȱ theȱ internalȱ legalȱ systemȱ shallȱ beȱ invalid.ȱ Theȱ stateȱ alsoȱ
recognizesȱtheȱapplicationȱofȱcustomaryȱinternationalȱlawȱinȱmattersȱofȱ
childȱprotection”ȱ(Sectionȱ18ȱ(2)).ȱ
ȱ
Venezuela:ȱ “Theȱ Conventionȱ onȱ theȱ Rightsȱ ofȱ theȱ Childȱ isȱ thusȱ
incorporatedȱ intoȱ theȱ nationalȱ lawȱ atȱ theȱ highestȱ level,ȱ asȱ partȱ ofȱ theȱ
Constitution”ȱ(Articleȱ78). 191ȱ
2.ȱExamplesȱofȱtheȱdualistȱapproachȱ
191
This is contained under its special provisions for children.
143
ȱ
Ghana:ȱ “Aȱtreaty,ȱagreementȱ orȱconventionȱ executedȱbyȱorȱ underȱtheȱ
authorityȱ ofȱ theȱ Presidentȱ shallȱ beȱ subjectȱ toȱ ratificationȱ byȱ (a)ȱ Actȱ ofȱ
Parliament;ȱorȱ(b)ȱAȱresolutionȱofȱParliamentȱsupportedȱbyȱtheȱvotesȱofȱ
notȱ moreȱ thatȱ oneȬhalfȱ ofȱ theȱ allȱ theȱ membersȱ ofȱ Parliament”ȱ (Articleȱ
75ȱ(2)).ȱ
ȱ
Ireland:ȱ“(1)ȱEveryȱInternationalȱagreementȱtoȱwhichȱtheȱStateȱbecomesȱ
partyȱshallȱbeȱlaidȱbeforeȱDailȱEireann.ȱ(2)ȱTheȱStateȱshallȱnotȱbeȱboundȱ
byȱanyȱinternationalȱagreementȱinvolvingȱaȱchargeȱuponȱpublicȱfundsȱ
unlessȱ theȱ termsȱ ofȱ theȱ agreementȱ shallȱ haveȱ beenȱ approvedȱ byȱ Dailȱ
Eireann.ȱNoȱinternationalȱagreementȱshallȱbeȱpartȱofȱtheȱdomesticȱlawȱ
ofȱtheȱStateȱsaveȱasȱmayȱbeȱdeterminedȱbyȱtheȱOireachtas”ȱ(Articleȱ29ȱ
(5)ȱ andȱ (6))ȱ (Similarly,ȱ inȱ theȱ Russianȱ Federation,ȱ beforeȱ anȱ
internationalȱtreatyȱisȱratifiedȱbyȱtheȱStateȱDuma,ȱtheȱconstitutionalityȱ
ofȱtheȱtreatyȱmustȱbeȱdeterminedȱbyȱtheȱConstitutionalȱCourt.)ȱȱ
ȱ
ForȱcountriesȱsuchȱasȱTimorȬLeste,ȱUkraineȱandȱVenezuelaȱtheȱmonistȱ
approachȱ representsȱ anȱ opportunityȱ toȱ beginȱ enforcementȱ ofȱ
internationalȱ humanȱ rightsȱ lawȱ onceȱ ratified.ȱ Furtherȱ parliamentaryȱ
andȱlegislativeȱinterventionsȱwouldȱbeȱimportantȱbutȱnotȱaȱsineȱquaȱnonȱ
toȱ CRCȱ implementation.ȱ Venezuela’sȱ explicitȱ referenceȱ toȱ theȱ CRCȱ isȱ
particularlyȱ uniqueȱ andȱ worthyȱ ofȱ considerationȱ duringȱ futureȱ
constitutionalȱreformȱinitiatives.ȱ
ȱ
3.ȱConstitutionalȱMonarchiesȱ
ȱ
Anȱ analysisȱ ofȱ theȱ considerationsȱ thatȱ pertainȱ toȱ constitutionalȱ
monarchicalȱjurisdictionsȱgenerallyȱresultsȱinȱaȱblendȱofȱtheȱdualistȱandȱ
monistȱapproaches.ȱTheȱgeneralȱpracticeȱisȱthatȱaȱtreatyȱobligationȱonceȱ
ratifiedȱbecomesȱpartȱofȱtheȱdomesticȱlawȱofȱtheȱState,ȱunlessȱtheȱtreatyȱ
inȱ questionȱ requiresȱ theȱ passageȱ ofȱ domesticȱ lawȱ forȱ purposesȱ ofȱ
givingȱeffectȱtoȱtheȱtreaty.ȱ
Theȱ generalȱ ruleȱ inȱ mostȱ constitutionalȱ monarchies,ȱ suchȱ asȱ theȱ
Canada,ȱ Monacoȱ andȱ theȱ Unitedȱ Kingdom,ȱ isȱ thatȱ treatyȬmakingȱ
powerȱ isȱ vestedȱ inȱ theȱ Crown.ȱ Inȱ Canada, 192 ȱ thisȱ isȱ executedȱ throughȱ
192
An explanation of the Canadian example was extracted from Dupras, Daniel, Government
of Canada, Law and Government Division, Depository Services Programme (2006) in an
article entitled: “International Treaties Canadian Practice.”
144
theȱ federalȱ executiveȱ branchȱ ofȱ governmentȱ asȱ theȱ Crown’sȱ

representative.ȱ Althoughȱ theȱ Governorȱ inȱ Councilȱ (Cabinet)ȱ retainsȱ
finalȱ effectiveȱ controlȱ overȱ theȱ ratificationȱ ofȱ treaties,ȱ itȱ mayȱ appointȱ
anyȱpersonȱitȱwishesȱtoȱnegotiateȱandȱsignȱthem.ȱApartȱfromȱtheȱPrimeȱ
Minister,ȱ theseȱ personsȱ areȱ usuallyȱ theȱ ministers,ȱ deputyȱ ministers,ȱ
diplomaticȱrepresentativesȱorȱnegotiatorsȱofȱtheȱCanadianȱgovernment.ȱ
Aȱ treatyȱ enteredȱ intoȱ andȱ signedȱ forȱ andȱ onȱ behalfȱ ofȱ Canadaȱ byȱ aȱ
representativeȱ ofȱ theȱ Governmentȱ ofȱ Canadaȱ andȱ subsequentlyȱ
approvedȱbyȱtheȱGovernorȱinȱCouncilȱisȱbindingȱonȱCanada.ȱȱApprovalȱ
usuallyȱ takesȱ theȱ formȱ ofȱ anȱ orderȱ inȱ council.ȱ Furthermore,ȱ theȱ
Governorȱ inȱ Councilȱ mayȱ approveȱ theȱ textȱ ofȱ anȱ internationalȱ treatyȱ
thatȱ hasȱ notȱ yetȱ beenȱ signedȱ andȱ designateȱ aȱ representativeȱ ofȱ theȱ
Governmentȱ ofȱ Canadaȱ toȱ signȱ itȱ onȱ behalfȱ ofȱ Canada.ȱȱ However,ȱ
whereȱamendmentsȱmustȱbeȱmadeȱtoȱCanadianȱlegislationȱinȱorderȱforȱ
aȱ treatyȱ toȱ beȱ implemented,ȱ theȱ ministersȱ concernedȱ giveȱ instructionsȱ
forȱ anȱ implementationȱ billȱ toȱ beȱ drafted.ȱ Afterȱ receivingȱ Cabinetȱ
approval,ȱ theȱ billȱ isȱ tabledȱ inȱ Parliamentȱ andȱ goesȱ throughȱ theȱ
parliamentaryȱlegislativeȱprocess.ȱ
Inȱ theȱ caseȱ ofȱ Attorneyȱ Generalȱ forȱ Canadaȱ vs.ȱ Attorneyȱ Generalȱ forȱ
Ontarioȱ [1937]ȱ ACȱ 326,ȱ theȱ courtȱ madeȱ theȱ followingȱ importantȱ
observationȱ aboutȱ theȱ linkageȱ betweenȱ internationalȱ treatiesȱ andȱ
domesticȱlaw:ȱ“WithinȱtheȱBritishȱEmpire,ȱthereȱisȱwellȬestablishedȱruleȱ
thatȱtheȱmakingȱofȱaȱtreatyȱisȱanȱExecutiveȱact,ȱwhileȱtheȱperformanceȱ
ofȱitsȱobligations,ȱifȱtheyȱentailȱ alterationȱofȱtheȱexistingȱdomesticȱlawȱ
requiresȱlegislativeȱaction.ȱȱRatificationȱofȱaȱtreatyȱaloneȱdoesȱnotȱgiveȱ
itȱtheȱforceȱofȱlaw.” 193 ȱȱ
ȱ
2.3.2ȱ CommitmentȱtoȱGoodȱGovernanceȱ
ȱ
TheȱofficeȱofȱtheȱUNȱHighȱCommissionȱforȱHumanȱRightsȱhasȱ
establishedȱanȱinseparableȱlinkȱbetweenȱgoodȱgovernanceȱandȱtheȱ
enforcementȱofȱhumanȱrights.ȱItȱdefinesȱgovernanceȱasȱ“theȱprocessȱbyȱ
whichȱpublicȱinstitutionsȱconductȱpublicȱaffairs,ȱmanageȱpublicȱ
resourcesȱandȱguaranteeȱtheȱrealizationȱofȱhumanȱrights.ȱGoodȱ
governanceȱaccomplishesȱthisȱinȱaȱmannerȱessentiallyȱfreeȱofȱabuseȱandȱ
corruption,ȱandȱwithȱdueȱregardȱforȱtheȱruleȱofȱlaw.ȱTheȱtrueȱtestȱofȱ
193
For the full text, see the judgment of Lord Atkin. p. 347.
145
‘good’ȱgovernanceȱisȱtheȱdegreeȱtoȱwhichȱitȱdeliversȱonȱtheȱpromiseȱofȱ
humanȱrights:ȱcivil,ȱcultural,ȱeconomic,ȱpoliticalȱandȱsocialȱrights.” 194 ȱȱȱ
ȱ
Thereȱoughtȱtoȱbeȱcommitmentȱtoȱgoodȱgovernanceȱifȱconstitutionsȱareȱ
toȱbeȱeffectiveȱframeworksȱforȱtheȱimplementationȱofȱhumanȱrights,ȱ
includingȱtheȱrightsȱofȱchildren.ȱThisȱcanȱbeȱexpressedȱthroughȱtheȱ
effectiveȱandȱefficientȱrunningȱofȱtheȱthreeȱarmsȱofȱgovernment,ȱ
namelyȱtheȱexecutive,ȱlegislatureȱandȱjudiciary.ȱTheȱexecutiveȱhasȱtheȱ
responsibilityȱforȱallȱactionsȱofȱgovernmentȱthroughȱMinistries,ȱ
DepartmentsȱandȱAgencies.ȱItȱalsoȱhasȱtheȱfunctionȱofȱdraftingȱandȱ
proposingȱlegislationȱandȱsettingȱtheȱbudgetȱandȱimplementationȱofȱ
activities,ȱonceȱtheȱbudgetȱhasȱbeenȱapproved.ȱInȱadditionȱtoȱ
approvingȱtheȱbudget,ȱtheȱmainȱfunctionȱofȱtheȱLegislatureȱisȱtoȱ
considerȱlegislationȱproposedȱbyȱtheȱexecutiveȱbranchȱandȱtoȱpassȱitȱ
intoȱlaw.ȱTheȱmainȱfunctionȱofȱtheȱJudiciaryȱisȱtoȱadministerȱtheȱlaw.ȱ
Whileȱeachȱbranchȱofȱgovernmentȱhasȱitsȱspecificȱfunction,ȱinȱmostȱ
democraciesȱtheseȱfunctionsȱoftenȱoverlap.ȱForȱinstance,ȱasȱtheȱ
Handbookȱasȱalreadyȱshown,ȱunderȱcommonȱlawȱjurisdictions,ȱtheȱ
judiciaryȱplaysȱaȱkeyȱroleȱinȱtheȱdevelopmentȱofȱtheȱlawȱthroughȱ
interpretation.ȱThereȱareȱalsoȱoverlapsȱbetweenȱtheȱexecutiveȱandȱ
legislativeȱbranchesȱinȱtheȱParliamentaryȱsystem,ȱbecauseȱtheȱchiefȱ
Executiveȱ(theȱPrimeȱMinister)ȱisȱalsoȱpartȱofȱtheȱlegislature.ȱ
ȱ
Inȱadditionȱtoȱtheȱkeyȱorgansȱofȱgovernment,ȱsomeȱcountriesȱhaveȱ
establishedȱspecialisedȱindependentȱinstitutionsȱunderȱtheirȱrespectiveȱ
constitutionsȱthatȱareȱresponsibleȱforȱmonitoringȱtheȱoverallȱ
implementationȱofȱtheȱconstitutionȱinȱfavourȱofȱchildren.ȱSuchȱbodiesȱ
areȱalsoȱneededȱtoȱensureȱimplementationȱofȱhumanȱrightsȱtreatiesȱandȱ
timelyȱsubmissionȱofȱcountryȱreportsȱtoȱrelevantȱtreatyȱcommittees.ȱ
Countryȱconstitutionalȱprovisionsȱdemonstrateȱtheȱexistenceȱofȱaȱbroadȱ
arrayȱofȱsuchȱbodies.ȱȱ
ȱ
x CouncilsȱofȱState:ȱȱAvailableȱinȱGhana,ȱIrelandȱandȱNigeriaȱ
withȱtheȱmandateȱtoȱadviseȱtheȱPresidentȱinȱtheȱperformanceȱofȱ
hisȱorȱherȱfunctions.ȱ
x CommissionsȱonȱHumanȱRightsȱandȱAdministrativeȱ
Justice: 195 ȱȱAvailableȱinȱGhana,ȱSouthȱAfrica,ȱTimorȬLesteȱandȱ
194
UNOHCHR (1996-2002) Human Rights in Development.
195
Function summarized from article 52 of the Constitution of Uganda. The provisions of the
South African Constitution permit its Human Rights Commission to require relevant organs
146
Uganda,ȱwithȱtheȱmandateȱtoȱinvestigate,ȱatȱitsȱownȱinitiativeȱorȱ
inȱresponseȱtoȱaȱcomplaintȱmadeȱbyȱanyȱpersonȱorȱgroupȱofȱ
personsȱaȱviolationȱofȱanyȱhumanȱright;ȱvisitȱjails,ȱprisonsȱandȱ
placesȱofȱdetentionȱtoȱassessȱconditionsȱofȱinmates;ȱrecommendȱ
toȱParliamentȱeffectiveȱmeasuresȱtoȱpromoteȱhumanȱrights;ȱ
humanȱrightsȱeducationȱamongȱtheȱgeneralȱpopulaceȱandȱ
monitoringȱofȱoverallȱGovernmentȱcomplianceȱwithȱ
internationalȱtreatyȱobligations.ȱ
x NationalȱPrimaryȱEducationȱCommission:ȱAvailableȱinȱ
Nigeria,ȱwithȱtheȱmandateȱtoȱprescribeȱtheȱminimumȱstandardsȱ
ofȱprimaryȱeducation,ȱadviseȱFederalȱgovernmentȱonȱtheȱ
financingȱofȱprimaryȱeducationȱandȱintegrateȱmasterȱplansȱforȱaȱ
balancedȱandȱcoordinatedȱdevelopmentȱofȱprimaryȱeducationȱ
inȱNigeriaȱ(ArticleȱJȱ(24)).ȱ
x NationalȱCommissionȱonȱCivicȱEducation:ȱPeculiarȱtoȱGhana,ȱ
withȱtheȱmandateȱtoȱcreateȱawarenessȱonȱtheȱprovisionsȱofȱtheȱ
Constitutionȱandȱrightsȱandȱdutiesȱofȱtheȱcitizenryȱ(articleȱ
233). 196 ȱȱȱ
x CommissionȱforȱGenderȱEquality:ȱPeculiarȱtoȱSouthȱAfrica,ȱ
withȱtheȱmandateȱtoȱpromoteȱrespectȱforȱgenderȱequalityȱandȱ
theȱprotection,ȱdevelopmentȱandȱattainmentȱofȱgenderȱequalityȱ
(Articleȱ187).ȱThisȱservesȱasȱanȱadditionalȱinstitutionalȱ
frameworkȱforȱtheȱmonitoringȱandȱimplementationȱofȱtheȱ
MDGs.ȱ
ȱ
2.3.3ȱ DutiesȱandȱResponsibilitiesȱofȱtheȱIndividual,ȱFamilyȱandȱ
Societyȱ
ȱ
Individuals,ȱ theȱ family,ȱ societyȱ andȱ theȱ Stateȱ shouldȱ beȱ madeȱ
responsibleȱforȱtheȱfullȱimplementationȱofȱtheirȱconstitutionsȱinȱfavourȱ
ofȱ children.ȱ Expressȱ provisionsȱ areȱ thereforeȱ toȱ beȱ madeȱ whichȱ placeȱ
anȱ obligationȱ onȱ allȱ dutyȱ bearersȱ toȱ performȱ theirȱ rolesȱ andȱ
responsibilitiesȱ asȱ outlinedȱ inȱ theȱ supremeȱ law.ȱ Theȱ Constitutionȱ ofȱ
Nigeriaȱ (Articleȱ 24)ȱ andȱ theȱ Constitutionȱ ofȱ Indiaȱ (Articleȱ 51)ȱ possessȱ
of State “to provide the Commission with information on the measures that they have taken
towards the realization of the rights in the Bill of Rights concerning housing, healthcare, food,
water, social security, education and the environment” on an annual basis (Article 184 (3)).
196
The Commission has created civic clubs in several second cycle institutions in Ghana, with
a view to inculcating a sense of responsibility among children and awareness of their rights,
including those enshrined in the CRC.
147
elaborateȱ provisionsȱ onȱ allȱ aspectsȱ ofȱ nationalȱ life.ȱ Broadlyȱ speaking,ȱ
theyȱ canȱ beȱ classifiedȱ underȱ theȱ categoriesȱ ofȱ dutiesȱ towardsȱ self,ȱ theȱ
environment,ȱStateȱandȱsociety.ȱTheȱeleventhȱfundamentalȱdutyȱofȱtheȱ
Indianȱ Constitutionȱ statesȱ thatȱ aȱ parentȱ orȱ guardianȱ isȱ “toȱ provideȱ
opportunitiesȱ forȱ theȱ educationȱ ofȱ hisȱ childȱ or,ȱ asȱ theȱ caseȱ mayȱ be,ȱ
wardȱ betweenȱ theȱ ageȱ ofȱ sixȱ andȱ fourteenȱ years”ȱ (addedȱ byȱ theȱ 86thȱ
constitutionalȱ amendmentȱ inȱ 2002).ȱ Theȱ Constitutionsȱ ofȱ Ukraineȱ andȱ
Cambodiaȱcontainȱfurtherȱprovisionsȱonȱtheȱdutyȱofȱchildrenȱtowardsȱ
societyȱ andȱ theirȱ parents.ȱ Ukraine,ȱ however,ȱ limitsȱ thisȱ toȱ adultsȱ
towardsȱ childrenȱ whereasȱ noȱ ageȱ limitȱ isȱ setȱ inȱ theȱ caseȱ ofȱ
Cambodia. 197 ȱȱȱ
ȱ
2.4ȱ Principleȱ4:ȱȱParticipationȱ
ȱ
Forȱpurposesȱofȱthisȱsection,ȱparticipationȱisȱdefinedȱasȱtheȱprocessȱbyȱ
whichȱindividualsȱandȱgroupsȱareȱprovidedȱwithȱtheȱnecessaryȱtoolsȱtoȱ
takeȱpartȱinȱtheȱpolitical,ȱeconomic,ȱsocialȱandȱculturalȱaffairsȱandȱ
activitiesȱofȱtheȱState.ȱAllȱofȱtheȱissuesȱdiscussedȱunderȱtheȱprinciplesȱ
ofȱuniversality,ȱindivisibilityȱandȱaccountabilityȱareȱessentialȱtoȱ
creatingȱanȱenablingȱenvironmentȱforȱeffectiveȱparticipationȱtoȱtakeȱ
place.ȱTheȱrightȱtoȱvoteȱ(essentialȱforȱgoodȱgovernance,ȱasȱdiscussedȱ
above)ȱisȱkeyȱtoȱparticipation.ȱMentionȱcouldȱbeȱmadeȱofȱtheȱrightȱofȱ
associationȱ(forȱexample,ȱtheȱrightȱtoȱjoinȱaȱtradeȱunion)ȱandȱtheȱrightȱ
toȱmoveȱfreely.ȱTheȱCovenantȱonȱCivilȱandȱPoliticalȱRightsȱcontainsȱ
essentialȱprovisionsȱlinkedȱtoȱtheȱrightȱtoȱparticipation.ȱ
ȱ
Boxȱ31:ȱRelevantȱprovisionsȱonȱtheȱrightȱtoȱparticipationȱinȱtheȱCCPRȱ
Articleȱ 19:ȱ Theȱ rightȱ toȱ holdȱ opinionsȱ withoutȱ interference,ȱ freedomȱ ofȱ expressionȱ
(includingȱfreedomȱtoȱseek,ȱreceiveȱandȱimpartȱinformation)ȱ
Articleȱ21:ȱTheȱrightȱtoȱpeacefulȱassemblyȱ
Articleȱ 22:ȱ Theȱ rightȱ toȱ freedomȱ ofȱ associationȱ withȱ others,ȱ includingȱ theȱ rightȱ toȱ
formȱandȱjoinȱtradeȱunionsȱ
Articleȱ25:ȱTheȱrightȱtoȱtakeȱpartȱinȱtheȱconductȱofȱpublicȱaffairs,ȱtoȱvoteȱandȱtoȱbeȱ
electedȱandȱtoȱhaveȱaccessȱonȱgeneralȱtermsȱofȱequality,ȱtoȱpublicȱserviceȱ
ȱ
ȱ
197
Leaving such provisions open-ended could result in the perpetuation of exploitation within
the domestic environment.
148
Partȱ3ȱ SPECIFICȱCONSTITUTIONALȱ
PROVISIONSȱINȱFAVOURȱOFȱCHILDRENȱ
ȱ
AccordingȱtoȱUNICEF,ȱwellȱoverȱ20ȱnationalȱconstitutionsȱpossessȱtheȱ
characteristicȱofȱ“childȱrights”ȱconstitutions,ȱwithȱprovisionsȱdedicatedȱ
toȱtheȱprotectionȱofȱtheȱrightsȱofȱtheȱchild. 198 ȱItȱwouldȱbeȱreasonableȱtoȱ
assumeȱthatȱtheȱexistenceȱofȱaȱreferenceȱtoȱtheȱrightsȱofȱtheȱchildȱisȱanȱ
indicationȱthatȱtheȱCRCȱhasȱhadȱatȱleastȱsomeȱimpact,ȱespeciallyȱinȱ
constitutionsȱadoptedȱsinceȱ1989.ȱHowever,ȱtheȱdegreeȱofȱpenetrationȱ
byȱtheȱCRCȱinȱtheȱtextȱofȱeachȱprovisionȱdealingȱwithȱtheȱrightsȱofȱtheȱ
childȱdiffersȱforȱeachȱconstitution.ȱWhileȱsomeȱconstitutions,ȱsuchȱasȱ
thatȱofȱBrazil,ȱhaveȱelaborateȱprovisionsȱonȱtheȱrightsȱofȱtheȱchild,ȱ
others,ȱsuchȱasȱthatȱofȱThailand,ȱhaveȱrelativelyȱbriefȱprovisions. 199ȱ
ȱ
Theȱincorporationȱofȱspecialȱprovisionsȱonȱtheȱrightsȱofȱtheȱchildȱwillȱ
followsȱtheȱevolutionȱofȱhumanȱrightsȱlaw,ȱstartingȱwithȱtheȱmoreȱ
generalȱ(theȱInternationalȱBillȱofȱRights)ȱandȱlaterȱconsideringȱtheȱmoreȱ
specificȱ(forȱexample,ȱCEDAWȱinȱrelationȱtoȱwomenȱandȱtheȱCRCȱinȱ
relationȱtoȱchildren).ȱStatesȱshouldȱthereforeȱbeȱencouragedȱtoȱconsiderȱ
specialȱclausesȱorȱchaptersȱonȱchildrenȱduringȱfutureȱconstitutionalȱ
reforms.ȱForȱguidance,ȱreferenceȱisȱtoȱbeȱmadeȱtoȱtheȱprinciplesȱandȱ
keyȱthematicȱareasȱofȱspecificȱchildȬrelatedȱinternationalȱnormsȱalreadyȱ
cited.ȱȱȱ
ȱ
3.1ȱ TheȱRelationshipȱbetweenȱSpecificȱandȱGeneralȱ
Provisionsȱ
ȱ
Theȱrelationshipȱbetweenȱspecificȱandȱgeneralȱprovisionsȱshouldȱbeȱ
governedȱbyȱtheȱprinciplesȱofȱtheȱinterdependencyȱandȱindivisibilityȱofȱ
rights.ȱTheȱtwoȱbroadȱprovisionsȱshouldȱbeȱseenȱasȱcomplementaryȱ
andȱmutuallyȱsupportiveȱofȱeachȱotherȱthroughȱanȱapplicationȱandȱ
198
UNICEF, ‘Laying the Foundation for Children’s Rights’, Innocenti Insight (2005), p. 25.
The report cites Andorra, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Brazil, Bulgaria, China, Congo, Croatia,
Ecuador, Eritrea, Estonia, Germany, Ghana, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Kyrgyz Republic,
Lithuania, Macedonia, Mexico, Moldova, Mongolia, Mozambique, Paraguay, Peru, Portugal,
Romania, Russian Federation, Rwanda, Senegal, Slovenia, South Korea, Spain, Uganda and
Ukraine as examples of jurisdictions with such constitutional provisions on children; See p.
26.
199
Ibid. p. 25-6.
149
interpretationȱthatȱwouldȱensureȱthatȱchildrenȱreceiveȱtheȱmaximumȱ
protection.ȱWhereȱaȱprovisionȱinȱoneȱareaȱaffordsȱgreaterȱprotection,ȱ
suchȱprovisionȱshouldȱbeȱusedȱtoȱcorrectȱtheȱviolationȱinȱquestion.ȱ
Specificȱprovisionsȱonȱchildrenȱshouldȱpreferablyȱbeȱcitedȱwithinȱtheȱ
moreȱgeneralȱprovisionsȱonȱhumanȱrights.ȱȱThisȱapproachȱwouldȱ
underscoreȱtheȱfactȱthatȱchildren’sȱrightsȱareȱhumanȱrights,ȱandȱcanȱ
thereforeȱdrawȱonȱtheȱremediesȱavailableȱforȱhumanȱrightsȱviolations.ȱ
Whereȱaȱcountryȱchoosesȱtoȱplaceȱitsȱprovisionsȱregardingȱchildren’sȱ
rightsȱwithinȱanotherȱsectionȱorȱasȱaȱseparateȱsection,ȱcareȱmustȱbeȱ
takenȱtoȱuseȱwordsȱandȱphrasesȱthatȱwouldȱreadilyȱplaceȱthemȱwithinȱ
theȱcontextȱofȱhumanȱrightsȱandȱfullyȱintegrateȱthemȱintoȱtheȱlargerȱ
document.ȱThisȱwouldȱensureȱthatȱspecificȱprovisionsȱareȱnotȱ
perceivedȱasȱmereȱappendagesȱtoȱtheȱconstitution.ȱ
ȱ
TheȱfollowingȱchecklistȱmustȱbeȱusedȱwhenȱformulatingȱaȱChildren’sȱ
BillȱofȱRightsȱorȱCharter:ȱ
ȱ
x DoesȱitȱfollowȱtheȱkeyȱprinciplesȱofȱtheȱCRC?ȱ
x Canȱitȱserveȱasȱtheȱbasisȱforȱfutureȱlegislativeȱreform?ȱ
x Isȱitȱconsistentȱwithȱtheȱgeneralȱcontentȱofȱtheȱconstitution?ȱ
x Didȱchildrenȱparticipateȱinȱitsȱformulation?ȱ
ȱ
3.2ȱ DefinitionȱandȱLegalȱStatusȱofȱtheȱChildȱ
ȱ
TheȱCRCȱprovidesȱStatesȱPartiesȱwithȱanȱopportunityȱtoȱdefineȱ“child”ȱ
withinȱ theirȱ respectiveȱ Constitutions.ȱ Articleȱ 1ȱ statesȱ thatȱ “Forȱ theȱ
purposesȱofȱthisȱpresentȱConvention,ȱaȱchildȱmeansȱeveryȱhumanȱbeingȱ
belowȱtheȱageȱofȱ18ȱyearsȱunlessȱunderȱtheȱlawȱapplicableȱtoȱtheȱchild,ȱ
majorityȱisȱattainedȱearlier.”ȱȱInȱapplyingȱthisȱprovision,ȱStatesȱshouldȱ
notȱpegȱtheȱlegalȱageȱatȱtooȱlowȱaȱlevelȱasȱthisȱcouldȱexposeȱchildrenȱtoȱ
situationsȱofȱvulnerabilityȱorȱharm,ȱsuchȱasȱearlyȱmarriageȱandȱundueȱ
exposureȱtoȱtheȱcriminalȱjusticeȱsystem.ȱȱForȱthisȱreason,ȱtheȱageȱofȱ18ȱisȱ
toȱ beȱ preferredȱ inȱ lineȱ withȱ otherȱ internationalȱ standardsȱ suchȱ asȱ theȱ
Optionalȱ Protocolȱ toȱ theȱ CRCȱ onȱ Childrenȱ inȱ Armedȱ Conflict.ȱ Thisȱ
shouldȱ not,ȱ however,ȱ preventȱ aȱ countryȱ fromȱ stipulatingȱ lowerȱ agesȱ
withȱ respectȱ toȱ employmentȱ andȱ definitionȱ ofȱ aȱ juvenile,ȱ inȱ lineȱ withȱ
internationalȱtreatyȱobligations.ȱBelowȱisȱaȱbriefȱanalysisȱofȱhowȱsomeȱ
countriesȱ haveȱ treatedȱ definitionȱ ofȱ childȱ withinȱ theirȱ respectiveȱ
constitutions.ȱ
150
ȱ
x SouthȱAfricaȱandȱGhanaȱdefineȱ‘child’ȱtoȱmeanȱ“aȱpersonȱ
underȱtheȱageȱofȱ18ȱyears”ȱ(Articleȱ28ȱ(3)ȱinȱtheȱcaseȱofȱtheȱ
ConstitutionȱofȱSouthȱAfrica;ȱandȱArticleȱ28ȱ(5)ȱinȱtheȱcaseȱofȱtheȱ
ConstitutionȱofȱGhana).ȱ
x Forȱpurposesȱofȱprotectionȱfromȱchildȱlabour,ȱUganda,ȱdefinesȱaȱ
‘child’ȱtoȱmeanȱ“personsȱunderȱtheȱageȱofȱsixteenȱyears”ȱ
(Articleȱ34ȱ(4)ȱandȱ(5)).ȱȱ
x TheȱinterpretationȱsectionȱofȱtheȱConstitutionȱofȱNigeria,ȱ
however,ȱmovesȱbeyondȱageȱasȱaȱcriterionȱforȱdefiningȱaȱchildȱ
toȱcategoriesȱofȱchildren.ȱ‘Child,’ȱtherefore,ȱ“includesȱaȱstepȬ
child,ȱaȱlawfullyȱadoptedȱchild,ȱaȱchildȱbornȱoutȱofȱwedlockȱandȱ
anyȱchildȱtoȱwhomȱanyȱindividualȱstandsȱinȱplaceȱofȱaȱparent”ȱ
(seeȱSectionȱ19ȱofȱtheȱfifthȱSchedule).ȱTheȱNigerianȱexampleȱisȱaȱ
reflectionȱofȱvaluesȱandȱtraditionsȱaccordedȱtoȱchildrenȱofȱ
differentȱcategoriesȱandȱtheȱallȬinclusiveȱnatureȱofȱtheȱAfricanȱ
conceptȱofȱchildhood.ȱȱȱ
ȱ
3.3ȱ ApplicationȱofȱtheȱPrinciplesȱofȱtheȱCRCȱ
ȱ
ThisȱsubsectionȱdealsȱwithȱtheȱapplicationȱofȱtheȱprinciplesȱofȱtheȱCRCȱ
alreadyȱoutlinedȱaboveȱtoȱtheȱformulationȱofȱconstitutionalȱprovisions.ȱȱ
ȱ
3.3.1ȱ Principleȱ1:ȱNonȬdiscriminationȱ
ȱ
AsȱitȱisȱlikelyȱthatȱaȱnonȬdiscriminationȱclauseȱwouldȱhaveȱalreadyȱ
beenȱincorporatedȱintoȱtheȱgeneralȱprovisions,ȱspecificȱprovisionsȱmayȱ
focusȱonȱaȱlimitedȱrangeȱofȱsituationsȱorȱcategoriesȱofȱexclusion.ȱ
Stakeholdersȱareȱtoȱagreeȱonȱtheȱcategoryȱofȱchildrenȱtoȱbeȱprovidedȱ
for.ȱGivenȱtheȱhighȱpotentialȱforȱexclusionȱresultingȱfromȱtheȱimpactȱofȱ
HIV/AIDSȱandȱwar,ȱcountriesȱmayȱconsiderȱspecialȱprotectionȱforȱ
orphans.ȱAdditionally,ȱtheȱstigmaȱaccordedȱtoȱchildrenȱbornȱoutȱofȱ
wedlockȱleavesȱroomȱforȱconsiderationȱofȱprovisionȱforȱsuchȱchildren.ȱ
Childrenȱofȱminoritiesȱareȱanotherȱexample.ȱTheȱHandbookȱprovidesȱ
caseȱstudiesȱonȱprovisionsȱmadeȱwithȱrespectȱtoȱorphans.ȱ
ȱ
ȱȱȱȱ
ȱ
Boxȱ32:ȱSpecialȱprovisionȱonȱorphans:ȱCaseȱstudiesȱfromȱUganda,ȱIreland,ȱ
UkraineȱandȱBrazilȱ
151
x Uganda:ȱ“Theȱlawȱshallȱaccordȱspecialȱprotectionȱtoȱorphansȱandȱotherȱ
vulnerableȱchildren”ȱ(Articleȱ34ȱ(7)).ȱȱ
x Ireland:ȱ“[Theȱlawȱshall]ȱsafeguardȱspecialȱcare,ȱtheȱeconomicȱinterestsȱofȱ
theȱweakerȱsectionsȱofȱtheȱcommunity,ȱandȱwhereȱnecessary,ȱtoȱcontributeȱ
toȱtheȱsupportȱofȱtheȱinfirm,ȱtheȱwidow,ȱtheȱorphanȱandȱtheȱaged.”ȱȱȱ
ȱ
Brazilȱprovidesȱforȱaȱprocessȱbyȱwhichȱfamiliesȱareȱencouragedȱtoȱ
fosterȱchildrenȱthroughȱvariousȱformsȱofȱincentivesȱsuchȱasȱtaxȱrebatesȱ
andȱsubsidies.ȱItsȱrelevantȱprovisionȱstatesȱthatȱ“governmentȱfostering,ȱ
byȱmeansȱofȱlegalȱassistance,ȱtaxȱincentivesȱandȱsubsidies,ȱasȱprovidedȱ
byȱlaw,ȱofȱtheȱprotection,ȱthroughȱguardianship,ȱofȱorphanedȱorȱ
abandonedȱchildrenȱorȱadolescents”ȱ(Articleȱ227ȱ(V)).ȱTheseȱincentivesȱ
asȱstipulated,ȱserveȱasȱaȱdisincentiveȱtoȱinstitutionalizationȱofȱchildrenȱ
inȱneedȱofȱspecialȱcareȱandȱprotectionȱandȱaȱpromotionȱofȱfamilyȱ
environmentȱplacements.ȱȱ
ȱ
Theȱfollowingȱareȱcaseȱstudiesȱonȱtheȱconstitutionalȱtreatmentȱofȱ
childrenȱbornȱoutsideȱwedlock.ȱ
ȱ
Expressȱprovisionsȱinȱfavourȱofȱchildrenȱbornȱoutsideȱwedlockȱexistȱinȱ
someȱtexts.ȱThisȱhasȱbeenȱinspiredȱbyȱarticleȱ25ȱ(2)ȱofȱtheȱUDHR,ȱwhichȱ
statesȱthatȱ“allȱchildren,ȱwhetherȱbornȱinȱorȱoutȱofȱwedlock,ȱshallȱenjoyȱ
theȱsameȱprotection.”ȱThisȱprovisionȱseeksȱtoȱremoveȱdiscriminatoryȱ
tendenciesȱagainstȱchildrenȱdueȱtoȱtheȱcircumstancesȱofȱtheirȱbirthȱorȱ
socialȱorigin. 200 ȱBelowȱisȱaȱsummaryȱofȱfiveȱcountryȱcaseȱstudiesȱonȱtheȱ
treatmentȱofȱchildrenȱbornȱoutsideȱwedlockȱwithinȱtheȱcontextȱofȱ
constitutionalȱlawȱdevelopmentȱinȱfavourȱofȱchildren.ȱȱȱ
ȱ
Ethiopia:ȱ “Childrenȱ bornȱ outȱ ofȱ wedlockȱ shallȱ haveȱ theȱ sameȱ statusȱ
andȱrightsȱasȱchildrenȱbornȱinȱwedlock”ȱ(Sectionȱ36ȱ(4)).ȱ
ȱ
TimorȬLeste:ȱ “Everyȱ childȱ bornȱ inȱ orȱ outsideȱ wedlockȱ shallȱ enjoyȱ theȱ
sameȱrightsȱandȱsocialȱprotection”ȱ(Sectionȱ18ȱ(3)).ȱ
ȱ
Brazil:ȱ“Childrenȱbornȱinsideȱorȱoutsideȱwedlockȱorȱadoptedȱshallȱhaveȱ
theȱ sameȱ rightsȱ andȱ qualifications,ȱ anyȱ discriminatoryȱ designationȱ ofȱ
theirȱfiliationȱbeingȱforbidden”ȱ(Sectionȱ227ȱ(VIIȱ(6)).ȱ
200
In the case of Fraser v Children’s Court, the Constitutional Court of South Africa had
occasion to rule that the legislative command in section 8 establishing equality between
children born in wedlock and those born extramaritally, was binding and required the
lawmaker to comply (Mosikatsana (supra), 60).
152
ȱ
Ukraine:ȱ “Childrenȱ areȱ equalȱ inȱ theirȱ rightsȱ regardlessȱ ofȱ theirȱ originȱ
andȱwhetherȱtheyȱareȱbornȱinȱorȱoutȱofȱwedlock”ȱ(52ȱ(a)).ȱ
ȱ
Ghana:ȱ“Everyȱchild,ȱwhetherȱorȱnotȱbornȱinȱwedlock,ȱshallȱbeȱentitledȱ
toȱreasonableȱprovisionȱoutȱofȱtheȱestateȱofȱitsȱparents”ȱ(Articleȱ28ȱ(1)ȱ
(b)).ȱ
ȱ
3.3.2ȱ Principleȱ2:ȱTheȱBestȱInterestsȱofȱtheȱChildȱ
ȱ
Articleȱ 3ȱ ofȱ theȱ CRCȱ onȱ theȱ bestȱ interestsȱ ofȱ theȱ childȱ isȱ keyȱ toȱ allȱ
aspectsȱofȱconstitutionalȱlawȱdevelopmentȱandȱinterpretationȱinȱfavourȱ
ofȱtheȱchild.ȱȱTheȱexistenceȱofȱsuchȱaȱprovisionȱprovidesȱaȱyardstickȱforȱ
allȱ stakeholdersȱ toȱ measureȱ theȱ appropriatenessȱ ofȱ theirȱ actionsȱ inȱ
favourȱofȱchildren.ȱȱThereforeȱembodyingȱthisȱasȱaȱconstitutionalȱrightȱ
isȱ indispensable.ȱ ȱ Countriesȱ withȱ specificȱ chaptersȱ orȱ clausesȱ onȱ theȱ
rightsȱofȱtheȱchildȱtendȱtoȱincorporateȱprovisionsȱonȱtheȱbestȱinterestsȱ
ofȱtheȱchild.ȱNotableȱexamplesȱincludeȱSouthȱAfricaȱandȱEthiopia.ȱ
ȱ
x SouthȱAfrica:ȱ“Aȱchild’sȱbestȱinterestsȱareȱofȱparamountȱ
importanceȱinȱeveryȱmatterȱconcerningȱtheȱchild”ȱ(Articleȱ28ȱ
(2)).ȱ
x Ethiopia:ȱ“Inȱallȱactionsȱconcerningȱchildrenȱundertakenȱbyȱ
publicȱorȱprivateȱinstitutionsȱofȱsocialȱwelfare,ȱcourtsȱofȱlaw,ȱ
andȱadministrativeȱbodies,ȱtheȱprimaryȱconsiderationȱshallȱbeȱ
theȱbestȱinterestsȱofȱtheȱchild”ȱ(Articleȱ36ȱ(2)).ȱȱ
ȱ
3.3.3ȱ Principleȱ3:ȱTheȱRightȱtoȱLife,ȱSurvival,ȱDevelopmentȱandȱ
Protectionȱ
ȱ
Thisȱ principleȱ coversȱ aȱ broadȱ rangeȱ ofȱ rights,ȱ suchȱ asȱ theȱ rightȱ toȱ
education,ȱ health,ȱ adequateȱ nutritionȱ andȱ protectionȱ fromȱ violence.ȱ
Inherentȱ inȱ theȱ principleȱ isȱ theȱ importantȱ roleȱ ofȱ theȱ familyȱ inȱ theȱ
provisionȱ ofȱ basicȱ servicesȱ andȱ theȱ protectionȱ ofȱ children.ȱ Theȱ
subsectionȱisȱtherebyȱstructuredȱasȱfollows:ȱ
ȱȱ
x Accessȱtoȱbasicȱsocialȱservicesȱandȱsocialȱprotectionȱ
x Theȱroleȱofȱtheȱfamilyȱ
x Protectionȱfromȱviolence,ȱabuse,ȱneglectȱandȱexploitationȱ
ȱ
153
1.ȱAccessȱtoȱbasicȱsocialȱservicesȱandȱsocialȱprotectionȱ
ȱ
Toȱ ensureȱ theȱ rightȱ ofȱ theȱ childȱ toȱ survivalȱ andȱ development,ȱ
provisionsȱareȱtoȱbeȱmadeȱtoȱguaranteeȱaccessȱtoȱbasicȱservices.ȱGivenȱ
thatȱ detailedȱ provisionsȱ wouldȱ haveȱ beenȱ createdȱ underȱ generalȱ
provisionsȱ inȱ relationȱ toȱ servicesȱ suchȱ asȱ education,ȱ healthȱ andȱ
nutrition,ȱspecialȱprovisionsȱareȱtoȱbeȱbrief,ȱspecificȱandȱfocusedȱonȱtheȱ
specialȱneedsȱofȱchildrenȱinȱtheȱcountry.ȱ
ȱ
Forȱ instance,ȱ underȱ articleȱ 53ȱ ofȱ itsȱ provisionsȱ onȱ education,ȱ theȱ
Constitutionȱ ofȱ Ukraineȱ providesȱ forȱ freeȱ preȬschoolȱ education,ȱ
althoughȱ thisȱ isȱ notȱ providedȱ forȱ underȱ theȱ CRC.ȱ Theȱ implicationȱ ofȱ
guaranteeingȱpreȬschoolȱeducationȱasȱaȱconstitutionalȱrightȱisȱtoȱsecureȱ
anȱearlyȱstartȱinȱlifeȱforȱallȱchildren.ȱInȱaddition,ȱwhereȱcountriesȱhaveȱ
lowȱschoolȱenrolment,ȱconstitutionallyȱguaranteeingȱpreȬschoolȱwouldȱ
alsoȱ assistȱ inȱ acceleratingȱ implementationȱ ofȱ Educationȱ Forȱ Allȱ (EFA)ȱ
goalsȱasȱwellȱasȱgenderȱparityȱinȱeducationȱinȱfavourȱofȱgirls.ȱȱȱ
ȱ ȱ
Boxȱ33:ȱTheȱConstitutionȱofȱSouthȱAfricaȱȱ
TheȱConstitutionȱofȱSouthȱAfricaȱspellsȱoutȱitsȱsocialȱservicesȱprogrammeȱtoȱincludeȱ
basicȱnutritionȱshelterȱbasicȱhealthȱcareȱservices 201 ȱandȱsocialȱservicesȱ(Articleȱ28ȱ(1)ȱ
(c)).ȱ Someȱ Constitutionsȱ prohibitȱ deprivingȱ anyȱ childȱ ofȱ “medicalȱ treatment,ȱ
educationȱandȱotherȱsocialȱeconomicȱbenefitȱbyȱreasonsȱofȱreligiousȱofȱotherȱbeliefs”.ȱ
Thisȱ isȱ statedȱ inȱ theseȱ termsȱ byȱ Ugandaȱ (Articleȱ 34ȱ (3)).ȱ Similarȱ provisionsȱ haveȱ
beenȱ framedȱ byȱ Ghanaȱ (Articleȱ 28ȱ (4))ȱ andȱ areȱ inȱ responseȱ toȱ bottlenecksȱ
encounteredȱbyȱStatesȱinȱtheȱdeliveryȱofȱprimaryȱhealthȱcareȱandȱformalȱeducationȱ
amongȱspecificȱcommunitiesȱandȱgroups.ȱ
ȱ
2.ȱTheȱroleȱofȱtheȱfamilyȱ
ȱ
Inȱallȱcountries,ȱtheȱfamily,ȱasȱvariouslyȱdefined,ȱservesȱasȱtheȱfrontȱlineȱ
forȱprotectionȱofȱtheȱchild.ȱYetȱinȱmanyȱcountries,ȱtheȱbreakdownȱofȱtheȱ
familyȱ hasȱ eitherȱ takenȱ placeȱ orȱ isȱ imminent.ȱ Givenȱ itsȱ roleȱ inȱ childȱ
protection,ȱ survivalȱ andȱ development,ȱ theȱ institutionȱ ofȱ theȱ familyȱ
mustȱ beȱ safeguardedȱ byȱ specificȱ provisions.ȱ Whereȱ possible,ȱ whileȱ
emphasizingȱtheȱroleȱofȱtheȱfamily,ȱstepsȱmustȱalsoȱbeȱtakenȱtoȱincludeȱ
provisionsȱ onȱ theȱ responsibilityȱ ofȱ parentsȱ andȱ theȱ communityȱ asȱ
buildingȱblocksȱforȱtheȱcreationȱofȱaȱprotectiveȱenvironment.ȱBelowȱareȱ
201
Kenya defines the right to health to include reproductive health care (Article 61(1) of the
2004 Draft Constitution).
154
countryȱexamplesȱofȱconstitutionalȱprovisionsȱonȱtheȱprotectionȱofȱtheȱ
family.ȱ
ȱ
x Azerbaijan:ȱ“Theȱfamilyȱasȱtheȱfoundationȱofȱsocietyȱshallȱbeȱ
underȱtheȱspecialȱprotectionȱofȱtheȱState.ȱToȱtakeȱcareȱofȱtheȱ
childrenȱandȱtheirȱupbringingȱshallȱbeȱtheȱobligationȱofȱparents.ȱȱ
TheȱStateȱshallȱseeȱtoȱitȱthatȱthisȱobligationȱisȱfollowed”ȱ(Articleȱ
17).ȱȱȱ
x Ireland:ȱ“TheȱStateȱrecognisesȱtheȱFamilyȱasȱtheȱnaturalȱ
primaryȱandȱfundamentalȱunitȱgroupȱofȱSocietyȱandȱasȱaȱmoralȱ
institutionȱpossessingȱinalienableȱandȱimprescriptibleȱrights,ȱ
antecedentȱandȱsuperiorȱtoȱallȱpositiveȱlawȱ(Articleȱ41ȱ(1)).ȱTheȱ
primaryȱandȱnaturalȱeducatorȱofȱtheȱchildȱisȱtheȱfamilyȱandȱ
guaranteesȱtoȱrespectȱtheȱinalienableȱrightȱandȱdutyȱofȱparentsȱ
toȱprovide,ȱaccordingȱtoȱtheirȱmeans,ȱforȱtheȱreligiousȱandȱ
moral,ȱintellectual,ȱphysicalȱandȱsocialȱeducationȱforȱtheirȱ
children”ȱ(Articleȱ42ȱ(1)).ȱȱȱ
x Uganda:ȱ“Childrenȱpossessȱaȱconstitutionalȱrightȱtoȱknow,ȱandȱ
beȱcaredȱforȱbyȱtheirȱnaturalȱparentsȱorȱthoseȱentitledȱbyȱlawȱtoȱ
bringȱthemȱup”ȱ(Articleȱ34ȱ(1)).ȱ
x TimorȬLeste:ȱ“recognisesȱtheȱspecialȱprotectionȱaffordedȱtoȱ
childrenȱbyȱtheȱfamily,ȱcommunityȱandȱStateȱagainstȱallȱformsȱ
ofȱabandonment,ȱviolence,ȱoppression,ȱsexualȱabuseȱandȱ
exploitation”ȱ(Sectionȱ18ȱ(1)).ȱȱ
x Ukraine:ȱ“Parentsȱareȱobligedȱtoȱsupportȱtheirȱchildrenȱuntilȱ
theyȱattainȱtheȱageȱofȱmajority.ȱTheȱfamily,ȱchildhood,ȱ
motherhoodȱandȱfatherhoodȱareȱunderȱtheȱprotectionȱofȱtheȱ
State”ȱ(Articleȱ51).ȱȱ
ȱ
3.ȱProtectionȱfromȱviolence,ȱabuse,ȱneglectȱandȱexploitationȱ
ȱ
Theȱ CRC,ȱ itsȱ twoȱ optionalȱ protocolsȱ andȱ theȱ ILOȱ conventionsȱ listedȱ
aboveȱ constituteȱ compellingȱ normativeȱ groundsȱ forȱ theȱ inclusionȱ ofȱ
clausesȱ onȱ violence,ȱ abuse,ȱ neglectȱ andȱ exploitationȱ withinȱ childȬ
specificȱ provisionsȱ ofȱ constitutions.ȱ Theȱ growingȱ incidenceȱ ofȱ theȱ useȱ
ofȱ childrenȱ inȱ armedȱ conflictȱ alsoȱ requiresȱ definitiveȱ constitutionalȱ
prohibitionȱacrossȱallȱjurisdictions.ȱȱ
ȱ
Broadlyȱspeaking,ȱspecificȱclausesȱcouldȱcoverȱtheȱfollowing:ȱ
ȱ
155
x Sexualȱandȱeconomicȱexploitationȱ
x Involvementȱofȱchildrenȱinȱarmedȱconflictȱ
x Juvenileȱjusticeȱadministration.ȱ
ȱ
4.ȱSexualȱandȱeconomicȱexploitation:ȱCaseȱstudiesȱfromȱSouthȱ
Africa,ȱGhana,ȱEthiopia,ȱUkraineȱandȱIraqȱ
ȱ
Articleȱ28ȱ(1)ȱ(d))Ȭ(f)ȱofȱtheȱConstitutionȱofȱSouthȱAfricaȱprovidesȱthat:ȱȱ
“Everyȱchildȱhasȱtheȱrightȱ...(d)ȱtoȱbeȱprotectedȱfromȱmaltreatment,ȱ
neglect,ȱabuseȱorȱdegradation;ȱ(e)ȱtoȱbeȱprotectedȱfromȱexploitativeȱ
labourȱpractices;ȱ(f)ȱnotȱtoȱbeȱrequiredȱorȱpermittedȱtoȱperformȱworkȱorȱ
provideȱservicesȱthatȱ(i)ȱȱareȱappropriateȱforȱaȱpersonsȱofȱtheȱchild’sȱageȱ
orȱ(ii)ȱplaceȱatȱriskȱtheȱchild’sȱwellȬbeing,ȱeducation,ȱphysicalȱorȱmentalȱ
healthȱorȱspiritual,ȱmoralȱorȱsocialȱdevelopment.”ȱ
ȱ
Ghanaȱ(Articleȱ28ȱ(2))ȱandȱEthiopiaȱ(Articleȱ36ȱ(d))ȱalsoȱincludeȱ
referencesȱtoȱwork,ȱwhichȱisȱhazardousȱorȱharmfulȱtoȱhisȱorȱherȱ
education,ȱhealthȱorȱwellȬbeing.ȱInȱtheȱcaseȱofȱUkraine,ȱhowever,ȱ
provisionsȱonȱchildȱlabourȱhaveȱbeenȱintegratedȱintoȱconstitutionalȱ
provisionsȱrelatedȱtoȱemployment.ȱThisȱprovisionȱisȱuniqueȱinȱtheȱ
senseȱthatȱitȱlinksȱchildȱandȱmaternalȱlabourȱtogether:ȱ“Theȱ
employmentȱofȱwomenȱandȱminorsȱforȱworkȱthatȱisȱhazardousȱtoȱtheirȱ
healthȱisȱprohibited”ȱ(Articleȱ43ȱ(e)).ȱUnderȱitsȱspecialȱclauseȱonȱ
children,ȱhowever,ȱUkraineȱhasȱaȱmuchȱbroaderȱsubȱarticle,ȱwhichȱ
statesȱthatȱ“anyȱviolenceȱagainstȱaȱchild,ȱorȱhisȱorȱherȱexploitation,ȱshallȱ
beȱprosecutedȱbyȱlaw”ȱ(Articleȱ52ȱ(b)).ȱȱȱ
ȱ
TheȱIraqiȱConstitutionȱbroadensȱtheȱscopeȱofȱlocationȱofȱviolenceȱtoȱ
includeȱ“theȱfamily,ȱschoolȱandȱsociety”ȱ(Articleȱ29ȱ(4))ȱandȱpossessesȱaȱ
moreȱcategoricalȱprovisionȱwhichȱproscribesȱ“forcedȱlabour,ȱslavery,ȱ
commerceȱinȱslaves,ȱtheȱtradingȱinȱwomenȱorȱchildrenȱofȱtheȱsexȱtrade”ȱ
(Articleȱ35ȱ(c)).ȱȱ
ȱ
ȱ
ȱ
ȱ
ȱ
5.ȱInvolvementȱofȱchildrenȱinȱarmedȱconflict:ȱCaseȱstudiesȱ
fromȱSouthȱAfrica,ȱKenyaȱandȱCambodiaȱ
ȱ
156
Constitutionalȱ provisionsȱ onȱ childrenȱ inȱ armedȱ conflictȱ areȱ limited.ȱ

Southȱ Africaȱ currentlyȱ servesȱ asȱ oneȱ ofȱ theȱ bestȱ examplesȱ ofȱ aȱ Stateȱ
withȱconstitutionalȱprovisionsȱonȱchildrenȱinvolvedȱinȱarmedȱconflict.ȱȱ
AccordingȱtoȱArticleȱ28ȱ(1)ȱ(i),ȱ“everyȱchildȱhasȱtheȱrightȱnotȱtoȱbeȱusedȱ
directlyȱ inȱ armedȱ conflict,ȱ andȱ toȱ beȱ protectedȱ inȱ timesȱ ofȱ armedȱ
conflict.”ȱȱThroughȱitsȱrecentȱconstitutionalȱreview,ȱtheȱConstitutionȱofȱ
Kenyaȱ Reviewȱ Commissionȱ tookȱ fullȱ advantageȱ ofȱ theȱ Optionalȱ
Protocolȱ toȱ theȱ Conventionȱ onȱ theȱ Rightsȱ ofȱ theȱ Childȱ onȱ theȱ
InvolvementȱofȱChildrenȱinȱArmedȱConflictȱbyȱincludingȱaȱprohibitionȱ
withinȱitsȱ DraftȱBillȱofȱRightsȱagainstȱ“theȱparticipationȱ ofȱ childrenȱ inȱ
hostilitiesȱorȱtheirȱrecruitmentȱintoȱarmedȱconflictsȱandȱtheirȱprotectionȱ
inȱsuchȱsituations”ȱ(Articleȱ40ȱ(onȱchildren)ȱ(6)ȱ(h)).ȱȱCambodiaȱhasȱalsoȱ
integratedȱaȱprovisionȱonȱthisȱwithinȱitsȱspecialȱclauseȱonȱchildren,ȱbyȱ
stipulatingȱ theirȱ protectionȱ duringȱ wartimeȱ (Articleȱ 48).ȱ Otherȱ
constitutionalȱ provisions,ȱ suchȱ asȱ thoseȱ thatȱ dealȱ withȱ abuse,ȱ
exploitation,ȱneglect,ȱdetentionȱandȱtheȱbestȱinterestsȱofȱtheȱchild,ȱmayȱ
alsoȱbeȱusedȱasȱreferencesȱforȱ theȱprotectionȱandȱ preventionȱofȱtheȱuseȱ
ofȱchildrenȱinȱarmedȱconflict.ȱ
ȱ
6.ȱJuvenileȱjusticeȱadministration:ȱCaseȱstudiesȱfromȱNigeria,ȱ
Fiji,ȱTheȱGambia,ȱUganda,ȱEthiopia,ȱGhana,ȱSouthȱAfricaȱandȱ
Brazilȱ
ȱ
Childrenȱ areȱ entitledȱ toȱ protectionȱ underȱ generalȱ provisionsȱ dealingȱ
withȱpersonsȱ deprivedȱofȱtheirȱliberty.ȱSpecificȱprovisionsȱonȱ juvenileȱ
justiceȱ administrationȱmustȱhoweverȱconformȱtoȱtheȱbroadȱprovisionsȱ
ofȱ articleȱ 37ȱ ofȱ theȱ CRCȱ onȱ theȱ subjectȱ ofȱ theȱ treatmentȱ ofȱ juveniles.ȱ
Moreȱ specificȱ standardsȱ suchȱ asȱ theȱ Unitedȱ Nationsȱ Minimumȱ
StandardȱRulesȱforȱtheȱAdministrationȱofȱJuvenileȱJusticeȱ(theȱȈBeijingȱ
RulesȈ),ȱ theȱ Unitedȱ Nationsȱ Guidelinesȱ forȱ theȱ Preventionȱ ofȱ Juvenileȱ
Delinquencyȱ (theȱ ȈRiyadhȱ GuidelinesȈ)ȱ andȱ theȱ Unitedȱ Nationsȱ Rulesȱ
forȱ theȱ Protectionȱ ofȱ Juvenilesȱ Deprivedȱ ofȱ theirȱ Libertyȱ canȱ beȱ
providedȱ forȱ underȱ specificȱ legislation.ȱ Caseȱ studiesȱ ofȱ variousȱ levelsȱ
ofȱjuvenileȱjusticeȱprovisionsȱareȱpresentedȱbelow:ȱȱ
ȱ
x Nigeria:ȱprotectsȱjuvenilesȱaccusedȱorȱconvictedȱofȱoffencesȱbyȱ
ensuringȱthatȱtheyȱareȱ“keptȱinȱremandȱhomesȱorȱreformatoryȱ
centresȱandȱtheirȱtreatment,ȱincludingȱrehabilitationȱshallȱbeȱtheȱ
underlyingȱprincipleȱofȱtheirȱcustody”ȱ(Articleȱ34ȱ(8)).ȱȱȱ
157
x Fiji,ȱTheȱGambia,ȱUganda,ȱEthiopiaȱandȱGhana:ȱhaveȱcommonȱ
constitutionalȱprovisionsȱonȱtheȱseparationȱofȱdetainedȱchildrenȱ
fromȱdetainedȱadultsȱ(Sectionȱ26ȱ(6),ȱArticleȱ29ȱ(3)),ȱArticleȱ34ȱ
(6),ȱArticleȱ36ȱ(3)ȱandȱArticleȱ15ȱ(4)ȱrespectively).ȱȱȱȱ
x SouthȱAfrica:ȱprovidesȱdirectionȱonȱtheȱsignificantȱroleȱofȱ
diversionȱinȱtheȱsystemȱofȱjuvenileȱjusticeȱadministration,ȱbyȱ
makingȱexpressȱreferenceȱtoȱdetentionȱasȱaȱ“measureȱofȱlastȱ
resort”ȱ(Articleȱ28ȱ(1)ȱ(g)).ȱȱ
x Brazil:ȱalsoȱhasȱinȱplaceȱtheȱfollowingȱforȱconsideration:ȱ
- provisionsȱwhichȱensureȱthatȱfemaleȱprisonersȱareȱassuredȱofȱ
“adequateȱ conditionsȱ toȱ stayȱ withȱ theirȱ childrenȱ duringȱ theȱ
nursingȱperiod”ȱ(Articleȱ5ȱ(L)).ȱȱ
- provisionsȱ onȱ theȱ “preventionȱ andȱ specialisedȱ treatmentȱ
programmesȱ forȱ childrenȱ andȱ adolescentsȱ addictedȱ toȱ
narcotics”ȱ(Articleȱ227ȱVII).ȱȱȱȱȱȱ
- Stipulationȱ onȱ theȱ minimumȱ ageȱ ofȱ criminalȱ responsibility,ȱ
statingȱ thatȱ “[m]inorsȱ underȱ eightȱ yearsȱ ofȱ ageȱ mayȱ notȱ beȱ
heldȱ criminallyȱ liable,ȱ subjectȱ toȱ theȱ rulesȱ ofȱ specialȱ
legislation”ȱ(Articleȱ228).ȱȱ
ȱ
Ethiopiaȱ isȱ amongȱ theȱ fewȱ toȱ haveȱ madeȱ expressȱ provisionsȱ againstȱ
corporalȱpunishmentȱ(Articleȱ36ȱ(1)ȱ(e))ȱwithinȱtheȱcontextȱofȱtheȱrightsȱ
ofȱ theȱ childȱ andȱ extendsȱ thisȱ toȱ “schoolsȱ andȱ otherȱ institutionsȱ
responsibleȱforȱtheȱcareȱofȱchildren.”ȱOtherȱStatesȱ(forȱexample,ȱGhana,ȱ
Articleȱ28ȱ(3))ȱfocusȱonȱ“torture,ȱorȱotherȱcruel,ȱinhumanȱorȱdegradingȱ
treatmentȱ orȱ punishment.”ȱ Inȱ theȱ Southȱ Africanȱ caseȱ ofȱ Stateȱ vȱ
Williams,ȱ theȱ Constitutionalȱ Courtȱ ofȱ Southȱ Africaȱ contributedȱ toȱ theȱ
effortȱ ofȱ bringingȱ juvenileȱ penalȱ lawsȱ intoȱ conformityȱ withȱ
internationalȱ jurisprudenceȱ byȱ declaringȱ corporalȱ punishmentȱ
unconstitutionalȱ onȱ theȱ groundsȱ thatȱ itȱ isȱ cruel,ȱ inhumanȱ andȱ
degradingȱ(Mosikatsana,ȱ363).ȱ
ȱ
3.3.4ȱ Principleȱ4:ȱRespectȱforȱtheȱViewsȱofȱtheȱChildȱ
ȱ
Allowingȱ childrenȱ toȱ makeȱ theirȱ viewsȱ knownȱ andȱ heardȱ inȱ mattersȱ
affectingȱ themȱ hasȱ yetȱ toȱ gainȱ fullȱ acceptanceȱ acrossȱ theȱ globe.ȱ Givenȱ
thisȱgeneralȱculturalȱandȱsocialȱlimitation,ȱconstitutionsȱcouldȱadvanceȱ
theȱ causeȱ ofȱ participationȱ ofȱ childrenȱ byȱ includingȱ expressȱ provisionsȱ
thatȱrequireȱchildȱparticipation.ȱChildrenȱshouldȱbeȱcoveredȱunderȱtheȱ
generalȱprovisionsȱofȱcivilȱandȱpoliticalȱrights,ȱwhichȱexpresslyȱprovideȱ
158
forȱ theȱ rightsȱ toȱ freeȱ expression,ȱ associationȱ andȱ information.ȱ

However,ȱ aȱ provisionȱ onȱ childȱ participationȱ inȱ lineȱ withȱ Articleȱ 12ȱ ofȱ
theȱCRCȱwouldȱprovideȱStatesȱwithȱtheȱimpetusȱtoȱplaceȱthisȱculturallyȱ
sensitiveȱ issueȱ inȱ constitutionalȱ perspective.ȱ Articleȱ 12ȱ (1)ȱ ofȱ theȱ CRCȱ
statesȱasȱfollows:ȱ“StatesȱPartiesȱshallȱassureȱtoȱtheȱchildȱwhoȱisȱcapableȱ
ofȱformingȱhisȱorȱownȱviewsȱtheȱrightȱtoȱexpressȱthoseȱviewsȱfreelyȱinȱ
allȱ mattersȱ affectingȱ theȱ child,ȱ theȱ viewsȱ ofȱ theȱ childȱ beingȱ givenȱ dueȱ
weightȱinȱaccordanceȱwithȱtheȱageȱandȱmaturityȱofȱtheȱchild.”ȱ
ȱ
Expressionsȱ ofȱ theȱ rightȱ toȱ participationȱ areȱ rareȱ withinȱ childȱ specificȱ
provisionsȱ acrossȱ countries.ȱ However,ȱ itȱ wouldȱ beȱ worthȱ mentioningȱ
howȱ Statesȱ haveȱ treatedȱ theȱ issueȱ underȱ otherȱ provisions.ȱ Examplesȱ
includeȱcaseȱstudiesȱfromȱBrazilȱandȱUganda:ȱ
ȱȱȱ
Brazil:ȱ underȱ itsȱ provisionsȱ onȱ “Politicalȱ Rights,”ȱ hasȱ madeȱ anȱ
importantȱinroadȱbyȱincludingȱaȱconstitutionalȱprovisionȱwhichȱmakesȱ
itȱ possibleȱ forȱ childrenȱ agedȱ betweenȱ 16ȱ andȱ 18ȱ yearsȱ toȱ exerciseȱ theȱ
constitutionalȱoptionȱtoȱvoteȱ(Articleȱ14ȱIIȱ(c)).ȱȱȱ
ȱ
Uganda:ȱalsoȱmakesȱspecialȱreferencesȱtoȱallȬinclusiveȱparticipationȱinȱ
nationalȱaffairsȱbyȱstipulatingȱthatȱ“everyȱUgandaȱcitizenȱhasȱtheȱrightȱ
toȱparticipateȱinȱtheȱaffairsȱofȱgovernment,ȱindividuallyȱorȱthroughȱhisȱ
orȱ herȱ representativesȱ inȱ accordanceȱ withȱ law”ȱ (Articleȱ 38ȱ (1)).ȱ
Minoritiesȱ alsoȱ haveȱ “aȱ rightȱ toȱ participateȱ inȱ decisionȬmakingȱ
processesȱ andȱ theirȱ viewsȱ andȱ interestsȱ shallȱ beȱ takenȱ intoȱ accountȱ inȱ
theȱmakingȱofȱnationalȱplansȱandȱprogrammes”ȱ(Articleȱ36).ȱȱȱ
ȱ
Constitutionalȱ provisionsȱ inȱ Nigeriaȱ (Articleȱ 55),ȱ whichȱ requireȱ thatȱ
“theȱbusinessȱofȱtheȱNationalȱAssemblyȱshallȱbeȱconductedȱinȱEnglish,ȱ
Hausa,ȱ Igboȱ andȱ Yoruba,”ȱ couldȱ beȱ extendedȱ toȱ theȱ country’sȱ
Children’sȱParliamentȱtoȱensureȱeffectiveȱandȱinclusiveȱparticipationȱofȱ
theȱbroadȱmassȱofȱchildrenȱinȱnationalȱaffairs.ȱȱ
ȱ
Opportunitiesȱ forȱ childȱ participationȱ areȱ alsoȱ presentedȱ byȱ
constitutionalȱ reviews.ȱ Beingȱ theȱ supremeȱ lawȱ ofȱ theȱ State,ȱ
constitutionsȱareȱgenerallyȱperceivedȱofȱasȱseriousȱdocumentsȱandȱtheȱ
constitutionalȱ reviewsȱ precedingȱ theirȱ promulgationȱ asȱ seriousȱ
processesȱwhichȱcannotȱinvolveȱtheȱparticipationȱ ofȱchildren.ȱTheȱ2002ȱ
Specialȱ Sessionȱ onȱ Childrenȱ andȱ otherȱ eventsȱ haveȱ shown,ȱ however,ȱ
thatȱchildrenȱhaveȱtheȱcapacityȱtoȱmakeȱeffectiveȱcontributionsȱtowardsȱ
159
mattersȱ affectingȱ theirȱ welfare,ȱ providedȱ appropriateȱ mechanismsȱ areȱ

putȱinȱplace.ȱȱAnotherȱsuccessfulȱexampleȱofȱchildȱparticipationȱcomesȱ
fromȱ TimorȬLeste.ȱ Childrenȱ inȱ thatȱ countryȱ madeȱ historyȱ when,ȱ inȱ
Novemberȱ 2001,ȱ overȱ oneȱ hundredȱ ofȱ themȱ appearedȱ beforeȱ theirȱ
country’sȱConstituentȱAssemblyȱwithȱaȱrequestȱtoȱpayȱattentionȱtoȱtheirȱ
rights.ȱ Theȱ childrenȱ deliveredȱ aȱ letterȱ fromȱ theȱ Workingȱ Groupȱ forȱ
Childȱ Rightsȱ toȱ theȱ membersȱ ofȱ theȱ Assembly,ȱ askingȱ thatȱ theȱ
Constitutionȱ specificallyȱ referȱ toȱ “theȱ coreȱ rightsȱ ofȱ children,”ȱ
includingȱtheȱadditionȱofȱguaranteesȱofȱbasicȱeducationȱandȱhealthcare,ȱ
andȱ specialȱ assistanceȱ forȱ vulnerableȱ children.ȱ Thisȱ resultedȱ inȱ theȱ
promulgationȱofȱaȱrightsȬbasedȱandȱchildȬcentredȱConstitution. 202ȱ
ȱ
Toȱfacilitateȱtheȱeffectiveȱparticipationȱofȱchildrenȱinȱsuchȱreviews,ȱ
StatesȱcouldȱmakeȱuseȱofȱexistingȱchildȱparticipationȬrelatedȱstructuresȱ
suchȱasȱChildren’sȱParliamentsȱ(forȱexample,ȱCameroon,ȱNigeriaȱandȱ
TheȱGambia),ȱinȬschoolȱclubsȱ(forȱexample,ȱGhana)ȱorȱalternatively,ȱ
throughȱtheȱcreationȱofȱallȱinclusiveȱNationalȱChildren’sȱConstitutionalȱ
ReviewȱCommissions.ȱ
ȱ
ȱ
Partȱ4ȱ POSTȬCONSTITUTIONALȱ
REFORMS:ȱTHEȱNEXTȱSTEPSȱ
ȱ
Theȱ subsectionsȱ aboveȱ provideȱ toolsȱ toȱ considerȱ theȱ formulationȱ ofȱ
constitutionsȱ inȱ aȱ mannerȱ thatȱ reflectsȱ theȱ concernsȱ ofȱ children.ȱ Onceȱ
constitutionsȱhaveȱbeenȱformulated,ȱtheȱprimaryȱchallengeȱbecomesȱforȱ
Statesȱ toȱ ensureȱ thatȱ theseȱ documentsȱ doȱ notȱ becomeȱ symbolicȱ
gesturesȱ towardsȱ theȱ citizenryȱ butȱ ratherȱ livingȱ toolsȱ towardsȱ theȱ
realisationȱofȱhumanȱrights.ȱ
ȱ
Amongȱ postȬconstitutionalȱ reformȱ measuresȱ toȱ considerȱ areȱ 1)ȱ wideȱ
disseminationȱ throughȱ appropriateȱ means,ȱ 2)ȱ constitutionalȱ litigationȱ
andȱinterpretationȱbyȱtheȱcourtsȱandȱ3)ȱmonitoringȱofȱimplementationȱ
ofȱ constitutionalȱ provisions.ȱ Theseȱ processesȱ wouldȱ involveȱ aȱ wideȱ
rangeȱofȱstakeholdersȱwithȱwhomȱtheseȱmilestonesȱmustȱbeȱmet.ȱ
ȱ
202
South Africa and the Philippines provide additional examples.
160
4.1ȱ WhoȱAreȱtheȱStakeholdersȱandȱWhatȱShouldȱTheyȱ
DoȱforȱChildren?ȱ
ȱ
x Judges:ȱJudgesȱdevelopȱandȱinterpretȱtheȱlawȱinȱfavourȱofȱ
children,ȱmindfulȱofȱinternationalȱtreatyȱobligations.ȱInȱtheȱcaseȱ
ofȱtheȱUnitedȱStatesȱasȱwithȱmanyȱotherȱcommonȬlawȱ
jurisdictions,ȱtheȱcourtsȱareȱtheȱcentralȱpointsȱforȱtheȱ
interpretationȱofȱtheȱconstitution.ȱInȱtheȱcaseȱofȱMarburyȱvs.ȱ
Madison, 203 ȱtheȱUSȱSupremeȱCourtȱmadeȱtheȱfollowingȱ
fundamentalȱobservation:ȱ“Itȱisȱemphaticallyȱtheȱprovinceȱandȱ
dutyȱofȱtheȱjudicialȱdepartmentȱtoȱsayȱwhatȱtheȱlawȱis.” 204 ȱȱ
x Lawyers:ȱLawyersȱcanȱprovideȱconstitutionalȱandȱpublicȱ
interestȱlitigationȱinȱfavourȱofȱchildren,ȱincludingȱlegalȱaidȱinȱ
constitutionalȱcases.ȱ
x Parliament:ȱParliamentȱensuresȱthatȱresourcesȱareȱmadeȱ
availableȱforȱtheȱpreventionȱofȱconstitutionalȱviolationsȱandȱ
protectionȱandȱredressesȱwhenȱtheyȱdoȱoccur.ȱTheȱlegislatureȱisȱ
alsoȱtoȱbeȱproactiveȱinȱtheȱidentificationȱofȱlawsȱneededȱtoȱgiveȱ
effectȱtoȱconstitutionalȱprovisions.ȱParliamentaryȱsubȬ
committeesȱandȱprivateȱmembersȱareȱencouragedȱtoȱspearheadȱ
passageȱofȱlegislationȱandȱregulationsȱtoȱcorrectȱsocialȱ
anomaliesȱaffectingȱimplementationȱofȱtheȱCRCȱandȱCEDAW.ȱ
x Legislativeȱdrafters:ȱDraftersȱensureȱthatȱlegislationȱisȱwordedȱ
inȱaȱmannerȱthatȱisȱfaithfulȱtoȱtheȱintentȱofȱconstitutionalȱ
provisions.ȱ
x Governmentalȱagenciesȱworkingȱforȱchildren:ȱSectorsȱworkingȱ
forȱchildrenȱareȱtoȱfamiliarizeȱthemselvesȱwithȱconstitutionalȱ
provisionsȱandȱensureȱthatȱobligationsȱoutlinedȱwithȱrespectȱtoȱ
theirȱfunctionsȱareȱfullyȱmet.ȱ
x CivilȱSocietyȱOrganizations:ȱTheseȱgroupsȱhaveȱaȱroleȱinȱ
initiatingȱdialogueȱforȱconstitutionalȱreforms.ȱ
x Children:ȱȱChildrenȱshouldȱappreciateȱtheȱconstitutionalȱ
provisionsȱaffectingȱtheirȱrightsȱandȱmakeȱtheirȱviewsȱheardȱinȱ
mattersȱaffectingȱthemȱasȱpartȱofȱtheȱconstitutionalȱprocess.ȱ
x Teachers:ȱTeachersȱcanȱinstructȱonȱissuesȱofȱcivicȱeducationȱandȱ
ensureȱthatȱpupilsȱandȱstudentsȱbecomeȱfamiliarȱwithȱ
constitutionalȱprovisions.ȱ
203
Cited supra.
204
Ibid. p. 175.
161
x InternationalȱOrganisations:ȱUsingȱnationalȱconstitutionsȱasȱ
frameworksȱforȱtheȱprovisionȱofȱtechnicalȱandȱfinancialȱ
support,ȱinternationalȱorganisationsȱcanȱsupportȱtheȱdesignȱandȱ
implementationȱofȱkeyȱnationalȱinstrumentsȱ(forȱexample,ȱ
UNDAF,ȱPRSP’s,ȱSocialȱProtectionȱStrategiesȱandȱlegislation).ȱ
ȱ
4.2ȱ WideȱDisseminationȱofȱtheȱConstitutionȱthroughȱ
AppropriateȱMeansȱ
ȱ
Givenȱ theȱ statusȱ ofȱ theȱ constitutionȱ asȱ theȱ supremeȱ lawȱ andȱ theȱ
standardȱ byȱ whichȱ allȱ actionsȱ ofȱ Stateȱ andȱ nonȬStateȱ actorsȱ areȱ toȱ beȱ
judged,ȱ itȱ isȱ criticalȱ toȱ ensureȱ thatȱ theȱ documentȱ isȱ disseminatedȱ byȱ
appropriateȱ means.ȱ ȱ Widespreadȱ knowledgeȱ ofȱ theȱ contentsȱ ofȱ
constitutionsȱandȱotherȱlegalȱframeworksȱincreasesȱtheirȱeffectiveness.ȱ
UgandaȱandȱUkraineȱbothȱhaveȱconstitutionalȱprovisionsȱthatȱindicateȱ
thatȱknowledgeȱofȱtheȱlawȱisȱkeyȱtoȱ effectiveȱfulfillmentȱofȱdutiesȱandȱ
responsibilities:ȱ
ȱ
Uganda:ȱ “Theȱ Stateȱ shallȱ promoteȱ publicȱ awarenessȱ ofȱ thisȱ
Constitutionȱby:ȱ
(a) translatingȱ itȱ intoȱ Ugandanȱ languagesȱ andȱ disseminatingȱ itȱ asȱ
widelyȱasȱpossible;ȱandȱ
(b) providingȱ forȱtheȱteachingȱofȱtheȱConstitutionȱinȱallȱeducationalȱ
institutionsȱandȱarmedȱforcesȱtrainingȱinstitutionsȱandȱregularlyȱ
transmittingȱ andȱ publishingȱ programmesȱ throughȱ theȱ mediaȱ
generally”ȱ(Articleȱ4).ȱ
ȱ
Ukraine:ȱ “Lawsȱ andȱ otherȱ normativeȱ legalȱ actsȱ thatȱ determineȱ theȱ
rightsȱ andȱ dutiesȱ ofȱ citizens,ȱ butȱ thatȱ areȱ notȱ broughtȱ toȱ theȱ noticeȱ ofȱ
theȱpopulationȱbyȱtheȱprocedureȱestablishedȱbyȱlaw,ȱareȱ notȱ inȱ force”ȱ
(Articleȱ57ȱ(3)).ȱ
ȱ
Thisȱsuggestsȱtheȱneedȱforȱaȱdisseminationȱstrategyȱthatȱwouldȱensureȱ
thatȱ theȱ constitutionȱ isȱ packagedȱ toȱ suitȱ specificȱ audiences. 205 ȱ Inȱ theȱ
caseȱ ofȱ ruralȱ communities,ȱ forȱ instance,ȱ translatingȱ theȱ constitutionȱ
intoȱlocalȱlanguagesȱwouldȱserveȱtheirȱpurpose,ȱwhereasȱinȱtheȱcaseȱofȱ
205
As an example, Ghana has succeeded in reducing its 1992 Constitution into a simplified
pocket-sized version, being sold at vantage points (e.g. book shops and news paper stalls) at a
subsidised price and is suitable for use by adults and children above 11 years.
162
children,ȱ countriesȱ couldȱ considerȱ simplifiedȱ orȱ illustratedȱ versions.ȱ

Effectiveȱdisseminationȱofȱcountryȱconstitutionsȱwouldȱbeȱinȱlineȱwithȱ
theȱ spiritȱ ofȱ Articleȱ 42ȱ ofȱ theȱ CRCȱ onȱ theȱ issueȱ ofȱ Stateȱ responsibilityȱ
“toȱ makeȱ theȱ principlesȱ andȱ provisionsȱ ofȱ theȱ Conventionȱ widelyȱ
known,ȱbyȱappropriateȱandȱactiveȱmeans,ȱtoȱadultsȱandȱchildrenȱalike.”ȱȱ
ȱ
4.3ȱ ConstitutionalȱLitigationȱandȱInterpretationȱȱȱ
ȱ
Publicȱ andȱ privateȱ organisationsȱ andȱ individualsȱ areȱ encouragedȱ toȱ
pursueȱ constitutionalȱ litigationȱ inȱ favourȱ ofȱ women’sȱ andȱ children’sȱ
rights.ȱȱThisȱwouldȱpromoteȱtheȱgrowthȱofȱtheȱlawȱandȱaffirmȱtheȱveryȱ
existenceȱ ofȱ theȱ constitutionȱ asȱ aȱ livingȱ document.ȱ ȱ Constitutionalȱ
litigationȱwithinȱmanyȱjurisdictionsȱcommencesȱinȱspeciallyȱdesignatedȱ
Constitutionalȱ Courtsȱ (forȱ example,ȱ Southȱ Africaȱ andȱ theȱ Russianȱ
Federation)ȱ orȱ inȱ regularȱ Superiorȱ Courtsȱ ofȱ Judicatureȱ (usuallyȱ
assignedȱ toȱ aȱ designatedȱ Highȱ Court,ȱ Courtȱ ofȱ Appealȱ orȱ Supremeȱ
Court,ȱasȱtheȱcaseȱmayȱbeȱ(asȱinȱGhana,ȱwhereȱtheȱSupremeȱCourtȱhasȱ
soleȱjurisdictionȱforȱdeterminingȱconstitutionalȱissues)).ȱȱȱ
ȱ
Proceduresȱ adoptedȱ forȱ filingȱ constitutionalȱ casesȱ willȱ differȱ amongȱ
States.ȱ Interestedȱ personsȱ shouldȱ examineȱ theȱ proceduralȱ rulesȱ
applicableȱ toȱ ensureȱ thatȱ theirȱ respectiveȱ courtsȱ doȱ notȱ dismissȱ anyȱ
caseȱevenȱbeforeȱtheȱsubstantiveȱissuesȱareȱheard.ȱLawyersȱ(especiallyȱ
thoseȱ wellȱ versedȱ inȱ constitutionalȱ litigationȱ andȱ humanȱ rights)ȱ areȱ
encouragedȱ toȱ provideȱ legalȱ aid,ȱ whileȱ theȱ Stateȱ shouldȱ considerȱ
waivingȱ filingȱ fees,ȱ especiallyȱ inȱ casesȱ whichȱ relateȱ toȱ causesȱ ofȱ theȱ
indigentȱandȱotherȱvulnerableȱgroupsȱsuchȱasȱchildren.ȱ
ȱ
ChildȬrelatedȱ constitutionalȱ litigationȱ shouldȱ leadȱ toȱ theȱ growthȱ ofȱ
constitutionalȱ lawȱ inȱ theirȱ favour.ȱ Theȱ Courtsȱ (whetherȱ designatedȱ
Constitutionalȱ Courtsȱ orȱ not)ȱ playȱ aȱ primaryȱ roleȱ inȱ interpretation,ȱ
enforcementȱandȱimplementation.ȱProvisionsȱfromȱtheȱConstitutionsȱofȱ
theȱRussianȱ FederationȱandȱMadagascarȱdemonstrateȱtheȱ potentȱ forceȱ
ofȱConstitutionalȱCourtsȱinȱensuringȱconstitutionalȱcompliance:ȱ
ȱ
Russianȱ Federation:ȱ Articleȱ 125ȱ empowersȱ theȱ Constitutionalȱ
Courtȱ toȱ declareȱ lawsȱ (bothȱ federalȱ andȱ state)ȱ andȱ presidentialȱ
andȱ governmentalȱ decreesȱ inconsistentȱ withȱ theȱ Constitutionȱ
(i.e.ȱ theyȱ violateȱ certainȱ rightsȱ andȱ freedomsȱ ofȱ citizensȱ
163
enumeratedȱ inȱ andȱ protectedȱ byȱ theȱ Constitution).ȱ Inȱ suchȱ

situationsȱ theȱ lawȱ becomesȱ unenforceableȱ andȱ implementingȱ
agenciesȱ areȱ therebyȱ barredȱ fromȱ applyingȱ it.ȱ Theȱ lawȱ mayȱ beȱ
submittedȱ toȱ theȱ Constitutionalȱ Courtȱ byȱ theȱ Presidentȱ ofȱ
Russia,ȱ theȱ governmentȱ ofȱ Russia,ȱ theȱ Stateȱ Duma,ȱ theȱ
FederationȱCouncilȱofȱRussia,ȱoneȬfifthȱofȱmembersȱofȱtheȱStateȱ
Dumaȱ orȱ theȱ Federationȱ Council,ȱ theȱ Supremeȱ Courtȱ ofȱ theȱ
Russianȱ Federationȱ orȱ theȱ Supremeȱ Arbitrationȱ Courtȱ ofȱ theȱ
Russianȱ Federation.ȱ Inȱ aȱ similarȱ vein,ȱ anyȱ Federalȱ Courtȱ mayȱ
requestȱ thatȱ theȱ Constitutionalȱ Courtȱ determineȱ theȱ
constitutionalityȱofȱaȱlaw.ȱAdditionally,ȱanyȱprivateȱcitizenȱmayȱ
submitȱ aȱ claimȱ toȱ theȱ Constitutionalȱ Court,ȱ challengingȱ theȱ
constitutionalityȱofȱaȱparticularȱlaw.ȱ
ȱ
Madagascar:ȱ ȱ Articleȱ 118ȱ grantsȱ jurisdictionȱ toȱ theȱ
ConstitutionalȱHighȱCourtȱtoȱdetermineȱtheȱconstitutionalityȱofȱ
treaties,ȱ lawsȱ (centralȱ andȱ provincial)ȱ andȱ ordinances.ȱ Inȱ theȱ
process,ȱtheȱCourtȱisȱtoȱmanageȱconstitutionalȱconflictsȱbetweenȱ
twoȱorȱseveralȱInstitutionsȱofȱtheȱStateȱorȱbetweenȱtheȱStateȱandȱ
oneȱ orȱ moreȱ autonomousȱ provincesȱ orȱ betweenȱ twoȱ orȱ severalȱ
autonomousȱprovinces.ȱ
ȱ
Theȱ independenceȱ ofȱ theȱ judiciaryȱ mustȱ beȱ expresslyȱ stipulatedȱ inȱ
constitutionsȱinȱorderȱtoȱensureȱthatȱtheȱcourtsȱdoȱnotȱfeelȱimpededȱbyȱ
politicalȱorȱotherȱfactorsȱinȱtheȱexerciseȱofȱtheirȱfunctions.ȱJudgesȱareȱtoȱ
facilitateȱ theȱ realisationȱ ofȱ humanȱ rightsȱ byȱ referringȱ toȱ andȱ applyingȱ
relevantȱtreatiesȱonȱtheȱsubjectȱinȱquestion.ȱInȱotherȱwords,ȱforȱjudgesȱ
toȱgiveȱeffectȱtoȱgeneralȱandȱspecificȱconstitutionalȱprovisionsȱaffectingȱ
children,ȱ theyȱ mustȱ becomeȱ familiarȱ withȱ theȱ internationalȱ humanȱ
rightsȱinstrumentsȱandȱprinciplesȱoutlinedȱabove.ȱ
ȱ
Judgesȱcouldȱalsoȱreferȱtoȱtheȱfollowingȱadditionalȱtools:ȱ
ȱ
x ConstitutionalȱCommissionȱProposalsȱ(inȱrelationȱtoȱpastȱandȱ
presentȱConstitutions);ȱ
x UNȱCommitteeȱconcludingȱobservationsȱandȱrecommendationsȱ
toȱStatesȱParties;ȱ
x UNȱCommitteeȱGeneralȱComments;ȱandȱ
164
x Localȱandȱinternationalȱjudicialȱprecedent. 206ȱ
ȱ
4.4ȱ MonitoringȱofȱImplementationȱofȱConstitutionalȱProvisionsȱȱȱ
ȱ
Monitoringȱ ofȱ constitutionalȱ implementationȱ isȱ neededȱ forȱ twoȱ
reasons:ȱ firstly,ȱ Statesȱ needȱ toȱ ensureȱ thatȱ theȱ provisionsȱ areȱ beingȱ
applied.ȱ Secondly,ȱ itȱ willȱ provideȱ stakeholdersȱ withȱ aȱ bodyȱ ofȱ
evidenceȬbasedȱ informationȱ toȱ justifyȱ futureȱ constitutionalȱ
amendments.ȱ Itȱ wouldȱ beȱ advisableȱ toȱ proceedȱ withȱ thisȱ inȱ aȱ holisticȱ
fashion,ȱasȱpartȱofȱaȱbroadȱframeworkȱforȱmonitoringȱimplementationȱ
ofȱ allȱ legalȱ standardsȱ andȱ notȱ justȱ theȱ constitution.ȱ Thisȱ couldȱ beȱ
spearheadedȱbyȱaȱgovernmentȱagency,ȱwithȱtheȱmandateȱtoȱundertakeȱ
periodicȱ reviewsȱ ofȱ laws,ȱ suchȱ asȱ Lawȱ Reformȱ Commissionsȱ orȱ theirȱ
equivalent.ȱȱ
ȱ
IndicatorsȱforȱmeasuringȱtheȱeffectivenessȱofȱConstitutionsȱwouldȱhaveȱ
toȱbeȱagreedȱuponȱbyȱstakeholders.ȱȱTheȱfollowingȱmayȱbeȱconsideredȱ
keyȱmeasurementȱpoints:ȱ
ȱ
1. TheȱnumberȱofȱtimesȱtheȱConstitutionȱisȱusedȱasȱaȱreferenceȱ
pointȱforȱissuesȱaffectingȱchildrenȱby:ȱParliamentȱ(inȱdebates,ȱ
statements,ȱcomments,ȱquestionsȱandȱproposals);ȱJudiciaryȱ(inȱ
judgmentsȱ(concurringȱandȱdissenting),ȱobiterȱdictaȱandȱ
practiceȱnotes);ȱTheȱExecutiveȱ(throughȱCabinet,ȱMinistries,ȱ
AgenciesȱandȱDepartments);ȱLawyersȱ(constitutionalȱcasesȱ
initiatedȱinȱfavourȱofȱchildren;ȱSchoolsȱ(inȱcurriculumȱ
development,ȱteaching,ȱdebatesȱandȱcivicȱeducation)ȱandȱ
teacherȱtrainingȱinstitutions;ȱMediaȱ(inȱreportage,ȱdisseminationȱ
andȱfollowȱup);ȱChildrenȱ(forȱinȬschoolȱandȱoutȱofȱschoolȱ
activities);ȱCivilȱSocietyȱOrganizationsȱ(inȱmonitoringȱandȱ
publicȱinterestȱlitigation);ȱTheȱUNȱsystemȱ(inȱtheȱdesignȱof,ȱ
CountryȱAssistanceȱStrategies,ȱCommonȱCountryȱAssessmentsȱ
andȱUNDAF)ȱ
2. TheȱnumberȱofȱreferencesȱmadeȱtoȱtheȱconstitutionȱinȱStateȱ
reportsȱtoȱtheȱUNȱCRCȱCommitteeȱandȱotherȱUNȱCommitteeȱ
Reportsȱ
206
The case of Unity Dow already used in text, presents a good example. Reference could
also be made to the judgment of Lord Wright in the case of James v Commonwealth of
Australia, [1936] AC 578, p. 613-614.
165
3. TheȱnumberȱofȱcapacityȬbuildingȱprogrammesȱonȱtheȱ
constitutionȱconductedȱ
4. TheȱnumberȱofȱprofessionalȱandȱnonȬprofessionalȱgroupsȱwithȱ
knowledgeȱofȱtheȱconstitutionȱ
5. TheȱnumberȱofȱfirstȬ,ȱsecondȬȱandȱthirdȬcycleȱinstitutionsȱwithȱ
aspectsȱofȱtheȱconstitutionȱintegratedȱintoȱtheirȱcurriculaȱ
6. Theȱexistence,ȱnumberȱandȱtypesȱofȱsimplifiedȱversionsȱofȱtheȱ
Constitutionȱandȱforȱwhichȱaudiencesȱ
ȱ
ȱ
Partȱ5ȱ CONCLUSIONSȱANDȱLESSONSȱ
LEARNEDȱFROMȱCONSTITUTIONALȱ
REFORMȱEXPERIENCESȱ
ȱ
Theȱfollowingȱconclusionsȱandȱlessonsȱmayȱbeȱdrawnȱfromȱtheȱabove:ȱȱ
ȱ
1. Constitutionsȱ areȱ potentȱ toolsȱ forȱ theȱ enforcementȱ ofȱ humanȱ
rightsȱ inȱ favourȱ ofȱ children.ȱ Theyȱ setȱ theȱ tone,ȱ directionȱ andȱ
prioritiesȱ ofȱ governmentȱ policy,ȱ statutoryȱ reformȱ andȱ
budgetingȱ requiredȱ forȱ CRCȱ andȱ CEDAWȱ implementation.ȱ
Theyȱ serveȱ asȱ sustainableȱ frameworksȱ forȱ theȱ continuationȱ ofȱ
policiesȱ andȱ programmesȱ inȱ favourȱ ofȱ children,ȱ regardlessȱ ofȱ
whichȱ partyȱ isȱ inȱ power.ȱ Shortȱ ofȱ militaryȱ interventionsȱ andȱ
politicalȱexpediency,ȱcivilianȱgovernmentsȱareȱgenerallyȱboundȱ
toȱ continueȱ withȱ theȱ policiesȱ andȱ programmesȱ ofȱ previousȱ
regimes.ȱ Inȱ otherȱ words,ȱ constitutionsȱ doȱ notȱ changeȱ withȱ
changeȱ ofȱ governmentsȱ unlessȱ accompaniedȱ byȱ aȱ legitimateȱ
constitutionalȱ reviewȱ process.ȱ Thisȱ allowsȱ forȱ continuityȱ andȱ
sustainabilityȱofȱmajorȱinterventionsȱandȱinvestmentsȱthatȱhaveȱ
beenȱmadeȱinȱfavourȱofȱchildren.ȱ
ȱ
2. Supremacyȱclausesȱinȱmostȱconstitutionsȱcreateȱanȱopportunityȱ
toȱ testȱ theȱ constitutionalityȱ ofȱ variousȱ actsȱ andȱ omissionsȱ
spanningȱ acrossȱ politicalȱ andȱ civilȱ rights,ȱ onȱ theȱ oneȱ hand,ȱ toȱ
economic,ȱ socialȱ andȱ culturalȱ rightsȱ onȱ theȱ other.ȱ Statesȱ areȱ toȱ
reviewȱclausesȱandȱpolicyȱdirectivesȱonȱtheȱnonȬjusticiabilityȱofȱ
theȱsecondȱcategoryȱofȱrightsȱinȱlineȱwithȱRecommendationȱNo.ȱ
166
9ȱ ofȱ theȱ UNȱ Committeeȱ onȱ theȱ Covenantȱ onȱ Economic,ȱ Socialȱ
andȱCulturalȱRights.ȱ
ȱ
3. Opportunitiesȱ areȱ presentedȱ byȱ globalȱ humanȱ rightsȱ
frameworksȱ toȱ makeȱ childrenȱ theȱ centralȱ subjectsȱ ofȱ bothȱ
generalȱhumanȱrightsȱlawȱandȱspecificȱnormsȱaffectingȱchildren.ȱ
Thisȱisȱtoȱbeȱdoneȱwithȱtheȱobjectiveȱofȱlocatingȱtheȱrightsȱofȱtheȱ
childrenȱ withinȱtheȱcontextȱ ofȱ humanȱrightsȱandȱensuringȱthatȱ
theyȱareȱguaranteedȱholisticȱprotection.ȱ
ȱ
4. Bestȱ practicesȱ couldȱ beȱ learnedȱ acrossȱ jurisdictions.ȱ ȱ Examplesȱ
areȱinȱrelationȱto:ȱ
ȱ
- Recognisingȱ childrenȱ asȱ subjectsȱ ofȱ rightsȱ (forȱ example,ȱ
Venezuela);ȱ
- Expandingȱtheȱdefinitionȱofȱtheȱchildȱtoȱincludeȱorphansȱandȱ
childrenȱbornȱoutȱofȱwedlockȱ(forȱexample,ȱNigeria);ȱ
- Protectingȱtheȱfamilyȱandȱkeepingȱitȱsacrosanctȱinȱfavourȱofȱ
childrenȱ(forȱexample,ȱIreland);ȱ
- Providingȱforȱanȱarrayȱofȱbasicȱservicesȱ(forȱexample,ȱBrazil);ȱ
- Recognisingȱ preȬschoolȱ asȱ aȱ constitutionalȱ rightȱ (forȱ
example,ȱUkraine);ȱ
- Protectingȱ childrenȱ fromȱ slaveryȱ andȱ institutionsȱ similarȱ toȱ
slaveryȱ(forȱexample,ȱTheȱGambia);ȱȱ
- Protectingȱ childrenȱ bornȱ outȱ ofȱ wedlockȱ (forȱ example,ȱ Eastȱ
Timor);ȱ
- Protectingȱchildrenȱfromȱparticipationȱinȱarmedȱconflictȱandȱ
thoseȱaffectedȱbyȱitȱ(forȱexample,ȱSouthȱAfrica);ȱ
- Ensuringȱbirthȱregistrationȱ(Brazil);ȱ
- Protectingȱ childrenȱ inȱ conflictȱ withȱ theȱ lawȱ (forȱ example,ȱ
Ethiopia);ȱandȱ
- Protectingȱorphansȱ(forȱexample,ȱUganda).ȱ
ȱ
5. Statesȱareȱtoȱinvestȱinȱconstitutionalȱbodiesȱwhichȱhaveȱbeenȱsetȱ
upȱtoȱprotectȱtheȱrightsȱofȱchildren,ȱwithȱaȱviewȱtoȱmakingȱthemȱ
effectiveȱtoolsȱofȱchangeȱinȱfavourȱofȱchildren.ȱThisȱisȱtoȱbeȱdoneȱ
byȱenhancingȱtheirȱfinancial,ȱtechnicalȱandȱhumanȱresourceȱ
capacities.ȱ
ȱ
167
6. Theȱexistenceȱofȱaȱnationalȱconstitutionȱinȱanyȱcountryȱwillȱ
requireȱaȱpragmaticȱprogrammeȱofȱsocialȱmobilizationȱandȱ
sensitisationȱasȱwouldȱensureȱwidespreadȱappreciationȱandȱ
understandingȱofȱitsȱcontents.ȱAȱnationalȱinterventionȱofȱthisȱ
kindȱcreatesȱaȱwindowȱofȱopportunityȱforȱchildren,ȱasȱcitizens,ȱ
toȱappreciateȱtheirȱrightsȱandȱresponsibilitiesȱunderȱtheirȱ
respectiveȱconstitutions.ȱInȱsomeȱcountries,ȱforȱexampleȱGhana,ȱ
thisȱhasȱworkedȱthroughȱexistingȱinȬschoolȱconstitutionȱclubs,ȱ
theȱcreationȱofȱconstitutionalȱgames,ȱtheȱpublicationȱandȱ
disseminationȱofȱabridgedȱversionsȱofȱtheȱconstitutionȱandȱtheȱ
celebrationȱofȱnationalȱconstitutionalȱweek.ȱ
ȱ
7. Constitutionalȱreviewȱinitiativesȱserveȱasȱopportunitiesȱforȱchildȱ
participationȱinȱtheȱlawȱreformȱprocessȱthroughȱexistingȱchildȱ
participationȱstructuresȱorȱtheȱcreationȱofȱChildȱConstitutionȱ
ReviewȱCommissions.ȱTheȱexperienceȱofȱTimorȬLesteȱhasȱ
shownȱthatȱchildȱparticipationȱcanȱmakeȱaȱdifferenceȱinȱ
ensuringȱthatȱchildȬspecificȱconcernsȱareȱaddressedȱduringȱtheȱ
reviewȱprocess.ȱȱExperienceȱinȱKenyaȱhasȱdemonstratedȱthatȱ
constitutionalȱreviewsȱalsoȱserveȱasȱopportunitiesȱtoȱaffectȱ
changeȱinȱtheȱcontentȱofȱpreviousȱframeworksȱforȱtheȱpurposeȱ
ofȱgivingȱeffectȱtoȱinternationalȱtreatyȱobligationsȱthroughȱ
broadȱparticipation.ȱTheȱconstitutionalȱreviewȱofȱthatȱcountryȱ
witnessedȱtheȱconsiderationȱofȱmoreȱelaborateȱprovisionsȱonȱ
humanȱrightsȱ(BillȱofȱRights),ȱcitizenship 207 ȱandȱtheȱcreationȱofȱaȱ
CommissionȱonȱHumanȱRightsȱandȱAdministrativeȱJusticeȱtoȱ
monitorȱimplementationȱofȱhumanȱrightsȱtreaties.ȱȱ
207
Among the defects in the previous constitutional provisions on citizenship was the fact that
it was gender discriminatory. A wife of a Kenyan man had the right to be a Kenyan, but not
the husband of a Kenyan woman. Moreover, a child born of a Kenyan father outside the
country automatically became a citizen, but the child of a Kenyan mother in the same
situation did not (Constitution of Kenya Review Commission (2002), p. 26).
168
Constitutionsȱusedȱinȱtheȱtext:ȱ
ȱ
ȱ
1. ConstitutionȱActȱofȱCanadaȱ(1982)ȱ
2. ConstitutionȱofȱAzerbaijanȱ(1995)ȱ
3. ConstitutionȱofȱCambodiaȱ(1993)ȱ
4. ConstitutionȱofȱFijiȱ(1998)ȱȱ
5. ConstitutionȱofȱFranceȱ(1958,ȱasȱamended)ȱ
6. ConstitutionȱofȱIndiaȱ(1950ȱasȱamended)ȱȱ
7. ConstitutionȱofȱIraqȱ(2005)ȱȱ
8. ConstitutionȱofȱMadagascarȱ(1960)ȱ
9. ConstitutionȱofȱtheȱFederalȱRepublicȱofȱNigeriaȱ(1999)ȱȱ
10. ConstitutionȱofȱtheȱIslamicȱRepublicȱofȱPakistanȱ(1973ȱasȱ
amended)ȱ
11. ConstitutionȱofȱtheȱRepublicȱofȱBrazilȱ(1988)ȱ
12. ConstitutionȱofȱtheȱRepublicȱofȱGhanaȱ(1992)ȱȱ
13. ConstitutionȱofȱtheȱRepublicȱofȱIrelandȱ(1937,ȱasȱamended)ȱ
14. ConstitutionȱofȱtheȱRepublicȱofȱKenyaȱ(proposed,ȱ2005)ȱȱ
15. ConstitutionȱofȱtheȱRepublicȱofȱSouthȱAfricaȱ(1996)ȱȱ
16. ConstitutionȱofȱtheȱRepublicȱofȱTheȱGambiaȱ(1997)ȱȱ
17. ConstitutionȱofȱtheȱRepublicȱofȱUkraineȱ(1996)ȱȱ
18. ConstitutionȱofȱtheȱRussianȱFederationȱ(1993)ȱ
19. ConstitutionȱofȱtheȱUnitedȱStatesȱofȱAmericaȱ(1787,ȱasȱamended)ȱ
20. ConstitutionȱofȱVenezuelaȱ(1999)ȱ
ȱȱ
ȱȱ
ȱ
169
Chapterȱ4ȱ
ȱ
LEGISLATIVEȱREFORMȱFORȱTHEȱ
PROTECTIONȱOFȱTHEȱRIGHTSȱOFȱ
CHILDȱVICTIMSȱOFȱ
TRAFFICKINGȱ
ȱ
Legislativeȱreformȱinȱtheȱareaȱofȱtraffickingȱisȱparticularlyȱcomplexȱ
becauseȱtraffickingȱitselfȱconstitutesȱanȱelusiveȱnotion.ȱTheȱdefinitionȱofȱ
traffickingȱrevolvesȱaroundȱmultipleȱconcepts,ȱandȱtheirȱinterpretationȱ
remainsȱpoorlyȱdefinedȱandȱproneȱtoȱconfusion.ȱFirst,ȱtraffickingȱ
activitiesȱareȱveryȱdiverse.ȱTraffickedȱchildrenȱmostlyȱendȱupȱinȱ
unregulatedȱsectorsȱsuchȱasȱdomesticȱlabourȱorȱprostitution.ȱTheyȱcanȱ
beȱsoldȱforȱadoptionȱorȱmarriage.ȱAsȱaȱconsequence,ȱitsȱcomponentsȱ
mayȱoverlapȱwithȱotherȱelements.ȱHowȱcanȱtraffickingȱbeȱ
differentiatedȱfromȱsmuggling?ȱWhatȱisȱtheȱboundaryȱbetweenȱworkȱ
andȱexploitation?ȱTheȱconstantlyȱchangingȱnatureȱandȱdynamicsȱofȱ
traffickingȱaddȱtoȱtheȱdifficultyȱofȱgraspingȱthisȱreality.ȱItȱisȱbothȱanȱ
internationalȱandȱdomesticȱphenomenon.ȱWhileȱtraffickingȱhasȱbeenȱ
mostȱvisibleȱatȱaȱglobalȱlevelȱwhenȱitȱinvolvesȱtheȱcrossingȱofȱaȱborder,ȱ
itȱalsoȱoccursȱwithinȱaȱcountry’sȱboundaries,ȱmakingȱitȱevenȱmoreȱ
difficultȱtoȱdetect.ȱItȱaffectsȱdevelopedȱandȱdevelopingȱcountries.ȱ
Traffickingȱtrendsȱrepresentȱaȱveryȱcomplexȱwebȱofȱcountriesȱofȱorigin,ȱ
transit,ȱandȱdestination,ȱinȱwhichȱtheȱsameȱcountryȱcanȱbelongȱtoȱallȱ
threeȱcategoriesȱandȱoneȱcountryȱcanȱeasilyȱswitchȱfromȱoneȱcategoryȱ
toȱanotherȱoverȱtime.ȱLikewise,ȱnewȱformsȱofȱtraffickingȱkeepȱ
emerging,ȱrequiringȱconstantȱadaptationȱofȱresponses.ȱYet,ȱtraffickingȱ
canȱandȱshouldȱbeȱaddressedȱthroughȱcomprehensiveȱlegislativeȱ
reform.ȱ
ȱ
Legislativeȱreformȱaimingȱtoȱaddressȱchildȱtraffickingȱmustȱencompassȱ
theȱmanyȱdimensionsȱofȱthisȱphenomenonȱandȱtakeȱintoȱaccountȱtheȱ
existenceȱofȱchildȱspecificȱformsȱofȱtrafficking.ȱWhileȱmostȱactors,ȱ
especiallyȱgovernments,ȱtendȱtoȱfocusȱonȱtheȱeliminationȱofȱtrafficking,ȱ
inȱparticularȱthroughȱitsȱcriminalization,ȱwhatȱmattersȱfromȱaȱchildȱ
170
rightsȱperspectiveȱisȱprimarilyȱpreventionȱasȱwellȱasȱtheȱprotectionȱofȱ
theȱrightsȱofȱvictims.ȱTherefore,ȱlegislativeȱreformȱmustȱconcentrateȱonȱ
theȱchild’sȱexperiencesȱandȱgiveȱprimaryȱconsiderationȱtoȱtheȱbestȱ
interestsȱofȱtheȱchild.ȱȱ
ȱ
Thisȱmayȱnotȱnecessarilyȱrequireȱtheȱcreationȱofȱnewȱlaws.ȱReformȱofȱ
existingȱlawsȱmayȱensureȱadequateȱprotectionȱforȱchildȱvictims,ȱandȱ
alsoȱavoidȱdifferentiatedȱtreatmentȱbetweenȱchildȱvictimsȱofȱ
exploitationȱandȱchildȱvictimsȱofȱtrafficking.ȱLawsȱandȱinstitutionsȱmayȱ
alreadyȱexistȱwithȱrespectȱtoȱspecificȱissuesȱrelatedȱtoȱtraffickingȱsuchȱ
asȱguardianshipȱwhenȱtheȱchildȱisȱunaccompanied,ȱrefugeeȱstatus,ȱlawsȱ
andȱenforcementȱmechanismsȱtoȱaddressȱchildȱlabour,ȱetc.ȱHowever,ȱitȱ
isȱimportantȱthatȱtheȱlegalȱframeworkȱbeȱproperlyȱequippedȱtoȱaddressȱ
allȱsituationsȱofȱtrafficking.ȱȱ
ȱ
Theȱapproachȱtoȱlegislativeȱreformȱinȱtheȱareaȱofȱtraffickingȱvariesȱfromȱ
countryȱtoȱcountry.ȱProvisionsȱrelatedȱtoȱchildȱtraffickingȱmayȱbeȱ
includedȱinȱoneȱspecialȱlawȱonȱtraffickingȱorȱincorporatedȱinȱotherȱ
relevantȱcodesȱorȱlaws.ȱForȱinstance,ȱtheȱprotectionȱofȱvictimsȱasȱ
witnessesȱinȱaȱtrialȱmayȱbeȱincludedȱinȱtheȱcriminalȱprocedureȱcode,ȱ
andȱissuesȱrelatedȱtoȱtheȱvictims’ȱstatusȱaddressedȱinȱimmigrationȱ
laws.ȱCivilȱlawsuits,ȱonȱtheȱotherȱhand,ȱusuallyȱbelongȱtoȱcivilȱlaw.ȱ
ManyȱStatesȱhaveȱconsideredȱitȱuseful,ȱforȱtheȱsakeȱofȱsimplicityȱandȱ
consistency,ȱtoȱgatherȱinȱoneȱActȱallȱtheȱprovisionsȱrelatedȱtoȱvictims,ȱ
evenȱifȱthisȱActȱmodifiesȱseveralȱotherȱlaws.ȱ
ȱ
Regardlessȱofȱtheȱapproachȱtaken,ȱlegislativeȱreformȱshouldȱfocusȱnotȱ
onlyȱonȱtheȱdraftingȱofȱtheȱlaw,ȱbutȱalsoȱonȱmeasuresȱtoȱensureȱ
effectiveȱimplementationȱthroughȱtheȱestablishmentȱofȱadequateȱ
structures,ȱincludingȱtheȱattributionȱofȱpreciseȱresponsibilitiesȱtoȱ
relevantȱactorsȱandȱinstitutions.ȱ
ȱ
Thisȱchapterȱwillȱfocusȱthereforeȱonȱtheȱrightsȱofȱchildȱvictimsȱandȱtheȱ
legislativeȱprocessesȱforȱprotectingȱtheseȱrights,ȱratherȱthanȱonȱ
criminal/prosecutionȱissues.ȱItȱshouldȱbeȱreadȱinȱconjunctionȱwithȱ
UNICEF’sȱGuidelinesȱonȱtheȱProtectionȱofȱChildȱVictimsȱofȱ
Trafficking. 208 ȱLikeȱotherȱchaptersȱofȱtheȱHandbook,ȱthisȱchapterȱ
indicatesȱtheȱstandardsȱtowardsȱwhichȱoneȱshouldȱaspire.ȱDependingȱ
208
Forthcoming.
171
onȱtheȱlevelȱofȱdevelopmentȱofȱaȱgivenȱcountryȱandȱtheȱstateȱofȱtheȱruleȱ
ofȱlaw,ȱsomeȱrecommendationsȱpresentedȱhereȱmayȱbeȱmoreȱdifficultȱ
toȱimplementȱthanȱothers.ȱExamplesȱfeaturedȱwereȱchosenȱbecauseȱ
theyȱconstituteȱgoodȱpracticesȱonȱaȱspecificȱissue.ȱȱ
ȱ
Whileȱinternationalȱtreaties,ȱdueȱtoȱtheirȱveryȱnature,ȱtendȱtoȱfocusȱonȱ
internationalȱaspectsȱof,ȱandȱresponsesȱto,ȱchildȱtrafficking,ȱtheyȱdrawȱ
lessȱattentionȱtoȱtraffickingȱwithinȱStateȱborders,ȱisȱaȱseriousȱproblemȱ
inȱmanyȱcountries.ȱThisȱtypeȱofȱtraffickingȱisȱlikelyȱtoȱbeȱlessȱvisibleȱ
thanȱinternationalȱtraffickingȱandȱisȱsometimesȱsociallyȱacceptedȱasȱaȱ
necessity,ȱdueȱtoȱpoverty.ȱHowever,ȱtheȱlegalȱframeworkȱofȱtheȱStateȱ
needsȱtoȱaddressȱtheseȱsituationsȱandȱnotȱlimitȱitselfȱtoȱaddressingȱ
crossȬborderȱtrafficking.ȱDefinitions,ȱguidingȱprinciples,ȱrightsȱofȱ
victimsȱandȱpreventionȱstrategiesȱareȱsimilarȱforȱbothȱcrossȬborderȱandȱ
internalȱtrafficking,ȱwithȱtheȱnecessaryȱadaptationsȱtoȱbeȱmadeȱ
dependingȱonȱtheȱcontext.ȱWhereverȱrelevant,ȱtheȱchapterȱwillȱalludeȱ
toȱtheȱspecificityȱofȱinternalȱtrafficking.ȱ
ȱ
Partȱ1ȱ DEFINITIONSȱ
ȱ
Theȱ definitionȱ ofȱ traffickingȱ containsȱ severalȱ elementsȱ thatȱ mustȱ beȱ
exploredȱ inȱ orderȱ toȱ ensureȱ thatȱ lawȱ isȱ comprehensiveȱ enough.ȱ Aȱ
properȱdefinitionȱisȱimportant,ȱasȱitȱmayȱdetermineȱtheȱstatusȱofȱaȱchildȱ
asȱaȱvictimȱandȱensureȱaȱsetȱofȱprotectionȱmeasures.ȱItȱisȱalsoȱimportantȱ
fromȱ aȱ criminalȱ lawȱ perspective,ȱ asȱ itȱ formsȱ theȱ basisȱ forȱ prosecutingȱ
andȱsentencingȱtraffickers.ȱConsistentȱdefinitionsȱinȱvariousȱcountries,ȱ
inȱ particularȱ withinȱ theȱ sameȱ region,ȱ areȱ crucialȱ toȱ ensureȱ aȱ commonȱ
understandingȱofȱchildȱtraffickingȱandȱcoordinateȱresponses.ȱ
ȱ
Inȱ manyȱ countries,ȱ lawsȱ intendedȱ toȱ combatȱ traffickingȱ onlyȱ tackleȱ
traffickingȱforȱtheȱpurposeȱofȱsexualȱexploitation.ȱAȱbroaderȱdefinitionȱ
isȱneededȱinȱorderȱtoȱensureȱthatȱallȱformsȱofȱtraffickingȱareȱprevented.ȱ
Whileȱ internationalȱ treatiesȱ thatȱ provideȱ theȱ basisȱ forȱ antiȬtraffickingȱ
lawsȱ dealȱ primarilyȱ withȱ internationalȱ traffickingȱ –ȱ involvingȱ theȱ
crossingȱofȱaȱborderȱȬȱnationalȱlawsȱshouldȱalsoȱencompassȱtraffickingȱ
withinȱtheȱState’sȱterritory.ȱ
ȱ
172
1.1ȱȱ GeneralȱDefinitionȱ
ȱ
Whileȱ manyȱ internationalȱ treatiesȱ haveȱ tackledȱ variousȱ aspectsȱ ofȱ
trafficking,ȱ theȱ firstȱ internationallyȱ agreedȱ definitionȱ ofȱ traffickingȱ isȱ
includedȱinȱtheȱProtocolȱtoȱPrevent,ȱSuppress,ȱandȱPunishȱTraffickingȱ
inȱPersons,ȱEspeciallyȱWomenȱandȱChildren,ȱadoptedȱinȱ2000ȱ(Palermoȱ
Protocol),ȱ supplementingȱ theȱ UNȱ Conventionȱ againstȱ Transnationalȱ
Organizedȱ Crime.ȱ Sinceȱ itȱ isȱ aȱ bindingȱ instrumentȱ forȱ governmentsȱ
whichȱ haveȱ ratifiedȱ it,ȱ andȱ containsȱ anȱ extensiveȱ definitionȱ ofȱ
traffickingȱinȱpersons,ȱitȱcanȱbeȱusedȱforȱadvocacyȱandȱguidance.ȱItȱhasȱ
toȱbeȱhighlighted,ȱhowever,ȱthatȱtheȱPalermoȱProtocolȱisȱnotȱaȱhumanȱ
rightsȱtreatyȱasȱsuch;ȱitȱwasȱadoptedȱwithinȱtheȱframeworkȱofȱtheȱfightȱ
againstȱ organizedȱ crime.ȱ Asȱ aȱ result,ȱ itȱ shouldȱ beȱ consideredȱ alongȱ
withȱhumanȱrightsȱtreatiesȱtoȱensureȱtheȱfullȱprotectionȱofȱvictims.ȱItsȱ
definitionȱofȱtraffickingȱinȱpersonsȱisȱasȱfollows:ȱ
ȱ
a) “Traffickingȱ inȱ personsȈȱ shallȱ meanȱ theȱ recruitment,ȱ
transportation,ȱ transfer,ȱ harbouringȱ orȱ receiptȱ ofȱ persons,ȱ byȱ
meansȱofȱtheȱthreatȱorȱuseȱofȱforceȱorȱotherȱformsȱofȱcoercion,ȱofȱ
abduction,ȱofȱfraud,ȱofȱdeception,ȱofȱtheȱabuseȱofȱpowerȱorȱofȱaȱ
positionȱ ofȱ vulnerabilityȱ orȱ ofȱ theȱ givingȱ orȱ receivingȱ ofȱ
paymentsȱorȱbenefitsȱtoȱachieveȱtheȱconsentȱofȱaȱpersonȱhavingȱ
controlȱ overȱ anotherȱ person,ȱ forȱ theȱ purposeȱ ofȱ exploitation.ȱ
Exploitationȱshallȱinclude,ȱatȱaȱminimum,ȱtheȱexploitationȱofȱtheȱ
prostitutionȱ ofȱ othersȱ orȱ otherȱ formsȱ ofȱ sexualȱ exploitation,ȱ
forcedȱlabourȱorȱservices,ȱslaveryȱorȱpracticesȱsimilarȱtoȱslavery,ȱ
servitudeȱorȱtheȱremovalȱofȱorgans;ȱ
b) Theȱconsentȱofȱaȱvictimȱofȱtraffickingȱinȱpersonsȱtoȱtheȱintendedȱ
exploitationȱsetȱforthȱinȱsubparagraphȱ(a)ȱofȱthisȱarticleȱshallȱbeȱ
irrelevantȱwhereȱanyȱofȱtheȱmeansȱsetȱforthȱinȱsubparagraphȱ(a)ȱ
haveȱbeenȱused.ȱ
ȱ
TheȱProtocolȱaddsȱaȱspecificȱdefinitionȱofȱtraffickingȱinȱchildren,ȱwhichȱ
isȱevenȱbroader.ȱWhileȱtheȱgeneralȱdefinitionȱofȱtraffickingȱrequiresȱtheȱ
existenceȱ ofȱ aȱ threat,ȱ useȱ ofȱ force,ȱ otherȱ formsȱ ofȱ coercion,ȱ includingȱ
abuseȱofȱpower,ȱorȱaȱpayment,ȱtheȱdefinitionȱofȱtraffickingȱinȱchildrenȱ
suppressesȱthisȱcondition:ȱ
ȱ
c) Theȱ recruitment,ȱ transportation,ȱ transfer,ȱ harbouringȱ orȱ receiptȱ
ofȱ aȱ childȱ forȱ theȱ purposeȱ ofȱ exploitationȱ shallȱ beȱ consideredȱ
173
ȈtraffickingȱinȱpersonsȈȱevenȱifȱthisȱdoesȱnotȱinvolveȱanyȱofȱtheȱ
meansȱsetȱforthȱinȱsubparagraphȱ(a)ȱofȱthisȱarticle.ȱ
ȱ
Theȱ rationaleȱ isȱ twofold.ȱ Onȱ theȱ oneȱ hand,ȱ itȱ recognisesȱ theȱ specificȱ
vulnerabilityȱ ofȱ children.ȱ Onȱ theȱ otherȱ hand,ȱ itȱ ensuresȱ thatȱ noȱ childȱ
victimȱ isȱ excludedȱ fromȱ theȱ protectionȱ frameworkȱ offeredȱ byȱ theȱ
Protocol.ȱ
ȱ
Boxȱ34:ȱTheȱAntiȬTraffickingȱinȱPersonsȱActȱinȱtheȱPhilippinesȱȱ
TheȱAntiȬTraffickingȱinȱPersonsȱActȱofȱ2003ȱinȱtheȱPhilippinesȱ(RepublicȱActȱ9208)ȱ
containsȱ aȱ definitionȱ ofȱ traffickingȱ inȱ personsȱ andȱ childȱ traffickingȱ thatȱ reflectsȱ
virtuallyȱwordȱforȱwordȱtheȱdefinitionȱadoptedȱinȱtheȱPalermoȱProtocol.ȱItȱgoesȱevenȱ
furtherȱbyȱincludingȱpersonsȱoverȱ18ȱwhoȱcannotȱfullyȱprotectȱthemselvesȱdueȱtoȱaȱ
physicalȱ orȱ mentalȱ disabilityȱ orȱ conditionȱ inȱ theȱ definitionȱ ofȱ aȱ child,ȱ thusȱ givingȱ
accessȱtoȱincreasedȱprotection.ȱȱ
ȱ
Whileȱ adoptedȱ inȱ theȱ contextȱ ofȱ theȱ Conventionȱ onȱ Transnationalȱ
OrganizedȱCrime,ȱtheȱdefinitionȱofȱtheȱPalermoȱProtocolȱcanȱapplyȱtoȱ
bothȱ internalȱ andȱ internationalȱ trafficking.ȱ Theȱ adoptionȱ ofȱ aȱ similarȱ
definitionȱinȱtheȱnationalȱlegalȱframeworkȱshouldȱincludeȱtheȱinternalȱ
dimensionȱandȱnotȱbeȱconditionalȱonȱtheȱcrossingȱofȱaȱborder.ȱ
ȱ
Yet,ȱ thisȱ definitionȱ raisesȱ severalȱ questions.ȱ Itȱ focusesȱonȱ theȱ crimeȱ ofȱ
traffickingȱ ratherȱ thanȱ onȱ theȱ situationȱ ofȱ theȱ child.ȱ Therefore,ȱ oneȱ
wouldȱ haveȱ toȱ proveȱ theȱ intentionȱ ofȱ exploitationȱ ifȱ aȱ childȱ isȱ foundȱ
whileȱ transitingȱ fromȱ oneȱ countryȱ toȱ another.ȱ Otherwise,ȱ theȱ transferȱ
mayȱbeȱqualifiedȱasȱmigrationȱorȱsmuggling,ȱandȱtheȱchildȱwillȱnotȱbeȱ
affordedȱprotectionȱunderȱtheȱPalermoȱProtocol.ȱAnotherȱsetȱofȱissuesȱ
relateȱ toȱ theȱ definitionȱ ofȱ aȱ childȱ andȱ ofȱ exploitation,ȱ whichȱ willȱ beȱ
exploredȱbelow.ȱ
ȱ
1.2ȱ RegionalȱInstrumentsȱ
ȱ
Someȱregionalȱinstrumentsȱalsoȱcontainȱaȱdefinitionȱofȱtraffickingȱthatȱ
differsȱ fromȱ theȱ definitionȱ providedȱ inȱ theȱ Palermoȱ Protocol.ȱ Thisȱ isȱ
dueȱtoȱtheȱfactȱthatȱregionalȱdefinitionsȱtendȱtoȱbeȱadjustedȱtoȱtheȱmostȱ
pressingȱissuesȱinȱtheȱregion.ȱ
ȱ
Theȱ InterȬAmericanȱ Conventionȱ onȱ Internationalȱ Trafficȱ inȱ Minors,ȱ
adoptedȱ byȱ theȱ Organizationȱ ofȱ Americanȱ Statesȱ inȱ 1994ȱ andȱ enteredȱ
intoȱforceȱinȱ1997,ȱdefinesȱtraffickingȱas:ȱ
174
ȱ
[T]heȱabduction,ȱremovalȱorȱretention,ȱorȱattemptedȱabduction,ȱ
removalȱ orȱ retention,ȱ ofȱ aȱ minorȱ forȱ unlawfulȱ purposesȱ orȱ byȱ
unlawfulȱmeansȱ(Articleȱ2).ȱ
ȱ
Thisȱdefinitionȱimpliesȱthatȱtraffickingȱmayȱhaveȱaȱlawfulȱpurposeȱbutȱ
beȱ carriedȱ outȱ byȱ unlawfulȱ means,ȱ forȱ instanceȱ inȱ adoptionȱ cases,ȱ orȱ
haveȱ anȱ unlawfulȱ purposeȱ carriedȱ outȱ byȱ lawfulȱ means,ȱ asȱ wouldȱ beȱ
theȱ caseȱ ofȱ aȱ minorȱ transportedȱ byȱ aȱ legalȱ guardianȱ toȱ beȱ exploited.ȱ
Oneȱ concernȱ isȱ thatȱ thisȱ definitionȱ leavesȱ aȱ wideȱ marginȱ ofȱ
appreciationȱ toȱ nationalȱ lawsȱ ofȱ participatingȱ States,ȱ sinceȱ whatȱ isȱ
consideredȱ lawfulȱ orȱ unlawfulȱ variesȱ fromȱ oneȱ countryȱ toȱ another.ȱ
Proactiveȱ measuresȱ wouldȱ thereforeȱ needȱ toȱ beȱ takenȱ toȱ ensureȱ
harmonisationȱofȱlawsȱinȱtheȱregionȱtoȱensureȱconsistency.ȱ
ȱ
Theȱ Africanȱ Charterȱ onȱ theȱ Rightsȱ andȱ Welfareȱ ofȱ theȱ Child,ȱ adoptedȱ
byȱtheȱOrganizationȱofȱAfricanȱUnityȱinȱ1990ȱandȱenteredȱintoȱforceȱinȱ
1999,ȱrequiresȱStatesȱPartiesȱtoȱprevent:ȱ
ȱ
a) theȱabduction,ȱtheȱsaleȱof,ȱorȱtrafficȱinȱchildrenȱforȱanyȱpurposeȱ
orȱ inȱ anyȱ form,ȱ byȱ anyȱ personȱ includingȱ parentsȱ orȱ legalȱ
guardiansȱofȱtheȱchild;ȱ
b) theȱuseȱofȱchildrenȱinȱallȱformsȱofȱbeggingȱ(Articleȱ29).ȱ
ȱ
1.3ȱ DefinitionȱofȱaȱChildȱ
ȱ
AsȱstatedȱbyȱtheȱProtocol,ȱtheȱdefinitionȱofȱaȱchildȱisȱanyoneȱunderȱ18ȱ
yearsȱold.ȱWhileȱtheȱConventionȱonȱtheȱRightsȱofȱtheȱChildȱcontainsȱtheȱ
sameȱ definition,ȱ itȱ addsȱ aȱ limitingȱ condition:ȱ “unlessȱ underȱ theȱ lawȱ
applicableȱtoȱtheȱchild,ȱmajorityȱisȱattainedȱearlier”ȱ(Articleȱ1).ȱInȱotherȱ
words,ȱinȱsomeȱareas,ȱsuchȱasȱminimumȱageȱforȱmarriage,ȱvotingȱrightsȱ
orȱcriminalȱresponsibility,ȱtheȱageȱofȱmajorityȱcanȱbeȱlower.ȱHowever,ȱ
givenȱ theȱ definitionȱ ofȱ theȱ Palermoȱ Protocol,ȱ theȱ possibilityȱ toȱ lowerȱ
theȱ ageȱ ofȱ majorityȱ offeredȱ byȱ theȱ CRCȱ doesȱ notȱ applyȱ toȱ trafficking.ȱ
Concretely,ȱ anyȱ antiȬtraffickingȱ legislationȱ shouldȱ provideȱ forȱ theȱ
protectionȱ ofȱ everyȱ humanȱ beingȱ underȱ 18ȱ yearsȱ old,ȱ withoutȱ
exception.ȱForȱinstance,ȱprovisionsȱforȱchildȱprotectionȱshouldȱapplyȱtoȱ
aȱgirlȱvictimȱofȱtraffickingȱwhoȱisȱmarried,ȱevenȱthoughȱdomesticȱlawȱ
mayȱregardȱherȱasȱanȱadultȱdueȱtoȱherȱmaritalȱstatus.ȱ
ȱ
175
However,ȱ aȱ practicalȱ problemȱ mayȱ ariseȱ whenȱ childȱ victimsȱ ofȱ

traffickingȱdoȱnotȱhaveȱproperȱdocumentsȱsuchȱasȱbirthȱcertificatesȱ–ȱorȱ
theȱ documentsȱ theyȱ doȱ haveȱ areȱ notȱ reliable,ȱ asȱ isȱ oftenȱ theȱ case.ȱ Inȱ
suchȱcasesȱtheȱageȱmayȱbeȱdifficultȱtoȱascertain.ȱInȱcaseȱthereȱisȱaȱdoubtȱ
asȱtoȱtheȱageȱofȱtheȱvictim,ȱtheȱlawȱshouldȱestablishȱaȱpresumptionȱthatȱ
theȱ personȱ isȱ aȱ childȱ andȱ entitledȱ toȱ correspondingȱ protectiveȱ
measures,ȱunlessȱprovedȱotherwise. 209ȱ
ȱ
1.4ȱ TheȱNotionȱofȱExploitationȱ
ȱ
WhileȱtheȱPalermoȱProtocolȱprovidesȱsomeȱexamplesȱofȱpossibleȱformsȱ
ofȱ exploitation,ȱ itȱ doesȱ notȱ giveȱ aȱ definitionȱ ofȱ thisȱ termȱ andȱ neitherȱ
doesȱ theȱ CRC.ȱ Asȱ aȱ consequence,ȱ oneȱ needsȱ toȱ lookȱ atȱ aȱ numberȱ ofȱ
treatiesȱdealingȱwithȱrelatedȱissuesȱtoȱconstructȱaȱspectrumȱofȱtheȱmanyȱ
formsȱ childȱ exploitationȱ canȱ take.ȱ Fromȱ aȱ legislativeȱ reformȱ
perspective,ȱitȱisȱessentialȱthatȱnotȱonlyȱallȱtheseȱelementsȱbeȱincludedȱ
inȱtheȱlaw,ȱbutȱalsoȱthatȱtheȱlawȱbeȱbroadȱenoughȱtoȱincludeȱnewȱformsȱ
ofȱexploitation.ȱȱ
ȱ
Inȱtheȱcontextȱofȱinternalȱchildȱtrafficking,ȱtheȱnotionȱofȱexploitationȱisȱ
particularlyȱimportant.ȱOften,ȱindeed,ȱchildrenȱareȱtraffickedȱinternallyȱ
andȱ forcedȱ intoȱ variousȱ formsȱ ofȱ childȱ labour.ȱ Inȱ manyȱ instances,ȱ theȱ
traffickerȱ luresȱ familiesȱ andȱ childrenȱ byȱ promisesȱ ofȱ goodȱ workȱ andȱ
workingȱconditions,ȱtoȱengageȱchildrenȱinȱexploitativeȱactivitiesȱand/orȱ
exploitativeȱ conditions.ȱ Aȱ strongȱ legalȱ andȱ institutionalȱ frameworkȱ
addressingȱ childȱ labourȱ isȱ thereforeȱ essentialȱ toȱ addressȱ internalȱ
trafficking.ȱ
ȱ
Economicȱ exploitationȱ isȱ mentionedȱ inȱ Articleȱ 32ȱ ofȱ theȱ CRC,ȱ whichȱ
states:ȱ
ȱ
”Statesȱ Partiesȱ recognizeȱ theȱ rightȱ ofȱ theȱ childȱ toȱ beȱ protectedȱ fromȱ
economicȱexploitationȱandȱfromȱperformingȱanyȱworkȱthatȱisȱlikelyȱtoȱ
beȱ hazardousȱ orȱ toȱ interfereȱ withȱ theȱ childȇsȱ education,ȱ orȱ toȱ beȱ
harmfulȱ toȱ theȱ childȇsȱ healthȱ orȱ physical,ȱ mental,ȱ spiritual,ȱ moralȱ orȱ
socialȱdevelopment” 210 .ȱ
209
Guidelines for protection of the rights of children victims of trafficking in Southeastern
Europe, UNICEF, May 2003.
210
CRC Article 32(1).
176
ȱ
Inȱ1993,ȱtheȱCRCȱCommitteeȱheldȱaȱDayȱofȱGeneralȱDiscussionȱonȱtheȱ
EconomicȱExploitationȱofȱChildren.ȱInȱtheȱopeningȱremarks,ȱaȱmemberȱ
ofȱtheȱCommitteeȱspelledȱoutȱaȱconceptualȱdefinitionȱofȱexploitation: 211ȱ
ȱ
Exploitationȱmeansȱtakingȱunjustȱadvantageȱofȱanotherȱforȱone’sȱ
ownȱadvantageȱorȱbenefit.ȱItȱcoversȱsituationsȱofȱmanipulation,ȱ
misuse,ȱ abuse,ȱ victimization,ȱ oppressionȱ orȱ illȱ treatment.ȱ […]ȱ
Weȱ areȱ confrontedȱ withȱ aȱ situationȱ ofȱ exploitationȱ essentiallyȱ
whenȱ theȱ humanȱ dignityȱ ofȱ theȱ childȱ orȱ theȱ harmoniousȱ
developmentȱofȱtheȱchild’sȱpersonalityȱisȱnotȱrespected. 212ȱ
ȱ
Theȱ referenceȱ toȱ anyȱ workȱ thatȱ isȱ likelyȱ toȱ beȱ hazardousȱ orȱ interfereȱ
withȱ theȱ child’sȱ education,ȱ orȱ toȱ beȱ harmfulȱ toȱ theȱ child’sȱ healthȱ orȱ
physical,ȱmental,ȱspiritual,ȱmoralȱorȱsocialȱdevelopmentȱinȱCRCȱArticleȱ
32ȱ canȱ alsoȱ defineȱ aȱ standardȱ forȱ determiningȱ whetherȱ aȱ situationȱ isȱ
exploitativeȱorȱnot.ȱ
ȱ
Additionalȱ internationalȱ instrumentsȱ canȱ alsoȱ beȱ usedȱ toȱ complementȱ
theȱlistȱprovidedȱbyȱtheȱPalermoȱProtocol,ȱandȱtackleȱtheȱmultipleȱfacesȱ
ofȱchildȱexploitation.ȱȱ
ȱ
Boxȱ35:ȱInternationalȱinstrumentsȱprovidingȱguidanceȱonȱchildȱexploitation:ȱ
x Theȱsaleȱofȱchildren,ȱchildȱprostitution,ȱandȱuseȱofȱchildrenȱinȱtheȱ
productionȱofȱpornography,ȱasȱdefinedȱunderȱtheȱOptionalȱProtocolȱtoȱtheȱ
CRCȱonȱSaleȱofȱChildren,ȱChildȱProstitutionȱandȱChildȱPornography;ȱȱȱ
x Theȱcompulsoryȱrecruitmentȱandȱparticipationȱinȱhostilitiesȱofȱchildrenȱ
underȱ18,ȱdefinedȱunderȱtheȱOptionalȱProtocolȱtoȱtheȱCRCȱonȱChildrenȱinȱ
ArmedȱConflict;ȱ
x TheȱworstȱformsȱofȱchildȱlabourȱasȱdefinedȱunderȱILOȱConventionȱ182ȱ
(1999):ȱallȱformsȱofȱslaveryȱorȱpracticesȱsimilarȱtoȱslavery,ȱsuchȱasȱsaleȱofȱ
children,ȱdebtȱbondageȱandȱserfdomȱandȱforcedȱorȱcompulsoryȱlabour,ȱ
includingȱforcedȱorȱcompulsoryȱrecruitmentȱofȱchildrenȱinȱarmedȱconflict;ȱȱ
childȱprostitutionȱandȱtheȱuseȱofȱchildrenȱforȱtheȱproductionȱofȱ
pornographyȱorȱforȱpornographicȱperformances;ȱȱtheȱuseȱofȱchildrenȱforȱ
illicitȱactivities;ȱandȱworkȱwhich,ȱbyȱitsȱnatureȱorȱtheȱcircumstancesȱinȱ
whichȱitȱisȱcarriedȱout,ȱisȱlikelyȱtoȱharmȱtheȱhealth,ȱsafetyȱorȱmoralsȱofȱ
children;ȱ
x Workȱdoneȱbyȱchildrenȱbelowȱtheȱminimumȱageȱforȱadmissionȱtoȱ
employmentȱasȱspecifiedȱinȱILOȱConventionȱ138ȱ(1973);ȱ
211
Remarks by Marta Santos Pais (former member of the CRC Committee).
212
CRC/C/20, Annex V, available at
http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu2/6/crc/doc/days/exploit.pdf.
177
x Adoptionȱforȱfinancialȱgain,ȱcontraryȱtoȱtheȱHagueȱConventionȱonȱInterȬ
CountryȱAdoption;ȱ
x Forcedȱorȱearlyȱmarriage,ȱdefinedȱasȱaȱ“practiceȱsimilarȱtoȱslavery”ȱunderȱ
theȱUNȱSupplementaryȱConventionȱonȱtheȱAbolitionȱofȱSlavery,ȱtheȱSlaveȱ
Trade,ȱandȱInstitutionsȱandȱPracticesȱSimilarȱtoȱSlavery.ȱ
ȱ
Itȱfollowsȱfromȱtheȱforegoingȱthatȱtheȱcentralȱelementsȱofȱaȱdefinitionȱofȱ
childȱexploitationȱthatȱneedȱtoȱbeȱreflectedȱinȱlegislationȱare:ȱ
ȱ
theȱ actualȱ harmȱ likelyȱ toȱ beȱ causedȱ toȱ theȱ childȱ andȱ hisȱ orȱ herȱ
development,ȱbeȱitȱphysical,ȱmentalȱorȱpsychological,ȱincludingȱ
interferenceȱwithȱtheȱchild’sȱeducation;ȱ
theȱfactȱthatȱaȱthirdȱpersonȱisȱbenefitingȱfromȱthatȱsituation;ȱ
labourȱlawsȱsettingȱlimitsȱinȱtermsȱofȱtheȱtypeȱofȱwork,ȱworkingȱ
age(s),ȱandȱworkingȱconditionsȱforȱchildren.ȱ
ȱ
Boxȱ36:ȱTheȱRomanianȱLawȱonȱtheȱPreventionȱandȱFightingȱofȱTraffickingȱ
TheȱRomanianȱlawȱonȱtheȱPreventionȱandȱFightingȱofȱTraffickingȱinȱHumanȱBeingsȱ
(Lawȱ678ȱofȱ11ȱDecemberȱ2001)ȱdefinesȱ“exploitation”ȱasȱperformingȱforcedȱlabourȱ
inȱviolationȱofȱtheȱlegalȱrequirementsȱonȱlabourȱconditions,ȱpay,ȱhealthȱandȱsecurity;ȱ
keepingȱ aȱ personȱ inȱ aȱ stateȱ ofȱ slaveryȱ orȱ deprivingȱ thatȱ personȱ ofȱ freedom;ȱ
compellingȱ aȱ personȱ toȱ engageȱ inȱ anyȱ formȱ ofȱ sexualȱ exploitationȱ includingȱ
prostitutionȱ andȱ pornography;ȱ andȱ drawingȱ humanȱ organs.ȱ Importantly,ȱ theȱ lawȱ
includesȱ inȱ itsȱ definitionȱ ofȱ exploitationȱ “otherȱ similarȱ activitiesȱ thatȱ areȱ violatingȱ
fundamentalȱhumanȱrightsȱandȱfreedoms,”ȱtherebyȱpavingȱtheȱwayȱforȱtheȱinclusionȱ
ofȱnewȱformsȱofȱexploitationȱthatȱmayȱemerge,ȱonȱtheȱbasisȱthatȱtheyȱviolateȱhumanȱ
rights.ȱȱ
ȱ
ȱ
Partȱ2ȱ GUIDINGȱPRINCIPLESȱ
ȱ
Asȱ inȱ otherȱ areas,ȱ theȱ fourȱ guidingȱ principlesȱ ofȱ theȱ CRCȱ shouldȱ beȱ
takenȱ intoȱ accountȱ andȱ provideȱ aȱ usefulȱ frameworkȱ inȱ legislativeȱ
reformȱaimedȱatȱaddressingȱchildȱtrafficking.ȱInȱitsȱGeneralȱCommentȱ
No.ȱ 6ȱ onȱ theȱ treatmentȱ ofȱ unaccompaniedȱ andȱ separatedȱ childrenȱ
outsideȱ theirȱ countryȱ ofȱ origin, 213 ȱ theȱ Committeeȱ onȱ theȱ Rightsȱ ofȱ theȱ
Childȱanalysesȱtheȱimportanceȱofȱeachȱofȱtheȱguidingȱprinciplesȱforȱtheȱ
protectionȱ ofȱ unaccompaniedȱ children’sȱ rightsȱ andȱ thisȱ analysisȱ canȱ
provideȱ usefulȱ guidanceȱ toȱ theȱ issueȱ ofȱ childȱ victimsȱ ofȱ trafficking.ȱ
Theseȱprinciplesȱalsoȱapplyȱtoȱinternalȱtrafficking.ȱ
213
CRC/GC/2005/6.
178
ȱ
2.1ȱ RightȱtoȱNonȬdiscriminationȱ
ȱ
WhileȱnationalȱlegislationsȱoftenȱexpresslyȱassertȱtheȱprincipleȱofȱnonȬ
discrimination,ȱfrequentlyȱinscribedȱasȱaȱconstitutionalȱprinciple,ȱsomeȱ
specificȱgroundsȱforȱdiscriminationȱmustȱbeȱaddressedȱinȱantiȬ
traffickingȱlegislation.ȱȱ
ȱ
Manyȱchildrenȱwhoȱareȱvictimsȱofȱtraffickingȱoftenȱfindȱthemselvesȱ
unaccompanied,ȱinȱaȱcountryȱofȱwhichȱtheyȱareȱnotȱcitizens,ȱinȱanȱ
“illegal”ȱsituation.ȱThisȱmayȱpreventȱthemȱfromȱhavingȱaccessȱtoȱ
servicesȱandȱenjoyingȱotherȱrights.ȱȱ
ȱ
2.2ȱ Jurisdictionȱ
ȱ
Theȱ CRCȱ expresslyȱ mentionsȱ thatȱ theȱ Conventionȱ appliesȱ toȱ allȱ
childrenȱinȱtheȱStateȱParty’sȱjurisdiction.ȱTheȱprincipleȱisȱalsoȱcontainedȱ
inȱ theȱ Palermoȱ Protocol.ȱ Inȱ itsȱ Generalȱ Commentȱ No.ȱ 6ȱ onȱ
unaccompaniedȱandȱseparatedȱchildren,ȱtheȱCRCȱCommitteeȱreiteratesȱ
theȱimportanceȱofȱthisȱprovision:ȱ
ȱ
[T]heȱenjoymentȱofȱrightsȱstipulatedȱinȱtheȱConventionȱisȱnotȱ
limitedȱtoȱchildrenȱwhoȱareȱcitizensȱofȱaȱStateȱpartyȱandȱmustȱ
therefore,ȱifȱnotȱexplicitlyȱstatedȱotherwiseȱinȱtheȱConvention,ȱ
alsoȱbeȱavailableȱtoȱallȱchildrenȱȬȱincludingȱasylumȬseeking,ȱ
refugeeȱandȱmigrantȱchildrenȱȬȱirrespectiveȱofȱtheirȱnationality,ȱ
immigrationȱstatusȱorȱstatelessness.ȱ
ȱ
Adequateȱprovisionsȱshouldȱthereforeȱbeȱincludedȱinȱtheȱlawȱtoȱensureȱ
thatȱ allȱ childȱ victimsȱ haveȱ anȱ equalȱ rightȱ toȱ protectionȱ andȱ support,ȱ
regardlessȱofȱtheirȱnationalityȱorȱimmigrationȱstatus.ȱLegalȱprovisionsȱ
relatingȱtoȱsocialȱbenefitsȱsuchȱasȱhealth,ȱhousingȱandȱeducationȱshouldȱ
beȱreviewedȱtoȱensureȱthatȱtheyȱareȱnotȱrestrictedȱtoȱchildrenȱwhoȱareȱ
nationals.ȱChildren’sȱspecificȱneedsȱinȱtermsȱofȱageȱandȱgenderȱshouldȱ
alsoȱbeȱaddressed.ȱȱȱ
ȱ
Thisȱprincipleȱhasȱbroaderȱimplications.ȱForȱinstance,ȱtheȱStateȱwhereȱaȱ
childȱisȱlocatedȱhasȱtheȱresponsibilityȱtoȱprovideȱforȱthatȱchild’sȱneedsȱ
andȱmakeȱarrangementsȱasȱrelevantȱifȱreturnȱtoȱtheirȱstateȱofȱoriginȱisȱ
179
inȱ theȱ theirȱ bestȱ interests.ȱ Theȱ issueȱ ofȱ jurisdictionȱ isȱ particularlyȱ
importantȱ whenȱ negotiatingȱ internationalȱ agreements,ȱ asȱ theȱ lackȱ ofȱ
agreementȱonȱwhichȱStateȱbearsȱtheȱresponsibilityȱ–ȱandȱcostsȱ–ȱforȱtheȱ
returnȱofȱtheȱchildȱmayȱleadȱtoȱendlessȱproceduresȱandȱnegotiations.ȱȱ
ȱ
2.3ȱ BestȱInterestsȱofȱtheȱChildȱ
ȱ
Asȱ statedȱ inȱ theȱ CRC,ȱ theȱ bestȱ interestsȱ ofȱ theȱ childȱ shouldȱ beȱ aȱ
primaryȱconsiderationȱinȱallȱactionsȱconcerningȱchildren.ȱInȱtheȱareaȱofȱ
trafficking,ȱthisȱprovisionȱhasȱevenȱmoreȱimportance,ȱasȱmanyȱinterestsȱ
areȱ competingȱ withȱ children’sȱ bestȱ interests.ȱ Forȱ instance,ȱ Statesȱ mayȱ
beȱ firstȱ andȱ foremostȱ interestedȱ inȱ arrestingȱ andȱ prosecutingȱ
traffickers,ȱwhoȱareȱpartȱofȱnetworksȱofȱorganizedȱcrime.ȱToȱthatȱend,ȱ
theyȱ mayȱ pressureȱ childȱ victimsȱ toȱ testify,ȱ evenȱ whenȱ itȱ isȱ notȱ inȱ theȱ
child’sȱ bestȱ interestsȱ inȱ lightȱ ofȱ theȱ traumaȱ theyȱ haveȱ suffered.ȱ Statesȱ
mayȱ beȱ concernedȱ aboutȱ illegalȱ immigration,ȱ thusȱ preferringȱ toȱ
repatriateȱ victimsȱ toȱ theirȱ countryȱ ofȱ origin,ȱ evenȱ ifȱ theyȱ doȱ notȱ haveȱ
absoluteȱassurancesȱthatȱtheyȱwillȱbeȱsafeȱthere.ȱȱ
ȱ
Asȱ explainedȱ inȱ thisȱ Handbook,ȱ aȱ country’sȱ legalȱ frameworkȱ mustȱ
integrateȱtheȱbestȱinterestsȱofȱtheȱchildȱasȱaȱcrossȬcuttingȱprinciple,ȱandȱ
inȱlawsȱrelatedȱtoȱtraffickingȱissuesȱthatȱprincipleȱshouldȱbeȱreiteratedȱ
asȱsuperiorȱtoȱallȱotherȱconsiderations.ȱȱȱ
ȱ
Boxȱ37:ȱTheȱFederationȱofȱRussia’sȱDraftȱFederalȱLawȱagainstȱTraffickingȱ
Theȱ Federationȱ ofȱ Russia’sȱ Draftȱ Federalȱ lawȱ againstȱ traffickingȱ inȱ Personsȱ andȱ
Measuresȱ toȱ Protectȱ Victimsȱ ofȱ Traffickingȱ statesȱ thatȱ inȱ theȱ eventȱ childȱ victimsȱ ofȱ
traffickingȱ areȱ providedȱ assistance,ȱ allȱ measuresȱ shouldȱ beȱ takenȱ inȱ theȱ bestȱ
interestsȱofȱtheȱchildȱandȱinȱaccordanceȱwithȱtheȱCRC.ȱ
ȱ
2.4ȱ RightȱtoȱLife,ȱSurvivalȱandȱDevelopmentȱ
ȱ
Childȱtraffickingȱrepresentsȱaȱviolationȱofȱaȱchild’sȱrightȱtoȱlife,ȱsurvivalȱ
andȱ development,ȱ asȱ childrenȱ forcedȱ intoȱ exploitationȱ performȱ tasksȱ
thatȱ areȱ harmfulȱ toȱ theirȱ healthȱ andȱ harmoniousȱ development.ȱ
Fightingȱ childȱ traffickingȱ isȱ thereforeȱ anȱ obligationȱ forȱ Statesȱ forȱ theȱ
fulfilmentȱ ofȱ thisȱ CRCȱ provision.ȱ Itȱ doesȱ notȱ meanȱ prosecutingȱ
traffickersȱatȱallȱcosts,ȱinȱparticularȱwhenȱitȱputsȱchildrenȱinȱdangerȱorȱ
carriesȱ theȱ riskȱ ofȱ furtherȱ traumatizingȱ them.ȱ Itȱ implies,ȱ firstȱ andȱ
foremost,ȱ settingȱ upȱ preventionȱ programmesȱ andȱ policiesȱ aimedȱ atȱ
180
addressingȱ theȱ rootȱ causesȱ ofȱ trafficking.ȱ Inȱ thisȱ regard,ȱ theȱ lawȱ
constitutesȱaȱusefulȱtoolȱtoȱmandateȱspecificȱinstitutionsȱandȱministriesȱ
withȱ theȱ responsibilityȱ forȱ theȱ designȱ andȱ implementationȱ ofȱ suchȱ
programmesȱ(seeȱsectionȱ1.4ȱonȱprevention).ȱ
ȱ
Theȱ implementationȱ ofȱ theȱ principleȱ ofȱ theȱ rightȱ toȱ life,ȱ survivalȱ andȱ
developmentȱalsoȱimpliesȱtheȱobligationȱforȱStatesȱtoȱensureȱthatȱchildȱ
victimsȱ ofȱ traffickingȱ haveȱ accessȱ toȱ appropriateȱ socialȱ services,ȱ inȱ
particularȱ physicalȱ andȱ mentalȱ healthȱ servicesȱ andȱ educationȱ (Seeȱ
sectionȱ1.3ȱonȱtheȱrightsȱofȱvictims).ȱ
ȱ
2.5ȱ RespectȱforȱtheȱViewsȱofȱtheȱChildȱ
ȱ
Aȱchildȱvictimȱofȱtraffickingȱhasȱtheȱrightȱtoȱexpressȱhisȱorȱherȱviewsȱinȱ
allȱ mattersȱ affectingȱ himȱ orȱ her,ȱ includingȱ theȱ legalȱ process,ȱ interimȱ
careȱ andȱ protectionȱ andȱ theȱ identificationȱ andȱ implementationȱ ofȱ aȱ
durableȱ solution,ȱ inȱ particularȱ inȱ decisionsȱ concerningȱ theȱ child’sȱ
possibleȱreturnȱtoȱtheȱfamilyȱorȱcountryȱofȱorigin.ȱTheseȱviewsȱmustȱbeȱ
soughtȱ andȱ givenȱ dueȱ weightȱ inȱ accordanceȱ withȱ theȱ child’sȱ ageȱ andȱ
maturity.ȱ 214 ȱȱ
ȱ
Concretely,ȱ thisȱ meansȱ thatȱ theȱ legislativeȱ frameworkȱ shouldȱ requireȱ
allȱ responsibleȱauthoritiesȱtoȱ seekȱandȱconsiderȱtheȱ viewsȱofȱ theȱchildȱ
duringȱ theȱ decisionȬmakingȱ process.ȱ Theȱ lawȱ shouldȱ explicitlyȱ stateȱ
thatȱprincipleȱandȱindicateȱatȱeachȱstageȱofȱtheȱprocessȱhowȱtheȱviewsȱ
ofȱtheȱchildȱwillȱbeȱsought.ȱTheȱlawȱcanȱprovideȱforȱpossibleȱsanctions,ȱ
includingȱtheȱnullityȱofȱrelevantȱacts,ȱifȱchildren’sȱviewsȱareȱnotȱheardȱ
–ȱ unlessȱ adequateȱ justificationȱ isȱ provided.ȱ Forȱ theȱ children’sȱ rightȱ toȱ
participateȱ toȱ beȱ meaningful,ȱ processesȱ andȱ proceduresȱ shouldȱ beȱ
adaptedȱtoȱcreateȱanȱenvironmentȱwhereȱtheȱchildȱfeelsȱfreeȱtoȱexpressȱ
himȱorȱherselfȱandȱhasȱtheȱnecessaryȱsupportȱtoȱdoȱso.ȱChildrenȱshouldȱ
haveȱtheȱoptionȱnotȱtoȱexpressȱtheirȱviewsȱifȱtheyȱsoȱchoose.ȱȱ
ȱ
AppropriateȱchildȬfriendlyȱinstitutionalȱsettingsȱshouldȱbeȱestablishedȱ
byȱ lawȱ toȱ ensureȱ theȱ realisationȱ ofȱ thisȱ right.ȱ Thisȱ impliesȱ thatȱ courtsȱ
mustȱbeȱequippedȱwithȱaȱspecialȱroomȱtoȱreceiveȱchildȱtestimonyȱand,ȱ
whereȱ possible,ȱ videoȱ shouldȱ beȱ usedȱ toȱ recordȱ theseȱ testimoniesȱ toȱ
avoidȱ repetitionȱ ofȱ trauma.ȱ Duringȱ administrativeȱ orȱ legalȱ
214
UNICEF guidelines, p. 10.
181
proceedings,ȱ interviewsȱ mustȱ beȱ conductedȱ withȱ childȱ victimsȱ byȱ

speciallyȱtrainedȱstaff,ȱpreferablyȱofȱtheȱsameȱgenderȱasȱtheȱchild,ȱandȱ
theȱ viewsȱ expressedȱ inȱ theseȱ interviewsȱ mustȱ beȱ takenȱ intoȱ
considerationȱwhenȱdecisionsȱareȱmade.ȱȱ
ȱ
Forȱexample,ȱinȱLondon,ȱUK,ȱnewȱpoliceȱheadquartersȱhaveȱbeenȱ
establishedȱtoȱleadȱtheȱfightȱagainstȱchildȱabuseȱinȱfourȱboroughs.ȱTheȱ
buildingȱhasȱtwoȱconferenceȱroomsȱfurnishedȱwithȱvideoȱandȱ
recordingȱequipmentȱasȱwellȱasȱtoysȱtoȱcreateȱaȱchildȬfriendlyȱ
environment.ȱTheȱobjectiveȱisȱtoȱallowȱchildrenȱtoȱgiveȱtheirȱtestimonyȱ
inȱaȱcomfortableȱsettingȱratherȱthanȱinȱanȱintimidatingȱ–ȱandȱlikelyȱ
traumatizingȱ–ȱcourtȱenvironment.ȱ
ȱ
ȱ
Partȱ3ȱ RIGHTSȱOFȱVICTIMSȱ
ȱ
Aȱ lawȱ onȱ traffickingȱ shouldȱ aimȱ toȱ ensureȱ thatȱ victimsȱ areȱ protected.ȱ
Victimsȱ ofȱ traffickingȱ areȱ particularlyȱ vulnerableȱ asȱ theyȱ mayȱ findȱ
themselvesȱinȱaȱcountryȱorȱregionȱtheyȱdoȱnotȱknowȱandȱwhereȱtheyȱdoȱ
notȱ speakȱ theȱ language,ȱ farȱ fromȱ theirȱ family,ȱ withoutȱ properȱ
documentation,ȱ andȱ mayȱ beȱ atȱ riskȱ ofȱ reȬtraffickingȱ and/orȱ
stigmatisationȱbackȱhome.ȱTheȱCRCȱCommitteeȱGeneralȱCommentȱonȱ
unaccompaniedȱ andȱ separatedȱ childrenȱ outsideȱ ofȱ theirȱ countryȱ ofȱ
origin,ȱ whileȱnotȱ addressingȱ onlyȱcasesȱofȱtrafficking,ȱprovidesȱusefulȱ
guidanceȱinȱdefiningȱStates’ȱobligationsȱwithȱrespectȱtoȱchildȱvictims.ȱ
ȱ
Legislativeȱ reformȱ forȱ theȱ protectionȱ ofȱ childȱ victimsȱ ofȱ traffickingȱ
extendsȱ toȱ aȱ wideȱ rangeȱ ofȱ areasȱ ofȱ lawȱ andȱ lawȱ implementation.ȱ Aȱ
fullyȱprotectiveȱlegalȱsystemȱmayȱrequireȱamendingȱaȱnumberȱofȱtexts,ȱ
suchȱ asȱ familyȱ law/civilȱ codes,ȱ criminalȱ procedureȱ codes,ȱ educationȱ
laws,ȱ immigrationȱ laws,ȱ etc.ȱ Asȱ alreadyȱ mentioned,ȱ theȱ legalȱ systemȱ
mayȱ alreadyȱ containȱ adequateȱ provisionsȱ inȱ someȱ areasȱ butȱ notȱ inȱ
others.ȱForȱthisȱreason,ȱaȱthoroughȱlawȱreviewȱisȱnecessary.ȱ
ȱ
SeeȱChapterȱ2ȱonȱlawȱreview.ȱ
182
3.1ȱ GuidingȱPrinciplesȱSpecificȱtoȱtheȱRightsȱofȱVictimsȱ
ȱ
Whileȱ theȱ guidingȱ principlesȱ ofȱ theȱ CRCȱ asȱ theyȱ relateȱ toȱ legislativeȱ
reformȱ inȱ theȱ areaȱ ofȱ traffickingȱ haveȱ alreadyȱ beenȱ examined,ȱ thisȱ
sectionȱpresentsȱsomeȱofȱtheȱmoreȱspecificȱprinciplesȱthatȱapplyȱtoȱtheȱ
rightsȱofȱvictims,ȱwhichȱtheȱlawȱshouldȱclearlyȱstateȱtoȱensureȱthatȱtheyȱ
areȱrespected.ȱAsȱaȱgeneralȱprinciple,ȱitȱisȱessentialȱthatȱtheȱsituationȱofȱ
eachȱandȱeveryȱchildȱbeȱassessedȱindividually.ȱȱ
ȱ
3.1.1ȱ RightȱtoȱExpressȱViewsȱ
ȱ
Theȱrightȱofȱchildrenȱtoȱexpressȱviewsȱinȱallȱmattersȱaffectingȱthem,ȱasȱ
providedȱ byȱ theȱ CRC,ȱ shouldȱ obviouslyȱ applyȱ toȱ childȱ victimsȱ ofȱ
trafficking.ȱ Childȱ victimsȱ mustȱ beȱ ableȱ toȱ expressȱ theirȱ viewsȱ andȱ
concernsȱ relatedȱ toȱ theirȱ involvementȱ inȱ theȱ justiceȱ process,ȱ inȱ
particularȱ regardingȱ theirȱ safety,ȱ theȱ mannerȱ inȱ whichȱ theyȱ preferȱ toȱ
provideȱ testimonyȱ andȱ theirȱ feelingsȱ aboutȱ theȱ conclusionsȱ ofȱ theȱ
process.ȱ Ifȱ theirȱ requestsȱ cannotȱ beȱ accommodated,ȱ professionalsȱ
shouldȱexplainȱtheȱreasonsȱtoȱchildren. 215ȱ
ȱ
3.1.2ȱ RightȱtoȱInformationȱ
ȱ
Childȱ victimsȱ haveȱ theȱ rightȱ toȱ accessibleȱ informationȱ regardingȱ theirȱ
situationȱandȱtheirȱrights,ȱasȱmentionedȱinȱtheȱPalermoȱProtocolȱandȱinȱ
theȱ Optionalȱ protocolȱ onȱ theȱ saleȱ ofȱ children.ȱ Thisȱ rightȱ shouldȱ beȱ
clearlyȱreflectedȱinȱtheȱlawȱandȱadequateȱmeasuresȱbeȱtakenȱtoȱensureȱ
itsȱ realization.ȱ Itsȱ fulfillmentȱ impliesȱ anȱ obligationȱ toȱ tellȱ childrenȱ
aboutȱ availableȱ services,ȱ theȱ lawȱ applicableȱ toȱ themȱ andȱ theȱ variousȱ
optionsȱavailableȱinȱtermsȱofȱcriminalȱprosecution,ȱimmigrationȱstatus,ȱ
return,ȱ asylum,ȱ etc.ȱ Inȱ theȱ criminalȱ proceedings,ȱ providingȱ childrenȱ
withȱ adequateȱ informationȱ isȱ crucialȱ toȱ ensureȱ thatȱ theyȱ fullyȱ
understandȱtheȱissuesȱatȱstake.ȱChildȱvictimsȱmustȱbeȱinformedȱonȱtheȱ
servicesȱ toȱ whichȱ theyȱ areȱ entitled,ȱ includingȱ legalȱ representation.ȱ
Theyȱ mustȱ knowȱ aboutȱ theȱ procedures,ȱ theirȱ scopeȱ andȱ timing,ȱ theȱ
possibilityȱtoȱobtainȱcompensation,ȱasȱwellȱasȱwaysȱtoȱbeȱheard.ȱTheyȱ
mustȱbeȱinformedȱofȱtheirȱroleȱinȱtheȱprocess,ȱtheȱwayȱquestioningȱwillȱ
beȱconducted,ȱandȱtheȱavailabilityȱofȱprotectiveȱmeasures.ȱThroughoutȱ
theȱproceedingsȱchildrenȱareȱentitledȱtoȱbeȱnotifiedȱonȱtheȱprogressȱofȱ
215
Ibid., Section 4.
183
theȱcase,ȱincludingȱtheȱarrestȱofȱtheȱaccused,ȱtheȱprosecutorialȱdecision,ȱ
andȱtheȱoutcomeȱofȱtheȱcase.ȱTheyȱshouldȱalsoȱbeȱawareȱofȱmechanismsȱ
forȱreviewȱofȱdecisions. 216ȱ
ȱ
Theȱ realisationȱ ofȱ thisȱ rightȱ impliesȱ makingȱ sureȱ thatȱ adequateȱ
institutionalȱ mechanismsȱ areȱ inȱ place.ȱ Importantly,ȱ informationȱ mustȱ
beȱ explainedȱ toȱ childrenȱ inȱ aȱ mannerȱ thatȱ isȱ appropriateȱ toȱ theirȱ ageȱ
andȱ maturityȱ andȱ inȱ aȱ languageȱ thatȱ theyȱ understand.ȱ Theȱ legalȱ
guardianȱ ofȱ theȱ childȱ shouldȱ haveȱ theȱ primaryȱ responsibilityȱ forȱ
informingȱtheȱchildȱvictimȱofȱhis/herȱrightsȱandȱguideȱtheȱchildȱinȱlightȱ
ofȱhis/herȱbestȱinterests.ȱThisȱobligationȱshouldȱbeȱstatedȱinȱtheȱlawȱthatȱ
addressesȱtheȱappointmentȱofȱlegalȱguardians.ȱWithȱrespectȱtoȱaccessȱtoȱ
services,ȱinstitutionsȱresponsibleȱforȱtheȱcareȱofȱchildȱvictimsȱshouldȱbeȱ
heldȱ accountableȱ forȱ ensuringȱ thatȱ childrenȱ areȱ awareȱ ofȱ theirȱ rights.ȱ
Thisȱcanȱbeȱdoneȱbyȱincludingȱrelevantȱprovisionsȱwithinȱtheȱmandateȱ
ofȱ theȱ institution.ȱ Withȱ regardȱ toȱ criminalȱ proceedings,ȱ lawȱ
enforcementȱ personnelȱ shouldȱ beȱ obligatedȱ toȱ informȱ theȱ childȱ ofȱ
his/herȱ rights,ȱ theȱ proceedings,ȱ andȱ theȱ expectationsȱ inȱ termsȱ ofȱ
outcome.ȱȱ
ȱ
3.1.3ȱ RightȱtoȱPrivacyȱandȱConfidentialityȱ
ȱ
Privacyȱ isȱ essentialȱ toȱ protectȱ childȱ victimsȱ andȱ preventȱ themȱ fromȱ
beingȱstigmatizedȱbyȱsocietyȱorȱtheirȱcommunities.ȱChildrenȱneedȱtoȱbeȱ
particularlyȱ protectedȱ asȱ theyȱ areȱ moreȱ vulnerableȱ toȱ stigmatization.ȱ
Theȱpublicationȱofȱinformationȱonȱtheirȱsituationȱinȱtheȱmassȱmediaȱcanȱ
haveȱ aȱ veryȱ negativeȱ impactȱ onȱ theirȱ developmentȱ andȱ representȱ aȱ
significantȱ obstacleȱ toȱ theirȱ reintegration.ȱ Theȱ Palermoȱ protocolȱ
stipulatesȱthatȱtheȱprivacyȱandȱidentityȱofȱvictimsȱofȱtraffickingȱshouldȱ
beȱ protectedȱ “inȱ appropriateȱ casesȱ andȱ toȱ theȱ extentȱ possibleȱ underȱ
[the]ȱdomesticȱlaw”ȱ(Articleȱ6.1).ȱTheȱOptionalȱProtocolȱonȱtheȱsaleȱofȱ
childrenȱ insistsȱ onȱ theȱ importanceȱ ofȱ protectingȱ theȱ privacyȱ andȱ
identityȱ ofȱ childȱ victimsȱ andȱ takingȱ measuresȱ toȱ avoidȱ theȱ
disseminationȱ ofȱ informationȱ thatȱ couldȱ leadȱ toȱ theȱ identificationȱ ofȱ
childȱ victims.ȱ Theȱ protectionȱ ofȱ privacyȱ andȱ confidentialityȱ isȱ vitalȱ toȱ
guaranteeingȱ theȱ safetyȱ ofȱ victimsȱ andȱ ensuringȱ thatȱ theyȱ willȱ notȱ beȱ
deterredȱ fromȱ filingȱ aȱ complaint.ȱ ȱ Oneȱ wayȱ ofȱ doingȱ thisȱ isȱ byȱ
excludingȱ theȱ publicȱ andȱ theȱ mediaȱ fromȱ theȱ courtroom.ȱ Whenȱ
216
See Guidelines on Justice for Child Victims and Witnesses of Crime, Section 3.
184
childrenȱ areȱ involved,ȱ allȱ informationȱ regardingȱ childrenȱ shouldȱ

remainȱ confidential,ȱ andȱ violationȱ ofȱ thisȱ principleȱ shouldȱ entailȱ civilȱ
andȱpossiblyȱcriminalȱsanctions.ȱ
ȱ
3.1.4ȱ NonȬrefoulementȱandȱInternalȱDisplacementȱ
ȱ
Whileȱ theȱ principleȱ ofȱ nonȬrefoulementȱ canȱ provideȱ guidanceȱ toȱ
handleȱ casesȱ ofȱ internationalȱ trafficking,ȱ internalȱ displacementȱ canȱ
helpȱinȱaddressingȱcasesȱofȱinternalȱtrafficking.ȱ
ȱ
Itȱshouldȱbeȱclearȱatȱtheȱoutsetȱthatȱtheȱprincipleȱofȱtheȱbestȱinterestsȱofȱ
theȱ childȱ shouldȱ alwaysȱ prevail.ȱ Consequently,ȱ theȱ principleȱ ofȱ nonȬ
refoulementȱshouldȱonlyȱbeȱusedȱasȱaȱsafetyȱnetȱand/orȱadvocacyȱtool,ȱ
shouldȱtheȱbestȱinterestsȱofȱtheȱchildȱprincipleȱnotȱbeȱrespected.ȱȱ
ȱ
Whileȱ dueȱ toȱ immigrationȱ concerns,ȱ Statesȱ mayȱ beȱ temptedȱ toȱ sendȱ
childrenȱ backȱ toȱ theirȱ Stateȱ ofȱ origin,ȱ theyȱ areȱ nonethelessȱ boundȱ toȱ
respectȱ internationalȱ obligations.ȱ Theȱ principleȱ ofȱ nonȬrefoulementȱ
representsȱ aȱ keyȱ provisionȱ ofȱ theȱ Genevaȱ Conventionȱ relatingȱ toȱ theȱ
Statusȱ ofȱ Refugeesȱ ofȱ 1951.ȱ Theȱ Genevaȱ Conventionsȱ belongȱ toȱ theȱ
realmȱofȱinternationalȱcustomaryȱlaw,ȱmeaningȱthatȱallȱStates,ȱwhetherȱ
theyȱ areȱ partyȱ orȱ not,ȱ areȱ boundȱ byȱ theirȱ provisions,ȱ whichȱ areȱ
recognisedȱasȱuniversal.ȱTheȱPalermoȱProtocolȱmakesȱexpressȱmentionȱ
ofȱ theȱ Refugeeȱ Conventionȱ andȱ theȱ principleȱ ofȱ nonȬrefoulementȱ inȱ
Articleȱ14.ȱThatȱConventionȱdefinesȱaȱrefugeeȱasȱsomeoneȱwhoȱhas:ȱ
ȱ
“[A]ȱwellȬfoundedȱfearȱofȱbeingȱpersecutedȱforȱreasonsȱofȱrace,ȱ
religion,ȱnationality,ȱmembershipȱofȱaȱparticularȱsocialȱgroupȱorȱ
politicalȱopinion,ȱisȱoutsideȱtheȱcountryȱofȱhisȱnationalityȱandȱisȱ
unable,ȱorȱowingȱtoȱsuchȱfear,ȱisȱunwillingȱtoȱavailȱhimselfȱofȱtheȱ
protectionȱofȱthatȱcountry;ȱorȱwho,ȱnotȱhavingȱaȱnationalityȱandȱ
beingȱoutsideȱtheȱcountryȱofȱhisȱ formerȱhabitualȱresidenceȱasȱaȱ
resultȱ ofȱ suchȱ events,ȱ isȱ unableȱ or,ȱ owingȱ toȱ suchȱ fear,ȱ isȱ
unwillingȱtoȱreturnȱtoȱit”ȱ(Articleȱ1).ȱ
ȱ
Accordingȱ toȱ theȱ principleȱ ofȱ nonȬrefoulement,ȱ whenȱ someoneȱ isȱ
recognizedȱ asȱ aȱ refugee,ȱ aȱ Stateȱ cannotȱ expelȱ thatȱ person,ȱ asȱ he/sheȱ
wouldȱbeȱinȱdangerȱinȱhis/herȱhomeȱcountry:ȱ
ȱ
185
“NoȱContractingȱStateȱshallȱexpelȱorȱreturnȱ(ȈrefoulerȈ)ȱaȱrefugeeȱ
inȱ anyȱ mannerȱ whatsoeverȱ toȱ theȱ frontiersȱ ofȱ territoriesȱ whereȱ
hisȱlifeȱorȱfreedomȱwouldȱbeȱthreatenedȱonȱaccountȱofȱhisȱrace,ȱ
religion,ȱnationality,ȱmembershipȱofȱaȱparticularȱsocialȱgroupȱorȱ
politicalȱopinion”ȱ(Articleȱ33).ȱ
ȱ
CourtȱdecisionsȱinȱseveralȱStatesȱhaveȱaccordedȱtheȱstatusȱofȱrefugeeȱtoȱ
victimsȱ ofȱ trafficking,ȱ basingȱ theirȱ decisionȱ onȱ theȱ “membershipȱ toȱ aȱ
particularȱ group,”ȱ aȱ groupȱ defined,ȱ forȱ instance,ȱ asȱ “youngȱ womenȱ
fromȱ theȱ formerȱ Sovietȱ Unionȱ recruitedȱ forȱ exploitationȱ inȱ theȱ
internationalȱ sexȱ trade.” 217 ȱ Lawyersȱ involvedȱ inȱ traffickingȱ casesȱ
shouldȱbeȱawareȱofȱthatȱcaseȬlaw.ȱȱ
ȱ
Theȱ CRCȱ Committeeȱ inȱ itsȱ Generalȱ Commentȱ No.ȱ 6ȱ reiteratesȱ thatȱ
principle.ȱItȱstatesȱinȱparticularȱthat:ȱ
ȱ
“Statesȱ shallȱ notȱ returnȱ aȱ childȱ toȱ aȱ countryȱ whereȱ thereȱ areȱ
substantialȱ groundsȱ forȱ believingȱ thatȱ thereȱ isȱ aȱ realȱ riskȱ ofȱ
irreparableȱharmȱtoȱtheȱchild,ȱsuchȱas,ȱbutȱbyȱnoȱmeansȱlimitedȱ
to,ȱ thoseȱ contemplatedȱ underȱ articlesȱ 6ȱ andȱ 37ȱ ofȱ theȱ
Conventionȱ (…).ȱ Suchȱ nonȬrefoulementȱ obligationsȱ applyȱ
irrespectiveȱ ofȱ whetherȱ seriousȱ violationsȱ ofȱ thoseȱ rightsȱ
guaranteedȱ underȱ theȱ Conventionȱ originateȱ fromȱ nonȬStateȱ
actorsȱ orȱ whetherȱ suchȱ violationsȱ areȱ directlyȱ intendedȱ orȱ areȱ
theȱindirectȱconsequenceȱofȱactionȱorȱinaction.ȱTheȱassessmentȱofȱ
theȱriskȱofȱsuchȱseriousȱviolationsȱshouldȱbeȱconductedȱinȱanȱageȱ
andȱgenderȬsensitiveȱmannerȱ(…)”ȱ
ȱ
Inȱtheȱcontextȱofȱinternalȱtrafficking,ȱsomeȱexpertsȱhaveȱadvocatedȱforȱ
anȱ approachȱ drawingȱ onȱ theȱ similarityȱ betweenȱ theȱ situationȱ andȱ
vulnerabilityȱ ofȱ internationallyȱ displacedȱ personsȱ andȱ victimsȱ ofȱ
trafficking. 218 ȱ Inȱ thisȱ view,ȱ humanȱ traffickingȱ sharesȱ withȱ internalȱ
displacementȱ theȱ elementȱ ofȱ aȱ coerced,ȱ forcedȱ orȱ involuntaryȱ
movementȱ –ȱ evenȱ ifȱ theȱ movementȱ isȱ initiallyȱ voluntary,ȱ theȱ
exploitativeȱ situationȱ isȱ not.ȱ Internallyȱ displacedȱ personsȱ areȱ
vulnerableȱ toȱ traffickingȱ andȱ promisesȱ ofȱ betterȱ situationsȱ elsewhere.ȱ
217
UK, Immigration Appeal Tribunal, CC-50627-99 (00TH00728), 17 May 2000. Quoted by
Kartusch, Angelika, Reference Guide for Anti-Trafficking Legislative Review [with particular
emphasis on South Eastern Europe], OSCE (September 2001).
218
S. Martin, Internal Trafficking, Forced Migration Review 25 (May 2006), p.12-3.
186
Displacementȱ disruptsȱ familyȱ andȱ communityȱ networksȱ whichȱ

representȱ keyȱ elementsȱ ofȱ theȱ child’sȱ protectiveȱ environment.ȱ Inȱ thisȱ
context,ȱ theȱ Guidingȱ Principlesȱ onȱ Internalȱ Displacement 219 ȱ offerȱ
usefulȱ andȱ detailedȱ guidanceȱ onȱ theȱ measuresȱ necessaryȱ toȱ protectȱ
victimsȱofȱtrafficking.ȱItȱstatesȱtheȱneedȱtoȱprovideȱadequateȱprotectionȱ
andȱ assistanceȱ toȱ children,ȱ takingȱ intoȱ accountȱ theirȱ specialȱ needs.ȱ Itȱ
refersȱtoȱfamilyȱreunificationȱandȱtheȱrightȱtoȱeducation.ȱImportantly,ȱitȱ
includesȱprinciplesȱrelatedȱtoȱlongȬtermȱsolutionsȱsuchȱasȱreturn,ȱlocalȱ
integration,ȱ orȱ resettlementȱ andȱ assignsȱ responsibilityȱ toȱ nationalȱ
authorities.ȱ Theȱ documentȱ isȱ howeverȱ notȱ childȬspecificȱ andȱ shouldȱ
thereforeȱbeȱreadȱinȱconjunctionȱwithȱchildȱrightsȱinstruments.ȱ
ȱ
3.2ȱ ConcreteȱStepsȱforȱtheȱProtectionȱofȱChildȱVictimsȱ
ȱ
3.2.1ȱ RecognitionȱofȱtheȱStatusȱofȱVictimȱ
ȱ
Theȱfirstȱstepȱisȱtoȱhaveȱaȱprocedureȱtoȱensureȱthatȱvictimsȱhaveȱtheirȱ
statusȱofficiallyȱrecognised.ȱThereȱareȱseveralȱmeansȱtoȱdoȱso:ȱ
ȱ
1. Allowingȱcourtsȱdealingȱwithȱtraffickingȱcasesȱtoȱidentifyȱ
victimsȱandȱcertifyȱtheirȱstatus;ȱ
2. Allowingȱaȱjudicialȱorȱadministrativeȱdecisionȱbasedȱonȱreportsȱ
ofȱlawȱenforcement,ȱborderȬcontrolȱorȱotherȱofficialsȱwhoȱ
encounterȱvictims;ȱ
3. Allowingȱaȱjudicialȱorȱadministrativeȱdecisionȱbasedȱonȱtheȱ
applicationȱofȱtheȱallegedȱvictimȱorȱhis/herȱrepresentative. 220ȱ
ȱ
Theȱ recognitionȱ ofȱ aȱ childȱ asȱ aȱ victimȱ shouldȱ inȱ noȱ circumstancesȱ beȱ
linkedȱ toȱ his/herȱ willingnessȱ toȱ testifyȱ orȱ toȱ theȱ arrestȱ ofȱ aȱ criminalȱ
and/orȱtoȱtheȱarrestȱofȱtraffickersȱorȱcriminal.ȱItȱshouldȱsolelyȱbeȱbasedȱ
onȱtheȱchild’sȱexperienceȱandȱthisȱshouldȱbeȱexplicitȱinȱtheȱlaw.ȱ
219
Special Representative of the Secretary-General on Internally Displaced Persons, Guiding
Principles on Internal Displacement, E/CN.4/1998/53/Add.2.
220
United Nations Centre for International Crime Prevention, Legislative Guide for the
Implementation of the Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons,
Especially Women and Children, supplementing the United Nations Convention against
Transnational Organized Crime, Draft 3, Vienna (March 2003), p. 38.
187
3.2.2ȱ AppointmentȱofȱaȱGuardianȱ
ȱ
Theȱlawȱshouldȱprovideȱforȱtheȱappointmentȱofȱaȱguardianȱasȱsoonȱasȱaȱ
childȱvictimȱisȱidentifiedȱtoȱaccompanyȱtheȱchildȱthroughoutȱtheȱentireȱ
processȱuntilȱaȱdurableȱsolutionȱhasȱbeenȱidentifiedȱandȱimplemented.ȱ
Ifȱ aȱ childȱ isȱ notȱ unaccompaniedȱ andȱ alreadyȱ hasȱ aȱ guardian,ȱ theȱ lawȱ
shouldȱrequireȱanȱassessmentȱandȱincludeȱtheȱpossibilityȱthatȱanotherȱ
guardianȱ beȱ appointed,ȱ shouldȱ theȱ assessmentȱ concludeȱ thatȱ theȱ
currentȱoneȱmayȱnotȱfullyȱactȱinȱtheȱbestȱinterestsȱofȱtheȱchild.ȱȱ
ȱ
Theseȱ provisionsȱ shouldȱ beȱ accompaniedȱ byȱ theȱ designation,ȱ inȱ theȱ
law,ȱ ofȱtheȱ authorityȱ responsibleȱforȱappointingȱ theȱ guardianȱandȱtheȱ
establishmentȱ ofȱ accountabilityȱ mechanismsȱ forȱ thatȱ authority.ȱ Theȱ
authorityȱcanȱbeȱspecificallyȱestablishedȱtoȱdealȱwithȱtraffickingȱissues,ȱ
orȱ itȱ canȱ beȱ aȱ childȱ protectionȱ agencyȱ withȱ aȱ broaderȱ mandateȱ (Forȱ
moreȱinformationȱseeȱsectionȱVIIȱonȱinstitutionalȱreform).ȱ
ȱ
Theȱ lawȱ shouldȱ spellȱ outȱ theȱ legalȱ responsibilitiesȱ andȱ obligationsȱ ofȱ
theȱguardian,ȱwhichȱinȱcivilȱlawȱcountriesȱ areȱoftenȱfoundȱinȱtheȱcivilȱ
code.ȱ
ȱ
3.2.3ȱ MedicalȱandȱPsychologicalȱCareȱ
ȱ
Traffickingȱ canȱ haveȱ seriousȱ medicalȱ andȱ psychologicalȱ consequencesȱ
onȱchildren.ȱAsȱdiscussedȱinȱSectionȱIIȱonȱdefinitions,ȱchildȱexploitationȱ
isȱ definedȱ byȱ theȱ factȱ thatȱ itȱ isȱ harmfulȱ toȱ theȱ child’sȱ healthȱ andȱ
development.ȱAccessȱtoȱappropriateȱmedicalȱandȱpsychologicalȱcareȱisȱ
thusȱ essentialȱ forȱ theȱ child’sȱ recovery.ȱ Theseȱ servicesȱ shouldȱ alsoȱ
addressȱ theȱ specialȱ needsȱ ofȱ girls.ȱ Statesȱ shouldȱ makeȱ sure,ȱ throughȱ
legalȱ provisions,ȱ thatȱ theirȱ healthȱ systemȱ isȱ openȱ toȱ childȱ victimsȱ ofȱ
trafficking,ȱevenȱifȱtheyȱareȱnotȱnationalsȱofȱthatȱState.ȱȱȱ
ȱ
3.2.4ȱ Housingȱ
ȱ
Childȱvictimsȱofȱtraffickingȱareȱoftenȱseparatedȱfromȱtheirȱparentsȱandȱ
family.ȱ Theyȱ haveȱ noȱ placeȱ toȱ go,ȱ otherȱ thanȱ toȱ returnȱ toȱ theirȱ
trafficker,ȱ whichȱ victimsȱ sometimesȱ doȱ whenȱ theyȱ doȱ notȱ receiveȱ
enoughȱ support.ȱ Providingȱ appropriateȱ housingȱ thatȱ isȱ safe,ȱ childȬ
friendly,ȱandȱoperatedȱbyȱchildȬsensitiveȱstaffȱisȱessential.ȱToȱthatȱend,ȱ
childrenȱshouldȱbeȱseparatedȱfromȱadultsȱunlessȱtheseȱareȱtheirȱparentsȱ
188
orȱ careȬtakersȱ andȱ aȱ genderȱ sensitiveȬapproachȱ toȱ theirȱ needsȱ shouldȱ

alsoȱbeȱemployed,ȱinȱparticularȱwithȱrespectȱtoȱtheȱgenderȱofȱtheȱstaffȱ
thatȱareȱtakingȱcareȱofȱthem.ȱFurthermore,ȱtoȱremainȱsafe,ȱtheȱexistenceȱ
andȱlocationȱofȱsuchȱhousingȱshouldȱbeȱkeptȱconfidential.ȱȱ
ȱ
3.2.5ȱ Educationȱ
ȱ
Victimsȱ needȱ toȱ returnȱ toȱ aȱ senseȱ ofȱ normalcyȱ inȱ theirȱ lives.ȱ Besides,ȱ
childrenȱ whoȱ haveȱ beenȱtraffickedȱhaveȱ mostȱlikelyȱnotȱ hadȱ accessȱ toȱ
education.ȱTheȱrightȱtoȱeducationȱofȱchildȱvictimsȱneedsȱtoȱbeȱfulfilledȱ
byȱ theȱ receivingȱ State,ȱ whateverȱ theȱ nationalityȱ ofȱ theȱ victimȱ ofȱ
trafficking.ȱ Theȱ fulfilmentȱ ofȱ thisȱ rightȱ mayȱ requireȱ theȱ adaptationȱ ofȱ
educationȱ lawsȱ toȱ ensureȱ thatȱ educationȱ isȱ accessibleȱ toȱ allȱ childrenȱ
withinȱtheȱState’sȱjurisdiction.ȱ
ȱ
Forȱexample,ȱtheȱRussianȱdraftȱlawȱprovidesȱthatȱtheȱFederalȱ
Commission,ȱregionalȱcommissions,ȱasylumsȱandȱcentresȱmustȱ
immediatelyȱnotifyȱexecutiveȱauthoritiesȱinȱchargeȱofȱtheȱissuesȱofȱcareȱ
andȱguardianship,ȱifȱtheyȱreceiveȱanyȱinformationȱaboutȱaȱchildȱvictimȱ
ofȱtrafficking,ȱtoȱensureȱandȱprotectȱtheȱchild’sȱrights.ȱTheȱdraftȱlawȱ
alsoȱstatesȱthatȱchildȱvictimsȱofȱtraffickingȱmustȱbeȱprovidedȱanȱ
opportunityȱtoȱattendȱschoolȱinȱcomplianceȱwithȱtheȱfederalȱlawȱonȱ
education.ȱ
ȱ
3.3ȱ RightsȱofȱVictimsȱinȱJudicialȱProceedingsȱ
ȱ
3.3.1ȱ NonȬcriminalizationȱofȱVictimsȱ
ȱ
Underȱ noȱ circumstancesȱ shouldȱ lawsȱ holdȱ childrenȱ whoȱ haveȱ beenȱ
traffickedȱ criminallyȱ responsible.ȱ Childrenȱ whoȱ haveȱ beenȱ traffickedȱ
andȱ exploitedȱ mustȱ beȱ treatedȱ asȱ victims,ȱ notȱ asȱ offenders.ȱ
Unfortunately,ȱ victimsȱ ofȱ traffickingȱ areȱ oftenȱ prosecuted,ȱ basedȱ onȱ
legislationȱonȱprostitutionȱorȱ immigration,ȱ forȱexample.ȱHowever,ȱtheȱ
criminalȱisȱtheȱtraffickerȱandȱtheȱlawȱshouldȱnotȱbeȱambiguousȱinȱthatȱ
regard.ȱ Inȱ theȱ caseȱ ofȱ childȱ victims,ȱ thisȱ isȱ evenȱ clearerȱ asȱ thereȱ isȱ noȱ
needȱtoȱproveȱtheȱuseȱofȱcoercion,ȱdeceptionȱorȱanyȱotherȱmeans,ȱasȱperȱ
theȱdefinitionȱofȱchildȱtraffickingȱ(SeeȱsectionȱIIȱonȱdefinitions).ȱȱ
ȱ
189
Therefore,ȱaȱcourtȱconsideringȱaȱchildȱtraffickingȱcaseȱshouldȱnotȱlookȱ
atȱ whetherȱ theȱ childȱ hasȱ givenȱ anyȱ formȱ ofȱ consent.ȱ Ifȱ theȱ childȱ isȱ aȱ
victimȱ ofȱ trafficking,ȱ his/herȱ performingȱ ofȱ illegalȱ activitiesȱ isȱ
irrelevant.ȱTheȱresponsibilityȱfallsȱwithȱtheȱtrafficker(s).ȱForȱinstance,ȱitȱ
isȱirrelevantȱtoȱconsiderȱwhetherȱaȱchildȱhasȱagreedȱtoȱbeȱsmuggledȱorȱ
hasȱacceptedȱaȱcertainȱkindȱofȱemployment.ȱOftenȱtimesȱhowever,ȱdueȱ
toȱ poverty,ȱ parentsȱ giveȱ theirȱ consentȱ toȱ sendȱ theirȱ childrenȱ toȱ
exploitativeȱlabour.ȱThisȱsituationȱneedsȱtoȱbeȱaddressed,ȱbyȱsettingȱupȱ
safeguardsȱ againstȱ reȬtrafficking.ȱ Itȱ isȱ theȱ State’sȱ responsibilityȱ toȱ
provideȱ parentsȱ withȱ appropriateȱ supportȱ measuresȱ toȱ avoidȱ reȬ
trafficking.ȱ Parentsȱ cannotȱ andȱ shouldȱ notȱ beȱ heldȱ criminallyȱ
responsibleȱifȱtheyȱgaveȱtheirȱconsentȱtoȱexploitativeȱlabourȱconditionsȱ
forȱ theirȱ childȱ becauseȱ criminalȱ responsibilityȱ liesȱ withȱ theȱ trafficker.ȱ
However,ȱ civilȱ sanctionsȱ shouldȱ beȱ providedȱ inȱ theȱ lawȱ toȱ deterȱ
parentsȱfromȱgivingȱtheirȱconsentȱandȱappliedȱwithȱdueȱregardȱtoȱtheȱ
circumstances.ȱ Suchȱ sanctionsȱ shouldȱ beȱ linkedȱ toȱ theȱ exerciseȱ ofȱ
parentalȱauthorityȱ–ȱandȱadequateȱlimitationsȱthereofȱifȱtheȱchildȱisȱatȱ
riskȱ–ȱbutȱusedȱonlyȱinȱextremeȱcases.ȱȱ
ȱ
3.3.2ȱ RightȱtoȱAssistanceȱ
ȱ
Assistanceȱ throughoutȱ theȱ proceedingsȱ canȱ takeȱ manyȱ forms.ȱ Someȱ
legalȱ systemsȱ provideȱ thatȱ freeȱ legalȱ assistanceȱ willȱ beȱ affordedȱ toȱ
peopleȱwhoȱdoȱnotȱhaveȱaȱcertainȱminimumȱofȱresources.ȱChildȱvictimsȱ
shouldȱ alwaysȱ haveȱ accessȱ toȱ freeȱ counselȱ andȱ thisȱ rightȱ shouldȱ beȱ
explicitȱinȱtheȱlawȱandȱadequateȱresourcesȱallocated.ȱTheyȱshouldȱalsoȱ
haveȱ accessȱ toȱ physicalȱ andȱ psychologicalȱ healthȱ servicesȱ asȱ wellȱ asȱ
otherȱ necessaryȱ services,ȱ includingȱ theȱ presenceȱ ofȱ theȱ familyȱ whenȱ
appropriateȱandȱpossible,ȱtoȱaccompanyȱtheȱchildȱinȱtheȱproceedings.ȱ
ȱ
3.3.3ȱȱ FairȱTrialȱ
ȱ
Whileȱ takingȱ intoȱ accountȱ theȱ rightsȱ ofȱ victims,ȱ allȱ proceedingsȱ mustȱ
complyȱ withȱ humanȱ rightsȱ standards,ȱ inȱ particularȱ theȱ rightȱ toȱ aȱ fairȱ
trialȱforȱtheȱsuspectȱorȱaccused.ȱȱ
ȱ
3.3.4ȱ RightȱtoȱSafetyȱ
ȱ
Allȱ necessaryȱ measuresȱ shouldȱ beȱ takenȱ toȱ ensureȱ thatȱ lawȱ
enforcementȱ authoritiesȱ areȱ awareȱ ofȱ theȱ safetyȱ risksȱ facedȱ byȱ childȱ
190
victimsȱ andȱ takeȱ appropriateȱ action.ȱ Staffȱ workingȱ withȱ childrenȱ

shouldȱ haveȱ theȱ obligationȱ toȱ notifyȱ authoritiesȱ ifȱ theyȱ suspectȱ thatȱ aȱ
childȱ victimȱ hasȱ beenȱ harmedȱ orȱ isȱ atȱ risk.ȱ Thisȱ obligationȱ shouldȱ beȱ
inscribedȱ inȱ relevantȱ legislationȱ regulatingȱ theȱ practiceȱ ofȱ severalȱ
professionsȱ involvingȱ workȱ withȱ children,ȱ includingȱ teachers,ȱ socialȱ
workersȱandȱmedicalȱdoctors.ȱȱ
ȱ
3.3.5ȱ RightȱtoȱanȱEffectiveȱRemedyȱ
ȱ
Theȱrightȱtoȱaȱremedyȱforȱhumanȱrightsȱviolationsȱisȱaȱcornerstoneȱforȱ
theȱ implementationȱ ofȱ humanȱ rightsȱ standards.ȱ Articleȱ 4ȱ ofȱ theȱ
Conventionȱ onȱ theȱ Rightsȱ ofȱ theȱ Childȱ obligesȱ Statesȱ toȱ takeȱ allȱ
necessaryȱ measuresȱ toȱ implementȱ theȱ Convention.ȱ Inȱ itsȱ Generalȱ
Commentȱ onȱ thisȱ issue,ȱ theȱ Committeeȱ onȱ theȱ Rightsȱ ofȱ theȱ Childȱ
statesȱ thatȱ thisȱ provisionȱ includesȱ theȱ obligationȱ forȱ Statesȱ toȱ ensureȱ
thatȱeffectiveȱremediesȱareȱinȱplaceȱforȱchildȱrightsȱviolationsȱandȱthatȱ
childȬsensitiveȱproceduresȱareȱavailable. 221 ȱȱ
ȱ
Forȱtheȱremedyȱtoȱbeȱeffective,ȱseveralȱconditionsȱareȱrequired.ȱVictimsȱ
mustȱ beȱ informedȱ ofȱ theirȱ rights,ȱ haveȱ theirȱ confidentialityȱ respected,ȱ
beȱ protectedȱ againstȱ retaliationȱ andȱ feelȱ thatȱ theyȱ willȱ beȱ listenedȱ toȱ
andȱ thatȱ lawȱ enforcementȱ authoritiesȱ areȱ sensitiveȱ toȱ theirȱ situation.ȱ
Childrenȱ areȱ especiallyȱ entitledȱ toȱ justiceȱ mechanismsȱ thatȱ takeȱ intoȱ
accountȱ theirȱ specificȱ needsȱ andȱ giveȱ dueȱ regardȱ toȱ theirȱ ageȱ andȱ
maturity.ȱOneȱessentialȱconditionȱisȱthatȱchildrenȱwhoȱdoȱnotȱspeakȱorȱ
masterȱ theȱ officialȱ languageȱ beȱ providedȱ withȱ appropriateȱ translationȱ
servicesȱ inȱ theirȱ motherȱ tongue,ȱ especiallyȱ forȱ allȱ informationȱ
regardingȱtheȱproceedingsȱandȱtheirȱtestimony.ȱ
ȱ
Theȱ Guidelinesȱ onȱ Justiceȱ forȱ Childȱ Victimsȱ andȱ Witnessesȱ ofȱ Crimeȱ
elaboratedȱ byȱ theȱ NGOȱ Internationalȱ Bureauȱ forȱ Children’sȱ Rightsȱ
provideȱveryȱusefulȱandȱcomprehensiveȱinformationȱonȱwaysȱtoȱensureȱ
thatȱjusticeȱproceduresȱareȱchildȬfriendly. 222
221
CRC Committee, General Comment on General measures of implementation for the
Convention on the Rights of the Child, CRC/GC/2003/5, 3 October 2003.
222
International Bureau for Children’s Rights, Guidelines on Justice for Child Victims and
Witnesses of Crime (January 2003); available at http://www.ibcr.org/.
191
3.3.6ȱ RightȱofȱVictimsȱtoȱCompensationȱ
ȱ
Anȱ effectiveȱ remedyȱ includesȱ theȱ rightȱ toȱ seekȱ compensationȱ forȱ theȱ
damageȱ suffered.ȱ Victimsȱ ofȱ traffickingȱ haveȱ oftenȱ enduredȱ physicalȱ
andȱ psychologicalȱ damage,ȱ asȱ wellȱ asȱ unfairȱ remunerationȱ forȱ theirȱ
work.ȱ Compensationȱ enablesȱ themȱ toȱ fulfilȱ theirȱ materialȱ needsȱ forȱ
theirȱ rehabilitation.ȱ Itȱ alsoȱ providesȱ anȱ acknowledgementȱ ofȱ theȱ
victim’sȱsuffering.ȱȱ
ȱ
Dependingȱ onȱ theȱ legalȱ system,ȱ proceduresȱ toȱ obtainȱ compensationȱ
vary. 223ȱ
ȱ
Inȱ countriesȱ belongingȱ toȱ theȱ civilȱ lawȱ tradition,ȱ aȱ civilȱ actionȱ forȱ
compensationȱcanȱbeȱjoinedȱtoȱtheȱcriminalȱcase.ȱTheȱcriminalȱcaseȱwillȱ
establishȱ whetherȱ theȱ suspectedȱ traffickerȱ isȱ guiltyȱ andȱ whetherȱ theȱ
traffickedȱ personȱ isȱ indeedȱ aȱ victim.ȱ Theȱ judgeȱ willȱ thenȱ allocateȱ
compensationȱ basedȱ onȱ theȱ damageȱ andȱ economicȱ lossesȱ sufferedȱ byȱ
theȱ victim.ȱ Thisȱ wayȱ ofȱ obtainingȱ compensationȱ isȱ muchȱ simplerȱ andȱ
fasterȱthanȱseekingȱcompensationȱinȱcivilȱcourts.ȱ
ȱ
However,ȱ theȱ civilȱ actionȱ isȱ notȱ systematicallyȱ linkedȱ toȱ theȱ criminalȱ
caseȱ inȱ theseȱ countries.ȱ Itȱ requiresȱ thatȱ victimsȱ takeȱ specificȱ separateȱ
legalȱaction.ȱYet,ȱvictimsȱareȱnotȱalwaysȱinformedȱofȱthisȱpossibility,ȱasȱ
publicȱ authoritiesȱ tendȱ toȱ focusȱ onȱ criminalȱ aspectsȱ andȱ lawyersȱ mayȱ
notȱ deemȱ itȱ necessary,ȱ includingȱ becauseȱ chancesȱ toȱ actuallyȱ collectȱ
compensationȱ areȱ usuallyȱ slim.ȱ Whileȱ itȱ isȱ trueȱ thatȱ traffickers’ȱ
insolvencyȱ oftenȱ makesȱ itȱ difficultȱ toȱ obtainȱ compensation,ȱ theȱ
recognitionȱofȱtheȱrightȱtoȱbeȱcompensatedȱoftenȱoperatesȱasȱaȱformȱofȱ
recognitionȱforȱtheȱvictimȱandȱisȱimportantȱforȱtheȱhealingȱprocess.ȱȱ
ȱ
Inȱ commonȱ lawȱ countries,ȱ aȱ civilȱ claimȱ cannotȱ beȱ linkedȱ toȱ criminalȱ
action.ȱ However,ȱ judgesȱ haveȱ discretionȱ toȱ awardȱ compensationȱ toȱ
victimsȱasȱpartȱofȱsentencing.ȱ
ȱ
Anotherȱ possibilityȱ inȱ bothȱ systemsȱ isȱ toȱ bringȱ separateȱ civilȱ actionsȱ
againstȱ traffickersȱ beforeȱ civilȱ courts.ȱ Civilȱ lawsuitsȱ tendȱ toȱ beȱ
lengthierȱandȱoftenȱrequireȱtheȱcriminalȱcaseȱtoȱbeȱcompletedȱfirst.ȱȱ
223
The following information is based on: Anti-Slavery International, Human traffic, human
rights: Redefining victim protection (2002), p. 57-9, available at
http://www.antislavery.org/homepage/resources/humantraffichumanrights.htm.
192
ȱ
Oneȱgeneralȱproblemȱrelatedȱtoȱcivilȱlawsuits,ȱwhetherȱorȱnotȱlinkedȱtoȱ
aȱ criminalȱ lawsuit,ȱ liesȱ inȱ theȱ notionȱ ofȱ compensationȱ forȱ theȱ unfairȱ
retributionȱofȱworkȱperformed.ȱInȱmanyȱinstances,ȱactivitiesȱperformedȱ
byȱ victimsȱ wereȱ illegal.ȱ However,ȱ victimsȱ didȱ work,ȱ oftenȱ inȱ
exploitativeȱ circumstances.ȱ Canȱ aȱ courtȱ recogniseȱ aȱ rightȱ toȱ fairȱ
retributionȱ forȱ anȱ illegalȱ activityȱ and/orȱ exploitativeȱ situation?ȱ Oneȱ
approachȱtoȱthisȱquestionȱisȱtoȱconsiderȱthatȱchildȱvictimsȱofȱtraffickingȱ
areȱ entitledȱ toȱ compensationȱ forȱ theȱ painȱ theyȱ suffered,ȱ ratherȱ thanȱ
remunerationȱforȱtheȱactualȱworkȱperformed.ȱȱ
ȱ
Inȱpractice,ȱhowever,ȱtheȱfactȱthatȱmanyȱtraffickersȱmayȱnotȱbeȱarrestedȱ
andȱ prosecutedȱ orȱ areȱ notȱ solventȱ makesȱ itȱ difficultȱ toȱ obtainȱ
compensation.ȱ Asȱ mentionedȱ inȱ theȱ sectionȱ onȱ criminalization,ȱ assetsȱ
andȱ materialsȱ seizedȱ andȱ confiscatedȱ byȱ theȱ Stateȱ shouldȱ beȱ usedȱ forȱ
victims’ȱ compensation.ȱ Thisȱ impliesȱ thatȱ mechanismsȱ forȱ seizureȱ andȱ
confiscationȱ shouldȱ beȱ quickȱ andȱ effectiveȱ soȱ asȱ toȱ ensureȱ thatȱ theȱ
traffickerȱdoesȱnotȱhaveȱtimeȱtoȱmakeȱarrangements.ȱȱ
ȱ
Oneȱ solutionȱ toȱ ensureȱ compensationȱ isȱ toȱ createȱ aȱ trustȱ fundȱ forȱ
victims.ȱForȱexample,ȱsuchȱfundsȱwereȱcreatedȱinȱtheȱNetherlandsȱandȱ
inȱtheȱUK.ȱYetȱonceȱagain,ȱvictimsȱneedȱtoȱbeȱinformedȱofȱitsȱexistenceȱ
andȱ amountsȱ awardedȱ areȱ usuallyȱ lowȱ comparedȱ toȱ theȱ damageȱ
sufferedȱbyȱtheȱvictim.ȱȱ
ȱ
3.4ȱ StatusȱofȱVictimsȱinȱReceivingȱStatesȱ
ȱ
Forȱ childȱ victims,ȱ theȱ bestȱ interestsȱ ofȱ theȱ childȱ shouldȱ alwaysȱ guideȱ
decisionsȱ relatedȱ toȱ theȱ victim’sȱ stayȱ inȱ theȱ countryȱ orȱ returnȱ toȱ theȱ
countryȱ ofȱ origin.ȱ Whileȱ Statesȱ oftenȱ linkȱ theȱ residencyȱ statusȱ ofȱ
victimsȱ toȱ victims’ȱ willingnessȱ toȱ testifyȱ againstȱ theirȱ traffickers,ȱ forȱ
childrenȱtheȱconditionȱofȱcooperationȱwithȱlawȱenforcementȱauthoritiesȱ
shouldȱneverȱplayȱanyȱroleȱinȱtheȱdecisionȱtoȱgrantȱaȱresidencyȱpermit.ȱȱ
ȱ
3.4.1ȱ ReflectionȱDelayȱ
ȱ
Theȱ reflectionȱ delayȱ isȱ aȱ mechanismȱ institutedȱ byȱ someȱ Statesȱ asȱ aȱ
middleȱ groundȱ betweenȱ respectȱ forȱ theȱ rightsȱ ofȱ victimsȱ andȱ States’ȱ
needȱ toȱ arrestȱ andȱ prosecuteȱ traffickers.ȱ Itȱ isȱ supposedȱ toȱ ensureȱ thatȱ
193
victimsȱ ofȱ traffickingȱ canȱ recoverȱ fromȱ theirȱ trauma,ȱ haveȱ accessȱ toȱ
supportȱ andȱ assistanceȱ includingȱ medicalȱ careȱ andȱ legalȱ advice,ȱ andȱ
canȱthusȱmakeȱanȱinformedȱdecisionȱaboutȱwhetherȱtheyȱwantȱtoȱtestifyȱ
againstȱ theȱ trafficker.ȱ AntiȬSlaveryȱ Internationalȱ hasȱ concludedȱ thatȱ
thoseȱ whoȱ benefitȱ fromȱ theȱ reflectionȱ delayȱ areȱ moreȱ likelyȱ toȱ pressȱ
chargesȱ againstȱ theirȱ trafficker,ȱ asȱ rightȱ afterȱ theirȱ interceptionȱ byȱ
authorities,ȱ victimsȱ areȱ stillȱ underȱ theȱ influenceȱ andȱ fearȱ ofȱ theirȱ
trafficker,ȱ whoȱ canȱ beȱ someoneȱ theyȱ knowȱ wellȱ –ȱ aȱ “boyfriend”,ȱ aȱ
“protector”,ȱanȱ“employer”,ȱorȱsomeoneȱwhoȱhasȱthreatenedȱthemȱandȱ
theirȱfamiliesȱifȱtheyȱtalkȱtoȱauthorities.ȱ 224 ȱAfterȱsomeȱtimeȱandȱwhenȱ
theyȱ feelȱ supported,ȱ theyȱ willȱ beȱ moreȱ willingȱ toȱ testifyȱ againstȱ theirȱ
traffickers.ȱȱ
ȱ
However,ȱ asȱ repeatedlyȱ stated,ȱ onlyȱ theȱ bestȱ interestsȱ ofȱ theȱ childȱ
shouldȱguideȱdecisionsȱregardingȱchildȱvictims.ȱTheȱnotionȱofȱ“delay”ȱ
shouldȱinȱnoȱcaseȱentailȱthatȱprotectionȱmechanismsȱwillȱbeȱliftedȱatȱtheȱ
endȱofȱtheȱ“delay.”ȱȱ
ȱ
3.4.2ȱ LongȬtermȱResidencyȱPermitsȱ
ȱ
LongȬtermȱresidencyȱpermitsȱareȱdeliveredȱbyȱsomeȱStatesȱifȱtheȱvictimȱ
isȱ likelyȱ toȱ beȱ harmedȱ backȱ inȱ theȱ countryȱ ofȱ originȱ and/orȱ ifȱ he/sheȱ
cooperatesȱ withȱ theȱ justiceȱ system.ȱ However,ȱ whenȱ itȱ comesȱ toȱ
children,ȱitȱshouldȱbeȱclearȱinȱtheȱlawȱthatȱtheȱbestȱinterestsȱofȱtheȱchildȱ
isȱ toȱ beȱ theȱ primaryȱ considerationȱ forȱ theȱ attributionȱ ofȱ longȬtermȱ
residencyȱ permits.ȱ Asȱ aȱ consequence,ȱ considerationȱ ofȱ requestsȱ fromȱ
childrenȱforȱsuchȱpermitsȱshouldȱbeȱdealtȱwithȱonȱaȱcaseȱbyȱcaseȱbasis,ȱ
andȱ decisionsȱ dulyȱ motivated.ȱ Theȱ processȱ forȱ makingȱ longȬtermȱ
arrangementsȱforȱchildrenȱshouldȱbeȱsubjectȱtoȱaȱjudicialȱdecision,ȱandȱ
theȱ viewsȱ ofȱ theȱ childȱ mustȱ beȱ heardȱ andȱ givenȱ dueȱ weight.ȱ Suchȱ
provisionsȱmustȱbeȱincludedȱinȱtheȱlawȱsoȱasȱtoȱlimitȱtheȱdiscretionaryȱ
powerȱofȱrelevantȱauthorities.ȱ
ȱ
Inȱ thisȱ context,ȱ severalȱ aspectsȱ mustȱ beȱ takenȱ intoȱ consideration,ȱ
includingȱtheirȱdegreeȱofȱintegrationȱinȱtheȱreceivingȱStateȱandȱtheȱfactȱ
thatȱifȱtheyȱremainȱinȱtheȱcountryȱofȱdestination,ȱtheyȱwillȱprobablyȱbeȱ
separatedȱfromȱtheirȱparents.ȱHowever,ȱinȱsomeȱinstances,ȱtheyȱmayȱbeȱ
rejectedȱ orȱ stigmatizedȱ byȱ theirȱ parents/familyȱ ifȱ theyȱ return,ȱ becauseȱ
224
Ibid., p. 41-2.
194
theyȱhaveȱ beenȱ obligedȱtoȱ participateȱinȱ “shameful”ȱactivitiesȱsuchȱasȱ

prostitution,ȱ orȱ becauseȱ theirȱ familyȱ cannotȱ offerȱ themȱ financialȱ andȱ
otherȱnecessaryȱsupport.ȱ
ȱ
3.4.3ȱ LongȬtermȱArrangementsȱ
ȱ
Ifȱ aȱ childȱ isȱ grantedȱ longȱ termȱ orȱ permanentȱ residencyȱ statusȱ inȱ theȱ
Stateȱ ofȱ destination,ȱ arrangementsȱ needȱ toȱ beȱ madeȱ toȱ ensureȱ his/herȱ
protectionȱinȱtheȱlongȱterm.ȱInȱmanyȱcases,ȱtheȱchildȱisȱunaccompaniedȱ
andȱ separatedȱ fromȱ his/herȱ family.ȱ Ifȱ so,ȱ relevantȱ authoritiesȱ shouldȱ
assessȱ theȱ child’sȱ situationȱ andȱ determineȱ theȱ appropriateȱ longȬtermȱ
arrangements,ȱ inȱ consultationȱ withȱ theȱ childȱ andȱ his/herȱ guardian. 225 ȱ
Theȱ lawȱ shouldȱ designateȱ theȱ authorityȱ responsibleȱ forȱ makingȱ suchȱ
arrangementsȱandȱadequateȱresourcesȱshouldȱbeȱallocatedȱtoȱthatȱend.ȱȱ
ȱ
3.4.4ȱȱ RepatriationȱofȱVictims 226ȱ
ȱ
Theȱquestionȱofȱrepatriationȱisȱveryȱsensitive.ȱReceivingȱStatesȱtendȱtoȱ
preferȱthatȱvictimsȱreturnȱtoȱtheirȱcountryȱofȱorigin,ȱwhereȱvictimsȱmayȱ
endȱupȱinȱtheȱsameȱsituationȱthatȱledȱthemȱtoȱbeȱtraffickedȱinȱtheȱfirstȱ
place.ȱ Theȱ abilityȱ ofȱ theȱ countryȱ ofȱ originȱ toȱ protectȱ themȱ isȱ key,ȱ asȱ
repatriatedȱ victimsȱ areȱ atȱ highȱ riskȱ ofȱ beingȱ reȬtraffickedȱ orȱ retaliatedȱ
against.ȱ Atȱ theȱ sameȱ time,ȱ familyȱ reunification,ȱ whenȱ possible,ȱ isȱ theȱ
bestȱsolutionȱtoȱensureȱtheȱchild’sȱharmoniousȱdevelopment.ȱ
ȱ
Theȱ Palermoȱ Protocolȱ triesȱ toȱ balanceȱ theseȱ imperatives.ȱ Itȱ providesȱ
thatȱtheȱStateȱofȱoriginȱshouldȱfacilitateȱandȱacceptȱtheȱreturnȱofȱvictimsȱ
ofȱ trafficking.ȱ Conversely,ȱ theȱ receivingȱ Stateȱ shouldȱ payȱ dueȱ regardȱ
forȱtheȱsafetyȱofȱtheȱvictimȱandȱlegalȱproceedingsȱunderway,ȱandȱitȱisȱ
preferableȱ thatȱ theȱ returnȱ beȱ voluntary.ȱ Consequently,ȱ nationalȱ lawsȱ
shouldȱmakeȱitȱclearȱthatȱtheȱbestȱinterestsȱofȱtheȱchildȱshouldȱprevail.ȱ
ȱ
Shouldȱrepatriationȱbeȱdeemedȱinȱtheȱchild’sȱbestȱinterest,ȱoneȱseriousȱ
issueȱ encounteredȱ isȱ thatȱ countriesȱ ofȱ originȱ mayȱ reȬvictimizeȱ
traffickingȱ victimsȱ uponȱ entryȱ intoȱ theirȱ territory,ȱ byȱ detainingȱ them,ȱ
forcingȱ themȱ toȱ takeȱ HIV/AIDSȱ testsȱ andȱ prohibitingȱ themȱ fromȱ
travellingȱ abroadȱ again.ȱ Theȱ lawȱ shouldȱ makeȱ itȱ clearȱ thatȱ victimsȱ ofȱ
225
CRC Committee General Comment no. 6.
226
This section is informed by the Anti-Slavery report, p.60-2.
195
traffickingȱ shouldȱ haveȱ theirȱ rights,ȱ includingȱ theirȱ rightȱ toȱ privacy,ȱ
respected,ȱandȱshouldȱhaveȱaccessȱtoȱbasicȱservices.ȱChildrenȱshouldȱbeȱ
reunitedȱwithȱtheirȱparentsȱandȱfamilyȱifȱitȱisȱinȱtheirȱbestȱinterests,ȱorȱ
takenȱcareȱofȱbyȱexperiencedȱandȱrecognisedȱorganizations.ȱ
ȱ
Theȱ protectionȱ systemȱ canȱ indeedȱ relyȱ onȱ NGOsȱ andȱ associationsȱ onȱ
theȱ ground,ȱ whichȱ haveȱ experienceȱ inȱ supportingȱ andȱ protectingȱ theȱ
rightsȱ ofȱ traffickingȱ victims.ȱ Theȱroleȱ ofȱ organisationsȱ involvedȱ inȱ theȱ
protectionȱ andȱ rehabilitationȱ ofȱ victimsȱ isȱ recognisedȱ inȱ theȱ Optionalȱ
Protocolȱ onȱ theȱ saleȱ ofȱ children.ȱ Itȱ providesȱ thatȱ Statesȱ shouldȱ adoptȱ
measuresȱ toȱ protectȱ theseȱ personsȱ and/orȱ organisations.ȱ Thisȱ
recognitionȱ isȱ importantȱ asȱ Statesȱ mayȱ notȱ haveȱ theȱ expertiseȱ orȱ theȱ
capacityȱ toȱ careȱ forȱ victims.ȱ Theȱ specialȱ statusȱ ofȱ suchȱ organisationsȱ
shouldȱ thereforeȱ beȱ reflectedȱ inȱ theȱ law.ȱ Theȱ lawȱ canȱ provideȱ forȱ aȱ
processȱ ofȱ accreditationȱ byȱ theȱ Stateȱ ofȱ theȱ capacityȱ ofȱ specificȱ
organisationsȱtoȱcareȱforȱvictimsȱandȱdesignateȱinstitutionsȱresponsibleȱ
forȱmonitoringȱtheȱworkȱofȱtheseȱorganisations.ȱ
ȱ
NonȬgovernmentalȱorganisationsȱcouldȱbeȱcontactedȱbyȱtheȱcountryȱofȱ
destinationȱpriorȱtoȱtheȱrepatriationȱofȱvictims,ȱtoȱensureȱthatȱtheyȱ
provideȱappropriateȱcareȱwhenȱvictimsȱarrive.ȱNGOsȱofferȱaȱgoodȱ
alternativeȱwhenȱitȱisȱnotȱappropriateȱforȱtheȱcountryȱofȱdestinationȱtoȱ
informȱofficialsȱinȱtheȱcountryȱofȱoriginȱthatȱaȱpersonȱhasȱbeenȱ
trafficked,ȱasȱcorruptionȱofȱofficialsȱandȱpossibleȱcollusionȱwithȱ
traffickersȱmayȱputȱtheȱvictimȱatȱhighȱrisk.ȱLikewise,ȱvictimsȱofȱ
traffickingȱwhoȱremainedȱinȱtheirȱhomeȱcountryȱmayȱfindȱitȱsaferȱtoȱ
turnȱtoȱnonȬgovernmentalȱorganisations.ȱInȱfact,ȱTheȱSAARCȱ
ConventionȱonȱPreventingȱandȱCombatingȱTraffickingȱinȱWomenȱandȱ
ChildrenȱforȱProstitutionȱstipulatesȱthatȱStatesȱPartiesȱmayȱauthoriseȱ
recognisedȱNGOsȱtoȱprovideȱhomesȱandȱshelterȱforȱvictimsȱofȱ
traffickingȱandȱshouldȱencourageȱthemȱinȱtheirȱefforts.ȱ
ȱ
Withȱ respectȱ toȱ repatriation,ȱ oneȱ problemȱ arisesȱ whenȱ victimsȱ doȱ notȱ
haveȱ documentationȱ provingȱ ofȱ whichȱ countryȱ theyȱ areȱ nationalsȱ orȱ
haveȱpermanentȱresidence.ȱInȱthisȱcase,ȱinȱaccordanceȱwithȱtheȱPalermoȱ
Protocol,ȱaȱreceivingȱ countryȱ canȱ askȱforȱverificationȱ toȱ anotherȱ State,ȱ
and,ȱifȱconfirmed,ȱthatȱStateȱshouldȱissueȱappropriateȱtravelȱdocumentsȱ
toȱtheȱvictim.ȱ
ȱ
196
UNICEF’sȱ Regionalȱ Officeȱ forȱ CEE/CISȱ hasȱ elaboratedȱ Guidelinesȱ onȱ

determiningȱ whetherȱ aȱ returnȱ toȱ familyȱ and/orȱ countryȱ ofȱ originȱ isȱ inȱ theȱ
child’sȱ bestȱ interests, 227 ȱ basedȱ onȱ theȱ Committeeȱ onȱ theȱ Rightsȱ ofȱ theȱ
Child’sȱ Generalȱ Commentȱ No.ȱ 6ȱ onȱ theȱ treatmentȱ ofȱ unaccompaniedȱ
andȱseparatedȱchildrenȱoutsideȱtheirȱcountryȱofȱorigin.ȱTheȱGuidelinesȱ
includeȱaȱstepȬbyȬstepȱdescriptionȱofȱtheȱrequirementsȱforȱrepatriation.ȱ
Theseȱincludeȱtakingȱintoȱaccountȱtheȱgeneralȱprinciplesȱof:ȱ
ȱ
x Safety,ȱsecurityȱandȱconditions,ȱincludingȱsocioȬeconomicȱ
conditions,ȱawaitingȱtheȱchildȱuponȱreturn;ȱ
x Availabilityȱofȱcareȱarrangementsȱforȱthatȱparticularȱchild;ȱ
x Viewsȱofȱtheȱchildȱexpressedȱandȱthoseȱofȱtheȱcaretakers;ȱ
x Child’sȱlevelȱofȱintegrationȱinȱtheȱhostȱcountryȱandȱdurationȱofȱ
absenceȱfromȱtheȱhomeȱcountry;ȱ
x Child’sȱrightȱtoȱpreserveȱhis/herȱidentity,ȱnationality,ȱnameȱandȱ
familyȱrelationsȱ(Articleȱ8ȱofȱtheȱCRC);ȱ
x Theȱdesirabilityȱforȱcontinuityȱinȱaȱchild’sȱupbringingȱ(Articleȱ
20);ȱ
x Tracingȱsuitableȱcaregivers;ȱ
x Preventingȱfurtherȱharmȱtoȱtheȱchild;ȱ
x Aȱsecurityȱassessmentȱfocussingȱonȱpossibleȱthreatsȱfromȱtheȱ
traffickersȱtoȱtheȱchildȱorȱherȱorȱhisȱrelatives;ȱ
x Aȱriskȱassessmentȱassessingȱtheȱcircumstancesȱofȱtheȱhomeȱandȱ
communityȱtoȱwhichȱtheȱchildȱisȱlikelyȱtoȱreturn;ȱ
x Bilateralȱcooperationȱinȱrespondingȱtoȱinformationȱrequestsȱinȱ
theȱcountryȱofȱorigin;ȱ
x Theȱdutyȱofȱtheȱcountryȱofȱdestinationȱtoȱinformȱtheȱcountryȱofȱ
originȱofȱtheȱdecisionȱmade.ȱ
ȱ
ȱ
Partȱ4ȱ PREVENTIONȱ
ȱ
Preventionȱofȱtraffickingȱinvolvesȱmanyȱpolicyȱtools.ȱPreventionȱ
impliesȱaddressingȱtheȱrootȱcausesȱofȱtrafficking,ȱonȱbothȱtheȱdemandȱ
andȱtheȱsupplyȱsides.ȱOnȱtheȱsupplyȱside,ȱvulnerabilityȱtoȱtraffickingȱ
mainlyȱliesȱinȱpovertyȱandȱlackȱofȱopportunities.ȱMeasuresȱtoȱpreventȱ
227
See Reference Guide on Protecting the Rights of Child Victims of Trafficking in Europe,
UNICEF (2006); available at
http://www.unicef.org/ceecis/UNICEF_Child_Trafficking_low.pdf.
197
traffickingȱincludeȱeducation,ȱinformationȱandȱmediaȱcampaigns,ȱ
aimedȱatȱtheȱwholeȱpopulation,ȱbutȱalsoȱadaptedȱtoȱthoseȱwhoȱareȱmostȱ
vulnerable,ȱespeciallyȱchildren.ȱLegislationȱcanȱfurtherȱaddressȱtheȱ
demandȱforȱtrafficking,ȱthroughȱtheȱprohibitionȱofȱadvertisement,ȱ
directȱofȱindirect,ȱofȱtraffickingȱandȱexploitationȱandȱtheȱpunishmentȱofȱ
possibleȱcustomers.ȱItȱcanȱalsoȱfavourȱtheȱorganisationȱofȱawarenessȬ
raisingȱactivities.ȱ
ȱ
Majorȱtreatiesȱrelatedȱtoȱchildȱtrafficking,ȱinȱparticularȱtheȱPalermoȱ
Protocol,ȱtheȱOptionalȱProtocolȱonȱtheȱsaleȱofȱchildrenȱandȱILOȱ
Conventionȱ182,ȱcontainȱprovisionsȱrelatedȱtoȱprevention.ȱTheyȱallȱ
emphasiseȱtheȱimportanceȱofȱinternationalȱcooperationȱandȱassistanceȱ
toȱaddressȱtheȱrootȱcausesȱofȱtheȱproblem.ȱȱȱ
ȱ
4.1ȱ ActionȱonȱDemandȱ
ȱ
TheȱPalermoȱProtocolȱprovidesȱthatȱStatesȱshouldȱadoptȱorȱstrengthenȱ
legislativeȱorȱotherȱmeasuresȱtoȱdiscourageȱtheȱdemandȱthatȱfostersȱallȱ
formsȱofȱexploitationȱinȱpersons,ȱsuchȱasȱtheȱdemandȱforȱcheapȱlabourȱ
andȱ services,ȱ someȱ ofȱ whichȱ isȱ beingȱ metȱ byȱ persons,ȱ includingȱ
children,ȱwhoȱhaveȱbeenȱtrafficked.ȱȱȱ
ȱ
4.1.1ȱProhibitionȱofȱtheȱProductionȱandȱDisseminationȱofȱMaterialȱ
AdvertisingȱtheȱOffencesȱ
ȱ
Theȱ Optionalȱ Protocolȱ onȱ theȱ saleȱ ofȱ childrenȱ obligesȱ Statesȱ toȱ takeȱ
measuresȱ toȱ effectivelyȱ prohibitȱ theȱ productionȱ andȱ disseminationȱ ofȱ
materialȱ advertisingȱ theȱ saleȱ ofȱ children,ȱ childȱ prostitutionȱ andȱ childȱ
pornography.ȱConcretely,ȱthisȱimpliesȱthatȱtheȱlegislationȱshouldȱmakeȱ
theȱproductionȱandȱdisseminationȱofȱsuchȱmaterialȱaȱcriminalȱoffence,ȱ
andȱprovideȱthatȱprohibitedȱmaterialsȱbeȱseized.ȱ
ȱ
4.1.2ȱCriminalȱResponsibilityȱandȱAwarenessȬraisingȱofȱEmployersȱ
andȱCustomersȱ
ȱ
Employers,ȱorȱcustomersȱinȱtheȱcaseȱofȱsexualȱexploitation,ȱrepresentȱ
theȱdemandȱforȱlabourȱandȱservicesȱthatȱinvolveȱtraffickingȱinȱchildren.ȱ
Theȱcriminalȱresponsibilityȱofȱemployersȱandȱcustomersȱisȱonlyȱoneȱ
sideȱofȱtheȱcoin.ȱThereȱareȱindeedȱmanyȱobstaclesȱtoȱtheȱenforcementȱofȱ
198
legislationȱinȱthisȱregard.ȱWhenȱaȱcustomerȱusesȱtheȱsexualȱexploitationȱ
ofȱchildrenȱoutsideȱofȱhis/herȱcountryȱofȱnationalityȱ–ȱasȱinȱcasesȱofȱ
“sexȱtourism”ȱ–ȱitȱmayȱbeȱdifficultȱtoȱgatherȱevidence.ȱTheseȱ
behavioursȱshouldȱbeȱdiscouragedȱinȱtheȱfirstȱplace.ȱOneȱwayȱtoȱdoȱsoȱ
isȱtoȱmakeȱtourȱoperatorsȱandȱtravelȱagenciesȱresponsibleȱforȱinformingȱ
theirȱclientsȱonȱtheȱillegalityȱofȱsexȱtourism,ȱrefrainȱfromȱusingȱ
messagesȱsuggestingȱsuchȱbehaviours,ȱandȱtrainȱtheirȱstaffȱonȱtheirȱ
obligations.ȱȱ
ȱ
Boxȱ38:ȱTheȱNigerianȱTraffickingȱinȱPersonsȱ(Prohibition)ȱLawȱEnforcementȱandȱ
AdministrationȱActȱ
Theȱ Nigerianȱ Traffickingȱ inȱ Personsȱ (Prohibition)ȱ Lawȱ Enforcementȱ andȱ
Administrationȱ Actȱ ofȱ 2003ȱ constitutesȱaȱ goodȱ exampleȱ ofȱ theȱ useȱ ofȱ legislationȱ toȱ
placeȱ obligationsȱ onȱ tourȱ operators,ȱ travelȱ agentsȱ andȱ airlineȱ companiesȱ toȱ
discourageȱ demandȱ forȱ traffickingȱ forȱ sexualȱ exploitation.ȱ Theȱ Actȱ stipulatesȱ theȱ
following:ȱ
Articleȱ30ȱ
“Everyȱtourȱoperatorȱandȱtravelȱagentȱshall:ȱ
notifyȱ itsȱ clientȱ ofȱ itsȱ obligationȱ underȱ thisȱ Actȱ notȱ toȱ aidȱ andȱ abet,ȱ facilitateȱ orȱ
promoteȱinȱanyȱwayȱtheȱtrafficȱinȱanyȱperson,ȱȱ
(b)ȱ notifyȱ theirȱ clientsȱ ofȱ theirȱ obligationsȱ underȱ thisȱ Actȱ notȱ toȱ aidȱ andȱ abet,ȱ
facilitateȱ orȱ promoteȱ inȱ anyȱ way,ȱ anyȱ person’sȱ pornographyȱ andȱ otherȱ person’sȱ
exploitationȱinȱtourism,ȱ
insertȱ inȱ contractsȱ withȱ correspondingȱ suppliersȱ inȱ destinationȱ countries,ȱ clausesȱ
requiringȱthemȱtoȱcomplyȱwithȱtheȱobligationsȱstatedȱinȱtheȱprecedingȱparagraphsȱofȱ
thisȱ subsection,ȱ refrainȱ fromȱ utilizingȱ messagesȱ onȱ printedȱ material,ȱ videoȱ orȱ theȱ
Internetȱthatȱcouldȱsuggestȱorȱalludeȱtoȱbehaviourȱincompatibleȱwithȱtheȱobjectiveȱofȱ
thisȱ Act,ȱ informȱ theirȱ staffȱ ofȱ theirȱ obligationsȱ underȱ thisȱ Act,ȱ andȱ includeȱ clausesȱ
regardingȱ theirȱ obligationsȱ underȱ thisȱ Actȱ toȱ theirȱ staffȱ inȱ newȱ employmentȱ
contracts.ȱ
ȱ
Articleȱ31ȱ
Everyȱ airlineȱ companyȱ shallȱ promoteȱ throughȱ everyȱ possibleȱ means,ȱ publicȱ
awarenessȱofȱtheȱguidingȱprinciplesȱofȱthisȱActȱinȱinȬflightȱmagazines,ȱticketȱjackets,ȱ
internetȱunitsȱandȱvideoȱonȱlongȱflights.ȱ
ȱ
Anotherȱ issueȱ concernsȱ theȱ caseȱ ofȱ childȱ domesticȱ workers.ȱ Inȱ thisȱ
highlyȱ unregulatedȱ segmentȱ ofȱ theȱ labourȱ market,ȱ childrenȱ remainȱ
invisible.ȱ Theyȱ areȱ oftenȱ exploitedȱ byȱ theirȱ employersȱ whileȱ beingȱ
consideredȱasȱ“partȱofȱtheȱhome.” 228 ȱInȱthisȱcontext,ȱemployersȱdoȱnotȱ
perceiveȱthemselvesȱasȱexploitersȱbutȱratherȱasȱbenefactors.ȱRacismȱandȱ
prejudiceȱ againstȱ migrantsȱ andȱ ethnicȱ minoritiesȱ alsoȱ increasesȱ
228
Anderson, Bridget and Julia O’Connell Davidson, Is trafficking in Human Beings Demand
Driven? A Multi-Country Pilot Study, IOM (December 2003).
199
children’sȱ vulnerabilityȱ toȱ trafficking.ȱ Peopleȱ fromȱ theseȱ groupsȱ areȱ

moreȱ easilyȱ traffickedȱ becauseȱ theyȱ tendȱ toȱ beȱ marginalizedȱ andȱ
consideredȱasȱ“different”ȱbyȱtheirȱemployers.ȱAsȱaȱresult,ȱusualȱsocialȱ
normsȱ thatȱ regulateȱ –ȱ andȱ limitȱ –ȱ theȱ behaviourȱ ofȱ employersȱ doȱ notȱ
apply.ȱ ȱ Thatȱ isȱ whyȱ legislativeȱ measuresȱ shouldȱ beȱ accompaniedȱ byȱ
awarenessȬraisingȱ activities,ȱ addressingȱ theȱ discriminationȱ andȱ
prejudiceȱ againstȱ migrantsȱ andȱ ethnicȱ minorities.ȱ Theȱ aimȱ ofȱ suchȱ
measuresȱ isȱ toȱ setȱ notȱ onlyȱ legalȱ butȱ alsoȱ socialȱ limitsȱ toȱ exploitativeȱ
behavioursȱ andȱ promoteȱ theȱ integrationȱ ofȱ marginalisedȱ groups,ȱ
includingȱthroughȱsocialȱandȱeconomicȱmeans.ȱȱ
ȱ
4.1.3ȱ TravelȱDocumentsȱ
ȱ
Theȱ firstȱ stepȱ towardsȱ increasedȱ andȱ moreȱ effectiveȱ borderȱ controlȱ isȱ
ensuringȱ theȱ qualityȱ ofȱ travelȱ orȱ identityȱ documents,ȱsoȱ asȱ toȱ preventȱ
theirȱ falsificationȱ orȱ alteration.ȱ Inȱ addition,ȱ internationalȱ cooperationȱ
mayȱbeȱnecessaryȱwithȱregardȱtoȱtheȱverificationȱofȱtheȱvalidityȱofȱsuchȱ
documents.ȱ Asȱ statedȱ inȱ theȱ Palermoȱ Protocol,ȱ Statesȱ shouldȱ provideȱ
assistanceȱ toȱ oneȱ anotherȱ inȱ thisȱ respect.ȱ However,ȱ theȱ verificationȱ
procedureȱ shouldȱ beȱ expeditedȱ withinȱ aȱ reasonableȱ time.ȱ Ifȱ childrenȱ
areȱheldȱatȱtheȱborder,ȱchildȬfriendlyȱfacilitiesȱshouldȱbeȱavailableȱandȱ
theirȱcareȱandȱmedicalȱneedsȱaddressed.ȱ
ȱ
4.1.4ȱ TrainingȱofȱImmigrationȱandȱOtherȱRelevantȱOfficialsȱ
ȱ
Asȱ statedȱ inȱ Articleȱ 10ȱ ofȱ theȱ Palermoȱ Protocol,ȱ lawȱ enforcement,ȱ
immigrationȱandȱotherȱofficialsȱshouldȱbeȱtrainedȱinȱtheȱpreventionȱofȱ
trafficking.ȱ Thisȱ trainingȱ shouldȱ includeȱ notȱ onlyȱ methodsȱ toȱ detectȱ
andȱprosecuteȱtraffickers,ȱbutȱalsoȱwaysȱtoȱprotectȱtheȱrightsȱofȱvictims,ȱ
includingȱaddressingȱtheȱspecialȱneedsȱofȱwomenȱandȱchildȱvictims.ȱ
ȱ
4.1.5ȱ LiabilityȱofȱCommercialȱCarriersȱ
ȱ
Theȱ Palermoȱ Protocolȱ providesȱ thatȱ Statesȱ shouldȱ takeȱ measuresȱ toȱ
ensureȱ theȱ obligationȱ ofȱ commercialȱ carriersȱ toȱ ascertainȱ thatȱ allȱ
passengersȱ areȱ inȱ possessionȱ ofȱ theȱ necessaryȱ travelȱ documentsȱ forȱ
entryȱ inȱ theȱ receivingȱ State.ȱ Thisȱ provisionȱ isȱ aimedȱ atȱ offeringȱ anȱ
additionalȱ levelȱ ofȱ protectionȱ toȱ potentialȱ victimsȱ ofȱ trafficking,ȱ
althoughȱmanyȱofȱthemȱtravelȱwithȱvalidȱdocuments.ȱȱ
ȱ
200
4.1.6ȱ RevocationȱofȱVisas,ȱDenialȱofȱEntryȱofȱTraffickersȱ
ȱ
Immigrationȱ lawsȱ shouldȱ containȱ provisionsȱ forbiddingȱ traffickersȱ orȱ
theirȱaccomplicesȱwhoȱhaveȱbeenȱidentifiedȱandȱsentencedȱtoȱenterȱtheȱ
State.ȱȱ
ȱ
4.2ȱ AddressingȱFactorsȱofȱVulnerabilityȱtoȱTraffickingȱ
ȱ
4.2.1ȱ EffectsȱofȱImmigrationȱLawsȱandȱPoliciesȱ
ȱ
Immigrationȱ lawsȱ andȱ policiesȱ canȱ haveȱ aȱ significantȱ impactȱ onȱ
traffickingȱ byȱ movingȱ theȱ frontierȱ ofȱ illegality.ȱ Migrationȱ restrictionsȱ
mayȱ renderȱ childrenȱ andȱ adultsȱ moreȱ vulnerableȱ toȱ exploitativeȱ
situations,ȱ includingȱ trafficking,ȱ whenȱ theyȱ resortȱ toȱ formsȱ ofȱ illegalȱ
borderȱcrossing.ȱWhenȱimmigrationȱpoliciesȱareȱveryȱrestrictive,ȱmoreȱ
peopleȱenterȱinȱaȱcountryȱillegally,ȱhenceȱinvisibly.ȱ
ȱ
4.2.2ȱ BirthȱRegistrationȱ
ȱ
Birthȱ registrationȱ isȱ vitalȱ forȱ theȱ preventionȱ ofȱ trafficking.ȱ Itȱ ensuresȱ
thatȱ childrenȱ haveȱ anȱ identityȱ andȱ areȱ recognisedȱ byȱ theȱ Stateȱ asȱ
citizens,ȱ whichȱ isȱ essentialȱ inȱ casesȱ ofȱ internationalȱ trafficking.ȱ Itȱ alsoȱ
helpsȱ provideȱ evidenceȱ thatȱ childrenȱ haveȱ “disappeared”ȱ andȱ areȱ
unaccountedȱfor,ȱandȱitȱisȱcriticalȱforȱcorrectȱageȱdetermination.ȱȱ
ȱ
4.2.3ȱ EducationȱandȱAwarenessȬraisingȱ
ȱ
AwarenessȬraisingȱandȱeducationalȱactivitiesȱmustȱnotȱbeȱleftȱoutȱofȱtheȱ
legislativeȱ framework.ȱ Theyȱ areȱ theȱ mostȱ powerfulȱ toolsȱ toȱ preventȱ
trafficking.ȱTraffickersȱoftenȱuseȱdeceptiveȱmeansȱtoȱlureȱtheirȱvictimsȱ
byȱ promisingȱ aȱ goodȱ jobȱ andȱ aȱ betterȱ future.ȱ Communities,ȱ parentsȱ
andȱ children,ȱ especiallyȱ thoseȱ inȱ aȱ vulnerableȱ situation,ȱ mustȱ beȱ
informedȱ aboutȱ theseȱ techniques.ȱ Fromȱ aȱ legislativeȱ perspective,ȱ thisȱ
canȱbeȱachievedȱbyȱentrustingȱanȱinstitutionȱwithȱtheȱtaskȱofȱcarryingȱ
outȱ andȱ promotingȱ suchȱ activities.ȱ Theȱ institutionȱ mayȱ beȱ anȱ
independentȱ agency,ȱ asȱ willȱ beȱ examinedȱ inȱ theȱ followingȱ section,ȱ aȱ
ministryȱ orȱ aȱ ministerialȱ office.ȱ Inȱ anyȱ case,ȱ itȱ isȱ importantȱ thatȱ theseȱ
activitiesȱbeȱincludedȱinȱtheȱmandateȱofȱsuchȱinstitutionsȱandȱthatȱtheyȱ
beȱrequiredȱtoȱreportȱonȱthem.ȱ
201
ȱ
InȱRomania,ȱforȱexample,ȱtheȱantiȬtraffickingȱlawȱprovidesȱthatȱtheȱ
MinistryȱofȱEducation,ȱwithȱsupportȱfromȱtheȱotherȱrelevantȱministriesȱ
andȱinȱcooperationȱwithȱrelevantȱNGOs,ȱshallȱdevelopȱeducationalȱ
programsȱforȱparentsȱandȱchildren,ȱespeciallyȱgroupsȱhighlyȱatȱriskȱofȱ
becomingȱtraffickingȱvictims,ȱwithȱaȱviewȱtoȱpreventingȱtraffickingȱinȱ
humanȱbeings.ȱItȱrecognisesȱtheȱspecialȱvulnerabilityȱofȱwomenȱinȱveryȱ
poorȱareas.ȱInȱBulgaria,ȱitȱisȱtheȱresponsibilityȱofȱtheȱNationalȱ
Commissionȱagainstȱtraffickingȱtoȱinitiateȱandȱtakeȱpartȱinȱtheȱ
implementationȱofȱeducationalȱprogramsȱforȱparentsȱandȱstudentsȱinȱ
schools,ȱforȱunemployedȱandȱilliterateȱindividuals,ȱhighȱriskȱgroups,ȱ
andȱvictimsȱofȱtrafficking.ȱItȱisȱalsoȱinȱchargeȱofȱprovidingȱpublicȱ
informationȱregardingȱriskȱsituationsȱforȱbecomingȱaȱvictimȱofȱ
trafficking.ȱȱ
ȱ
4.2.4ȱ SocialȱPoliciesȱandȱIncentivesȱforȱtheȱEmploymentȱofȱPersonsȱatȱ
RiskȱofȱTraffickingȱ
ȱ
Oneȱ wayȱ toȱ addressȱ theȱ vulnerabilityȱ ofȱ certainȱ segmentsȱ ofȱ theȱ
populationȱ toȱ humanȱ traffickingȱ isȱ byȱ offeringȱ opportunitiesȱ forȱ aȱ
livingȱwageȱthatȱwillȱpreventȱthemȱfromȱbeingȱluredȱbyȱpromisesȱofȱaȱ
jobȱ elsewhereȱ forȱ themȱ orȱ theirȱ children,ȱ thusȱ findingȱ themselvesȱ inȱ
exploitativeȱ situations.ȱ ȱ Forȱ example,ȱ Romanianȱ Lawȱ 678ȱ onȱ theȱ
Preventionȱ andȱ Fightingȱ Traffickingȱ inȱ Humanȱ Beingsȱ entrustsȱ theȱ
MinistryȱofȱLabourȱandȱSocialȱSolidarityȱwithȱtheȱtaskȱofȱworkingȱoutȱ
andȱ enforcingȱ specialȱ measuresȱ forȱ theȱ integrationȱ intoȱ theȱ labourȱ
marketȱ ofȱ personsȱ highlyȱ atȱ riskȱ ofȱ becomingȱ traffickingȱ victims,ȱ
especiallyȱ womenȱ inȱ poorȱ areasȱ andȱ socialȱ outcasts.ȱ Theȱ Lawȱ alsoȱ
requiresȱ thatȱ Ministry,ȱ jointlyȱ withȱ theȱ Ministryȱ ofȱ Finance,ȱ exploreȱ
possibleȱ measuresȱ toȱ provideȱ incentivesȱ toȱ companiesȱ toȱ hireȱ personsȱ
atȱhighȱriskȱofȱbeingȱtraffickedȱandȱtraffickingȱvictims.ȱUnderȱtheȱsameȱ
Law,ȱ theȱ Nationalȱ Employmentȱ Agencyȱ mustȱ developȱ informationȱ
programmesȱforȱpersonsȱatȱriskȱandȱforȱpotentialȱemployers.ȱ
ȱ
4.2.5ȱ PreventionȱfromȱAbuse,ȱViolenceȱandȱNeglectȱatȱHomeȱ
ȱ
Preventingȱ childȱ traffickingȱ alsoȱ requiresȱ ensuringȱ theȱ protectionȱ ofȱ
childrenȱwhereȱtheyȱlive,ȱbyȱbuildingȱaȱprotectiveȱenvironment.ȱȱ
ȱ
202
Children,ȱespeciallyȱadolescents,ȱwhoȱareȱvictimsȱofȱdomesticȱviolenceȱ
orȱexperienceȱviolenceȱinȱtheirȱhomes,ȱareȱmoreȱlikelyȱtoȱbeȱwillingȱtoȱ
leaveȱtheȱfamilyȱhome.ȱTheyȱmayȱbeȱmoreȱsensitiveȱtoȱ theȱargumentsȱ
ofȱ traffickersȱ whoȱ promiseȱ aȱ betterȱ placeȱ toȱ live.ȱ Theyȱ mayȱ alsoȱ beȱ
reluctantȱtoȱreturnȱhomeȱafterȱtheyȱhaveȱbeenȱfoundȱandȱmoreȱlikelyȱtoȱ
beȱ reȬtrafficked.ȱ Lawsȱ protectingȱ childrenȱ fromȱ violenceȱ inȱ theȱ familyȱ
areȱ thereforeȱ aȱ keyȱ toolȱ forȱ prevention.ȱ Theyȱ shouldȱ beȱ accompaniedȱ
byȱotherȱmeasuresȱsuchȱasȱtheȱcreationȱofȱhotlinesȱandȱproceduresȱforȱ
addressingȱviolenceȱwithinȱtheȱfamily.ȱ
ȱ
4.2.6ȱ FreeȱConsentȱforȱMarriageȱ
ȱ
Marriageȱisȱaȱtechniqueȱoftenȱusedȱbyȱtraffickersȱtoȱabductȱwomenȱandȱ
girls,ȱandȱexploitȱthem.ȱItȱprovidesȱaȱlegalȱbasisȱforȱtransportingȱthem,ȱ
bothȱ withinȱ aȱ countryȱ andȱ outsideȱ ofȱ theȱ country.ȱ Inȱ manyȱ countries,ȱ
marriageȱ isȱ consideredȱ aȱ passageȱ toȱ adulthood,ȱ evenȱ ifȱ theȱ personȱ isȱ
underȬeighteen.ȱAsȱaȱresult,ȱtheȱspecialȱprotectionȱmeasuresȱrecognisedȱ
forȱ childrenȱ mayȱ notȱ applyȱ toȱ thoseȱ whoȱ areȱ married.ȱ However,ȱ theȱ
Palermoȱ Protocolȱ clearlyȱ appliesȱ toȱ anyoneȱ underȱ eighteenȱ yearsȱ ofȱ
age,ȱwithoutȱexception,ȱthereforeȱanyoneȱunderȱeighteenȱyearsȱofȱage,ȱ
marriedȱorȱnot,ȱisȱprotectedȱbyȱitsȱprovisions.ȱ
ȱ
Withȱ respectȱ toȱ theȱ freedomȱ ofȱ marriage,ȱ inȱ accordanceȱ withȱ theȱ
Internationalȱ Covenantȱ onȱ Civilȱ andȱ Politicalȱ Rights,ȱ “Noȱ marriageȱ
shallȱbeȱenteredȱintoȱwithoutȱtheȱfreeȱandȱfullȱconsentȱofȱtheȱintendingȱ
spouses”ȱ(Articleȱ23).ȱItȱcanȱbeȱarguedȱthatȱ“consent”ȱisȱnotȱgenuine,ȱifȱ
theȱspouseȱis,ȱasȱaȱresultȱofȱmarriage,ȱtraffickedȱandȱexploited.ȱTheȱlawȱ
shouldȱ provideȱ thatȱ ifȱ marriageȱ isȱ performedȱ forȱ theȱ purposeȱ ofȱ
trafficking,ȱ itȱ isȱ void.ȱ Whenȱ anȱ officerȱ hasȱ reasonsȱ toȱ thinkȱ thatȱ
marriageȱisȱperformedȱforȱtrafficking,ȱhe/sheȱhasȱtheȱdutyȱtoȱpostponeȱ
theȱ marriageȱ untilȱ properȱ investigationsȱ haveȱ beenȱ conducted.ȱ
Adequateȱ protection,ȱ inȱ particularȱ againstȱ possibleȱ retaliation,ȱ shouldȱ
beȱ availableȱ forȱ victimsȱ ofȱ suchȱ marriagesȱ orȱ attemptsȱ ofȱ suchȱ
marriages.ȱ
ȱ
Properȱlegislationȱshouldȱalsoȱbeȱadoptedȱtoȱprohibitȱearlyȱmarriageȱ
andȱsetȱrelevantȱsafeguardsȱtoȱensureȱimplementationȱofȱtheȱlaw.ȱ
203
4.2.7ȱ ResearchȱonȱtheȱRootȱCausesȱofȱTraffickingȱ
ȱ
Researchȱandȱdataȱcollectionȱshouldȱbeȱconductedȱtoȱbetterȱunderstandȱ
theȱrootȱcausesȱofȱtraffickingȱandȱfineȬtuneȱinterventionsȱtoȱaddressȱ
them.ȱSpecificȱeffortsȱshouldȱbeȱmadeȱatȱregionalȱandȱinternationalȱ
levelȱtoȱelaborateȱchildȱprotectionȱindicatorsȱandȱharmoniseȱindicatorsȱ
andȱdataȱcollectionȱmethodsȱwithȱaȱviewȱtoȱensuringȱcomparability.ȱ
Lawsȱcanȱcontainȱprovisionsȱrequestingȱaȱspecificȱinstitution,ȱsuchȱasȱ
theȱcommissionȱestablishedȱtoȱmonitorȱtraffickingȬrelatedȱissues,ȱ
participateȱinȱinternationalȱcooperationȱandȱdisseminateȱfindings.ȱȱ
ȱ
InȱYemen,ȱtheȱdraftȱNationalȱPlanȱofȱActionȱtoȱCombatȱtraffickingȱandȱ
SmugglingȱinȱChildrenȱhasȱbeenȱelaboratedȱthroughȱextensiveȱ
consultationsȱwithȱaȱwideȱrangeȱofȱstakeholders,ȱincludingȱ
governmentȱofficials,ȱcommunityȱrepresentatives,ȱcivilȱsocietyȱ
representatives,ȱacademicȱinstitutions,ȱuniversitiesȱandȱnationalȱandȱ
internationalȱNGOs.ȱOneȱofȱtheȱprioritiesȱsetȱoutȱbyȱtheȱdraftȱPlanȱofȱ
Actionȱisȱpreventionȱthroughȱresearch,ȱinitiativesȱaddressingȱtheȱ
economicȱandȱsocialȱvulnerabilityȱofȱchildren,ȱawarenessȱandȱaȱmassȱ
mediaȱcampaign.ȱTheseȱeffortsȱareȱaccompaniedȱbyȱaȱcampaignȱtoȱ
promoteȱfreeȱandȱaccessibleȱbirthȱregistration. 229ȱ
ȱ
ȱ
Partȱ5ȱ CRIMINALIZATIONȱ
ȱ
Asȱalreadyȱstatedȱinȱthisȱchapter,ȱfromȱaȱchildȱrightsȱperspective,ȱtheȱ
primaryȱconcernȱisȱtoȱcareȱforȱtheȱrightsȱofȱvictimsȱofȱtraffickingȱandȱ
preventȱchildrenȱfromȱbeingȱtrafficked.ȱInȱthisȱcontext,ȱcriminalizationȱ
ofȱhumanȱtraffickingȱisȱanȱimportantȱaspect,ȱbutȱshouldȱnotȱbeȱ
consideredȱasȱtheȱonlyȱresponseȱtoȱchildȱtrafficking.ȱTooȱoftenȱindeed,ȱ
Statesȱareȱprimarilyȱconcernedȱwithȱarrestingȱandȱprosecutingȱ
traffickersȱasȱpartȱofȱtheirȱfightȱagainstȱcrime,ȱincludingȱtransnationalȱ
andȱorganizedȱcrime.ȱHereȱagain,ȱtheȱprincipleȱofȱtheȱbestȱinterestsȱofȱ
theȱchildȱshouldȱruleȱStates’ȱactions.ȱProsecutionȱofȱtraffickersȱshouldȱ
229
Belbase, K., G. El-Khoury, D. Fall, K. Hirabayashi, N. Izumi and J.Kunugi, Combating
Child Trafficking in the Gulf Countries, Yemen and Afghanistan: Policy Options, UNICEF
and University of Maastricht Learning Programme on Public Policy, Advocacy and
Partnerships (draft).
204
neverȱcomeȱatȱtheȱexpenseȱofȱchildren’sȱrights.ȱTheȱpurposeȱofȱthisȱ
sectionȱisȱtoȱpresentȱissuesȱrelatedȱtoȱtheȱcriminalizationȱofȱhumanȱ
trafficking,ȱwhichȱareȱmostȱoftenȱpartȱofȱlegislativeȱreformȱdebatesȱinȱ
thisȱarea.ȱȱ
ȱ
Criminalizationȱ isȱ indeedȱ anȱ importantȱ elementȱ ofȱ treatiesȱ relatedȱ toȱ
trafficking.ȱ Virtuallyȱ allȱ ofȱ themȱ containȱ provisionsȱ obligingȱ Statesȱ
Partiesȱ toȱ makeȱ traffickingȱ orȱ relatedȱ activitiesȱ criminalȱ offencesȱ inȱ
theirȱnationalȱlegislation.ȱȱ
ȱ
Theȱ offenceȱ ofȱ traffickingȱ needsȱ toȱ beȱ clearlyȱ establishedȱ inȱ theȱ law,ȱ
andȱ distinctȱ fromȱ otherȱ offencesȱ relatedȱ toȱ trafficking.ȱ Often,ȱ onlyȱ
offencesȱ relatedȱ toȱ traffickingȱ areȱ criminalized,ȱ andȱ becauseȱ theȱ
sanctionsȱ areȱ notȱ adaptedȱ toȱ theȱ gravityȱ ofȱ theȱ crimeȱ theyȱ presentȱ aȱ
humanȱrightsȱviolation.ȱTheȱpunishmentȱisȱminimalȱandȱasȱaȱresultȱnotȱ
dissuasive.ȱȱ
ȱ
Thereȱareȱseveralȱwaysȱbyȱwhichȱtraffickingȱcanȱbeȱcriminalized.ȱEitherȱ
provisionsȱcanȱbeȱincorporatedȱintoȱtheȱpenalȱcode,ȱasȱisȱoftenȱtheȱcaseȱ
inȱcountriesȱofȱtheȱRomanȱlegalȱtradition,ȱorȱaȱspecialȱlawȱonȱtraffickingȱ
canȱbeȱ adopted,ȱ typicallyȱ inȱ commonȱlawȱcountries.ȱ Whileȱ provisionsȱ
toȱbeȱincorporatedȱinȱtheȱpenalȱcodeȱareȱusuallyȱbriefȱandȱoftenȱcontainȱ
onlyȱ criminalȱ dispositions,ȱ aȱ specialȱ lawȱ isȱ moreȱ likelyȱ toȱ beȱ
comprehensive,ȱincludingȱprovisionsȱrelatedȱtoȱcivilȱlaw,ȱprotectionȱofȱ
victimsȱandȱwitnesses,ȱresidency,ȱetc.ȱ
ȱ
Inȱ accordanceȱ withȱ internationalȱ treaties,ȱ criminalȱ provisionsȱ shouldȱ
haveȱ aȱ broadȱ jurisdictionȱ addressingȱ theȱ nationalȱ orȱ internationalȱ
natureȱ ofȱ theȱ crime,ȱ enableȱ prosecutionȱ byȱ legalȱ entitiesȱ andȱ makeȱ
provisionȱforȱseriousȱsanctions.ȱ
ȱ
5.1ȱ Jurisdictionȱ
ȱ
Theȱ questionȱ ofȱ jurisdictionȱ isȱ essentialȱ forȱ aȱ crimeȱ oftenȱ involvingȱ
internationalȱ elements.ȱ Traditionally,ȱ aȱ State’sȱ criminalȱ jurisdictionȱ isȱ
spatialȱ –ȱ itȱ isȱ limitedȱ toȱ theȱ territoryȱ overȱ whichȱ itȱ isȱ sovereign.ȱ Thisȱ
meansȱ thatȱ theȱ lawȱ ofȱ theȱ Stateȱ willȱ onlyȱ applyȱ toȱ criminalȱ actsȱ
performedȱonȱtheȱterritoryȱofȱthatȱState.ȱTheȱOptionalȱProtocolȱonȱtheȱ
saleȱofȱchildrenȱextendsȱtheȱjurisdictionȱtoȱtheȱpersonsȱinvolvedȱ–ȱitȱisȱ
205
notȱ onlyȱ territorialȱ anymore.ȱ Theȱ nationalityȱ orȱ residenceȱ ofȱ theȱ
offender,ȱ asȱ wellȱ asȱ theȱ nationalityȱ ofȱ theȱ victim,ȱ alsoȱ enableȱ
applicationȱofȱtheȱlawȱofȱthatȱState,ȱevenȱifȱtheȱoffenceȱwasȱcommittedȱ
elsewhere.ȱThisȱconsiderablyȱexpandsȱtheȱscopeȱofȱtheȱlaw.ȱȱ
ȱ
Theȱreferenceȱtoȱtheȱnationalityȱofȱtheȱvictimȱclearlyȱaimsȱatȱprotectingȱ
childrenȱwhoseȱcountryȱofȱnationalityȱisȱpartyȱtoȱtheȱOptionalȱProtocol.ȱ
Thisȱmeansȱthatȱtheȱcrimesȱcommittedȱagainstȱchildrenȱnationalsȱofȱtheȱ
Stateȱ Partyȱ areȱ punishable,ȱ includingȱ whenȱ childrenȱ areȱ soldȱ fromȱ aȱ
neighbouringȱ countryȱ toȱ aȱ neighbouringȱ countryȱ forȱ instance.ȱ Veryȱ
oftenȱindeed,ȱchildrenȱareȱtraffickedȱthroughȱcountriesȱofȱtransit.ȱEvenȱ
whenȱ theȱ Stateȱ ofȱ whichȱ theȱ childȱ isȱ citizenȱ hasȱ notȱ ratifiedȱ theȱ
Optionalȱ Protocol,ȱ variousȱ legalȱ instrumentsȱ suchȱ asȱ bilateralȱ
agreements,ȱ mutualȱ legalȱ assistanceȱ agreementsȱ andȱ otherȱ formsȱ ofȱ
extraterritorialȱjurisdictionȱmayȱbeȱusedȱasȱlegalȱframeworks.ȱȱ
ȱ
Theȱoffenderȱisȱobviouslyȱtheȱtraffickerȱandȱhisȱorȱherȱaccomplices,ȱbutȱ
alsoȱ theȱ customerȱ inȱ theȱ caseȱ ofȱ sexualȱ exploitation.ȱ “Sexȱ tourism”ȱ isȱ
thusȱpunishedȱnotȱonlyȱinȱtheȱcountryȱwhereȱtheȱoffenceȱoccurred,ȱbutȱ
alsoȱ inȱ theȱ countryȱ whereȱ theȱ customerȱ isȱ from.ȱ Thisȱ isȱ especiallyȱ
importantȱ whenȱ lawȱ enforcementȱ mechanismsȱ inȱ theȱ countryȱ ofȱ theȱ
offenceȱareȱweak.ȱȱȱ
ȱ
TheȱextraȬterritorialȱjurisdictionȱallowsȱthatȱevidenceȱagainstȱtraffickersȱ
beȱ soughtȱ inȱ manyȱ countries,ȱ relyingȱ onȱ cooperationȱ betweenȱ lawȱ
enforcementȱinstitutions.ȱȱ
ȱ
5.2ȱ CriminalȱLiabilityȱofȱLegalȱEntitiesȱ
ȱ
Criminalȱ liabilityȱ shouldȱ notȱ onlyȱ concernȱ individualsȱ butȱ alsoȱ legalȱ
entitiesȱusedȱforȱtheȱpurposeȱofȱtrafficking.ȱOften,ȱindividualsȱmayȱsetȱ
upȱ orȱ useȱ aȱ companyȱ toȱ coverȱ and/orȱ pursueȱ theirȱ activities.ȱ Theȱ
OptionalȱProtocolȱonȱtheȱsaleȱofȱchildrenȱobligesȱStatesȱtoȱestablishȱtheȱ
criminalȱ liabilityȱ ofȱ legalȱ entities,ȱ subjectȱ toȱ theirȱ nationalȱ legislation.ȱ
Theȱ UNȱ Conventionȱ onȱ Transnationalȱ Organizedȱ Crimeȱ alsoȱ containsȱ
provisionsȱ relatedȱ toȱ theȱ liabilityȱ ofȱ legalȱ personsȱ forȱ participationȱ inȱ
seriousȱcrimesȱinvolvingȱcriminalȱorganizedȱgroups.ȱ
ȱ
206
Theȱ criminalȱ liabilityȱ ofȱ legalȱ personsȱ isȱ aȱ conceptȱ thatȱ distinguishesȱ
theȱliabilityȱofȱtheȱlegalȱentityȱfromȱtheȱliabilityȱofȱtheȱindividuals.ȱItȱisȱ
usedȱ whenȱ aȱ criminalȱ actȱ wasȱ performedȱ underȱ theȱ nameȱ and/orȱ forȱ
theȱprofitȱofȱaȱlegalȱentity.ȱPreciseȱdefinitionsȱandȱconditionsȱvaryȱfromȱ
Stateȱ toȱ State.ȱ Sanctionsȱ includeȱ theȱ paymentȱ ofȱ fines,ȱ usuallyȱ muchȱ
higherȱthanȱforȱindividualȱliability,ȱrestrictionsȱofȱactivity,ȱconfiscationȱ
ofȱproceedsȱillegallyȱearned,ȱandȱdissolution.ȱȱ
ȱ
Itȱ hasȱ toȱ beȱ noted,ȱ however,ȱ thatȱ corporateȱ liabilityȱ doesȱ notȱ excludeȱ
individualȱcriminalȱliability.ȱParticularlyȱinȱtheȱcaseȱofȱtrafficking,ȱifȱaȱ
legalȱentityȱhasȱbeenȱinvolvedȱinȱsuchȱactivities,ȱitȱisȱexpectedȱthatȱtheȱ
individualsȱwhoȱhaveȱtakenȱdecisionsȱandȱotherȱemployeesȱinvolvedȱinȱ
committingȱtheȱcrimeȱwillȱbeȱheldȱcriminallyȱresponsible.ȱȱ
ȱ
5.3ȱ ActivitiesȱRelatedȱtoȱTraffickingȱ
ȱ
Criminalizationȱ shouldȱ accountȱ notȱ onlyȱ forȱ traffickingȱ butȱ alsoȱ forȱ
complicityȱ andȱ allȱ otherȱ activitiesȱ linkedȱ toȱ trafficking.ȱ Complicityȱ ofȱ
traffickingȱ shouldȱ includeȱ anyoneȱ whoȱ knowinglyȱ contributedȱ toȱ theȱ
commissionȱ ofȱ theȱ crimeȱ and/orȱ benefitedȱ fromȱ it.ȱ Inȱ particular,ȱ
customersȱ engagedȱ inȱ sexualȱ exploitationȱ shouldȱ beȱ heldȱ criminallyȱ
responsible.ȱȱȱ
ȱ
Otherȱ piecesȱ ofȱ legislationȱ relatedȱ toȱ trafficking,ȱ suchȱ asȱ labourȱ laws,ȱ
adoptionȱlaws,ȱprovisionsȱonȱslavery,ȱdebtȱbondage,ȱetc.ȱshouldȱalsoȱbeȱ
criminalized,ȱ bothȱ separatelyȱ andȱ inȱ conjunctionȱ withȱ trafficking.ȱ Theȱ
objectiveȱisȱtoȱensureȱthatȱoffendersȱbeȱprosecutedȱandȱpunished,ȱevenȱ
ifȱtheȱcrimeȱofȱtraffickingȱperȱseȱcannotȱbeȱproved.ȱȱ
ȱ
5.3.1ȱ TraffickingȱandȱAdoptionȱ
ȱ
Lawsȱonȱadoptionȱareȱessentialȱtoȱpreventȱillegalȱadoptionsȱandȱpunishȱ
thoseȱ whoȱ sellȱ childrenȱ orȱ participateȱ inȱ theȱ traffickingȱ ofȱ pregnantȱ
womenȱforȱtheȱpurposeȱofȱsellingȱtheirȱnewbornȱbabies.ȱȱ
ȱ
5.3.2ȱ TraffickingȱandȱChildȱLabourȱ
ȱ
Lawsȱonȱchildȱlabourȱmustȱattemptȱtoȱidentifyȱexploitativeȱsituations.ȱ
Theseȱ lawsȱ mustȱ makeȱ itȱ aȱ crimeȱ forȱ anȱ employerȱ toȱ hireȱ childrenȱ
207
youngerȱthanȱtheȱminimumȱageȱofȱlegalȱadmissionȱtoȱworkȱandȱunderȬ
ageȱ childrenȱ withȱ workingȱ hoursȱ exceedingȱ theȱ limitȱ setȱ byȱ theȱ lawȱ
and/orȱmakeȱthemȱperformȱhazardousȱtasksȱorȱtasksȱthatȱimpairȱtheirȱ
development,ȱ inȱ accordanceȱ withȱ Articleȱ 32ȱ ofȱ theȱ CRCȱ andȱ ILOȱ
Conventionȱ182ȱonȱtheȱWorstȱFormsȱofȱChildȱLabour.ȱȱ
ȱ
5.4ȱ Sanctionsȱ
ȱ
Sanctionsȱ needȱ toȱ beȱ dissuasive,ȱ andȱ includeȱ finesȱ andȱ imprisonmentȱ
forȱtraffickersȱandȱforȱcustomers.ȱTheȱseriousnessȱofȱtheȱcrimeȱshouldȱ
beȱtakenȱintoȱaccount.ȱForȱinstance,ȱmanyȱStatesȱhaveȱlawsȱthatȱimposeȱ
harsherȱsentencesȱifȱtheȱchildȱwasȱyoungerȱthanȱaȱcertainȱage,ȱusuallyȱ
14ȱorȱ15,ȱifȱtheȱchildȱhasȱaȱdisability,ȱifȱtheȱtraffickerȱwasȱaȱpersonȱcloseȱ
toȱtheȱchildȱsuchȱasȱaȱparent,ȱguardianȱorȱlawȱenforcementȱofficial,ȱorȱifȱ
theȱ perpetratorȱ wasȱ anȱ organisedȱ criminalȱ group.ȱ Aggravatingȱ
circumstancesȱ shouldȱ beȱ partȱ ofȱ theȱ sanctionȱ frameworkȱ inȱ orderȱ toȱ
furtherȱprotectȱvulnerableȱchildren.ȱȱ
ȱ
Yetȱsanctionsȱshouldȱnotȱbeȱtooȱharsh,ȱasȱtheyȱmayȱdeterȱpoliceȱofficersȱ
andȱjudgesȱfromȱprosecutingȱandȱcondemningȱtraffickers. 230 ȱȱ
ȱ
5.5ȱ Evidenceȱ
ȱ
Becauseȱtraffickingȱisȱoftenȱaȱcrimeȱcommittedȱacrossȱseveralȱcountries,ȱ
evidenceȱ fromȱ allȱ theseȱ countriesȱ needsȱ toȱ beȱ gatheredȱ forȱ theȱ
prosecutionȱandȱconvictionȱofȱoffenders.ȱThisȱimpliesȱthatȱeffectiveȱandȱ
swiftȱ mechanismsȱ ofȱ internationalȱ judicialȱ cooperationȱ forȱ gatheringȱ
evidenceȱneedȱtoȱbeȱinȱplace.ȱ
ȱ
Anotherȱpossibilityȱisȱforȱtheȱlawȱtoȱresortȱtoȱaȱsystemȱofȱpresumption.ȱ
Inȱthisȱsystem,ȱifȱcertainȱconditionsȱareȱestablished,ȱevenȱifȱthereȱisȱnoȱ
substantialȱ evidenceȱ againstȱ aȱ particularȱ person,ȱ thatȱ personȱ isȱ
presumedȱguilty.ȱForȱinstance,ȱifȱsomeoneȱlivesȱorȱfrequentsȱaȱvictimȱofȱ
trafficking,ȱandȱcannotȱprovideȱjustificationȱforȱhis/herȱresources,ȱthatȱ
personȱcanȱbeȱpresumedȱtoȱbeȱguiltyȱofȱtheȱcrimeȱofȱtrafficking.ȱInȱthisȱ
case,ȱ itȱ isȱ upȱ toȱ theȱ allegedȱ offenderȱ toȱ proveȱ he/sheȱ isȱ innocent.ȱ
Presumptionsȱ significantlyȱ broadenȱ theȱ scopeȱ ofȱ theȱ lawȱ andȱ areȱ aȱ
230
See Dottridge, M., Kids as Commodities? Child trafficking and what to do about it, Terre
des Hommes (2004), p. 54.
208
usefulȱtoolȱtoȱarrestȱcriminals,ȱprovidedȱthatȱtheyȱareȱusedȱasȱpartȱofȱaȱ
fairȱtrial.ȱ
ȱ
5.6ȱ Extraditionȱ
ȱ
Extraditionȱisȱanȱessentialȱelementȱofȱinternationalȱjudicialȱcooperationȱ
andȱisȱparticularlyȱrelevantȱinȱtheȱcaseȱofȱtrafficking,ȱasȱtraffickersȱmayȱ
tryȱ toȱ takeȱ refugeȱ inȱ countriesȱ whereȱ theȱ lawȱ enforcementȱ systemȱ isȱ
weakȱandȱwhereȱtheȱlegislationȱisȱlessȱsevere.ȱ
ȱ
Extraditionȱ isȱ theȱ processȱ byȱ whichȱ oneȱ Stateȱ (theȱ requestedȱ State)ȱ
surrendersȱ anȱ individualȱ foundȱ onȱ itsȱ territoryȱ toȱ anotherȱ Stateȱ (theȱ
requestingȱ State)ȱ whereȱ he/sheȱ isȱ wantedȱ eitherȱ toȱ standȱ trialȱ forȱ anȱ
offenceȱ he/sheȱ isȱ allegedȱ toȱ haveȱ committed,ȱ orȱ toȱ serveȱ aȱ penalȱ
sentenceȱalreadyȱpronouncedȱagainstȱhim/her. 231ȱ
ȱ
Extraditionȱcanȱfindȱitsȱsourceȱeitherȱinȱinternationalȱcourtesy,ȱbilateralȱ
extraditionȱ treaties,ȱ multilateralȱ extraditionȱ conventions,ȱ whichȱ areȱ
mostȱ oftenȱ concludedȱ atȱ theȱ regionalȱ level,ȱ orȱ otherȱ treatiesȱ thatȱ
containȱprovisionsȱrelatedȱtoȱextradition,ȱsuchȱasȱtheȱOptionalȱProtocolȱ
toȱ theȱ CRCȱ onȱ theȱ saleȱ ofȱ children,ȱ childȱ prostitutionȱ andȱ childȱ
pornography.ȱOneȱtraditionalȱlimitationȱtoȱextraditionȱisȱtheȱrefusalȱbyȱ
manyȱ Statesȱ toȱ extraditeȱ theirȱ nationals.ȱ Inȱ thatȱ case,ȱ underȱ theȱ
Optionalȱ Protocol,ȱ theyȱ haveȱ theȱ obligationȱ toȱ prosecuteȱ andȱ tryȱ
themselvesȱtheȱsuspectedȱindividual.ȱȱ
ȱ
Mostȱ often,ȱ extraditionȱ agreementsȱ containȱ aȱ “doubleȱ incrimination”ȱ
clause,ȱ whichȱ requiresȱ thatȱ theȱ offenceȱ beȱ criminalisedȱ inȱ bothȱ theȱ
requestedȱ Stateȱ andȱ theȱ requestingȱ State.ȱ Thisȱ canȱ beȱ anȱ obstacleȱ toȱ
extraditionȱ ifȱ oneȱ ofȱ theȱ Statesȱ doesȱ notȱ recogniseȱ theȱ crimeȱ ofȱ
traffickingȱ orȱ anȱ equivalentȱ thatȱ canȱ beȱ assimilatedȱ toȱ theȱ crimeȱ ofȱ
trafficking.ȱ Forȱ thatȱ reason,ȱ criminalizationȱ ofȱ traffickingȱ inȱ nationalȱ
lawsȱ–ȱinȱaccordanceȱwithȱinternationalȱstandardsȱ–ȱisȱkeyȱtoȱensuringȱ
effectiveȱ internationalȱ judicialȱ cooperation.ȱ Theȱ Europeanȱ arrestȱ
warrant,ȱ applicableȱ toȱ Europeanȱ Unionȱ Memberȱ States,ȱ isȱ aȱ goodȱ
exampleȱofȱanȱeffectiveȱextraditionȱagreement,ȱasȱitȱwaivesȱtheȱdoubleȱ
231
Interpol, Legal Fact Sheets, Extradition – Some benchmarks, available at
http://www.interpol.int/Public/ICPO/LegalMaterials/FactSheets/FS11.asp.
209
incriminationȱ conditionȱ forȱ aȱ numberȱ ofȱ seriousȱ crimes,ȱ includingȱ

trafficking,ȱsexualȱexploitationȱofȱchildrenȱandȱchildȱpornography.ȱȱ
ȱ
Withȱ aȱ viewȱ toȱ facilitatingȱ extradition,ȱ theȱ Optionalȱ Protocolȱ onȱ theȱ
saleȱ ofȱ childrenȱ providesȱ thatȱ whenȱ thereȱ isȱ anȱ extraditionȱ requestȱ
betweenȱ twoȱ Statesȱ Partiesȱ toȱ theȱ Protocol,ȱ thisȱ treatyȱ isȱ aȱ sufficientȱ
groundȱforȱextradition.ȱInȱaddition,ȱtheȱOptionalȱProtocolȱspecifiesȱthatȱ
theȱ jurisdictionȱ toȱ takeȱ intoȱ accountȱ forȱ theȱ purposeȱ ofȱ extraditionȱ isȱ
notȱ onlyȱ theȱ territoryȱ ofȱ theȱ Stateȱ –ȱ whichȱ isȱ theȱ usualȱ jurisdictionȱ inȱ
criminalȱlawȱ–ȱbutȱalsoȱtheȱnationality/residentȱstatusȱofȱtheȱoffenderȱorȱ
theȱvictim,ȱevenȱifȱtheȱcrimeȱwasȱcommittedȱoutsideȱofȱtheȱrequestingȱ
State’sȱ territory.ȱ Concretely,ȱ itȱ meansȱ thatȱ Countryȱ Aȱ canȱ requestȱ theȱ
extraditionȱ ofȱ oneȱ ofȱ itsȱ nationalsȱ locatedȱ inȱ Countryȱ B,ȱ becauseȱ itȱ
suspectsȱ thatȱ thisȱ individualȱ hasȱ beenȱ linkedȱ toȱ childȱ sexualȱ
exploitationȱactivitiesȱinȱCountryȱC.ȱȱ
ȱ
Mostȱextraditionȱtreaties,ȱincludingȱtheȱUNȱmodelȱtreatyȱonȱextraditionȱ
adoptedȱ inȱ 1990ȱ thatȱ isȱ theȱ basisȱ forȱ mostȱ extraditionȱ treaties,ȱ defineȱ
extraditableȱoffencesȱaccordingȱtoȱtheirȱgravityȱandȱtheȱpenaltyȱwhichȱ
mayȱ beȱ incurred.ȱ Oneȱ criterionȱ isȱ oftenȱ theȱ minimumȱ durationȱ ofȱ aȱ
prisonȱsentence.ȱSpecificȱoffencesȱareȱusuallyȱnotȱmentioned.ȱHowever,ȱ
theȱ criterionȱ ofȱ theȱ gravityȱ ofȱ theȱ crimeȱ canȱ beȱ usedȱ toȱ includeȱ
traffickingȱ orȱ relatedȱ offencesȱ suchȱ asȱ childȱ sexualȱ exploitationȱ andȱ
slavery.ȱ Thisȱ isȱ oneȱ moreȱ reasonȱ whyȱ itȱ isȱ importantȱ thatȱ seriousȱ
sanctionsȱ beȱ establishedȱ forȱ theȱ crimeȱ ofȱ traffickingȱ andȱ relatedȱ
activities.ȱ
ȱ
Inȱ conclusion,ȱ extraditionȱ treatiesȱ areȱ keyȱ instrumentsȱ forȱ bothȱ
internationalȱ cooperationȱ andȱ efficientȱ justiceȱ andȱ lawȱ enforcementȱ
mechanismsȱinȱtheȱfightȱagainstȱtrafficking.ȱWhenȱtheyȱareȱnegotiated,ȱ
attentionȱ shouldȱ beȱ paidȱ toȱ includingȱ eitherȱ aȱ listȱ ofȱ crimesȱ thatȱ doesȱ
notȱ requireȱ doubleȱ incrimination,ȱ orȱ ensuringȱ thatȱ theȱ twoȱ countriesȱ
haveȱ lawsȱ thatȱ wouldȱ allowȱ theȱ extraditionȱ ofȱ anȱ individualȱ
prosecutedȱ forȱ traffickingȱ inȱ humanȱ beings.ȱ Advocacyȱ forȱ theȱ
ratificationȱ ofȱ theȱ Optionalȱ Protocolȱ onȱ theȱ saleȱ ofȱ children,ȱ childȱ
prostitutionȱ andȱ childȱ pornographyȱ isȱ alsoȱ anȱ importantȱ activityȱ toȱ
promoteȱextraditionȱinȱcertainȱcasesȱofȱtrafficking.ȱ
ȱ
ȱ
ȱ
210
Partȱ6ȱ INSTITUTIONALȱREFORMȱ
ȱ
6.1ȱ CreationȱofȱaȱSpecificȱInstitutionȱ
ȱ
Asȱ shownȱ inȱ thisȱ chapter,ȱ traffickingȱ inȱ humanȱ beingsȱ isȱ aȱ complexȱ
issueȱ thatȱ involvesȱ manyȱ differentȱ aspects,ȱ fromȱ prosecutionȱ toȱ
protectingȱ theȱ rightsȱ ofȱ victims,ȱ toȱ preventionȱ andȱ internationalȱ
cooperation.ȱTheseȱdimensionsȱ areȱstronglyȱ interrelated.ȱ Yet,ȱtheyȱ areȱ
oftenȱ dealtȱ withȱ byȱ differentȱ institutionsȱ inȱ aȱ givenȱ State.ȱ Inȱ broadȱ
lines,ȱprosecutionȱisȱaȱfunctionȱofȱtheȱjudiciary,ȱprotectionȱofȱtheȱrightsȱ
ofȱ victimsȱ involvesȱlawȱ enforcementȱ officialsȱandȱwelfareȱinstitutions,ȱ
andȱinternationalȱcooperationȱisȱusuallyȱtheȱprerogativeȱofȱtheȱMinistryȱ
ofȱ Foreignȱ Affairs.ȱ Forȱ theȱ implementationȱ ofȱ antiȬtraffickingȱ
legislation,ȱ itȱ isȱ thusȱ notȱ sufficientȱ forȱ theȱ lawȱ toȱ comprehendȱ allȱ
aspectsȱ andȱ attributeȱ specificȱ responsibilitiesȱ toȱ institutionsȱ forȱ itsȱ
implementation.ȱEffectiveȱcoordinationȱbetweenȱallȱsectorsȱisȱessentialȱ
toȱensureȱthatȱthereȱareȱnoȱgapsȱinȱtheȱprocess.ȱ
ȱ
Inȱ Pakistan,ȱ forȱ effectiveȱ coordinationȱ andȱ enforcementȱ ofȱ theȱ
PreventionȱandȱControlȱofȱHumanȱTraffickingȱOrdinance,ȱ2002,ȱseveralȱ
coordinationȱmechanismsȱhaveȱbeenȱcreatedȱatȱdifferentȱlevels.ȱAtȱtheȱ
policyȱ level,ȱ aȱ Ministerialȱ levelȱ Nationalȱ Committeeȱ regularlyȱ holdsȱ
meetingsȱ toȱ reviewȱ progress.ȱ Atȱ theȱ administrativeȱ levelȱ anȱ AntiȬ
Traffickingȱ Unitȱ (ATU)ȱ Coordinationȱ andȱ Monitoringȱ Cellȱ hasȱ beenȱ
establishedȱ inȱ theȱ Federalȱ Investigationȱ Agency’sȱ headquarters,ȱ withȱ
subȬofficesȱinȱtheȱfourȱzonalȱDirectorates.ȱAtȱtheȱlawȱenforcementȱlevel,ȱ
anȱ InterȬagencyȱ Taskȱ Forceȱ (IATF)ȱ consistingȱ ofȱ allȱ theȱ Lawȱ
Enforcementȱ Agenciesȱ includingȱ theȱ Federalȱ Investigationȱ Agency,ȱ
Frontierȱ Constabularyȱ Baluchistan,ȱ Coastȱ Guards,ȱ Maritimeȱ Securityȱ
AgencyȱandȱtheȱPoliceȱhasȱbeenȱcreated.ȱȱȱȱ
ȱ
Oneȱ wayȱ ofȱ guaranteeingȱ theȱ coordinationȱ amongȱ allȱ actorsȱ andȱ
ensuringȱtheȱdesignȱofȱsoundȱpoliciesȱisȱtoȱcreateȱanȱinstitutionȱ–ȱbeȱitȱ
anȱ agency,ȱ aȱ department,ȱ aȱ commissionȱ orȱ aȱ councilȱ –ȱ withȱ theȱ
mandateȱtoȱcoordinateȱallȱantiȬtraffickingȱactivitiesȱandȱmoreȱbroadly,ȱ
ensureȱtheȱimplementationȱ ofȱtheȱ lawȱ inȱallȱitsȱaspects.ȱTheȱ formatȱ ofȱ
suchȱinstitutionsȱvariesȱfromȱStateȱtoȱState,ȱbutȱsomeȱcommonȱaspects,ȱ
inȱtermsȱofȱstructure,ȱmandate,ȱandȱaccountabilityȱcanȱbeȱdrawn.ȱȱ
ȱ
211
6.2ȱ Structureȱ
ȱ
Theȱ institutionȱ shouldȱ beȱ anȱ entityȱ ableȱ toȱ effectivelyȱ coordinateȱ
severalȱ ministriesȱ orȱ otherȱ actors.ȱ Dependingȱ onȱ theȱ administrativeȱ
systemȱ ofȱ theȱ country,ȱ severalȱ optionsȱ canȱ beȱ envisaged.ȱ Anȱ
independentȱbodyȱcanȱbeȱcreatedȱbutȱitȱrisksȱhavingȱlimitedȱauthorityȱ
inȱguidingȱnationalȱinstitutions,ȱespeciallyȱsuchȱpowerfulȱministriesȱasȱ
theȱ Ministryȱ ofȱ Interior,ȱ ofȱ Justiceȱ orȱ Foreignȱ Affairs.ȱ Oneȱ otherȱ
possibilityȱisȱtoȱsetȱupȱaȱspecialȱofficeȱwithinȱaȱrelevantȱMinistry.ȱThisȱ
optionȱ enhancesȱ theȱ authorityȱ ofȱ theȱ body,ȱ includingȱ financialȱ andȱ
humanȱresources.ȱItȱalsoȱtendsȱtoȱconcentrateȱtheȱresponsibilityȱtoȱfightȱ
traffickingȱ withinȱ oneȱ ministry.ȱ Whileȱ anȱ institutionȱ shouldȱ beȱ setȱ upȱ
atȱ theȱ nationalȱ level,ȱ institutionsȱ canȱ alsoȱ beȱ establishedȱ atȱ theȱ localȱ
levelȱ inȱ orderȱ toȱ workȱinȱcloserȱ contactȱwithȱtheȱpopulationȱandȱ localȱ
institutions,ȱparticularlyȱinȱgeographicȱareasȱatȱhigherȱrisk.ȱȱ
ȱ
Theȱ institutionȱ shouldȱ beȱ composedȱ ofȱ peopleȱ orȱ representativesȱ ofȱ
institutionsȱ andȱ organisationsȱ withȱ variousȱ skillsȱ whoȱ workȱ onȱ
traffickingȱ fromȱ differentȱ perspectives,ȱ therebyȱ coveringȱ allȱ ofȱ theȱ
differentȱ aspectsȱ ofȱ antiȬtraffickingȱ activities.ȱ Itȱ isȱ usefulȱ toȱ includeȱ
representativesȱfromȱvariousȱministries,ȱtheȱGovernment,ȱtheȱjudiciary,ȱ
teachers,ȱ psychologists,ȱ lawyersȱ andȱ doctors,ȱ asȱ wellȱ asȱ nonȬ
governmentalȱorganisationsȱorȱotherȱcivilȱsocietyȱinstitutions.ȱOverall,ȱ
theȱfunctioningȱshouldȱbeȱtransparentȱandȱparticipatory.ȱ
ȱ
Adequateȱresources,ȱbothȱhumanȱandȱfinancial,ȱshouldȱbeȱallocatedȱforȱ
theȱ institutionȱ toȱ accomplishȱ itsȱ tasks.ȱ Suchȱ resourcesȱ shouldȱ alsoȱ beȱ
availableȱ inȱ allȱ sectorsȱ involvedȱ inȱ addressingȱ childȱ trafficking.ȱ Oneȱ
wayȱ toȱ accomplishȱ thisȱ isȱ toȱ requireȱ thatȱ eachȱ ministryȱ orȱ institutionȱ
workingȱonȱthisȱissueȱallocateȱaȱportionȱofȱitsȱannualȱresourcesȱtoȱantiȬ
traffickingȱactivitiesȱbyȱlaw.ȱ
ȱ
InȱBulgaria,ȱtheȱlawȱestablishesȱbothȱaȱNationalȱCommissionȱandȱLocalȱ
CommissionsȱforȱFightingȱTraffickingȱinȱHumanȱBeings.ȱTheȱNationalȱ
Commissionȱ isȱ composedȱ ofȱ highȱ levelȱ representativesȱ fromȱ theȱ
ministriesȱofȱlabour,ȱinterior,ȱjustice,ȱhealth,ȱandȱeducation,ȱasȱwellȱasȱ
theȱ Stateȱ Agencyȱ forȱ Childȱ Protectionȱ andȱ theȱ Commissionȱ forȱ
counteractingȱ theȱ AntiȬSocialȱ Behaviourȱ ofȱ Juvenilesȱ andȱ Minors.ȱ Theȱ
Nationalȱ Commissionȱ alsoȱ includesȱ membersȱ ofȱ theȱ Supremeȱ Court,ȱ
212
Prosecutorȱ Generalȱ andȱ Nationalȱ Investigativeȱ service,ȱ asȱ wellȱ asȱ

representativesȱ ofȱ NGOsȱ andȱ internationalȱ organisationsȱ representedȱ
inȱ theȱ countryȱ workingȱ inȱ theȱ areaȱ ofȱ preventingȱ andȱ combatingȱ
humanȱtrafficking.ȱLocalȱcommissionsȱareȱcomposedȱofȱthreeȱtoȱsevenȱ
membersȱappointedȱbyȱtheȱMayorȱandȱinvolvingȱrepresentativesȱofȱtheȱ
localȱ governmentȱ involvedȱ inȱ education,ȱ healthȱ issuesȱ andȱ socialȱ
policy,ȱdepartmentsȱforȱchildȱprotection,ȱrepresentativesȱofȱtheȱpolice,ȱ
NGOs,ȱteachers,ȱ psychologists,ȱlawyers,ȱ doctors,ȱetc.ȱAȱ representativeȱ
ofȱ theȱ Regionalȱ Prosecutor’sȱ Officeȱ mustȱ attendȱ theȱ sessionsȱ ofȱ theȱ
Localȱ Commission.ȱ Theȱ lawȱ alsoȱ providesȱ thatȱ Localȱ Commissionsȱ
shallȱbeȱfundedȱbyȱtheȱbudgetȱofȱtheȱmunicipality.ȱ
ȱ
Theȱ mandateȱ ofȱ theȱ institutionȱ shouldȱ beȱ broadȱ enoughȱ toȱ ensureȱ itȱ
encompassesȱ allȱ dimensionsȱ ofȱ theȱ implementationȱ ofȱ theȱ law.ȱ
Followingȱareȱtheȱpotentialȱmajorȱareasȱofȱactivityȱforȱsuchȱinstitutions.ȱȱ
ȱ
Oneȱofȱtheȱmainȱrolesȱofȱtheȱinstitutionȱshouldȱbeȱtheȱcoordinationȱofȱ
theȱactivitiesȱofȱallȱactorsȱinvolvedȱinȱcombatingȱ trafficking.ȱ Itȱshouldȱ
aimȱ atȱ facilitatingȱ theȱ exchangeȱ ofȱ informationȱ betweenȱ variousȱ
ministriesȱ andȱ institutions,ȱ encouragingȱ collaborationȱ ofȱ theseȱ bodiesȱ
inȱ undertakingȱactivitiesȱforȱtheȱ implementationȱofȱ theȱlawȱasȱ wellȱ asȱ
communicatingȱ onȱ theȱ implementationȱ ofȱ nationalȱ policies.ȱ Asȱ aȱ
coordinationȱ mechanism,ȱ itȱ shouldȱ alsoȱ ensureȱ thatȱ thereȱ isȱ aȱ
coordinatedȱandȱeffectiveȱresponseȱtoȱcasesȱofȱtrafficking.ȱ
ȱ
Theȱ mandateȱ ofȱ theȱ institutionȱ shouldȱ includeȱ researchȱ activitiesȱ andȱ
dataȱ collectionȱ andȱ analysisȱ inȱ orderȱ toȱ informȱ policiesȱ onȱ traffickingȱ
andȱ toȱ facilitateȱ monitoringȱ andȱ evaluationȱ ofȱ theȱ implementationȱ ofȱ
nationalȱlawsȱandȱpolicies.ȱ
ȱ
Basedȱ onȱ itsȱ coordinationȱ andȱ researchȱ functions,ȱ theȱ institutionȱ
shouldȱbeȱinȱchargeȱofȱadvisingȱonȱandȱdevelopingȱcomprehensiveȱandȱ
integratedȱpoliciesȱtoȱaddressȱtraffickingȱinȱhumanȱbeingsȱandȱshouldȱ
monitorȱ theirȱ implementation.ȱ Itȱ shouldȱ beȱ mandatedȱ toȱ formulateȱ
strategiesȱ andȱ adoptȱ specificȱ measuresȱ asȱ necessaryȱ forȱ theȱ
implementationȱ ofȱ theȱ law.ȱ Thisȱ shouldȱ includeȱ theȱ designȱ ofȱ
programmesȱaimedȱatȱtheȱreintegrationȱofȱvictimsȱofȱtrafficking.ȱ
ȱ
Oneȱ ofȱ theȱ obstaclesȱ toȱ internationalȱ cooperationȱ isȱ theȱ difficultyȱ toȱ
identifyȱ theȱ appropriateȱ counterpartȱ inȱ anotherȱ State.ȱ Theȱ institutionȱ
213
shouldȱthusȱdealȱwithȱinternationalȱrequests,ȱbyȱdirectingȱthemȱtoȱtheȱ
appropriateȱ departmentȱ asȱ relevantȱ andȱ followingȱ upȱ onȱ them.ȱ Itȱ
shouldȱ alsoȱ facilitateȱ theȱ exchangeȱ ofȱ informationȱ andȱ overallȱ
collaborationȱ betweenȱ States.ȱ Forȱ example,ȱ theȱ bilateralȱ agreementȱ
betweenȱ Côteȱ d’Ivoireȱ andȱ Maliȱ providesȱ forȱ theȱ creationȱ ofȱ aȱ
Permanentȱ Commissionȱ forȱ followȬupȱ onȱ theȱ implementationȱ ofȱ theȱ
agreement.ȱTheȱagreementȱstipulatesȱthatȱtheȱCommissionȱwillȱmeetȱatȱ
leastȱonceȱaȱyear.ȱ
ȱ
Theȱ institutionȱ shouldȱ beȱ responsibleȱ forȱ theȱ trainingȱ ofȱ lawȱ
enforcementȱ officialsȱ andȱ otherȱ relevantȱ actorsȱ onȱ traffickingȱ andȱ
children’sȱrightsȱissues.ȱȱ
ȱ
Theȱ institutionȱ shouldȱ beȱ mandatedȱ toȱ undertakeȱ communicationsȱ
campaignsȱtoȱsensitiseȱtheȱpopulation,ȱespeciallyȱthoseȱmostȱatȱriskȱandȱ
potentialȱoffenders,ȱonȱtraffickingȱissues.ȱ
ȱ
6.3ȱ Accountabilityȱ
ȱ
Likeȱ allȱ institutions,ȱ theȱ antiȬtraffickingȱ institutionȱ shouldȱ beȱ
accountableȱ andȱ itsȱ actionsȱ monitored.ȱ Theȱ standardȱ procedureȱ isȱ theȱ
submissionȱofȱanȱannualȱreportȱtoȱtheȱgovernmentȱandȱtheȱparliamentȱ
presentingȱactivitiesȱundertakenȱandȱresultsȱachieved.ȱ
ȱ
6.4ȱ StrengtheningȱLawȱEnforcementȱ
ȱ
Strengtheningȱ theȱ country’sȱ institutionalȱ capacityȱ impliesȱ settingȱ upȱ
efficientȱ systemsȱ ofȱ accountabilitiesȱ ofȱ allȱ actors,ȱ inȱ particularȱ lawȱ
enforcementȱofficials.ȱToȱthatȱend,ȱappropriateȱtrainingsȱandȱcapacityȬ
buildingȱ activitiesȱ shouldȱ beȱ undertakenȱ andȱ aimedȱ atȱ improvingȱ theȱ
skillsȱ ofȱ policeȱ officers,ȱ judges,ȱ socialȱ workersȱ andȱ otherȱ actorsȱ
involvedȱwithȱchildȱvictimsȱtoȱtakeȱintoȱaccountȱtheirȱspecificȱsituation.ȱ
ȱ
Forȱ example,ȱ theȱ governmentȱ ofȱ Yemen,ȱ withȱ supportȱ fromȱ UNICEFȱ
andȱ IOM,ȱ trainedȱ policeȱ officersȱ onȱ techniquesȱ toȱ recogniseȱ andȱ
properlyȱhandleȱtraffickingȱcases.ȱSecurityȱofficialsȱworkingȱinȱborderȱ
areasȱandȱinternationalȱairportsȱacquiredȱskillsȱonȱvictimȱidentification,ȱ
registrationȱ andȱ monitoringȱ ofȱ childȱ trafficking.ȱ Governmentȱ officialsȱ
214
wereȱ trainedȱ onȱ shelterȱ managementȱ andȱ assistanceȱ toȱ victimsȱ ofȱ
trafficking. 232ȱ
ȱ
ȱ
Partȱ7ȱ PROCESSESȱANDȱENTRYȱPOINTSȱ
FORȱLEGISLATIVEȱREFORMȱINȱ
THEȱAREAȱOFȱTRAFFICKINGȱ
ȱ
Asȱ inȱ otherȱ areas,ȱ aȱ participatoryȱ andȱ openȱ process,ȱ involvingȱ allȱ
stakeholders,ȱisȱessentialȱtoȱensureȱthatȱtheȱlawȱrespondsȱadequatelyȱtoȱ
theȱchallengesȱposedȱbyȱtraffickingȱinȱaȱspecificȱcountry.ȱSuchȱaȱprocessȱ
alsoȱhelpsȱraisingȱawarenessȱofȱissuesȱrelatedȱtoȱtrafficking,ȱincludingȱ
theȱsituationȱofȱvictims,ȱandȱcontributesȱtoȱtrainingȱthoseȱwhoȱwillȱbeȱ
onȱtheȱfrontlineȱforȱtheȱimplementationȱofȱtheȱlaw.ȱȱ
ȱ
7.1ȱ AȱHumanȱRightsȬbasedȱApproachȱtoȱLegislativeȱ
ReformȱinȱtheȱAreaȱofȱTraffickingȱ
ȱ
Theȱprinciplesȱofȱaȱhumanȱrightsȱbasedȱapproachȱtoȱlegislativeȱreformȱ
canȱbeȱappliedȱasȱfollowsȱinȱtheȱcaseȱofȱtrafficking.ȱ
ȱ
7.1.1ȱ Accountabilityȱ
ȱ
Advocacyȱ effortsȱ shouldȱ focusȱ onȱ ensuringȱ thatȱ Statesȱ haveȱ ratifiedȱ
relevantȱinternationalȱtreatiesȱtoȱcombatȱtrafficking,ȱincludingȱregionalȱ
treatiesȱandȱagreements.ȱ
ȱ
Theȱ implementationȱ ofȱ theseȱ instrumentsȱ shouldȱ thenȱ beȱ promotedȱ
withȱtheȱgovernment,ȱandȱemphasisȱbeȱplacedȱonȱtheȱlegalȱobligationsȱ
theyȱentail.ȱAsȱhighlightedȱinȱthisȱchapter,ȱtheseȱinstrumentsȱprovideȱaȱ
strongȱ basisȱ forȱ advocacyȱ forȱ legislativeȱ reformȱ addressingȱ allȱ theȱ
dimensionsȱ ofȱ childȱ trafficking.ȱ Lawȱ reviewȱ andȱ legislativeȱ reformȱ
shouldȱ thereforeȱ beȱ conductedȱ inȱ lightȱ ofȱ theseȱ treaties.ȱ Itȱ shouldȱ beȱ
madeȱ clearȱ thatȱ forȱ aȱ lawȱ toȱ contributeȱ toȱ fulfillingȱ theȱ State’sȱ
obligations,ȱitȱmustȱbeȱenforcedȱandȱimplemented.ȱ
232
See Combating Child Trafficking in the Gulf Countries, Yemen and Afghanistan: Policy
Options (draft). Op.cit.
215
ȱ
7.1.2ȱ Universalityȱ
ȱ
Theȱ principleȱ ofȱ universalityȱ impliesȱ thatȱ theȱ lawȱ mustȱ addressȱ theȱ
rightsȱ ofȱ allȱ children,ȱ inȱ particularȱ theȱ specialȱ needsȱ ofȱ girls.ȱ Asȱ
highlightedȱaboveȱwithȱrespectȱtoȱtheȱprincipleȱofȱnonȬdiscrimination,ȱ
itȱ isȱ especiallyȱ importantȱ withȱ respectȱ toȱ internationalȱ traffickingȱ thatȱ
childrenȱwhoȱareȱnotȱcitizensȱofȱtheȱcountryȱhaveȱtheirȱrightsȱprotectedȱ
likeȱ theȱ nationalsȱ ofȱ thatȱ country,ȱ andȱ enjoyȱ evenȱ greaterȱ protectionȱ
dueȱtoȱtheirȱsituationȱandȱtheȱfactȱthatȱtheyȱareȱoftenȱunaccompanied.ȱ
Theȱ universalityȱ principleȱ furtherȱ impliesȱ thatȱ measuresȱ aimedȱ atȱ
preventingȱ childȱ traffickingȱ takeȱ intoȱ accountȱ theȱ mostȱ marginalizedȱ
andȱexcluded,ȱwhoȱareȱtheȱmostȱvulnerableȱtoȱtrafficking.ȱȱ
ȱ
Theȱprincipleȱofȱuniversalityȱalsoȱmeansȱthatȱtheȱprocessȱofȱdraftingȱofȱ
theȱlawȱshouldȱinvolveȱallȱstakeholders,ȱwithȱaȱparticularȱattentionȱtoȱ
includingȱsectorsȱofȱtheȱpopulationȱthatȱareȱtraditionallyȱmarginalized,ȱ
excludedȱandȱdiscriminatedȱagainst.ȱȱ
ȱ
7.1.3ȱ Indivisibilityȱ
ȱ
Asȱindicatedȱthroughoutȱthisȱchapter,ȱlegislativeȱreformȱonȱtraffickingȱ
shouldȱ takeȱ intoȱ considerationȱ theȱ entireȱ legalȱ frameworkȱ ofȱ theȱ
country.ȱ Itȱ shouldȱ buildȱ on,ȱ andȱ strengthen,ȱ existingȱ lawsȱ andȱ
institutionsȱ thatȱ areȱ indirectlyȱ relatedȱ toȱ trafficking,ȱ butȱ areȱ keyȱ toȱ
combatingȱ childȱ traffickingȱ andȱ caringȱ forȱ victims,ȱ preventingȱ
proliferationȱofȱlawsȱandȱinstitutions,ȱandȱintegratingȱexistingȱlawsȱandȱ
institutionsȱ intoȱ aȱ comprehensiveȱ approachȱ toȱ safeguardȱ children’sȱ
rights.ȱȱȱ
ȱ
7.1.4ȱ Participationȱ
ȱ
Participationȱ andȱ transparencyȱ areȱ essentialȱ forȱ draftingȱ aȱ lawȱ thatȱ isȱ
sound,ȱ informed,ȱ andȱ effective.ȱ Asȱ inȱ otherȱ areas,ȱ participationȱ inȱ theȱ
elaborationȱ ofȱ theȱ lawȱ andȱ itsȱ implementationȱ shouldȱ beȱ asȱ broadȱ asȱ
possible.ȱ Whileȱ aȱ fullȱ overviewȱ ofȱ participationȱ mechanismsȱ areȱ
providedȱ inȱ Chapterȱ II,ȱ inȱ theȱ areaȱ ofȱ trafficking,ȱ particularȱ attentionȱ
shouldȱbeȱplacedȱonȱincludingȱatȱleastȱtheȱfollowing:ȱ
ȱ
216
x Relevantȱministries.ȱTheȱdraftingȱandȱimplementationȱofȱtheȱ
lawȱandȱaccompanyingȱpoliciesȱaddressingȱchildȱtraffickingȱ
shouldȱnotȱbeȱpreparedȱonlyȱbyȱtheȱMinistryȱresponsibleȱforȱ
children’sȱissues,ȱmostȱoftenȱtheȱMinistryȱofȱSocial/Familyȱ
Affairs.ȱTheȱMinistryȱofȱLabour,ȱtheȱMinistryȱofȱJustice,ȱtheȱ
MinistryȱinȱchargeȱofȱtheȱpoliceȱsuchȱasȱtheȱMinistryȱofȱtheȱ
Interior,ȱandȱtheȱMinistryȱofȱForeignȱAffairsȱshouldȱbeȱactivelyȱ
involvedȱasȱwell.ȱTheȱMinistryȱofȱFinanceȱalsoȱrepresentsȱanȱ
essentialȱpartnerȱtoȱallocateȱresourcesȱandȱimplementȱeconomicȱ
policiesȱaimedȱatȱaddressingȱtheȱrootȱcausesȱofȱtrafficking,ȱinȱ
particularȱpoverty,ȱwhichȱmakesȱsomeȱgroupsȱofȱtheȱpopulationȱ
vulnerableȱtoȱtrafficking.ȱȱ
x MembersȱofȱParliament.ȱTheȱParliamentȱshouldȱcontributeȱtoȱ
theȱdraftingȱofȱtheȱlaw,ȱevenȱifȱtheȱlawȱisȱeventuallyȱpresentedȱ
byȱtheȱHeadȱofȱGovernment’sȱoffice.ȱMoreȱspecifically,ȱrelevantȱ
parliamentaryȱCommitteesȱshouldȱbeȱconsulted,ȱsuchȱasȱtheȱ
Committeeȱdealingȱwithȱchildren’sȱrights,ȱtheȱCommitteesȱonȱ
labour,ȱjustice,ȱinternalȱsecurity,ȱcriminalȱmatters,ȱcivilȱmatters,ȱ
foreignȱaffairs,ȱetc.ȱ
ȱ
x Membersȱofȱtheȱjudiciary.ȱJudgesȱandȱprosecutorsȱcanȱidentifyȱ
legalȱgapsȱinȱtheȱlegislationȱandȱinformȱtheȱdraftingȱofȱtheȱlawȱ
toȱmakeȱsureȱitȱisȱeffective,ȱapplicableȱinȱlegalȱcases,ȱandȱlegallyȱ
coherent.ȱ
x Lawyers.ȱLawyersȱcanȱalsoȱprovideȱusefulȱlegalȱexpertise.ȱ
Lawyersȱinvolvedȱshouldȱhaveȱexperienceȱinȱtheȱareasȱtackledȱ
byȱtheȱlaw,ȱinȱparticularȱinȱchildren’sȱrights,ȱwomen’sȱrights,ȱ
criminalȱlaw,ȱandȱcivilȱlaw,ȱasȱwellȱasȱprivateȱinternationalȱlaw.ȱ
x Childrenȱandȱyouth.ȱChildrenȱandȱyouthȱshouldȱbeȱconsultedȱ
inȱtheȱpreparationȱofȱtheȱlawȱandȱinȱtheȱimplementation.ȱ
Childrenȱandȱyouthȱwhoȱhaveȱbeenȱvictimsȱofȱtraffickingȱ
shouldȱbeȱlistenedȱto,ȱespeciallyȱwithȱrespectȱtoȱtheȱprotectionȱ
andȱcareȱofȱvictims.ȱYet,ȱappropriateȱmeasuresȱshouldȱbeȱtakenȱ
toȱensureȱthatȱtheirȱparticipationȱdoesȱnotȱputȱthemȱatȱrisk.ȱ
x Communityȱleaders.ȱCommunity,ȱtraditionalȱorȱreligiousȱ
leaders,ȱinȱparticularȱinȱareasȱparticularlyȱaffectedȱbyȱtraffickingȱ
canȱbeȱinstrumentalȱinȱpreventingȱtraffickingȱandȱensuringȱtheȱ
reintegrationȱofȱchildrenȱvictimsȱofȱtrafficking.ȱȱ
x NonȬgovernmentalȱorganizations.ȱBothȱdomesticȱandȱ
internationalȱNGOsȱworkingȱinȱtheȱareaȱofȱtraffickingȱshouldȱbeȱ
217
consulted.ȱInȱparticular,ȱassociationsȱrunningȱcareȱcentresȱforȱ
victimsȱshouldȱbeȱinvolved.ȱ
x InterȬgovernmentalȱorganizations.ȱUNȱagenciesȱandȱregionalȱ
organisationsȱpresentȱinȱtheȱcountryȱand/orȱinȱtheȱregionȱandȱ
workingȱinȱtheȱareaȱofȱtraffickingȱshouldȱbeȱconsulted.ȱ
x Media.ȱTheȱmediaȱplaysȱanȱessentialȱroleȱinȱsensitisingȱtheȱ
populationȱonȱtraffickingȱandȱdeconstructingȱtheȱmythsȱofȱaȱ
betterȱlifeȱpromisedȱbyȱtraffickers.ȱPublicȱauthoritiesȱshouldȱ
partnerȱwithȱtheȱmediaȱforȱpublicȱawarenessȱcampaigns.ȱItȱisȱ
particularlyȱimportantȱthatȱappropriateȱmediaȱofȱ
communicationȱbeȱchosenȱdependingȱonȱtheȱgroupsȱmostȱatȱ
risk.ȱInȱareasȱwithȱhighȱilliteracyȱrates,ȱforȱexample,ȱradioȱspotsȱ
mayȱbeȱmoreȱefficientȱthatȱnewspapersȱtoȱconveyȱaȱmessage.ȱInȱ
addition,ȱmessagesȱshouldȱbeȱtailoredȱtoȱtheȱlanguageȱandȱ
cultureȱofȱtheȱcommunitiesȱinȱwhichȱtheyȱareȱbroadcast.ȱWhenȱ
minorityȱgroupsȱspeakingȱaȱdifferentȱlanguageȱfromȱtheȱofficialȱ
languageȱofȱtheȱcountryȱareȱvulnerableȱtoȱtrafficking,ȱ
informationȱshouldȱbeȱcommunicatedȱinȱthatȱlanguage.ȱ
Receivingȱcountriesȱshouldȱalsoȱensureȱthatȱinformationȱreachesȱ
childȱvictimsȱinȱaȱlanguageȱtheyȱcanȱunderstand,ȱespeciallyȱ
whenȱtraffickingȱtrendsȱshowȱthatȱchildȱvictimsȱcomeȱfromȱaȱ
specificȱcountry/region.ȱFurthermore,ȱsomeȱcommunicationȱ
strategiesȱshouldȱbeȱspecificallyȱaddressedȱatȱchildren,ȱtakingȱ
intoȱaccountȱtheirȱspecialȱcommunicationȱneedsȱtoȱensureȱthatȱ
theyȱunderstandȱtheȱmessage.ȱȱ
ȱ
7.1.5ȱ TrainingȱandȱCapacityȱBuildingȱ
ȱ
TrainingȱandȱcapacityȬbuildingȱareȱcriticalȱtoȱensureȱthatȱparticipationȱ
isȱ genuineȱ andȱ informed,ȱ andȱ thatȱ theȱ lawȱ isȱ implemented.ȱ Trainingȱ
andȱ capacityȬbuildingȱ activitiesȱ canȱ evenȱ takeȱ placeȱ beforeȱ theȱ lawȱ isȱ
adopted,ȱduringȱtheȱpreparationȱphase.ȱOnceȱtheȱlawȱisȱadopted,ȱsuchȱ
activitiesȱareȱimportantȱtoȱascertainȱwhetherȱitȱwillȱindeedȱbeȱapplied,ȱ
orȱifȱitȱisȱmisinterpreted.ȱTrainingȱisȱoftenȱaȱcomponentȱofȱtheȱmandateȱ
ofȱnational/localȱcommissionsȱinȱchargeȱofȱdealingȱwithȱtrafficking.ȱȱ
ȱ
7.1.6ȱ TrainingȱofȱJudgesȱandȱLawyersȱ
ȱ
Judgesȱ andȱ lawyersȱ shouldȱ beȱ trainedȱ bothȱ onȱ theȱ internationalȱ legalȱ
frameworkȱ andȱ onȱ theȱ contentȱ ofȱ theȱ law.ȱ Whereȱ appropriate,ȱ theyȱ
218
couldȱ beȱ givenȱ examplesȱ ofȱ jurisprudenceȱ inȱ countriesȱ withȱ aȱ similarȱ
legalȱtradition.ȱTheȱfocusȱshouldȱbeȱplacedȱ onȱ theȱexperienceȱofȱ childȱ
victimsȱandȱtheȱhumanȱrightsȱviolationsȱtheyȱhaveȱsuffered.ȱEmphasisȱ
shouldȱbeȱplacedȱonȱtheȱneedȱtoȱadaptȱjudicialȱproceedingsȱtoȱtheȱfactȱ
thatȱ victimsȱ areȱ childrenȱ andȱ toolsȱ providedȱ toȱ doȱ so,ȱ inȱ lineȱ withȱ
relevantȱinternationalȱguidelinesȱinȱthisȱarea,ȱasȱmentionedȱabove.ȱ
ȱ
7.1.7ȱ TrainingȱofȱStaffȱDealingȱwithȱVictimsȱ
ȱ
Trainingȱofȱallȱstaffȱdealingȱwithȱvictimsȱisȱessentialȱinȱorderȱtoȱavoidȱ
dealingȱwithȱvictimsȱinȱanȱinappropriateȱwayȱthatȱmayȱdeepenȱtheirȱ
trauma.ȱOftenȱtimesȱindeed,ȱlawȱenforcementȱofficialsȱconsiderȱvictimsȱ
asȱcriminals,ȱorȱwantȱtoȱuseȱthemȱasȱwitnessesȱandȱputȱthemȱunderȱ
pressureȱtoȱspeak.ȱThisȱmayȱbeȱdueȱtoȱaȱlackȱofȱunderstandingȱofȱissuesȱ
relatedȱtoȱtrafficking.ȱTrainingȱofȱstaffȱdealingȱwithȱchildrenȱisȱalsoȱ
crucial.ȱWhileȱitȱshouldȱalreadyȱbeȱpartȱofȱtheȱtrainingȱofȱlawȱ
enforcementȱofficialsȱandȱotherȱstaffȱdealingȱwithȱchildren,ȱitȱisȱkeyȱ
thatȱthisȱaspectȱbeȱtakenȱintoȱconsiderationȱwithȱrespectȱtoȱtrafficking.ȱȱȱȱ
ȱ
7.1.8ȱ InternationalȱCooperationȱ
ȱ
Asȱ mentionedȱ throughoutȱ thisȱ chapter,ȱ internationalȱ cooperationȱ isȱ
criticalȱ forȱ addressingȱ internationalȱ childȱ trafficking.ȱ Internationalȱ
agreements,ȱ eitherȱ bilateralȱ orȱ multilateral,ȱ constituteȱ bothȱ importantȱ
elementsȱ ofȱ theȱ legislativeȱ frameworkȱ andȱ atȱ theȱ sameȱ timeȱ entryȱ
pointsȱforȱlegislativeȱreformȱatȱnationalȱlevel.ȱȱ
ȱ
Bilateralȱ andȱ regionalȱ agreementsȱ areȱ multiplyingȱ aroundȱ theȱ globe.ȱ
Theȱ Southȱ Asianȱ Associationȱ forȱ Regionalȱ Cooperationȱ (SAARC)ȱ
ConventionȱonȱPreventingȱandȱCombatingȱTraffickingȱinȱWomenȱandȱ
ChildrenȱforȱProstitution,ȱforȱexample,ȱwhileȱlimitedȱtoȱtraffickingȱforȱ
prostitution,ȱ wasȱ adoptedȱ inȱ 2002ȱ andȱ providesȱ aȱ goodȱ exampleȱ ofȱ
internationalȱ cooperationȱ atȱ subȬregionalȱ level.ȱ Itȱ focusesȱ onȱ commonȱ
responsesȱandȱmutualȱassistanceȱinȱfightingȱtraffickingȱandȱprotectingȱ
theȱrightsȱofȱvictims.ȱ
ȱ
Theȱ sixȱ nationsȱ ofȱ theȱ Greaterȱ Mekongȱ SubȬRegionȱ signedȱ anȱ
agreementȱ inȱ 2004,ȱ committingȱ themselvesȱ toȱ coordinatedȱ actionȱ onȱ
traffickingȱprevention,ȱlawȱenforcement,ȱtheȱprosecutionȱofȱtraffickers,ȱ
andȱtheȱrecovery,ȱreintegrationȱandȱsupportȱofȱtraffickingȱvictims.ȱ
219
ȱ
Likewise,ȱ aȱ subȬregionalȱ agreementȱ forȱ Westȱ andȱ Centralȱ Africaȱ wasȱ
signedȱ inȱ Julyȱ 2006ȱ underȱ theȱ auspicesȱ ofȱ ECOWASȱ toȱ addressȱ childȱ
traffickingȱthroughȱstrengthenedȱcooperationȱinȱtheȱregion.ȱ
ȱ
ȱ
ȱ
ȱ
220
Chapterȱ5ȱ
ȱ
REALISINGȱCHILDREN’SȱRIGHTSȱTOȱ
ADEQUATEȱNUTRITIONȱTHROUGHȱ
NATIONALȱLEGISLATIVEȱREFORMȱ
ȱ
Inadequateȱnutritionȱearlyȱinȱlifeȱcanȱcauseȱirreparableȱdamageȱtoȱtheȱ
developingȱ brainȱ andȱ body.ȱ Amongȱ otherȱ ills,ȱ resultsȱ canȱ includeȱ
improperȱ mentalȱ andȱ physicalȱ development,ȱ diminishedȱ mentalȱ andȱ
physicalȱ capacity,ȱ mentalȱ retardation,ȱ blindness,ȱ impairedȱ abilityȱ toȱ
fightȱinfectionsȱandȱincreasedȱriskȱforȱobesityȱandȱtheȱchronicȱdiseasesȱ
associatedȱ withȱ it.ȱ Malnutritionȱ underliesȱ andȱ contributesȱ toȱ
approximatelyȱ 53ȱ percentȱ ofȱ allȱ childȱ deaths. 233 ȱ Theȱ rightȱ toȱ adequateȱ
nutrition,ȱ therefore,ȱ isȱ aȱ fundamental,ȱ foundationalȱ rightȱ forȱ children.ȱ
Itsȱ fulfillmentȱ isȱ essentialȱ forȱ life,ȱ health,ȱ developmentȱ andȱ dignity.ȱ
Withoutȱthese,ȱaȱchildȱwillȱhaveȱdifficultyȱlearning,ȱplaying,ȱengagingȱ
inȱotherȱchildhoodȱactivities,ȱbecomingȱaȱproductiveȱmemberȱofȱsocietyȱ
inȱlaterȱyearsȱandȱenjoyingȱtheȱfullȱrangeȱofȱhumanȱrightsȱtoȱwhichȱallȱ
humansȱareȱentitled.ȱ
ȱ
GeneralȱCommentȱNo.ȱ12ȱtoȱtheȱInternationalȱCovenantȱonȱEconomic,ȱ
Socialȱ andȱ Culturalȱ Rightsȱ (ICESCR)ȱ clarifiesȱ thatȱ everyȱ stateȱ isȱ
obligatedȱ toȱ ensureȱ forȱ everyoneȱ underȱ itsȱ jurisdictionȱ accessȱ toȱ theȱ
minimumȱessentialȱfoodȱwhichȱisȱsufficient,ȱnutritionallyȱadequateȱandȱ
safeȱ toȱ ensureȱ freedomȱ fromȱ hunger.ȱ Theȱ rightȱ toȱ adequateȱ foodȱ isȱ
realisedȱ whenȱ everyȱ man,ȱ womanȱ andȱ child,ȱ aloneȱ orȱ inȱ communityȱ
withȱothers,ȱhasȱphysicalȱandȱeconomicȱaccessȱatȱallȱtimesȱtoȱadequateȱ
foodȱ orȱ meansȱ forȱ itsȱ procurement.ȱ Generalȱ Commentȱ No.ȱ 12ȱ
recognizes,ȱ however,ȱ thatȱ theȱ rightȱ toȱ adequateȱ foodȱ willȱ haveȱ toȱ beȱ
realisedȱprogressivelyȱinȱmanyȱcountries.ȱ
ȱ
Aȱcomprehensiveȱsolutionȱtoȱachievingȱadequateȱnutritionȱforȱchildrenȱ
callsȱ forȱ multipleȱ strategiesȱ involvingȱ interventionsȱ forȱ theȱ wholeȱ
population.ȱ Asȱ proclaimedȱ inȱ theȱ Universalȱ Declarationȱ onȱ theȱ
233
Bryce, J. et al. Child Health Epidemiology Reference Group, “WHO estimates of the
causes of death in children.” Lancet vol. 365 (2005); p. 1147-52.
221
Eradicationȱ ofȱ Hungerȱ andȱ Malnutrition, 234 ȱ governmentsȱ shouldȱ

integrateȱ appropriateȱ foodȱ andȱ nutritionȱ policiesȱ withinȱ socioȬ
economicȱ andȱ agriculturalȱ developmentȱ plans,ȱ stressingȱ theȱ
importanceȱ ofȱ humanȱ milkȱ inȱ thisȱ connection.ȱ Paragraphȱ 4ȱ ofȱ theȱ
DeclarationȱprovidesȱthatȱeachȱStateȱhasȱtheȱresponsibilityȱto:ȱprovideȱ
effectiveȱmeasuresȱforȱsocioȬeconomicȱtransformationȱbyȱagrarian,ȱtax,ȱ
creditȱandȱinvestmentȱpolicyȱreform,ȱreorganisationȱofȱruralȱstructures,ȱ
suchȱ asȱ reformȱ ofȱ theȱ conditionsȱ ofȱ ownership,ȱ encouragementȱ ofȱ
producerȱ andȱ consumerȱ coȬoperatives,ȱ mobilisationȱ ofȱ theȱ fullȱ
potentialȱ ofȱ bothȱ maleȱ andȱ femaleȱ humanȱ resources,ȱ involvingȱ smallȱ
farmers,ȱ fishermenȱ andȱ landlessȱ workers,ȱ andȱ ensuringȱ thatȱ
appropriateȱ education,ȱ extensionȱ programmes,ȱ andȱ financialȱ facilitiesȱ
areȱmadeȱavailableȱtoȱwomenȱonȱequalȱtermsȱwithȱmen.ȱȱ
ȱ
Aȱ thoroughȱ discussionȱ ofȱ theȱ fullȱ rangeȱ ofȱ measuresȱ andȱ legislativeȱ
interventionsȱ inȱ theseȱ spheresȱ isȱ beyondȱ theȱ scopeȱ ofȱ thisȱ chapterȱ
subchapter.ȱ Instead,ȱ theȱ subchapterȱ addressesȱ fourȱ focusedȱ nutritionȱ
interventionsȱ thatȱ areȱ crucialȱ componentsȱ ofȱ theȱ mixȱ thatȱ guaranteesȱ
childrenȱ theȱ rightȱ toȱ adequateȱ nutrition:ȱ 1)ȱ combatingȱ micronutrientȱ
malnutrition,ȱ primarilyȱ throughȱ foodȱ fortification;ȱ 2)ȱ protecting,ȱ
promoting,ȱandȱsupportingȱbreastfeeding;ȱ3)ȱenactingȱorȱstrengtheningȱ
accompanyingȱ socialȱ policiesȱ toȱ enableȱ womenȱ toȱ breastfeed;ȱ andȱ 4)ȱ
promotingȱ healthyȱdietsȱandȱ physicalȱ activityȱtoȱ reverseȱtheȱ alarmingȱ
trendȱofȱchildhoodȱobesityȱandȱresultingȱchronicȱdiseasesȱinȱdevelopedȱ
andȱdevelopingȱcountriesȱalike.ȱȱ
ȱ
Theseȱ interventionsȱ wereȱ chosenȱ becauseȱ theyȱ areȱ criticalȱ forȱ
preventingȱ theȱ irreparableȱ harmsȱ thatȱ canȱ resultȱ fromȱ inadequateȱ
nutritionȱduringȱtheȱmostȱcriticalȱperiodȱofȱchildȱdevelopment,ȱtheyȱareȱ
clearlyȱachievableȱoverȱtheȱshorterȱtermȱandȱareȱinexpensive,ȱandȱtheyȱ
requireȱ legislativeȱ measuresȱ forȱ implementation.ȱ Accordingȱ toȱ theȱ
WHO/UNICEFȱ Globalȱ Strategyȱ forȱ Infantȱ andȱ Youngȱ Childȱ Feeding,ȱ
theȱmajorityȱofȱchildren’sȱdeathsȱfromȱmalnutritionȱcouldȱbeȱpreventedȱ
throughȱlowȬcostȱinterventionsȱlikeȱthese. 235ȱ
ȱ
234
The Declaration was adopted and endorsed by General Assembly Resolution 3348 (1974).
235
Global strategy for infant and young child feeding, WHO and UNICEF, Geneva (2002).
222
SocioȬeconomicȱBenefitsȱofȱRealisingȱChildren’sȱRightȱtoȱAdequateȱ
Nutritionȱ
ȱ
Inȱ additionȱ toȱ grosslyȱ violatingȱ humanȱ rights,ȱ inadequateȱ andȱ
improperȱ nutritionȱ haveȱ profoundȱ negativeȱ effectsȱ onȱ nations’ȱ
economicȱ growthȱ andȱ povertyȱ rates.ȱ Resultsȱ canȱ includeȱ lowȱ
productivityȱasȱaȱresultȱofȱpoorȱphysicalȱcondition,ȱpoorȱschoolingȱasȱaȱ
resultȱ ofȱ lowȱ cognitiveȱ function,ȱ andȱ significantȱ careȱ costsȱ resultingȱ
fromȱpoorȱhealth. 236 ȱEconomicȱcostsȱcanȱincludeȱmoreȱthanȱ10ȱperȱcentȱ
lossesȱinȱproductivityȱinȱlifetimeȱearningsȱandȱupȱtoȱ3ȱperȱcentȱlossesȱinȱ
grossȱdomesticȱproduct.ȱFulfillingȱtheȱrightȱtoȱnutrition,ȱtherefore,ȱhasȱ
aȱdirectȱeffectȱonȱreducingȱpoverty.ȱItȱisȱessentialȱtoȱreducingȱextremeȱ
poverty, 237 ȱ asȱ calledȱ forȱ inȱ theȱ Millenniumȱ Developmentȱ Goalsȱ
(MDGs).ȱȱ
ȱ
Givingȱ effectȱ toȱ children’sȱ rightȱ toȱ adequateȱ nutritionȱ beginsȱ withȱ
ensuringȱ properȱ nutritionȱ inȱ uteroȱ andȱ duringȱ theȱ firstȱ twoȱ years.ȱ Itȱ
alsoȱ meansȱ ensuringȱ theȱ nutritionalȱ needsȱ ofȱ girlsȱ andȱ womenȱ ofȱ
childbearingȱ ageȱ andȱ pregnantȱ andȱ lactatingȱ womenȱ areȱ met.ȱ Theseȱ
groupsȱareȱentitledȱtoȱadequateȱnutritionȱandȱhealthȱforȱtheirȱownȱwellȬ
being,ȱasȱreflectedȱinȱArticleȱ12ȱofȱtheȱConventionȱonȱtheȱEliminationȱofȱ
Discriminationȱ againstȱ Womenȱ (CEDAW).ȱ Dueȱ toȱ persistentȱ statusȱ
inequities,ȱ however,ȱ girlsȱ andȱ womenȱ areȱ moreȱ likelyȱ toȱ sufferȱ fromȱ
inadequateȱnutrition.ȱTheirȱchildrenȱbearȱtheȱburdenȱwithȱthemȱandȱallȱ
ofȱsocietyȱsuffers.ȱȱ
ȱ
Children’sȱRightȱtoȱAdequateȱNutritionȱinȱInternationalȱLawȱȱ
ȱ
Theȱ rightȱ toȱ adequateȱ nutritionȱ isȱ establishedȱ inȱ numerousȱ
internationalȱ instruments,ȱ fromȱ theȱ Universalȱ Declarationȱ ofȱ Humanȱ
Rightsȱ(UDHR)ȱtoȱtheȱInternationalȱCovenantȱonȱEconomic,ȱSocialȱandȱ
Culturalȱ Rightsȱ (ICESCR),ȱ theȱ Conventionȱ onȱ theȱ Rightȱ ofȱ theȱ Childȱ
(CRC),ȱ andȱ CEDAW.ȱ Breastfeedingȱ isȱ anȱ essentialȱ componentȱ ofȱ
children’sȱrightȱtoȱadequateȱnutritionȱandȱtoȱotherȱhumanȱrightsȱandȱisȱ
protectedȱ andȱ supportedȱ inȱ severalȱ internationalȱ instruments.ȱ Theseȱ
includeȱtheȱICESCR,ȱCEDAW,ȱtheȱInternationalȱCodeȱofȱMarketingȱofȱ
236
Repositioning nutrition. World Bank, Washington DC (2006); available at
http://siteresources.worldbank.org/NUTRITION/Resources/281846-
1131636806329/NutritionStrategy.pdf. Accessed August 23, 2006.
237
Ibid.
223
Breastmilkȱ Substitutesȱ (theȱ Code)ȱ andȱ subsequentȱ Worldȱ Healthȱ

Assemblyȱ(WHA)ȱResolutions, 238 ȱtheȱ1990ȱInnocentiȱDeclarationȱonȱtheȱ
Protection,ȱ Promotion,ȱ andȱ Supportȱ ofȱ Breastfeedingȱ andȱ theȱ 2005ȱ
Innocentiȱ Declarationȱ onȱ Infantȱ andȱ Youngȱ Childȱ Feedingȱ (Innocentiȱ
Declarations),ȱ theȱ Globalȱ Strategyȱ onȱ Infantȱ andȱ Youngȱ Feedingȱ
(Globalȱ Strategy),ȱ andȱ theȱ ILOȱ Maternityȱ Protectionȱ Conventionsȱ andȱ
Maternityȱ Recommendationsȱ (1919,ȱ 1952,ȱ andȱ 2000)ȱ (Maternityȱ
ProtectionȱConvention).ȱȱ
ȱ
Togetherȱtheseȱinstrumentsȱestablishȱaȱwebȱofȱnutrition,ȱhealth,ȱsocialȱ
andȱ economicȱ humanȱ rightsȱ protectionsȱ thatȱ obligateȱ governmentsȱ toȱ
ensureȱ theȱ rightȱ ofȱ everyȱ woman,ȱ childȱ andȱ personȱ toȱ adequateȱ
nutrition.ȱ Relevantȱ provisionsȱ ofȱ theseȱ instrumentsȱ areȱ summarizedȱ
below.ȱȱ
ȱ
238
References in this sub-chapter to ‘the Code’ include subsequent WHA resolutions.
224
Internationalȱlegalȱ Whatȱitȱprovidesȱ
instrumentȱ
UDHR,ȱArt.ȱ25:ȱ rightȱofȱeveryoneȱtoȱaȱstandardȱofȱlivingȱadequateȱforȱ
healthȱandȱwellȬbeing,ȱincludingȱtheȱrightȱtoȱfoodȱ
ICESCR,ȱArt.ȱ11:ȱ fundamentalȱrightȱofȱeveryoneȱtoȱbeȱfreeȱfromȱhungerȱȱ
Art.ȱ12:ȱȱ rightȱofȱeveryoneȱtoȱtheȱenjoymentȱofȱtheȱhighestȱattainableȱ
standardȱofȱphysicalȱandȱmentalȱhealthȱ
ȱ
specialȱprotectionȱshouldȱbeȱprovidedȱtoȱmothersȱduringȱaȱ
Art.ȱ10:ȱ reasonableȱperiodȱbeforeȱandȱafterȱchildbirth;ȱworkingȱ
mothersȱshouldȱbeȱaccordedȱpaidȱleaveȱorȱleaveȱwithȱ
adequateȱsocialȱsecurityȱbenefitsȱȱ
ȱȱ
CRC,ȱArt.ȱ24:ȱ rightȱofȱtheȱchildȱtoȱtheȱenjoymentȱofȱtheȱhighestȱattainableȱ
standardȱofȱhealthȱȱ
ȱ
statesȱmustȱtakeȱappropriateȱmeasuresȱtoȱdiminishȱinfantȱ
ȱ andȱchildȱmortalityȱandȱcombatȱdiseaseȱandȱmalnutritionȱ
through,ȱamongȱotherȱthings,ȱtheȱprovisionȱofȱadequateȱ
nutritiousȱfoodsȱandȱcleanȱdrinkingȱwaterȱ
CEDAW,ȱArt.ȱ3ȱ:ȱȱȱȱȱȱ Partiesȱmustȱtakeȱappropriateȱmeasuresȱtoȱensureȱtheȱ
developmentȱandȱadvancementȱofȱwomen.ȱȱ
Art.ȱ11ȱandȱ12:ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ
Statesȱmustȱtakeȱmeasuresȱtoȱeliminateȱdiscriminationȱ
againstȱwomenȱinȱemployment,ȱwithȱregard,ȱinȱparticular,ȱ
toȱsanctionsȱorȱdismissalȱonȱtheȱgroundsȱofȱpregnancyȱorȱ
maternityȱleave,ȱandȱtoȱintroduceȱpaidȱmaternityȱleave.ȱ
Articleȱ12ȱrequiresȱstatesȱtoȱensureȱappropriateȱservicesȱinȱ
connectionȱwithȱpregnancyȱasȱwellȱasȱadequateȱnutritionȱ
duringȱpregnancyȱandȱlactation.ȱ
TheȱCodeȱ specificȱprovisionsȱforȱprotecting,ȱpromoting,ȱandȱ
supportingȱbreastfeedingȱ(discussedȱinȱdetailȱinȱtheȱsectionȱ
onȱbreastfeeding)ȱȱ
ILOȱConventionȱandȱ standardsȱforȱmaternityȱleaveȱandȱbenefits,ȱemploymentȱ
Recommendationsȱ protectionȱandȱnonȬdiscrimination,ȱandȱbreastfeedingȱ
opportunitiesȱduringȱworkȱtoȱsupportȱtheȱabilityȱofȱ
workingȱpregnantȱwomenȱandȱmothersȱtoȱbreastfeedȱandȱ
otherwiseȱcareȱforȱtheirȱchildrenȱandȱthemselvesȱwithoutȱ
jeopardizingȱtheirȱemploymentȱ
ȱ
225
Strategiesȱ andȱ targetsȱ forȱ attainingȱ children’sȱ rightȱ toȱ adequateȱ

nutritionȱ areȱ containedȱ inȱ theȱ Planȱ ofȱ Actionȱ forȱ Implementingȱ theȱ
Worldȱ Declarationȱ onȱ theȱ Survival,ȱ Protectionȱ andȱ Developmentȱ ofȱ
Childrenȱ(1990)ȱandȱotherȱdocuments.ȱTheȱPlanȱofȱAction,ȱendorsedȱbyȱ
signingȱ governments,ȱ setsȱ outȱ strategiesȱ andȱ measurable,ȱ timeȬboundȱ
targetsȱforȱaddressingȱnutrition.ȱTheseȱincludeȱreducingȱtheȱrateȱofȱlowȱ
birthȱ weight,ȱ eliminatingȱ orȱ reducingȱ specifiedȱ micronutrientȱ
deficiencies,ȱempoweringȱwomenȱtoȱbreastfeed,ȱpromotingȱgrowthȱandȱ
itsȱ regularȱ monitoring,ȱ disseminatingȱ knowledgeȱ andȱ supportingȱ
servicesȱ toȱ increaseȱ foodȱ productionȱ andȱ ensureȱ householdȱ foodȱ
security.ȱȱ
ȱ
Finally,ȱ theȱ UNȱ Generalȱ Assembly’sȱ Millenniumȱ Developmentȱ Goalsȱ
(MDGs)ȱcallȱ for,ȱamongȱ otherȱthings,ȱ reducingȱ byȱhalfȱ theȱ proportionȱ
ofȱ peopleȱ whoȱ sufferȱ fromȱ hungerȱ (MDGȱ 1)ȱ andȱ reducingȱ byȱ twoȱ
thirdsȱtheȱmortalityȱrateȱamongȱchildrenȱunderȱfiveȱ(MDGȱ4).ȱBecauseȱ
malnutritionȱ isȱ aȱ significantȱ causeȱ ofȱ underȬfiveȱ childȱ mortality,ȱ thisȱ
goalȱcannotȱbeȱachievedȱwithoutȱensuringȱadequateȱnutritionȱtoȱinfantsȱ
andȱ youngȱ children,ȱ girlsȱ andȱ womenȱ ofȱ childbearingȱ age,ȱ andȱ
pregnantȱandȱlactatingȱwomen.ȱȱ
ȱ
LegislativeȱReform:ȱRealisingȱtheȱRightȱtoȱAdequateȱNutritionȱȱ
ȱ
Whileȱ manyȱ internationalȱ instrumentsȱ eitherȱ establishȱ theȱ rightȱ toȱ
adequateȱ nutritionȱ orȱ reflectȱ agreementȱ onȱ strategiesȱ toȱ giveȱ effectȱ toȱ
thatȱ right,ȱ legislativeȱ reformȱ willȱ beȱ neededȱ inȱ mostȱ countriesȱ toȱ
implementȱandȱenforceȱtheȱright.ȱEngagingȱinȱaȱparticipatoryȱprocess,ȱ
governmentsȱshouldȱestablishȱapplicableȱlegalȱrequirementsȱfor:ȱ
x nutritionȱinterventions,ȱincludingȱdutiesȱ(e.g.,ȱonȱgovernments,ȱ
foodȱcompanies,ȱemployers)ȱtoȱensureȱtheirȱproperȱ
implementation;ȱȱ
x systemsȱforȱmonitoringȱnutritionȱgoalsȱandȱtargetsȱandȱforȱ
enforcingȱlegalȱrequirements;ȱȱ
x mechanismsȱofȱaccountabilityȱandȱaȱlegalȱrightȱofȱredressȱinȱ
nationalȱcourtsȱ(bothȱwithȱrespectȱtoȱtheȱfailureȱofȱtheȱ
governmentȱtoȱmeetȱitsȱlegalȱobligationsȱandȱtoȱviolationȱofȱ
specificȱobligationsȱimposedȱbyȱlawȱuponȱnonȬstateȱactors);ȱandȱȱ
x theȱcommitmentȱofȱnecessaryȱresources.ȱȱȱ
226
x EachȱofȱtheseȱelementsȱisȱdiscussedȱinȱtheȱsectionsȱonȱSpecificȱ
InterventionsȱtoȱFulfilȱChildren’sȱRightȱtoȱAdequateȱNutrition,ȱ
below.ȱȱ
ȱ
1.1ȱ TechnicalȱConsiderationsȱinȱEstablishingȱLegalȱ
Requirements:ȱLegislationȱorȱRegulationsȱ(Subsidiaryȱ
Legislation)?ȱȱȱ
ȱ
Whereȱ thereȱ isȱ broadȱ legalȱ authorityȱ underȱ anȱ existingȱ foodȱ control,ȱ
publicȱhealth,ȱandȱlabour,ȱorȱsimilarȱlaw,ȱlegislativeȱreformȱtoȱestablishȱ
appropriateȱ legalȱ requirementsȱ forȱ nutritionȱ interventionsȱ mayȱ takeȱ
theȱ formȱ ofȱ ministerialȱ regulationsȱ orȱ otherȱ subsidiaryȱ legislation.ȱ
Establishingȱrequirementsȱthroughȱregulationsȱhasȱsomeȱadvantages.ȱItȱ
usuallyȱ isȱ lessȱ timeȱ consumingȱ toȱ establishȱ regulationsȱ thanȱ toȱ enactȱ
newȱ legislation.ȱ Whereȱ technicalȱ requirementsȱ forȱ nutritionȱ
interventionsȱareȱlikelyȱtoȱchangeȱdueȱtoȱchangesȱinȱnutritionalȱstatusȱ
ofȱtheȱpopulation,ȱchangesȱinȱindustryȱpractices,ȱorȱotherȱfactors,ȱitȱwillȱ
beȱeasierȱandȱmoreȱefficientȱtoȱupdateȱregulationsȱthanȱlegislation.ȱȱȱ
ȱ
Where,ȱhowever,ȱthereȱisȱnotȱadequateȱauthorityȱinȱexistingȱlegislationȱ
toȱaddressȱtheȱfullȱrangeȱofȱnutritionȱinterventions,ȱitȱwillȱbeȱnecessaryȱ
toȱenactȱnewȱlegislation.ȱInȱaddition,ȱwhereȱthereȱisȱconcernȱthatȱfutureȱ
Ministersȱ mayȱ notȱ fullyȱ supportȱ theseȱ nutritionalȱ programmesȱ andȱ
requirements,ȱ itȱ mayȱ beȱ betterȱ toȱ enactȱ legislationȱ soȱ thatȱ theȱ legalȱ
requirementsȱcannotȱbeȱasȱeasilyȱundone.ȱȱȱ
ȱ
Inȱ conductingȱ theȱ legislativeȱ reviewȱ discussedȱ inȱ Chapterȱ 2ȱ ofȱ theȱ
Handbook,ȱ theseȱ factorsȱ shouldȱ beȱ assessedȱ toȱ determineȱ whetherȱ
legislativeȱreformȱforȱnutritionȱisȱbetterȱachievedȱthroughȱlegislationȱorȱ
regulations,ȱ orȱ aȱ combinationȱ ofȱ both.ȱ Theȱ lawȱ mightȱ require,ȱ forȱ
example,ȱthatȱlabelsȱonȱbreastmilkȱsubstitutesȱcarryȱspecifiedȱwarningsȱ
andȱmessages,ȱwithȱtheȱdetailsȱofȱexactȱwording,ȱplacement,ȱsize,ȱfontȱ
characteristics,ȱandȱotherȱdetailsȱleftȱtoȱregulations.ȱDetailedȱprovisionsȱ
toȱ implementȱ expressȱ legislativeȱ objectivesȱ areȱ almostȱ alwaysȱ betterȱ
leftȱ toȱ regulationsȱ toȱ allowȱ forȱ flexibilityȱ toȱ makeȱ changesȱ asȱ theyȱ
becomeȱnecessary.ȱȱ
ȱ
Asȱ governmentsȱ establishȱ legalȱ requirements,ȱ theȱ frameworkȱ forȱ
implementingȱtheȱConventionȱonȱtheȱRightsȱofȱtheȱChildȱ(CRC)ȱshouldȱ
227
beȱapplied.ȱThisȱframeworkȱensures:ȱ1)ȱnonȬdiscriminationȱȬȱnutritionȱ
interventionsȱ mustȱ ensureȱ thatȱ allȱ childrenȱ haveȱ accessȱ toȱ adequateȱ
nutrition,ȱregardlessȱofȱgenderȱandȱotherȱstatus;ȱ2)ȱbestȱinterestȱofȱtheȱ
childȱȬȱlegalȱprovisionsȱmustȱensureȱthatȱchildren’sȱrightsȱtoȱadequateȱ
nutritionȱ prevailȱ overȱ corporateȱ profits,ȱ forȱ example;ȱ 3)ȱ rightȱ ofȱ life,ȱ
survivalȱ development,ȱ andȱ protectionȱ Ȭȱ protectingȱ theȱ rightȱ toȱ
adequateȱnutritionȱisȱaȱpreconditionȱforȱlife,ȱsurvivalȱandȱdevelopment;ȱ
andȱ4)ȱrespectȱforȱtheȱviewsȱofȱtheȱchild.ȱȱ
ȱ
1.1.1ȱ ContentȱAreasȱforȱLegislativeȱReformȱforȱNutritionȱȱ
ȱ
1.ȱAddressingȱmicronutrientȱmalnutritionȱ
ȱ
Ensuringȱ accessȱ toȱ foodsȱ containingȱ essentialȱ micronutrients 239 ȱ isȱ aȱ
criticalȱcomponentȱofȱlegislativeȱreformȱtoȱfulfillȱtheȱrightȱtoȱadequateȱ
nutrition.ȱ Micronutrients,ȱ suchȱ asȱ iodine,ȱ iron,ȱ andȱ Vitaminȱ A,ȱ areȱ
necessaryȱinȱtheȱdietȱforȱtheȱproperȱmentalȱandȱphysicalȱdevelopmentȱ
andȱ healthȱ ofȱ theȱ fetusȱ andȱ youngȱ child.ȱ Inȱ theȱ bestȱ case,ȱ childrenȱ
withoutȱ theseȱ andȱ otherȱ criticalȱ micronutrientsȱ inȱ theirȱ dietsȱ mayȱ notȱ
developȱ toȱ theirȱ fullȱ potential.ȱ Inȱ theȱ worstȱ case,ȱ theyȱ mayȱ sufferȱ
unnecessaryȱ severeȱ disability,ȱ sickness,ȱ andȱ death,ȱ discussedȱ inȱ moreȱ
detailȱ inȱ theȱ section,ȱ Combatingȱ Micronutrientȱ Malnutrition.ȱ Therefore,ȱ
theȱ rightȱ toȱ accessȱ foodsȱ containingȱ essentialȱ micronutrientsȱ mustȱ beȱ
assuredȱifȱtheȱrightȱtoȱadequateȱnutritionȱisȱtoȱbeȱachieved.ȱȱ
ȱ
Aȱlargeȱproportionȱofȱpeopleȱworldwideȱlackȱsuchȱaccess,ȱhowever.ȱAsȱ
statedȱ inȱ Generalȱ Assemblyȱ Resolutionȱ 58/186ȱ onȱ theȱ Rightȱ toȱ Foodȱ
(2004),ȱ Para.ȱ 3,ȱ itȱ isȱ “intolerableȱ thatȱ …moreȱ thanȱ 2ȱ billionȱ peopleȱ
worldwideȱsufferȱfromȱhiddenȱhungerȱorȱmicronutrientȱmalnutrition.”ȱ
Para.ȱ7ȱstressesȱthatȱgovernmentsȱneedȱtoȱmakeȱeffortsȱtoȱmobiliseȱandȱ
optimiseȱ theȱ allocationȱ andȱ utilisationȱ ofȱ technicalȱ andȱ financialȱ
resourcesȱ fromȱ allȱ sources.ȱ Micronutrientȱ fortificationȱ isȱ oneȱ suchȱ
technicalȱ resource.ȱ Itȱ isȱ aȱ practical,ȱ costȬeffectiveȱ wayȱ toȱ addressȱ
micronutrientȱ deficiencies,ȱ employingȱ aȱ strategyȱ clearlyȱ withinȱ reachȱ
ofȱ governments.ȱ Fortificationȱ is,ȱ alongȱ withȱ ironȱ andȱ Vitaminȱ Aȱ
supplementȱ (capsule)ȱ distributionȱ andȱ otherȱ micronutrientȱ
programmingȱ(e.g.,ȱimprovingȱaccessȱtoȱandȱencouragingȱpeopleȱtoȱeatȱ
239
Essential micronutrients are nutrients required in tiny amounts over a lifetime for proper
physical and mental development and health.
228
foodsȱ naturallyȱ richȱ inȱ micronutrientsȱ andȱ nutritionȱ education),ȱ anȱ

importantȱstrategyȱforȱrealisingȱchildren’sȱrightȱtoȱadequateȱnutrition.ȱȱ
ȱ
Sinceȱ genderȱ inequalityȱ subjectsȱ girlsȱ andȱ womenȱ disproportionatelyȱ
toȱ hunger,ȱ foodȱ insecurity,ȱ andȱ poverty,ȱ itȱ isȱ noȱ surpriseȱ thatȱ aȱ largeȱ
percentageȱofȱadolescentȱgirlsȱandȱwomenȱacrossȱtheȱglobeȱsufferȱalsoȱ
fromȱ ironȱ deficiencyȱ andȱ anaemia.ȱ Micronutrientȱ programmesȱ areȱ
important,ȱ therefore,ȱ forȱ realisingȱ theirȱ rightsȱ toȱ adequateȱ nutritionȱ
andȱhealthȱandȱtoȱimprovingȱtheȱqualityȱofȱtheirȱlives,ȱasȱwellȱasȱthoseȱ
ofȱ theirȱ children.ȱ Althoughȱ aȱ dietȱ thatȱ providesȱ necessaryȱ
micronutrientsȱaloneȱwillȱnotȱfulfillȱtheȱrightȱtoȱadequateȱnutrition,ȱtheȱ
rightȱtoȱadequateȱnutritionȱcannotȱbeȱfulfilledȱwithoutȱit.ȱȱȱȱȱ
ȱ
Technicalȱ aspectsȱ ofȱ foodȱ fortificationȱ legislationȱ areȱ discussedȱ inȱ theȱ
section,ȱCombatingȱMicronutrientȱMalnutrition.ȱȱ
ȱ
2.ȱProtecting,ȱPromotingȱandȱSupportingȱBreastfeedingȱ
ȱ
Breastmilkȱ providesȱ theȱ idealȱ exclusiveȱ sourceȱ ofȱ nutritionȱ forȱ babiesȱ
upȱ toȱ theȱ ageȱ ofȱ sixȱ months,ȱ offeringȱ healthȬprotectiveȱ effectsȱ thatȱ
cannotȱ beȱ matchedȱ byȱ anyȱ otherȱ foodȱ source.ȱ Exclusiveȱ breastfeedingȱ
duringȱ theȱ firstȱ sixȱ monthsȱ isȱ theȱ bestȱ wayȱ toȱ strengthenȱ infants’ȱ
immunity,ȱ reduceȱ exposureȱ toȱ infectiousȱ agents,ȱ reduceȱ theȱ riskȱ ofȱ
obesityȱ andȱ otherȱ factorsȱ relatedȱ toȱ heartȱ disease,ȱ helpȱ overcomeȱ lowȱ
birthȱ weightȱ andȱ reduceȱ stunting. 240 , 241 ȱ Breastfedȱ babiesȱ haveȱ lowerȱ
ratesȱ ofȱ diarrhoea,ȱ respiratoryȱ infections,ȱ earȱ infectionsȱ andȱ otherȱ
infections.ȱ Breastfeedingȱ remainsȱ aȱ criticallyȱ importantȱ sourceȱ ofȱ
nutritionȱandȱhealthȱupȱtoȱtheȱageȱofȱtwoȱyears,ȱalongȱwithȱappropriateȱ
complementaryȱfoods.ȱ
ȱ
ThereȱisȱalsoȱanȱimportantȱlinkȱbetweenȱbreastfeedingȱandȱVitaminȱA.ȱ
Babiesȱ whoȱ areȱ notȱ breastfedȱ cannotȱ maintainȱ optimalȱ Vitaminȱ Aȱ
statusȱforȱmoreȱthanȱaȱfewȱweeks. 242 ȱBenefitsȱofȱbreastfeedingȱextendȱtoȱ
240
Quantifying the benefits of breastfeeding: A summary of the evidence, PAHO, Washington,
D.C., undated; available at www.paho.org/English/ao/fch/bobcontents.pdf (English)/www.
241
1990-2005 Celebrating the Innocenti Declaration on the Protection, Promotion and
Support of Breastfeeding: Past achievements, present challenges and priority actions for
infant and young child feeding, UNICEF, New York (2003).
242
Cervinskas, J. and Lotfi M. Vitamin A deficiency: Key resources in its prevention and
elimination. The Micronutrient Initiative Information Paper 1 (Second ed.), Micronutrient
229
theȱ motherȱ asȱ well,ȱ includingȱ bondingȱ betweenȱ motherȱ andȱ child,ȱ
improvedȱ postpartumȱ recovery,ȱ reducedȱ ironȱ loss,ȱ reducedȱ riskȱ ofȱ
breastȱandȱovarianȱcancersȱandȱincreasedȱchildȱspacing.ȱȱȱ
ȱ
Asȱ recognisedȱ inȱ theȱ 2005ȱ Innocentiȱ Declaration,ȱ “Exclusiveȱ
breastfeedingȱ isȱ theȱ leadingȱ preventiveȱ childȱ survivalȱ intervention.ȱ
Nearlyȱtwoȱmillionȱlivesȱcouldȱbeȱsavedȱeachȱyearȱthroughȱsixȱmonthsȱ
ofȱ exclusiveȱ breastfeedingȱ andȱ continuedȱ breastfeedingȱ withȱ
appropriateȱcomplementaryȱfeedingȱforȱupȱtoȱtwoȱyearsȱorȱlonger.” 243 ȱ
Legislationȱ isȱ necessaryȱ toȱ protectȱ breastfeedingȱ fromȱ practicesȱ thatȱ
undermineȱitȱandȱsupportȱworkingȱmothers’ȱabilityȱtoȱbothȱworkȱandȱ
breastfeedȱ theirȱ babies.ȱ Theseȱ protectionsȱ areȱ essentialȱ forȱ realisingȱ
children’sȱrightȱtoȱadequateȱnutrition.ȱȱ
ȱ
3.ȱPromotingȱHealthyȱDietsȱandȱPhysicalȱActivityȱȱ
ȱ
Childhoodȱ obesityȱ isȱ anȱ alarmingȱ globalȱ trendȱ thatȱ willȱ causeȱ
significantȱhealthȱ(e.g.,ȱdiabetes)ȱandȱsocialȱproblemsȱduringȱchildhoodȱ
andȱadolescence,ȱandȱchronicȱdiseasesȱsuchȱasȱheartȱdiseaseȱandȱcancerȱ
inȱ adultȱ life.ȱ Legislativeȱ reformȱ canȱ createȱ aȱ policyȱ environmentȱ thatȱ
supportsȱ healthyȱ eatingȱ andȱ increasedȱ physicalȱ activity.ȱ Legislativeȱ
measuresȱ canȱ changeȱ theȱ environmentȱ inȱ schoolsȱ andȱ inȱ theȱ
communityȱ thatȱ haveȱ tendedȱ toȱ promoteȱ theȱ consumptionȱ ofȱ
unhealthyȱfoods.ȱItȱalsoȱcanȱestablishȱfiscalȱpoliciesȱandȱotherȱmeasuresȱ
toȱ encourageȱ healthyȱ eatingȱ andȱ increasedȱ physicalȱ activityȱ toȱ
counteractȱ theȱ adverseȱ trendsȱ thatȱ haveȱ contributedȱ toȱ theȱ growingȱ
globalȱproblemȱofȱchildhoodȱobesity.ȱȱ
ȱ
Initiative, Ottawa (1996); available at

http://www.micronutrient.org/resources/publications/pub21.htm.
243
infant and young child feeding,. UNICEF, New York (2003).
230
1.2ȱ SpecificȱInterventionsȱtoȱFulfillȱChildren’sȱRightȱtoȱ
AdequateȱNutrition:ȱCombatingȱMicronutrientȱ
Malnutritionȱȱ
ȱȱ
1.2.1ȱ HealthȱEffectsȱofȱMicronutrientȱDeficienciesȱ
ȱ
Mildȱ orȱ moderateȱ levelsȱ ofȱ micronutrientȱ deficienciesȱ areȱ extremelyȱ
commonȱinȱalmostȱallȱcountries. 244 ȱIodineȱdeficiencyȱcarriesȱtheȱriskȱofȱ
neurological,ȱ neural,ȱ andȱ intellectualȱ impairments,ȱ spontaneousȱ
abortion,ȱ andȱ otherȱ healthȱ effects.ȱ Theȱ singleȱ largestȱ causeȱ ofȱ mentalȱ
retardationȱ andȱ brainȱ damageȱ worldwide,ȱ evenȱ subȬclinicalȱ levelsȱ ofȱ
Vitaminȱ Aȱ deficiencyȱ canȱ resultȱ inȱ reducedȱ IQȱ ofȱ 10Ȭ15ȱ points. 245 ȱ Itȱ isȱ
theȱ leadingȱ causeȱ ofȱ blindnessȱ throughoutȱ theȱ world.ȱ Atȱ subȬclinicalȱ
levels,ȱ itȱ impairsȱ theȱ body’sȱ abilityȱ toȱ fightȱ infection.ȱ Deficienciesȱ inȱ
Vitaminȱ Aȱ significantlyȱ increaseȱ illnessȱ andȱ deathȱ fromȱ measles,ȱ
respiratoryȱinfectionsȱandȱdiarrhoea. 246 ȱChildrenȱwithȱmildȱVitaminȱAȱ
deficiencyȱ inȱ someȱ countriesȱ haveȱ beenȱ foundȱ toȱ haveȱ 25Ȭ30ȱ perȱ centȱ
higherȱdeathȱrates. 247 ȱȱ
ȱ
Ironȱdeficiencyȱisȱwidespreadȱacrossȱtheȱglobe,ȱwithȱwomenȱandȱyoungȱ
childrenȱtheȱmostȱatȱrisk.ȱFiftyȱperȱcentȱofȱpregnantȱwomenȱandȱupȱtoȱ
50ȱ perȱ centȱ ofȱ childrenȱ underȱ theȱ ageȱ ofȱ fiveȱ inȱ developingȱ countriesȱ
areȱ ironȱ deficient. 248 ȱ Ironȱ deficiencyȱ andȱ anaemiaȱ areȱ associatedȱ withȱ
lowȱ birthȱ weight,ȱ impairedȱ cognitiveȱ functioning,ȱ lowerȱ schoolȱ
achievementȱ andȱ lowerȱ physicalȱ capacity.ȱ Itȱ isȱ estimatedȱ thatȱ inȱ mostȱ
developingȱ countries,ȱ ironȱ deficiencyȱ preventsȱ 40Ȭ60ȱ perȱ centȱ ofȱ
childrenȱ fromȱ reachingȱ theirȱ mentalȱ potential. 249 ȱ Ironȱ deficiencyȱ alsoȱ
244
Andersen, P. Vitamin and mineral deficiency: A global progress report. Micronutrient
Initiative, Ottawa, undated; available at http://www.unicef.org/media/files/vmd.pdf. Accessed
August 23, 2006.
245
Enriching lives: Overcoming vitamin and mineral malnutrition in developing countries,
World Bank, Washington D.C. (1995).
246
Repositioning Nutrition. World Bank, Washington, D.C. (2006); available at
247
Andersen, P. Vitamin and mineral deficiency: A global progress report. Micronutrient
August 23, 2006.
248
‘Micronutrients: Iodine iron and vitamin A’, UNICEF web site. Available at
http://www.unicef.org/nutrition/index_iodine.html. Accessed June 20, 2006.
249
Andersen, P. Vitamin and mineral deficiency: A global progress report, Micronutrient
August 23, 2006.
231
increasesȱ theȱ riskȱ ofȱ haemorrhageȱ andȱ sepsisȱ inȱ theȱ motherȱ duringȱ
childbirth.ȱ Ironȱ deficiencyȱ anaemiaȱ isȱ theȱ largestȱ causeȱ ofȱ maternalȱ
deathȱduringȱchildbirth. 250 ȱȱ
ȱ
Givenȱtheȱeffectsȱofȱmicronutrientȱdeficiencies,ȱitȱisȱclearȱthatȱtheȱrightsȱ
toȱ adequateȱ nutritionȱ andȱ healthȱ cannotȱ beȱ fulfilledȱ inȱ theȱ faceȱ ofȱ
widespreadȱ globalȱ orȱ nationalȱ prevalenceȱ ofȱ theseȱ deficiencies.ȱ
Micronutrientȱdeficienciesȱareȱaȱhugeȱcontributor,ȱalso,ȱtoȱtheȱeconomicȱ
lossesȱandȱpovertyȱeffectsȱofȱinadequateȱnutritionȱdiscussedȱabove.ȱ
ȱ
1.2.2ȱ SocioȬeconomicȱBenefitsȱofȱAddressingȱMicronutrientȱ
Deficienciesȱȱ
ȱ
Inȱ termsȱ ofȱ costȬbenefits,ȱ micronutrientȱ interventionsȱ areȱ aȱ bargain.ȱ
Theȱ Worldȱ Bankȱ hasȱ estimatedȱ thatȱ atȱ theȱ costȱ ofȱ 0.3ȱ %ȱ ofȱ grossȱ
domesticȱ productȱ (GDP),ȱ sustainedȱ eliminationȱ ofȱ iodine,ȱ iron,ȱ andȱ
VitaminȱAȱ deficienciesȱcouldȱcontributeȱmoreȱthanȱ5ȱperȱ centȱtoȱ GDPȱ
inȱ termsȱ ofȱ economic,ȱ socioȬeconomic,ȱ andȱ healthȱ benefits. 251 ȱ
Accordingȱ toȱ theȱ Bank,ȱ “noȱ otherȱ technologyȱ offersȱ asȱ largeȱ anȱ
opportunityȱ toȱ improveȱ lives...ȱ atȱ suchȱ lowȱ costȱ andȱ inȱ suchȱ aȱ shortȱ
time...” 252 ȱ Theȱ returnsȱ onȱ investingȱ inȱ micronutrientȱ programmesȱ areȱ
secondȱ onlyȱ toȱ addressingȱ HIV/AIDSȱ inȱ meetingȱ theȱ world’sȱ
developmentȱ challenges. 253 ȱ Theȱ Worldȱ Bankȱ suggestsȱ thatȱ
governments,ȱinȱtheirȱapproachȱtoȱaddressingȱmalnutrition,ȱpayȱspecialȱ
attentionȱto,ȱamongȱotherȱthings,ȱ“scalingȱupȱmicronutrientȱprogramsȱ
becauseȱ ofȱ theirȱ widespreadȱ prevalence,ȱ theirȱ effectȱ onȱ productivity,ȱ
theirȱaffordability,ȱandȱtheirȱextraordinarilyȱhighȱcostȬbenefitȱratios.” 254ȱ
ȱ
1.2.3ȱ TheȱCaseȱforȱFoodȱFortificationȱȱ
ȱ
Fortificationȱ ofȱ foodsȱ regularlyȱ consumedȱ byȱ aȱ largeȱ portionȱ ofȱ theȱ
populationȱ isȱ aȱ primary,ȱ sustainable,ȱ successfulȱ andȱ inexpensiveȱ wayȱ
toȱ addressȱ micronutrientȱ malnutrition.ȱ Fortification,ȱ therefore,ȱ isȱ anȱ
250
Ibid.
251
Enriching lives: Overcoming vitamin and mineral malnutrition in developing countries,
World Bank, Washington, D.C. (1995).
252
Ibid.
253
Repositioning Nutrition, World Bank, Washington, D.C. (2006); available at
254
Ibid.
232
importantȱ partȱ ofȱ anyȱ micronutrientȱ programme.ȱ Theȱ costȱ ofȱ

fortificationȱcanȱbeȱasȱlittleȱasȱaȱfewȱcentsȱperȱpersonȱperȱyear. 255 ȱȱȱ
ȱ
Supplementationȱ willȱ remainȱ anȱ essentialȱ partȱ ofȱ aȱ comprehensiveȱ
micronutrientȱ strategy,ȱ however,ȱ especiallyȱ forȱ thoseȱ notȱ reachedȱ byȱ
fortifiedȱfoods.ȱEvenȱwhenȱthereȱisȱbroadȱaccessȱtoȱironȬfortifiedȱfoods,ȱ
theseȱaloneȱoftenȱcannotȱfulfillȱtotalȱironȱneedsȱofȱadolescentȱgirlsȱandȱ
women.ȱ Asȱ aȱ result,ȱ ironȱ supplementsȱ willȱ likelyȱ continueȱ toȱ beȱ
necessaryȱ forȱ them.ȱ Publicȱ educationȱ andȱ healthȱ programmesȱ forȱ
controllingȱ malaria,ȱ measles,ȱ diarrhoea,ȱ parasiticȱ infectionsȱ andȱ otherȱ
diseasesȱ thatȱ interfereȱ withȱ theȱ absorptionȱ andȱ useȱ byȱ theȱ bodyȱ ofȱ
micronutrientsȱ alsoȱ areȱ necessaryȱ strategiesȱ toȱ complementȱ
fortification. 256 ȱȱ
ȱ
Vitaminȱ Aȱ fortificationȱ ofȱ sugarȱ hasȱ virtuallyȱ eliminatedȱ Vitaminȱ Aȱ
deficiencyȱ inȱ Guatemalaȱ andȱ hasȱ substantiallyȱ reducedȱ itȱ inȱ Elȱ
Salvadorȱ andȱ Honduras,ȱ inȱ combinationȱ withȱ supplementation.ȱ Ironȱ
fortificationȱofȱflourȱhasȱsubstantiallyȱreducedȱironȱdeficiencyȱinȱallȱofȱ
Chileȱ andȱ Venezuela,ȱ andȱ ironȱ fortificationȱ ofȱ riceȱ inȱ theȱ Philippinesȱ
hasȱ improvedȱ theȱ ironȱ statusȱ ofȱ schoolchildren. 257 ȱ ȱ Iodisedȱ saltȱ isȱ theȱ
primaryȱsourceȱofȱiodineȱinȱmanyȱcountriesȱacrossȱtheȱglobe.ȱSinceȱtheȱ
initialȱpushȱinȱtheȱearlyȱ1990sȱtoȱiodiseȱallȱsaltȱforȱhumanȱandȱanimalȱ
consumption,ȱ70ȱperȱcentȱofȱhouseholdsȱinȱtheȱdevelopingȱworldȱnowȱ
consumeȱiodisedȱsalt,ȱupȱfromȱ20ȱperȱcent.ȱIodineȱdeficiencyȱhasȱbeenȱ
virtuallyȱ eliminatedȱ inȱ manyȱ countriesȱ asȱ aȱ resultȱ ofȱ saltȱ iodization.ȱ
Thereȱareȱmanyȱotherȱfortificationȱsuccessȱstoriesȱacrossȱtheȱglobe.ȱȱ
ȱ
1.2.4ȱ FortificationȱIssuesȱȱ
ȱ
Foodȱ fortificationȱ generallyȱ hasȱ beenȱ acceptedȱ globallyȱ asȱ anȱ
important,ȱ costȬeffective,ȱ andȱ safeȱ strategyȱ forȱ addressingȱ
micronutrientȱ deficiencies.ȱ Becauseȱ someȱ concernsȱ haveȱ beenȱ raised,ȱ
however,ȱitȱisȱgoodȱtoȱbeȱawareȱofȱthemȱandȱpreparedȱtoȱaddressȱthemȱ
whenȱundertakingȱlegislativeȱreformȱforȱfoodȱfortification.ȱȱ
255
Andersen, P., Vitamin and mineral deficiency: A global progress report, Micronutrient
August 23, 2006.
256
Ibid.
257
233
ȱ
1.ȱFortifiedȱFoodsȱNotȱReachingȱtheȱEntireȱPopulationȱȱ
ȱ
Fortifiedȱ foodsȱ haveȱ theȱ potentialȱ inȱ manyȱ countriesȱ toȱ reachȱ largeȱ
segmentsȱ ofȱ theȱ population.ȱ Whileȱ theȱ wholeȱ populationȱ mayȱ notȱ beȱ
reached,ȱincludingȱtheȱpoorest,ȱsupplementationȱandȱotherȱprogrammesȱ
canȱ fillȱ inȱ theȱ gaps.ȱ Becauseȱ theȱ minimalȱ costsȱ ofȱ fortificationȱ areȱ
absorbedȱ byȱ theȱ consumer,ȱ governmentȱ resourcesȱ areȱ freedȱ upȱ toȱ
concentrateȱ onȱ thoseȱ segmentsȱ ofȱ theȱ populationȱ thatȱ doȱ notȱ haveȱ
accessȱ toȱ fortifiedȱ foodsȱ andȱ whoseȱ micronutrientȱ needsȱ cannotȱ beȱ
satisfiedȱbyȱfortifiedȱfoodsȱalone.ȱ
ȱ
2.ȱTheȱ‘Right’ȱofȱConsumersȱtoȱChooseȱNonȬfortifiedȱFoodsȱ
overȱFortifiedȱFoodsȱ
ȱ
Thisȱ isȱ aȱ misplacedȱ argumentȱ forȱ severalȱ reasons.ȱ First,ȱ anȱ essentialȱ
requirementȱforȱmakingȱanȱinformedȱchoiceȱisȱanȱunderstandingȱofȱtheȱ
devastatingȱ consequencesȱ ofȱ micronutrientȱ deficienciesȱ andȱ theȱ
benefitsȱ ofȱ fortifiedȱ foods.ȱ Mostȱ individualsȱ doȱ notȱ haveȱ thisȱ
understanding.ȱ Second,ȱ freeȱ choiceȱ dependsȱ onȱ theȱ availabilityȱ andȱ
accessibilityȱ ofȱ foodsȱ containingȱ micronutrientsȱ inȱ theirȱ naturalȱ state.ȱ
Inȱ areasȱ whereȱ micronutrientȱ deficienciesȱ areȱ prevalent,ȱ itȱ usuallyȱ isȱ
becauseȱ suchȱ foodsȱ areȱ notȱ availableȱ orȱ accessible.ȱ Forȱ example,ȱ inȱ
placesȱ whereȱ iodineȱ deficiencyȱ isȱ widespread,ȱ itȱ isȱ usuallyȱ becauseȱ
iodineȱhasȱleachedȱoutȱofȱtheȱsoilȱandȱcropsȱgrownȱinȱiodineȱdeficientȱ
soilȱ failȱ toȱ containȱ adequateȱ levelsȱ ofȱ iodine.ȱ Thereȱ usuallyȱ isȱ notȱ aȱ
sufficientȱ‘natural’ȱsourceȱofȱiodineȱinȱfoodsȱinȱsuchȱcases.ȱȱ
ȱ
Finally,ȱanȱindividual’sȱ‘right’ȱtoȱchooseȱnonȬfortifiedȱfoods,ȱwhenȱthatȱ
choiceȱisȱknowinglyȱmade,ȱmustȱbeȱbalancedȱagainstȱtheȱhumanȱrightȱ
toȱadequateȱnutritionȱofȱunderservedȱandȱmarginalizedȱgroups.ȱWhenȱ
analysingȱthisȱissueȱusingȱtheȱ‘bestȱinterestȱofȱtheȱchild’ȱprincipleȱofȱtheȱ
CRCȱ Framework,ȱ mandatoryȱ fortificationȱ underȱ appropriateȱ
conditionsȱwouldȱalmostȱalwaysȱbeȱtheȱresult.ȱFinally,ȱthereȱareȱmanyȱ
examplesȱ worldwide,ȱ likeȱ mandatoryȱ vaccinationȱ andȱ primaryȱ
education,ȱ whereȱ individualȱ choiceȱ isȱ balancedȱ againstȱ andȱ cedesȱ toȱ
theȱpublicȱgood.ȱȱ
ȱ
234
3.ȱTradeȱConcernsȱ
ȱ
Someȱ concernsȱ haveȱ beenȱ raisedȱ aboutȱ whetherȱ mandatoryȱ
fortificationȱ couldȱ violateȱ theȱ Worldȱ Tradeȱ Organizationȱ Agreementsȱ
orȱ regionalȱ tradeȱ agreements.ȱ Mandatoryȱ fortificationȱ shouldȱ notȱ
createȱaȱtradeȱproblemȱasȱlongȱas:ȱ1)ȱregulatoryȱmeasuresȱdoȱnotȱtreatȱ
importedȱ foodsȱ lessȱ favourablyȱ thanȱ domesticallyȱ producedȱ foods;ȱ 2)ȱȱ
thereȱ isȱ soundȱ scientificȱ healthȱ justificationȱ forȱ theȱ regulatoryȱ
requirements;ȱ andȱ 3)ȱ regulationsȱ areȱ notȱ moreȱ tradeȱ restrictiveȱ thanȱ
necessaryȱtoȱachieveȱtheȱgovernment’sȱhealthȱandȱnutritionȱobjectives.ȱ
Mostȱ governmentsȱ haveȱ adoptedȱ mandatoryȱ saltȱ iodizationȱ
requirementsȱandȱmanyȱhaveȱmandatedȱironȱorȱVitaminȱAȱfortificationȱ
withoutȱ beingȱ challengedȱ byȱ otherȱ governmentsȱ onȱ tradeȱ grounds.ȱ
Folicȱ acidȱ fortificationȱ alsoȱ hasȱ beenȱ requiredȱ inȱ someȱ countriesȱ
withoutȱgivingȱriseȱtoȱaȱtradeȱchallenge.ȱȱ
ȱ
1.2.5ȱ ContentȱofȱFoodȱFortificationȱLegislationȱ
ȱ
1.ȱEstablishingȱFortificationȱPolicyȱȱ
ȱ
Theȱ governmentȱ mustȱ decideȱ whichȱ foodsȱ shouldȱ beȱ fortifiedȱ withȱ
whichȱ micronutrients.ȱ Thisȱ decisionȱ willȱ needȱ toȱ takeȱ intoȱ
considerationȱ theȱ scopeȱ andȱ severityȱ ofȱ theȱ micronutrientȱ deficiency,ȱ
otherȱ sourcesȱ ofȱ theȱ micronutrientȱ inȱ theȱ diet,ȱ ifȱ any,ȱ accessibilityȱ ofȱ
thoseȱ sources,ȱ dietaryȱ consumptionȱ patternsȱ andȱ theȱ requirementsȱ ofȱ
otherȱ countriesȱ inȱ theȱ regionȱ (inȱ orderȱ toȱ supportȱ tradeȱ inȱ fortifiedȱ
foods).ȱȱ
ȱ
Thereȱhasȱbeenȱglobalȱconsensusȱforȱmandatoryȱiodizationȱofȱsaltȱsinceȱ
theȱ Worldȱ Summitȱ forȱ Children.ȱ Consensusȱ forȱ mandatoryȱ ironȱ
fortificationȱhasȱalsoȱgainedȱstrength,ȱandȱwithȱit,ȱfolicȱacidȱ(toȱpreventȱ
neuralȱ tubeȱdefects)ȱ andȱ zincȱ(toȱreduceȱtheȱincidenceȱ andȱseverityȱofȱ
childhoodȱinfectionsȱandȱstunting).ȱWhereȱfortificationȱwillȱbeȱsafeȱforȱ
theȱ vastȱ majorityȱ ofȱ theȱ populationȱ andȱ theȱ particularȱ micronutrientȱ
deficiencyȱisȱwidespread,ȱmandatoryȱfortificationȱofȱaȱspecifiedȱstapleȱ
foodȱ orȱ foodsȱ willȱ provideȱ protectionȱ forȱ theȱ mostȱ people.ȱ Aȱ
requirementȱforȱmandatoryȱfortificationȱalsoȱwillȱmakeȱmonitoringȱandȱ
enforcementȱeasier.ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ
ȱ
235
Havingȱaȱlawȱthatȱauthorisesȱtheȱappropriateȱministryȱtoȱestablishȱbothȱ
mandatoryȱ andȱ permissiveȱ fortificationȱ willȱ preventȱ theȱ governmentȱ
fromȱ havingȱ toȱ enactȱ aȱ newȱ lawȱ forȱ eachȱ fortificationȱ activityȱ
determinedȱ toȱ beȱ appropriate.ȱ Forȱ example,ȱ theȱ Philippines’ȱ Foodȱ
FortificationȱActȱofȱ2000,ȱSec.ȱ6,ȱrequiresȱfortificationȱofȱriceȱ(withȱiron),ȱ
wheatȱ flourȱ (withȱ Vitaminȱ Aȱ andȱ iron),ȱ andȱ sugarȱ andȱ cookingȱ oilȱ
(withȱ Vitaminȱ A).ȱ Theȱ lawȱ thenȱ authorisesȱ theȱ Nationalȱ Nutritionȱ
Councilȱ toȱ createȱ mandatoryȱ regulationsȱ forȱ theȱ fortificationȱ ofȱ otherȱ
stapleȱfoodsȱandȱtoȱallowȱfortificationȱofȱotherȱfoods.ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ
ȱ
2.ȱPublicȱEducationȱ
ȱ
Imposingȱ aȱ requirementȱ onȱ theȱ governmentȱ toȱ develop,ȱ disseminateȱ
andȱ fundȱ aȱ publicȱ educationȱ programmeȱ willȱ helpȱ ensureȱ thatȱ suchȱ
activitiesȱ areȱ carriedȱ out.ȱ Theȱ programmeȱ mightȱ includeȱ informationȱ
onȱ theȱ importanceȱ ofȱ consumingȱ micronutrients,ȱ theȱ roleȱ ofȱ fortifiedȱ
foods,ȱsupplementationȱandȱotherȱstrategies.ȱTheȱlawȱcanȱrequireȱthatȱ
thisȱ informationȱ beȱ targetedȱ toȱ vulnerableȱ groups,ȱ beȱ culturallyȱ
appropriateȱ andȱ addressȱ otherȱ particularȱ concerns.ȱ Inclusionȱ ofȱ
micronutrientȱ educationȱ inȱ schoolȱ curriculaȱ hasȱ alsoȱ beenȱ popularȱ inȱ
manyȱcountries.ȱPublicȱeducationȱandȱcurriculumȱrequirementsȱcanȱbeȱ
decidedȱ asȱ aȱ matterȱ ofȱ policy,ȱ withoutȱ theȱ needȱ forȱ aȱ legalȱ mandate;ȱ
however,ȱimposingȱaȱrequirementȱinȱtheȱlawȱshouldȱmakeȱadoptionȱofȱ
theȱpolicyȱmoreȱsustainable.ȱ
ȱ
3.ȱIncentivesȱȱ
ȱ
Governmentȱ sponsoredȱ andȱ fundedȱ publicȱ awarenessȱ andȱ mediaȱ
campaignsȱ onȱ theȱ benefitsȱ ofȱ fortifiedȱ foodsȱ canȱ beȱ aȱ powerfulȱ
incentiveȱ forȱ fortifiedȱ foodȱ producerȱ becauseȱ theseȱ activitiesȱ helpȱ
createȱdemandȱforȱfortifiedȱproducts.ȱOtherȱincentives,ȱsuchȱasȱreducedȱ
tariffsȱ andȱ taxesȱ onȱ fortificants,ȱ fortifiedȱ foodsȱ andȱ equipment,ȱ publicȱ
investment,ȱ sharingȱ ofȱ someȱ startȱ upȱ costsȱ (e.g.,ȱ equipmentȱ andȱ
fortificantȱ premixesȱ forȱ anȱ initialȱ period),ȱ andȱ anyȱ otherȱ appropriateȱ
localȱ strategiesȱ shouldȱ beȱ explored.ȱ Guatemala’sȱ law,ȱ forȱ example,ȱ
exemptsȱ machinery,ȱ laboratoryȱ equipment,ȱ accessories,ȱ spareȱ parts,ȱ
specificȱ micronutrientsȱ andȱ chemicalsȱ neededȱ forȱ foodȱ fortificationȱ
fromȱimportȱduties. 258ȱ
258
Decree Number 44-92 (1992).
236
ȱ
4.ȱProductȱStandardsȱȱ
ȱ
Standardsȱ forȱ theȱ foodȱ (forȱ example,ȱ salt)ȱ toȱ whichȱ aȱ fortificantȱ (forȱ
example,ȱ iodine)ȱ willȱ beȱ addedȱ shouldȱ beȱ basedȱ onȱ Codexȱ
Alimentariusȱ standards.ȱ Theȱ Codexȱ Alimentariusȱ (Codex)ȱ isȱ theȱ foodȱ
codeȱestablishedȱbyȱtheȱCodexȱAlimentariusȱCommissionȱofȱtheȱWorldȱ
Healthȱ Organizationȱ (WHO)ȱ andȱ Foodȱ andȱ Agricultureȱ Organizationȱ
(FAO).ȱFoodȱthatȱwillȱbeȱfortifiedȱgenerallyȱ mustȱmeetȱcertainȱqualityȱ
standardsȱ inȱ orderȱ toȱ retainȱ theȱ nutrientsȱ addedȱ orȱ restoredȱ throughȱ
fortification.ȱ Forȱ example,ȱ moistureȱ content,ȱ particleȱ sizeȱ andȱ
impuritiesȱ inȱ saltȱ canȱ affectȱ theȱ retentionȱ ofȱ addedȱ iodine.ȱ Followingȱ
theȱCodexȱstandardsȱforȱfoodȱgradeȱsaltȱwillȱaddressȱtheseȱissues.ȱȱ
ȱ
Boxȱ39:ȱTheȱRoleȱofȱtheȱCodexȱAlimentariusȱ
Theȱ Codexȱ Alimentariusȱ isȱ aȱ collectionȱ ofȱ foodȱ standards,ȱ codesȱ ofȱ practice,ȱ
guidelinesȱandȱotherȱrecommendationsȱdevelopedȱbyȱtheȱWHOȱandȱFAO.ȱTheȱ
standardsȱinȱtheȱCodexȱareȱdevelopedȱbyȱtheȱCodexȱAlimentariusȱCommission,ȱ
createdȱ inȱ 1963ȱ byȱ FAOȱ andȱ WHOȱ toȱ developȱ foodȱ standards,ȱ guidelinesȱ andȱ
codesȱofȱpracticeȱunderȱtheȱJointȱFAO/WHOȱFoodȱStandardsȱProgramme.ȱTheȱ
mainȱ purposesȱ ofȱ thisȱ Programmeȱ areȱ toȱ protectȱ theȱ healthȱ ofȱ theȱ consumers,ȱ
ensureȱ fairȱ practicesȱ inȱ theȱ foodȱ trade,ȱ andȱ promoteȱ coordinationȱ ofȱ allȱ foodȱ
standards. 259ȱ
ȱ
Underȱ theȱ agreementsȱ ofȱ theȱ Worldȱ Tradeȱ Organizationȱ (WTO),ȱ Codexȱ
standardsȱ serveȱ asȱ theȱ ‘internationalȱ standards’ȱ uponȱ whichȱ nationalȱ foodȱ
regulationsȱ shouldȱ beȱ basedȱ inȱ orderȱ toȱ fallȱ withinȱ requirementsȱ ofȱ applicableȱ
WTOȱ agreements.ȱ Theȱ Codexȱ Alimentariusȱ isȱ availableȱ atȱ
http://www.codexalimentarius.net/web/standard_list.do?lang=en.ȱ
ȱ
Standardsȱ forȱ fortificantȱ levelsȱ inȱ theȱ finalȱ productȱ willȱ dependȱ onȱ
factorsȱ likeȱ theȱ scopeȱ andȱ severityȱ ofȱ theȱ micronutrientȱ deficiency,ȱ
dietaryȱ intakeȱ andȱ foodȱ consumptionȱ patternsȱ inȱ theȱ countryȱ andȱ
climaticȱ conditionsȱ affectingȱ micronutrientȱ retention,ȱ amongȱ others.ȱ
Becauseȱ theseȱ mayȱ varyȱ amongȱ countriesȱ orȱ regions,ȱ theȱ Codexȱ doesȱ
notȱelaborateȱstandardsȱforȱlevelsȱofȱfortificantsȱinȱfoods.ȱȱȱ
ȱ
259
Codex Alimentarius website homepage. Available at
http://www.codexalimentarius.net/web/index_en.jsp. Accessed August 23.
237
5.ȱLabelingȱRequirementsȱȱ
ȱ
Labellingȱisȱimportantȱforȱinformingȱconsumersȱaboutȱtheȱproduct,ȱlikeȱ
theȱ fortificantȱ content,ȱ directionsȱ forȱ useȱ andȱ storage,ȱ theȱ dateȱ byȱ
whichȱ theȱ productȱ shouldȱ beȱ usedȱ andȱ similarȱ matters.ȱ Theȱ nameȱ ofȱ
theȱmanufacturer,ȱlot/batchȱnumber,ȱplaceȱofȱmanufacture,ȱandȱsimilarȱ
itemsȱ alsoȱ areȱ importantȱ componentsȱ ofȱ labelling.ȱ Thisȱ informationȱ
helpsȱ governmentsȱ withȱ inspectionsȱ andȱ enforcementȱ functions,ȱ
allowingȱthemȱtoȱtrackȱandȱtraceȱfoodsȱproducts.ȱTheȱCodexȱstandardsȱ
forȱlabellingȱshouldȱbeȱfollowed.ȱȱ
ȱ
Theȱ labelȱ alsoȱ canȱ beȱ aȱ goodȱ sourceȱ forȱ informingȱ consumersȱ ofȱ theȱ
importanceȱ ofȱ theȱ micronutrientȱ orȱ micronutrientsȱ supplied.ȱ Healthȱ
claimsȱ aboutȱ fortifiedȱ foods,ȱ however,ȱ shouldȱ beȱ carefullyȱ regulated.ȱ
Forȱexample,ȱtheȱlabelsȱofȱfortifiedȱbeastȱmilkȱsubstitutes,ȱifȱallowedȱtoȱ
includeȱhealthȱclaimsȱaboutȱtheirȱfortifiedȱproperties,ȱcouldȱundermineȱ
breastfeeding.ȱ Thisȱ wouldȱ beȱ detrimentalȱ toȱ infantȱ andȱ youngȱ childȱ
nutritionȱandȱhealthȱandȱwouldȱrunȱcounterȱtoȱtheȱCode.ȱȱ
ȱ
Guatemala’sȱ regulationsȱ requireȱ labelsȱ onȱ packagesȱ ofȱ sugar,ȱ whichȱ
mustȱbeȱfortified,ȱtoȱincludeȱtheȱdesignation:ȱVITAMINȱAȬFORTIFIEDȱ
SUGARȱandȱaȱsymbolȱȬȱaȱgreenȱorȱredȱeyeȱinȱtheȱmiddleȱofȱtheȱpackageȱ
Ȭȱ thatȱ allowsȱ peopleȱ whoȱ cannotȱ readȱ toȱ recogniseȱ it.ȱ Theȱ regulationsȱ
alsoȱ prohibitȱ advertisingȱ thatȱ attributesȱ therapeuticȱ propertiesȱ toȱ
fortifiedȱ sugarȱ orȱ thatȱ presentsȱ sugarȱ asȱ theȱ onlyȱ sourceȱ ofȱ vitaminȱ
A. 260 ȱProductsȱmanufacturedȱusingȱfortifiedȱsugarȱmustȱnotȱindicateȱitȱ
asȱ aȱ specialȱ qualityȱ ofȱ thatȱ product.ȱ Southȱ Africa’sȱ flourȱ fortificationȱ
regulationsȱ authoriseȱ theȱ useȱ ofȱ theȱ claimȱ ‘Fortifiedȱ forȱ betterȱ health’ȱ
alongȱ withȱ aȱ governmentȱ logoȱ onlyȱ onȱ theȱ foodsȱ specifiedȱ inȱ theȱ
regulations. 261 ȱȱ
ȱ
6.ȱPackagingȱRequirementsȱȱ
ȱ
Packingȱ canȱ beȱ importantȱ forȱ retentionȱ ofȱ micronutrients,ȱ protectingȱ
themȱfromȱmoisture,ȱdirectȱlight,ȱandȱotherȱelementsȱthatȱmightȱcauseȱ
theirȱ loss.ȱ Regulationsȱ shouldȱ provideȱ detailsȱ forȱ packagingȱ material,ȱ
size,ȱ andȱ similarȱ requirementsȱ thatȱ willȱ helpȱ protectȱ micronutrientȱ
260
Regulation for Vitamin A Sugar Fortification, Government Agreement 497-93 (1993).
261
Regulations Relating to the Fortification of Certain Foodstuffs (2003), Sec. 12.
238
content,ȱasȱapplicable.ȱForȱexample,ȱiodisedȱsaltȱusuallyȱisȱrequiredȱtoȱ
beȱ packagedȱ inȱ highȱ densityȱ polyethyleneȱ orȱ polypropyleneȱ bagsȱ orȱ
lowȱ densityȱ polyethyleneȱ linedȱ juteȱ bagsȱ noȱ largerȱ thanȱ 50kgȱ (soȱ thatȱ
theyȱcanȱbeȱliftedȱwithoutȱhooksȱwhichȱmightȱtearȱtheȱbagsȱandȱexposeȱ
theȱiodineȱtoȱdamagingȱelements).ȱTheȱCodexȱStandardȱforȱFoodȱGradeȱ
Salt,ȱCodexȱStanȱ150,ȱspecificallyȱaddressesȱpackagingȱforȱiodisedȱsalt,ȱ
recommendingȱessentiallyȱtheȱaboveȱrequirements.ȱ
ȱ
7.ȱRequirementsȱforȱStorage,ȱSalesȱandȱDistributionȱPracticesȱȱ
ȱ
Storageȱ conditionsȱ alsoȱ canȱ affectȱ micronutrientȱ retentionȱ basedȱ onȱ
exposureȱ toȱ theȱ elements.ȱ Therefore,ȱ legalȱ provisionsȱ shouldȱ specifyȱ
storageȱconditions.ȱ Asȱaȱ generalȱrule,ȱtheȱ‘Firstȱ InȬFirstȱ Out’ȱprincipleȱ
shouldȱ applyȱ toȱ dispatch,ȱ distribution,ȱ andȱ saleȱ ofȱ fortifiedȱ foods.ȱ
Southȱ Africa’sȱ regulationsȱ requireȱ thatȱ manufacturersȱ followȱ strictȱ
stockȱrotationȱproceduresȱtoȱpreventȱoldȱstockȱfromȱlosingȱpotencyȱandȱ
toȱcomplyȱwithȱtheȱshelfȱlifeȱexpiryȱdate. 262 ȱȱ
ȱ
8.ȱRequirementsȱforȱQualityȱAssuranceȱPracticeȱȱ
ȱ
Routineȱpracticeȱofȱqualityȱassuranceȱ(QA)ȱproceduresȱwillȱhelpȱensureȱ
theȱ efficacyȱ andȱ safetyȱ ofȱ fortifiedȱ foodȱ products.ȱ Therefore,ȱ theȱ lawȱ
shouldȱ requireȱ thatȱ manufacturersȱ establishȱ aȱ QAȱ Programmeȱ andȱ
maintainȱ recordsȱ ofȱ theirȱ QAȱ activities,ȱ makingȱ themȱ availableȱ toȱ theȱ
governmentȱ onȱ request.ȱ Theseȱ recordsȱ canȱ helpȱ informȱ theȱ
government’sȱ monitoringȱ andȱ inspectionȱ processesȱ andȱ helpȱ theȱ
governmentȱidentifyȱproblemȱareasȱwhereȱassistanceȱmayȱbeȱneeded.ȱȱȱȱȱ
ȱ
Boxȱ40:ȱStepsȱinȱQualityȱAssuranceȱProgrammesȱȱȱ
1)ȱ Productȱ specifications:ȱ Forȱ fortificants,ȱ foodȱ vehicle,ȱ andȱ anyȱ otherȱ ingredients,ȱ
specificationsȱ mustȱ beȱ documentedȱ asȱ met,ȱ asȱ wellȱ asȱ acceptableȱ deviations.ȱ Theseȱ
includeȱ specificationȱ ofȱ particleȱ size,ȱ colour,ȱ potency,ȱ andȱ levelȱ ofȱ fortification,ȱ asȱ
wellȱasȱanyȱotherȱrequirementȱwhichȱmightȱbeȱdeemedȱnecessary.ȱȱ
2)ȱProductȱsafetyȱassessment:ȱTheȱassessmentȱshouldȱaddressȱmicrobiological,ȱchemicalȱ
andȱphysicalȱhazardsȱforȱallȱingredientsȱandȱofȱtheȱfinishedȱproduct.ȱ
3)ȱ Productȱ analysis:ȱ Samplingȱ andȱ testingȱ proceduresȱ forȱ allȱ ingredientsȱ andȱ theȱ
finishedȱproductȱmustȱbeȱexplicitlyȱstated.ȱȱ
4)ȱDeterminationȱofȱcriticalȱandȱqualityȱcontrolȱpoints:ȱBasedȱonȱfirstȬhandȱknowledgeȱofȱ
theȱtotalȱprocessȱ(includingȱtheȱplantȱfacility,ȱequipmentȱandȱenvironment),ȱstagesȱatȱ
whichȱ inadequateȱ controlȱcouldȱ leadȱ toȱ unacceptableȱ healthȱ riskȱorȱ adverselyȱaffectȱ
262
Regulations Relating to the Fortification of Certain Foodstuffs (2003), Annexure 1(3).
239
productȱqualityȱareȱidentified.ȱTheȱsystemȱofȱcontrolsȱandȱactionsȱtoȱbeȱtakenȱatȱeachȱ
controlȱpointȱisȱdocumented.ȱȱ
5)ȱRecallȱsystem:ȱTheȱmechanismȱforȱproductȱrecallȱisȱoutlined,ȱifȱnecessary.ȱȱ
6)ȱ QAȱ audit:ȱ Periodicȱ checksȱ areȱ necessaryȱ toȱ verifyȱ thatȱ theȱ QAȱ systemȱ isȱ effectiveȱ
andȱproductȱqualityȱisȱmaintainedȱtoȱtheȱtimeȱofȱconsumerȱpurchase.ȱȱ
7)ȱ Feedbackȱ mechanism:ȱ Thereȱ shouldȱ beȱ anȱ establishedȱ mechanismȱ toȱ respondȱ toȱ
consumersȱandȱotherȱrelevantȱgroupsȱandȱcorrectȱanyȱdeficienciesȱdiscovered.ȱ
8)ȱDocumentationȱofȱQAȱsystem:ȱDetailsȱofȱtheȱQAȱprogrammeȱusedȱinȱtheȱproductionȱ
ofȱ theȱ fortifiedȱ foodȱ mustȱ beȱ readilyȱ availableȱ toȱ relevantȱ individualsȱ andȱ
organisations.ȱ
ȱ
Source:ȱ FAO.ȱ Micronutrient fortification of food: technology and quality control.ȱ Availableȱ atȱ
http://www.fao.org/docrep/w2840e/w2840e0b.htm#5.%20quality%20assurance%20and%20con
trol.ȱ
ȱ
9.ȱLicensureȱorȱRegistrationȱȱ
ȱ
Theȱ lawȱ shouldȱ requireȱ licensureȱ orȱ registrationȱ ofȱ allȱ manufacturersȱ
andȱ importersȱ ofȱ theȱfoodȱ thatȱ mustȱ orȱ mayȱ beȱ fortified.ȱ Licensureȱ ofȱ
manufacturersȱ andȱ importersȱ ofȱ fortificantsȱ alsoȱ shouldȱ beȱ required.ȱ
Theseȱ requirementsȱ willȱ helpȱ theȱ governmentȱ keepȱ aȱ recordȱ ofȱ
businessesȱitȱneedsȱtoȱmonitorȱandȱtraceȱnonȬcomplaintȱfoodsȱthroughȱ
theȱ licensureȱ orȱ registrationȱ numberȱ onȱ theȱ label.ȱ Legalȱ authorityȱ toȱ
suspendȱorȱrevokeȱ theȱlicenseȱ orȱregistrationȱinȱappropriateȱcasesȱcanȱ
beȱanȱeffectiveȱenforcementȱtool.ȱȱ
ȱ
Southȱ Africa’sȱ regulationsȱ requireȱ registrationȱ byȱ anyȱ personȱ whoȱ
manufacturers,ȱ imports,ȱ orȱ suppliesȱ aȱ fortificationȱ mix.ȱ Foodȱ
manufacturersȱ andȱ importersȱ mayȱ onlyȱ purchaseȱ fortificationȱ mixesȱ
fromȱ registeredȱ companies. 263 ȱ Guatemala’sȱ lawȱ requiresȱ sugarȱ
importers,ȱ subȬdividers,ȱ andȱ marketersȱ toȱ obtainȱ aȱ healthȱ registrationȱ
numberȱ andȱ aȱ licenseȱ fromȱ theȱ Ministryȱ ofȱ Healthȱ toȱ operate.ȱ Theȱ
moneyȱ collectedȱ isȱ depositedȱ inȱ theȱ Ministryȱ ofȱ Healthȇsȱ Foodȱ
Registrationȱ andȱ Controlȱ Departmentȱ accountȱ andȱ mustȱ beȱ usedȱ onlyȱ
forȱVitaminȱAȱsugarȱfortificationȱcontrolȱactivitiesȱandȱcosts. 264 ȱȱ
ȱ
263
Regulations Relating to the Fortification of Certain Foodstuffs (2003), Sec. 8(a).
264
Regulation for Vitamin A Sugar Fortification, Governmental Agreement No. 497-93,
Article 2.
240
10.ȱInspectionȱandȱEnforcementȱPowersȱandȱDutiesȱ
ȱ
Broadȱ inspectionȱ powersȱ andȱ clearȱ dutiesȱ ofȱ enforcementȱ inȱ theȱ lawȱ
willȱ helpȱ withȱ ensuringȱ compliance,ȱ especiallyȱ whereȱ multipleȱ
ministriesȱ orȱ agenciesȱ willȱ haveȱ inspectionȱ andȱ enforcementȱ roles.ȱ
Inspectionȱ powersȱ mightȱ includeȱ theȱ rightȱ toȱ enterȱ premisesȱ duringȱ
reasonableȱ hours,ȱ examineȱ andȱ copyȱ documentsȱ andȱ seizeȱ goodsȱ andȱ
testȱproducts,ȱamongȱothers.ȱForȱeffectiveȱenforcement,ȱtheȱlawȱshouldȱ
provideȱ aȱ rangeȱ ofȱ appropriateȱ penaltiesȱ forȱ violations,ȱ including,ȱ forȱ
example,ȱ licensureȱ orȱ registrationȱ suspensionȱ orȱ cancellation,ȱ fines,ȱ
adverseȱ publicity,ȱ andȱ confiscationȱ ofȱ nonȬcompliantȱ products,ȱ
materials,ȱ equipment,ȱ orȱ otherȱ items.ȱ Inȱ casesȱ whereȱ theȱ governmentȱ
takesȱ anȱ enforcementȱ actionȱ andȱ wins,ȱ theȱ lawȱ canȱ provideȱ forȱ
recoveryȱofȱtheȱcostsȱofȱtakingȱtheȱaction.ȱȱ
ȱ
Guatemala’sȱ Decreeȱ providesȱ forȱ aȱ broadȱ rangeȱ ofȱ penalties.ȱ Theseȱ
include:ȱaȱwrittenȱwarning;ȱaȱfineȱwhichȱcanȱrangeȱfromȱ2ȱtoȱ150ȱtimesȱ
theȱ monthlyȱ minimumȱ wage,ȱ upȱ toȱ 100ȱ perȱ centȱ ofȱ theȱ valueȱ ofȱ theȱ
goodsȱ orȱ services;ȱ forȱ repeatȱ violations,ȱ publicationȱ ofȱ theȱ reasonȱ forȱ
theȱ sanctionȱ inȱ atȱ leastȱ twoȱ newspapersȱ withȱ aȱ highȱ circulation;ȱ
suspensionȱ ofȱ businessȱ orȱ commercialȱ activitiesȱ andȱ suspensionȱ ofȱ
licensesȱ andȱ healthȱ registrations;ȱ closureȱ ofȱ theȱ establishment,ȱ
business,ȱ orȱ enterpriseȱ withȱ annulmentȱ ofȱ registrationsȱ andȱ healthȱ
licenses;ȱandȱconfiscationȱofȱrawȱmaterials,ȱfoods,ȱtools,ȱmaterials,ȱandȱ
objectsȱ relatedȱ toȱ theȱ violationȱ committed.ȱ Sugarȱ thatȱ doesȱ notȱ meetȱ
regulatoryȱ requirementsȱ willȱ beȱ auctionedȱ forȱ industrialȱ useȱ inȱ
productsȱ forȱ export.ȱ Fundsȱ raisedȱ throughȱ thisȱ processȱ willȱ becomeȱ
partȱofȱtheȱFoodȱRegistrationȱandȱControlȱDepartmentȇsȱprivateȱfundsȱ
toȱbeȱusedȱexclusivelyȱforȱtheȱsugarȱfortificationȱcontrolȱprocess. 265 ȱȱ
ȱ
Legalȱrequirementsȱrelatedȱtoȱmicronutrientȱinterventionsȱalsoȱshouldȱ
includeȱfundingȱandȱaȱmandateȱtoȱimplementȱsupplementȱprogramsȱtoȱ
targetȱ populationsȱ notȱ reachedȱ byȱ fortifiedȱ foods.ȱ Alternatively,ȱ
supplementȱ programmesȱ canȱ beȱ implementedȱ basedȱ onȱ aȱ policyȱ
decision.ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ
ȱ
265
Regulation for Vitamin A Sugar Fortification, Governmental Agreement No. 497-93,
Article 17.
241
1.3ȱ PromotingȱOptimalȱNutritionȱandȱHealthȱduringȱ
InfancyȱandȱEarlyȱChildhood:ȱAdoptingȱandȱStrengtheningȱ
theȱInternationalȱCodeȱofȱMarketingȱofȱBreastmilkȱ
Substitutesȱȱ
ȱ
1.3.1ȱ HealthȱBenefitsȱofȱBreastfeedingȱ
ȱ
Exclusiveȱbreastfeedingȱduringȱtheȱfistȱsixȱmonthsȱandȱtheȱappropriateȱ
useȱ ofȱ complementaryȱ foodsȱ haveȱ theȱ potentialȱ toȱ preventȱ moreȱ thanȱ
twiceȱ asȱ manyȱ deathsȱ inȱ childrenȱ underȱ fiveȱ asȱ anyȱ otherȱ
intervention. 266 ȱ Theȱ benefitsȱ ofȱ breastfeedingȱ toȱ bothȱ theȱ childȱ andȱ
motherȱhaveȱbeenȱhighlightedȱearlierȱinȱtheȱsubȬchapter.ȱ
ȱ
1.3.2ȱ RisksȱwithȱBottleȬFeedingȱ
ȱ
Becauseȱ breastfeedingȱ providesȱ unrivalledȱ nutritional,ȱ health,ȱ andȱ
developmentalȱ benefits,ȱ bottleȬfeedingȱ isȱ aȱ clearlyȱ inferiorȱ infantȱ andȱ
youngȱ childȱ feedingȱ practice.ȱ Inȱ addition,ȱ bottleȬfeedingȱ canȱ beȱ
dangerousȱ andȱ deadly.ȱ Inȱ manyȱ partsȱ ofȱ theȱ worldȱ whereȱ waterȱ isȱ
unsafe,ȱ mixingȱ itȱ withȱ powderedȱ formulaȱ canȱ causeȱ infection,ȱ
diarrhoea,ȱ andȱ resultingȱ dehydration,ȱ malnutritionȱ andȱ death.ȱ
Improperȱsterilizationȱofȱbottlesȱandȱteats,ȱaȱproblemȱcompoundedȱbyȱ
lowȱ levelsȱ ofȱ literacy,ȱ canȱ alsoȱ causeȱ infectionȱ withȱ seriousȱ andȱ
potentiallyȱdeadlyȱresults.ȱAdditionally,ȱpoweredȱformulaȱcanȱcontainȱ
microbiologicalȱ contaminantsȱ (e.g.,ȱ E.ȱ sakazaki,ȱ Salmonella)ȱ thatȱ canȱ
causeȱsicknessȱandȱdeath.ȱȱ
ȱ
Sinceȱ formulaȱ isȱ expensive,ȱ poorȱ familiesȱ mayȱ notȱ beȱ ableȱ toȱ affordȱ
adequateȱ amountsȱ ofȱ itȱ andȱ mayȱ addȱ waterȱ toȱ makeȱ itȱ lastȱ longer.ȱ
Whereȱtheȱwaterȱisȱunsafe,ȱtheȱbadȱhealthȱeffectsȱdiscussedȱaboveȱwillȱ
beȱcompounded.ȱEvenȱwhereȱtheȱwaterȱisȱsafe,ȱdilutedȱformulaȱwillȱnotȱ
provideȱ theȱ babyȱ withȱ adequateȱ nutrition,ȱ potentiallyȱ leadingȱ toȱ
malnutrition.ȱ Incomeȱ spentȱ onȱ formula,ȱ whenȱ breastmilkȱ isȱ aȱ moreȱ
nutritiousȱresourceȱthatȱisȱfreelyȱavailable,ȱpotentiallyȱdivertsȱresourcesȱ
awayȱfromȱotherȱfoodsȱorȱneededȱitems.ȱȱ
ȱ
266
Repositioning Nutrition,.World Bank, Washington, D.C (2006); available at
242
1.3.3ȱ TheȱNeedȱforȱtheȱCode: 267 ȱPracticesȱUnderminingȱBreastfeedingȱ

ȱ
Whenȱ infantȱ formulaȱ companiesȱ beganȱ aggressivelyȱ marketingȱ theirȱ
productsȱ inȱ theȱ earlyȬȱ andȱ midȬ1900s,ȱ worldwideȱ declinesȱ inȱ
breastfeedingȱ followed.ȱ Medicalȱ professionalsȱ atȱ theȱ timeȱ lackedȱ
adequateȱ knowledgeȱ ofȱ theȱ enormousȱ benefitsȱ ofȱ breastfeeding.ȱ Asȱ aȱ
result,ȱtheyȱunderminedȱbreastfeedingȱthroughȱtheirȱownȱpractices,ȱforȱ
example,ȱ byȱ separatingȱ motherȱ andȱ babyȱ afterȱ birthȱ andȱ limitingȱ
breastfeedingȱ times.ȱ Thisȱ helpedȱ setȱ theȱ stageȱ forȱ mothers’ȱ
receptivenessȱ toȱ breastmilkȱ substitutesȱ andȱ theirȱ intensiveȱ
marketing. 268 ȱȱ
ȱ
Toȱ addressȱ theȱ practicesȱ contributingȱ toȱ theȱ decliningȱ ratesȱ ofȱ
breastfeedingȱ andȱ theȱ resultingȱ increasingȱ ratesȱ ofȱ infantȱ andȱ youngȱ
childȱ malnutrition,ȱ morbidityȱ andȱ mortality,ȱ theȱ Worldȱ Healthȱ
Assemblyȱ adoptedȱ theȱ Codeȱ inȱ 1981.ȱ Theȱ Codeȱ aimsȱ toȱ limitȱ
companies’ȱ marketingȱ practicesȱ thatȱ interfereȱ withȱ theȱ protectionȱ andȱ
promotionȱ ofȱ breastfeedingȱ byȱ prohibitingȱ advertisingȱ andȱ allȱ otherȱ
formsȱofȱpromotionȱofȱbreastmilkȱsubstitutes,ȱfeedingȱbottlesȱandȱteats.ȱ
Itȱ alsoȱ aimsȱ toȱ preventȱ inappropriateȱ healthȱ systemȱ practicesȱ thatȱ
amountȱtoȱendorsementsȱofȱbottleȱfeeding,ȱamongȱotherȱthings.ȱȱ
ȱ
Marketingȱ practicesȱ atȱ theȱ timeȱ theȱ Codeȱ wasȱ developedȱ wereȱ andȱ
continueȱ toȱ beȱ aggressive,ȱ misleadingȱ andȱ deceptive.ȱ Aȱ particularlyȱ
popularȱ andȱ successfulȱ marketingȱ strategyȱ hasȱ beenȱ toȱ promoteȱ
breastmilkȱ substitutesȱ throughȱ theȱ healthȱ careȱ system.ȱ Someȱ ofȱ theseȱ
marketingȱpracticesȱareȱdiscussedȱbelow.ȱ
ȱ
1.ȱ Donatingȱ freeȱ orȱ reducedȱ costȱ suppliesȱ andȱ samplesȱ ofȱ infantȱ
formula.ȱ Donatedȱ productsȱ areȱ usedȱ inȱ facilitiesȱ andȱ healthȱ workersȱ
passȱtheȱsamplesȱonȱtoȱmothers.ȱThisȱtendsȱtoȱserveȱasȱaȱhealthȱsystemȱ
endorsementȱ ofȱ formulaȱ feedingȱ inȱ generalȱ andȱ ofȱ theȱ brandȱ usedȱ inȱ
theȱ facilityȱ inȱ particular.ȱ Babiesȱ thatȱ areȱ bottleȱ fedȱ inȱ theȱ hospitalȱ areȱ
unlikelyȱ toȱ beȱ breastfedȱ atȱ homeȱ becauseȱ breastmilkȱ productionȱ isȱ
dependentȱ onȱ suckling,ȱ whichȱ bottleȱ feedingȱ prevents.ȱ Additionally,ȱ
bottleȱuseȱcanȱcauseȱnippleȱconfusion.ȱTheseȱthingsȱmakeȱbreastfeedingȱ
moreȱ difficult,ȱ potentiallyȱ causingȱ mothersȱ toȱ loseȱ confidenceȱ inȱ theirȱ
267
References to the Code include subsequent WHA resolutions.
268
Ibid.
243
abilityȱ toȱ breastfeedȱ andȱ makingȱ bottleȱ feedingȱ theȱ moreȱ attractiveȱ
option.ȱȱȱȱȱ
ȱ
2.ȱEmployingȱ‘motherȱcraftȱnurses.ȱTheseȱwereȱemployeesȱofȱformulaȱ
companiesȱ workingȱ inȱ hospitalsȱ toȱ teachȱ newȱ mothersȱ aboutȱ infantȱ
careȱ andȱ toȱ handȱ outȱ samplesȱ andȱ sellȱ formula.ȱ Thisȱ practiceȱ wasȱ
stoppedȱ afterȱ aȱ successfulȱ campaignȱ inȱ theȱ 1970s,ȱ butȱ itȱ hasȱ evolvedȱ
intoȱotherȱstrategiesȱbyȱwhichȱcompaniesȱprovideȱmothersȱwithȱinfantȱ
careȱ andȱ nutritionȱ advice,ȱ suchȱ asȱ throughȱ ‘babyȱ clubs,’ȱ discussedȱ
below.ȱ
ȱȱ
3.ȱ Makingȱ giftsȱ toȱ healthȱ workers.ȱ Giftsȱ suchȱ asȱ officeȱ suppliesȱ andȱ
otherȱitemsȱbearingȱtheȱbrandȱorȱcompanyȱnameȱorȱlogoȱgetȱdisplayedȱ
inȱ healthȱ facilities,ȱ servingȱ toȱ promoteȱ theȱ product.ȱ Thisȱ practiceȱ
continuesȱtoday.ȱ
ȱ
4.ȱ Sponsoringȱ healthȱ workers.ȱ Payingȱ healthȱ workers’ȱ expensesȱ toȱ
attendȱprofessionalȱconferences,ȱprovidingȱresearchȱgrantsȱandȱgivingȱ
otherȱ perquisitesȱ isȱ anotherȱ popularȱ practiceȱ thatȱ theȱ Codeȱ seeksȱ toȱ
limit,ȱbutȱfailsȱtoȱprohibit.ȱThisȱpracticeȱisȱincreasingȱinȱintensityȱandȱisȱ
ofȱseriousȱconcernȱbecauseȱitȱconstitutesȱaȱconflictȱofȱinterest.ȱȱȱ
ȱ
Labellingȱ alsoȱ hasȱ beenȱ andȱ continuesȱ toȱ beȱ anotherȱ popularȱ wayȱ ofȱ
promotingȱ theȱ useȱ ofȱ breastȱ milkȱ substitutes.ȱ Commonȱ labellingȱ
practicesȱ atȱ theȱ timeȱ theȱ Codeȱ wasȱ adoptedȱ included,ȱ amongȱ otherȱ
things,ȱ idealisingȱ breastmilkȱ substitutesȱ byȱ comparingȱ themȱ
favourablyȱtoȱbreastmilk,ȱmakingȱclaimsȱaboutȱtheirȱbenefitsȱtoȱhealth,ȱ
printingȱ picturesȱ ofȱ healthy,ȱ thrivingȱ babiesȱ onȱ labels,ȱ andȱ similarȱ
practices.ȱ Moreȱ sophisticatedȱ practicesȱ haveȱ followed,ȱ includingȱ
makingȱ misleadingȱ healthȱ claims,ȱ suchȱ asȱ theȱ benefitsȱ ofȱ fattyȱ acidsȱ
addedȱtoȱformulaȱtoȱenhanceȱintelligence. 269ȱ
ȱ
Aȱ summaryȱ ofȱ theȱ Code’sȱ provisionsȱ toȱ addressȱ theseȱ andȱ otherȱ
practicesȱisȱcontainedȱinȱAnnexȱ1.ȱȱȱ
ȱ
269
Breaking the rules, stretching the rules. IBFAN, Penang, Malaysia (2004); available at
http://www.ibfan.org/english/codewatch/btr04/btr04contents.html. Accessed August 23, 2006.
244
1.3.4ȱ IssuesȱRelatedȱtoȱtheȱCodeȱ
ȱ
1.ȱHIVȱandȱBreastfeedingȱ
ȱ
Itȱisȱestimatedȱthatȱ5Ȭ20ȱperȱcentȱofȱchildrenȱwhoȱbreastfeedȱfromȱHIVȬ
infectedȱ mothersȱ becomeȱ infectedȱ throughȱ breastfeeding. 270 ȱ Whileȱ
avoidingȱ breastfeedingȱ mightȱ lowerȱ theȱ riskȱ ofȱ HIVȱ transmissionȱ
throughȱthisȱchannel,ȱbottleȬfeedingȱcanȱincreaseȱtheȱriskȱofȱillnessȱandȱ
deathȱ dueȱ toȱ higherȱ ratesȱ ofȱ otherȱ infections,ȱ asȱ alreadyȱ discussed.ȱ Aȱ
sixȬfoldȱincreaseȱinȱchildȱmortalityȱcanȱresultȱfromȱartificialȱfeedingȱinȱ
someȱ countriesȱ andȱ thisȱ mustȱ beȱ weighedȱ againstȱ theȱ risksȱ ofȱ HIVȱ
transmissionȱthroughȱbreastmilk. 271 ȱȱ
ȱ
UNȱ policyȱ onȱ HIVȱ andȱ breastfeedingȱ recommendsȱ exclusiveȱ
breastfeedingȱ byȱ HIVȬinfectedȱ mothersȱ forȱ theȱ firstȱ monthsȱ ofȱ lifeȱ
whereȱ artificialȱ feedingȱ isȱ notȱ acceptable,ȱ feasible,ȱ affordable,ȱ
sustainableȱandȱsafe.ȱWhereȱtheseȱconditionsȱcannotȱbeȱmet,ȱavoidanceȱ
ofȱallȱbreastfeedingȱisȱrecommended.ȱTheȱpolicyȱalsoȱrecommendsȱthatȱ
HIVȬpositiveȱ mothersȱ beȱ counselledȱ aboutȱ theȱ risksȱ andȱ benefitsȱ ofȱ
feedingȱoptionsȱbasedȱonȱlocalȱassessments.ȱMothersȱalsoȱshouldȱhaveȱ
accessȱ toȱ informationȱ onȱ followȬupȱ careȱ andȱ support,ȱ includingȱ
nutritionalȱ andȱ familyȱ planningȱ support.ȱ Exclusiveȱ breastfeedingȱ forȱ
sixȱ monthsȱ isȱ recommendedȱ forȱ womenȱ whoȱ doȱ notȱ knowȱ theirȱ HIVȱ
status. 272ȱ
ȱ
2.ȱTheȱCodeȱandȱWorldȱTradeȱAgreementsȱ
ȱ
Nationalȱ lawsȱ orȱ regulationsȱ incorporatingȱ theȱ Codeȱ shouldȱ notȱ beȱ
consideredȱ illegalȱ tradeȱ barriersȱ forȱ similarȱ reasonsȱ mandatoryȱ
fortificationȱ lawsȱ orȱ regulationsȱ wouldȱ notȱ (discussedȱ inȱ theȱ
micronutrientȱ malnutritionȱ sectionȱ above).ȱ Inȱ addition,ȱ theȱ relevantȱ
provisionsȱ ofȱ theȱ Codeȱ wouldȱ likelyȱ beȱ consideredȱ toȱ establishȱ
‘internationalȱ standards.’ȱ Sinceȱ theȱ relevantȱ WTOȱ Agreementȱ onȱ
TechnicalȱBarriersȱtoȱTradeȱrequiresȱthatȱinternationalȱstandardsȱserveȱ
asȱ theȱ basisȱ forȱ domesticȱ regulations,ȱ regulatoryȱ provisionsȱ basedȱ onȱ
270
infant and young child feeding, UNICEF, Florence (2005).
271
Ibid.
272
Ibid.
245
theȱ Codeȱ shouldȱ notȱ violateȱ tradeȱ rules. 273 ȱ Itȱ isȱ notȱ asȱ clearȱ thatȱ
exceedingȱ theȱ minimumȱ standardsȱ ofȱ theȱ Codeȱ wouldȱ enjoyȱ thisȱ
protection.ȱHereȱagain,ȱasȱwithȱfortificationȱrequirements,ȱthereȱshouldȱ
beȱaȱsoundȱbasisȱforȱdemonstratingȱthatȱanyȱtradeȬrestrictiveȱmeasureȱ
isȱnecessaryȱtoȱpromoteȱaȱlegitimateȱpurposeȱofȱtheȱgovernment.ȱWithȱ
regardȱtoȱadvertisingȱrestrictions,ȱtheȱWTOȱjudicialȱbodyȱinȱanȱearlierȱ
case,ȱtheȱThaiȱCigaretteȱCase, 274 ȱsuggestedȱthatȱadvertisingȱrestrictionsȱ
didȱnotȱviolateȱtheȱGeneralȱAgreementȱonȱTariffsȱandȱTrade.ȱȱȱ
ȱ
3.ȱContentȱofȱLegislativeȱProvisionsȱtoȱAdoptȱtheȱCodeȱȱ
ȱ
Theȱ Codeȱ representsȱ aȱ significantȱ globalȱ publicȱ healthȱ policyȱ
achievement.ȱStill,ȱitȱisȱonlyȱaȱrecommendationȱfromȱtheȱWorldȱHealthȱ
Assembly.ȱ Asȱ aȱ result,ȱ itȱ mustȱ beȱ implementedȱ throughȱ nationalȱ
legislationȱorȱregulationsȱtoȱgiveȱitȱtheȱforceȱofȱlaw.ȱItȱisȱworthȱnotingȱ
thatȱtheȱCodeȱwasȱadoptedȱasȱaȱminimumȱstandardȱandȱcountriesȱcanȱ
adoptȱ andȱ haveȱ adoptedȱ legislationȱ goingȱ beyondȱ thisȱ minimumȱ
standardȱ inȱ orderȱ toȱ protectȱ breastfeedingȱ adequately.ȱ Thisȱ sectionȱ
concentratesȱ onȱ makingȱ recommendationsȱ toȱ preventȱ knownȱ orȱ
anticipatedȱ evasionȱ tacticsȱ atȱ theȱ nationalȱ level.ȱ Examplesȱ ofȱ strongȱ
provisionsȱfromȱdifferentȱcounties’ȱlawsȱalsoȱareȱpresentedȱasȱpossibleȱ
guidance,ȱ asȱ applicable.ȱ Aȱ Modelȱ Law,ȱ developedȱ byȱ theȱ Internationalȱ
Codeȱ Documentȱ Centerȱ forȱ implementingȱ theȱ Code,ȱ isȱ anȱ excellentȱ
resourceȱforȱlegislativeȱdraftingȱandȱisȱcontainedȱinȱAnnexȱ1.ȱȱ
ȱ
4.ȱScopeȱofȱtheȱLawȱ
ȱ
TheȱCodeȱappliesȱtoȱproductsȱ‘forȱuseȱasȱaȱpartialȱorȱtotalȱreplacementȱ
ofȱbreastmilk.’ȱSomeȱcompaniesȱclaimȱtoȱinterpretȱthisȱphraseȱtoȱmeanȱ
thatȱ theȱ Codeȱ appliesȱ onlyȱ toȱ infantȱ formula. 275 ȱ ȱ Companiesȱ alsoȱ
exploitȱ theȱ Code’sȱ definitionȱ ofȱ ‘infantȱ formula,’ȱ whichȱ refersȱ toȱ
breastmilkȱ substitutesȱ formulatedȱ toȱ satisfyȱ ‘normalȱ nutritionalȱ
requirements’ȱofȱinfants.ȱCompaniesȱexploitȱthisȱdefinitionȱbyȱmakingȱ
‘specialised’ȱ formulasȱ marketed,ȱ forȱ example,ȱ asȱ highȱ energyȱ formulaȱ
orȱ lowȱ birthȱ weightȱ formula.ȱ Theyȱ claimȱ theseȱ areȱ notȱ subjectȱ toȱ theȱ
273
Mathis, J. WTO trade issues related to the International Code of Marketing Breastmilk
Substitutes: Labeling and marketing restrictions (unpublished) (2003).
274
Breaking the rules, stretching the rules, IBFAN, Penang, Malaysia (2004); available at
275
Ibid.
246
Code’sȱ restrictions.ȱ Anotherȱ tacticȱ isȱ marketingȱ productsȱ asȱ ‘growingȱ

upȱ milk’ȱ suitableȱ forȱ olderȱ childrenȱ and,ȱ therefore,ȱ fallingȱ outsideȱ ofȱ
theȱscopeȱofȱtheȱCode.ȱAnotherȱproduct,ȱ‘mothersȱmilk,’ȱisȱmarketedȱtoȱ
pregnantȱ andȱ lactatingȱ women,ȱ soȱ itȱ clearlyȱ doesȱ notȱ fallȱ withinȱ theȱ
scopeȱofȱtheȱCode.ȱTheȱproblemȱwithȱtheseȱproductsȱisȱthatȱtheyȱoftenȱ
createȱ anȱ associationȱ withȱ productsȱ thatȱ areȱ coveredȱ byȱ theȱ Codeȱ byȱ
usingȱ theȱ sameȱ orȱ similarȱ brandȱ namesȱ andȱ logos,ȱ orȱ similarȱ
techniques. 276 , 277ȱ
ȱ
Botswana’sȱ Marketingȱ ofȱ Foodsȱ forȱ Infantsȱ andȱ Youngȱ Childrenȱ
Regulationsȱ(2005)ȱprovideȱaȱgoodȱexampleȱforȱaddressingȱtheseȱtacticsȱ
byȱ definingȱ coverageȱ ofȱ theȱ lawȱ broadly.ȱ Theȱ regulationsȱ applyȱ toȱ
‘designatedȱproducts,’ȱdefinedȱbroadlyȱas:ȱinfantȱformula;ȱformulasȱforȱ
specialȱ medicalȱ purposesȱ intendedȱ forȱ infants;ȱ followȬupȱ formulas;ȱ
complementaryȱ foods;ȱ beveragesȱ forȱ infantsȱ andȱ youngȱ children;ȱ anyȱ
productȱ marketedȱ orȱ otherwiseȱ presentedȱ asȱ suitableȱ forȱ feedingȱ
infantsȱ andȱ youngȱ children;ȱ feedingȱ bottles;ȱ teats;ȱ pacifiersȱ andȱ
dummies;ȱ breastȱ pumps,ȱ cupsȱ withȱ spoutsȱ orȱ similarȱ receptaclesȱ forȱ
feedingȱ infantsȱ andȱ youngȱ children;ȱ andȱ suchȱ otherȱ productsȱ
designatedȱ byȱ theȱ Minister.ȱ 278 ȱ Givingȱ theȱ Ministerȱ authorityȱ toȱ
designateȱ otherȱ productsȱ isȱ anȱ effectiveȱ safeguard,ȱ providingȱ theȱ
governmentȱwithȱ flexibilityȱtoȱ respondȱrelativelyȱquicklyȱtoȱ improperȱ
marketingȱ practices.ȱ Brazil’sȱ provisionsȱ alsoȱ provideȱ broadȱ coverage.ȱ
Theyȱ applyȱ toȱ infantȱ formulas,ȱ followȱ upȱ formulasȱ forȱ infantsȱ andȱ
youngȱchildren,ȱmilks,ȱtransitionalȱfoodsȱandȱcerealȱbasedȱfoodsȱwhenȱ
marketedȱ orȱ presentedȱ asȱ suitableȱ forȱ infantsȱ andȱ youngȱ children,ȱ
nutrientȱ formulasȱ presentedȱ asȱ suitableȱ forȱ highȬriskȱ newborns,ȱ
feedingȱbottles,ȱteats,ȱandȱdummies. 279ȱ
ȱ
276
Ibid.
277
Sokol, E., The Code Handbook, International Code Documentation Centre, Penang,
Malaysia (2005).
278
Marketing of Foods For Infants and Young Children Regulations, 2005, Sec. 2.
279
Decree No. 2051 of 8 November 2001 and Resolution RDC No. 222, 5 August 2002, Art.
1.
247
Boxȱ41:ȱSuggestionsȱforȱProvisionsȱonȱtheȱScopeȱofȱtheȱLawȱ
Nationalȱ legislationȱ orȱ regulationsȱ couldȱ strengthenȱ theȱ Code’sȱ provisionsȱ byȱ
applyingȱto:ȱ
x allȱtypesȱofȱinfantȱformulasȱ(notȱjustȱthoseȱforȱmeetingȱ‘normal’ȱ
nutritionalȱneeds)ȱ;ȱ
x allȱotherȱfoodsȱmarketedȱasȱsuitableȱforȱinfantsȱorȱyoungȱchildrenȱ
(underȱaȱspecifiedȱage)ȱandȱfoodsȱthatȱareȱlikelyȱtoȱcreateȱanȱimpressionȱ
ofȱsuchȱsuitabilityȱorȱthatȱareȱcommonlyȱusedȱtoȱfeedȱinfantsȱorȱyoungȱ
children;ȱ
x anyȱfoodsȱthatȱareȱmarketedȱinȱaȱwayȱthatȱcreateȱanȱassociationȱwithȱ
foodsȱcoveredȱbyȱtheȱCode,ȱforȱexample,ȱbyȱusingȱtheȱsameȱorȱsimilarȱ
logo,ȱpackageȱdesign,ȱorȱotherȱproductȱindicia;ȱȱ
x teats,ȱpacifiers,ȱandȱitemsȱusedȱforȱfeedingȱinfantsȱandȱyoungȱchildrenȱ
andȱȱ
x otherȱfoodsȱorȱitemsȱdesignatedȱbyȱtheȱrelevantȱMinister.ȱ
ȱ
5.ȱInformationȱandȱEducationȱ
ȱ
Theȱ Codeȱ doesȱ allowȱ companiesȱ toȱ provideȱ ‘scientific’ȱ orȱ ȇfactual’ȱ
informationȱ toȱ healthȱ professionals,ȱ creatingȱ aȱ significantȱ loophole.ȱ
Brazil’sȱ measuresȱ largelyȱ avoidȱ thisȱ pitfallȱ byȱ prohibitingȱ
manufacturers,ȱ importers,ȱ andȱ distributorsȱ fromȱ producingȱ orȱ
sponsoringȱeducationalȱmaterialsȱthatȱdealȱwithȱinfantȱfeeding. 280 ȱTheyȱ
alsoȱ prohibitȱ educationalȱ andȱ technicalȬscientificȱ materials,ȱ includingȱ
thoseȱofȱhealthȱprofessionalsȱorȱhealthȱauthorities,ȱfromȱcontainingȱanyȱ
picturesȱorȱtextȱthatȱrecommendȱtheȱuseȱofȱdummies,ȱteatsȱandȱfeedingȱ
bottlesȱ orȱ theȱ useȱ ofȱ breastmilkȱ substitutes,ȱ orȱ thatȱ mayȱ leadȱ toȱ theirȱ
use.ȱȱ
ȱ
Theȱ regulationsȱ inȱ Botswanaȱ andȱ Ghanaȱ includeȱ aȱ requirementȱ forȱ
governmentȱapprovalȱofȱinformationalȱandȱeducationalȱmaterialsȱpriorȱ
toȱ theirȱ distribution. 281 , 282 ȱ Botswana’sȱ regulationsȱ alsoȱ includeȱ aȱ
prohibitionȱ onȱ anyȱ referenceȱ orȱ inclusionȱ inȱ informationalȱ orȱ
educationalȱ materialsȱ toȱ theȱ brandȱ name,ȱ name,ȱ logo,ȱ trademarkȱ orȱ
otherȱ wordsȱ orȱ graphicȱ associatedȱ withȱ theȱ product,ȱ brand,ȱ
manufacturerȱ orȱ distributor.ȱ Yemen’sȱ lawȱ prohibitsȱ anyȱ authorityȱ orȱ
institutionȱ fromȱ issuingȱ anyȱ informationȱ orȱ educationalȱ materialsȱ onȱ
infantȱ andȱ youngȱ childȱ nutritionȱ orȱ onȱ coveredȱ products.ȱ Theȱ
regulationsȱ alsoȱ prohibitȱ informationȱ onȱ nutritionȱ forȱ pregnantȱ andȱ
280
Decree No. 2051, Art. 9.
281
Marketing of Foods For Infants and Young Children Regulations (2005), Sec. 15(1).
282
Breastfeeding Promotion Regulations, 2005, Sec. 7(3).
248
lactatingȱ womenȱ unlessȱ theyȱ haveȱ beenȱ previouslyȱ clearedȱ byȱ theȱ
Ministry. 283ȱ
ȱ
Boxȱ42:ȱSuggestionsȱforȱProvisionsȱonȱInformationȱandȱEducationȱ
NationalȱlawȱcouldȱstrengthenȱtheȱCode’sȱprovisionsȱbyȱprohibitingȱmanufacturersȱ
andȱ distributorsȱ ofȱ coveredȱ productsȱ orȱ anyoneȱ actingȱ onȱ theirȱ behalfȱ fromȱ
publishing,ȱ distributing,ȱ orȱ otherwiseȱ providingȱ toȱ orȱ throughȱ anyȱ healthȱ facility,ȱ
healthȱworker,ȱcommunityȱworker,ȱorȱsimilarȱpersonȱorȱentityȱany:ȱ
x informationȱthatȱaddressesȱorȱincludesȱnutrition,ȱdiet,ȱorȱfeedingȱduringȱ
pregnancyȱorȱpreparationȱforȱpregnancy,ȱafterȱbirthȱinȱrelationȱtoȱeitherȱtheȱ
motherȱorȱtheȱchild,ȱorȱtoȱchildrenȱbelowȱaȱspecifiedȱage;ȱadditionally,ȱanyȱ
informationȱthatȱincludesȱnutrition,ȱdiet,ȱorȱfeedingȱrelatedȱtoȱolderȱ
childrenȱmustȱspecifyȱthatȱitȱdoesȱnotȱpertainȱtoȱchildrenȱunderȱthatȱage,ȱinȱ
aȱmannerȱspecifiedȱbyȱtheȱMinister;ȱ
x promotional,ȱscientificȱorȱeducationalȱinformationȱorȱmaterialsȱofȱanyȱkindȱ
thatȱcontainȱanyȱreferenceȱtoȱaȱcoveredȱproduct,ȱbrand,ȱlogo,ȱtrademark,ȱorȱ
otherȱindiciaȱofȱtheȱproduct,ȱbrand,ȱmanufacturerȱorȱdistributor;ȱandȱ
x usingȱanyȱpersonȱorȱmethod,ȱotherȱthanȱspecifiedȱinformationȱonȱlabels,ȱtoȱ
provideȱanyȱpersonȱwithȱinformationȱorȱinstructionsȱaboutȱtheȱuseȱofȱaȱ
coveredȱproduct.ȱ
ȱ
6.ȱMarketingȱ
ȱ
Whileȱ theȱ Codeȱ allowsȱ ‘appropriateȱ marketing’ȱ ofȱ breastmilkȱ
substitutes,ȱ bottlesȱ andȱ teats,ȱ itȱ prohibitsȱ allȱ formsȱ ofȱ promotionȱ orȱ
advertisingȱofȱtheseȱproducts.ȱItȱis,ȱthus,ȱvitalȱthatȱnationalȱlegislationȱ
orȱ regulationsȱ carefullyȱ defineȱ ‘advertising’,ȱ ‘promotion’,ȱ ‘marketing’,ȱ
andȱ similarȱ termsȱ toȱ avoidȱ anyȱ misunderstandingȱ orȱ confusion. 284 ȱ Inȱ
283
Prime Minster Decree No. 18/2002 on Regulation of Breastfeeding Promotion and
Protection, Art. 21.
284
Drawing from the field of tobacco control, where evasion of legal requirements, especially
those related to advertising, sponsorship, and promotion, has been perfected to an art by a
industry very skilled at evading regulation, definitions suggested for tobacco control
regulation might provide guidance, for example:
“advertising”: any commercial communication through any media or means, that is intended
to have, or is likely to have, the direct, indirect, or incidental effect of:
(i) creating an awareness of a tobacco product, brand, manufacturer, or seller, or
(ii) promoting the purchase or use of a tobacco product or brand.
An advertisement includes, but is not limited to, words, names, messages, mottos, slogans,
letters, numbers, pictures, images, colors, trademarks, and other graphics, sounds, and any
other auditory, visual, or sensory matter, in whole or part, that is or are:
(i) commonly identified or associated with a product, brand,
manufacturer, or seller, or
(ii) otherwise an indicia of product, brand, manufacturer, or seller identification.
“brand stretching”: any non-tobacco product or service that contains, either on the product,
or in any advertisement of the product, any writing, picture, image, graphic, trademark,
message, or other matter, in whole or part, that is commonly identified or associated with, or
249
developingȱ provisionsȱ toȱ addressȱ marketingȱ andȱ promotion,ȱ draftersȱ

shouldȱ keepȱ inȱ mindȱ lessȱ overtȱ formsȱ ofȱ promotion,ȱ likeȱ ‘mother’sȱ
clubs’ȱ andȱ ‘babyȱ clubs,’ȱ formulaȱ logosȱ orȱ trademarksȱ onȱ nonȬformulaȱ
products,ȱandȱotherȱtacticsȱhighlightedȱinȱCodeȱmonitoringȱreportsȱandȱ
publicationsȱlikeȱBreakingȱtheȱRules,ȱStretchingȱtheȱRules.ȱ 285 ȱȱ
ȱ
Botswana’sȱ regulationsȱ defineȱ ‘marketing’ȱ comprehensively,ȱ asȱ
promoting,ȱ distributing,ȱ selling,ȱ orȱ advertisingȱ aȱ designatedȱ product.ȱ
Alsoȱincludedȱinȱtheȱtermȱareȱproductȱpublicȱrelationsȱandȱinformationȱ
services,ȱ includingȱ theȱ useȱ ofȱ professionalȱ serviceȱ representativesȱ orȱ
anyȱpersonȱactingȱonȱbehalfȱofȱaȱmanufacturerȱorȱdistributor.ȱ‘Promote’ȱ
isȱdefinedȱasȱincluding:ȱȱ
(a)ȱanyȱdirectȱorȱindirectȱmethodȱofȱintroducingȱaȱ
designatedȱproductȱorȱencouragingȱtheȱpurchaseȱorȱuseȱ
ofȱaȱdesignatedȱproduct;ȱ(b)ȱsaleȱdevicesȱsuchȱasȱrebates,ȱ
specialȱdisplaysȱtoȱpromoteȱsales,ȱtieȬinȱsales,ȱlossȱ
leaders,ȱgrantȱofȱrewards,ȱdiscountȱcoupons,ȱpremiums,ȱ
specialȱsales,ȱprizes,ȱgifts,ȱandȱgivingȱofȱsamplesȱtoȱ
mothers;ȱ(c)ȱdirectȱorȱindirectȱcontactȱbetweenȱmarketingȱ
personnelȱandȱmembersȱofȱtheȱpublicȱinȱfurtheranceȱofȱorȱ
forȱtheȱpurposeȱofȱpromotingȱtheȱbusinessȱofȱdesignatedȱ
products,ȱincludingȱtelevisionȱandȱradio,ȱtelephoneȱorȱ
internetȱhelpȱlines,ȱmotherȱandȱbabyȱclubs,ȱandȱbabyȱ
competitions;ȱ(d)ȱelectronicȱcommunication,ȱincludingȱ
website,ȱinternetȱandȱelectronicȱmail;ȱ(e)ȱpromotionalȱ
itemsȱsuchȱasȱclothing,ȱstationery,ȱorȱitemsȱthatȱreferȱtoȱaȱ
designatedȱproductȱorȱtoȱaȱbrandȱnameȱofȱaȱdesignatedȱ
product;ȱ(f)ȱoutdoorȱadvertisementsȱsuchȱasȱbillboards;ȱ
(g)ȱplacardȱandȱnewspaperȱorȱmagazineȱinserts;ȱ(h)ȱ
is likely or intended to be identified or associated with a tobacco product, brand, or

manufacturer.
“promote” includes any commercial act or practice that is intended to or is likely to
encourage, directly or indirectly, the purchase or use of any tobacco product or brand or create
an awareness of or association with a tobacco product, brand, manufacturer or seller.
(Source: Nathan, R., Model Legislation for Tobacco Control: A Policy Development and
Legislative Drafting Manual; available at www.fctc.org and www.gphls.org).
285
250
practicesȱthatȱcreateȱanȱassociationȱbetweenȱaȱ
manufacturerȱorȱdistributorȱandȱbreastfeeding. 286 ȱȱȱ
Brazil’sȱmeasuresȱincludeȱaȱbanȱonȱtheȱcommercialȱpromotionȱofȱ
infantȱformulasȱandȱfollowȬupȱformulasȱforȱinfants,ȱspecialȱ
nutrientȱformulas,ȱdummies,ȱteats,ȱbottles,ȱandȱnippleȱshields,ȱ
byȱanyȱmeansȱofȱcommunication,ȱincludingȱmerchandising,ȱ
electronic,ȱwritten,ȱorȱaudioȬvisualȱmeans,ȱpromotionalȱ
strategiesȱaimedȱatȱincreasingȱretailȱsales,ȱsuchȱasȱspecialȱ
displays,ȱdiscountȱcoupons,ȱbelowȱcostȱpricing,ȱprizes,ȱgifts,ȱ
salesȱlinkedȱtoȱproductsȱnotȱcoveredȱbyȱtheȱregulation,ȱandȱ
specialȱpresentations. 287 ȱȱ
Boxȱ43:ȱSuggestionsȱforȱProvisionsȱonȱMarketingȱ
Nationalȱlawsȱshould,ȱatȱaȱminimum:ȱ
x carefullyȱandȱcomprehensivelyȱdefineȱ‘advertising’,ȱ‘promotion’,ȱ
‘marketing’,ȱandȱsimilarȱtermsȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ
x prohibitȱallȱdirectȱandȱindirectȱformsȱofȱpromotion,ȱincludingȱadvertisingȱ
andȱmarketing,ȱinȱallȱformsȱofȱmedia,ȱusingȱanyȱmeans,ȱandȱinȱanyȱplaceȱinȱ
relationȱtoȱcoveredȱproducts,ȱbrands,ȱmanufacturers,ȱandȱdistributorsȱ
(keepingȱinȱmindȱindirectȱformsȱofȱpromotion,ȱsuchȱasȱthoseȱcoveredȱinȱtheȱ
Botswana’sȱandȱBrazil’sȱlaws,ȱespeciallyȱtheȱpopularȱformsȱofȱdirectȱmail,ȱ
telephoneȱhelpȱlines,ȱnewslettersȱassociatedȱwithȱbabyȱclubs,ȱandȱsimilarȱ
methods)ȱ 288 ȱȱ
Ifȱ aȱ banȱ isȱ notȱ possibleȱ onȱ allȱ coveredȱ products,ȱ nationalȱ measuresȱ shouldȱ imposeȱ
stringentȱ restrictionsȱ onȱ marketingȱ andȱ promotionȱ ofȱ foodsȱ thatȱ complementȱ
breastfeedingȱ afterȱ sixȱ monthsȱ ofȱ ageȱ toȱ ensureȱ thatȱ promotionȱ ofȱ theseȱ productsȱ
doesȱ notȱ undermineȱ exclusiveȱ orȱ sustainedȱ breastfeeding. 289 ȱ Restrictionsȱ onȱ theseȱ
productsȱ mightȱ include,ȱ forȱ example,ȱ limitsȱ onȱ content, 290 ȱ whereȱ promotionȱ isȱ
allowed, 291 ȱandȱtheȱmediumȱorȱformȱofȱpromotion. 292 ȱȱȱ
ȱ
286
Marketing of Foods For Infants and Young Children Regulations, Sec. 8.
287
Decree No. 2051, Art. 4, and Resolution RDC No. 222, Art. 4.1.
288
Sokol E., The Code Handbook, International Code Documentation Centre, Penang,
Malaysia (2005).
289
Some laws, such as India’s Infant Milk Substitutes, Feeding Bottles and Infant Foods
(Regulation of Production, Supply and Distribution) Act , No. 41 of 1992 (as amended 2003),
No. 41 of 1992, prohibit the promotion of complementary foods.
290
For example, they must not be promoted as suitable for infants under six months and must
include a statement to this effect. In addition, they should include a statement on continued
breastfeeding (the government should prescribe the required statements). The IBFAN model
law provides two options for provisions on the marketing of complementary foods: One that
prohibits their marketing and one that places restrictions on their marketing.
291
For example, no promotion should be allowed in health facilities.
292
For example, no samples or promotional gifts should be allowed.
251
7.ȱObligationsȱofȱHealthȱCareȱSystemsȱȱ
ȱ
Inȱ responseȱ toȱ marketingȱ andȱ improperȱ practicesȱ inȱ healthȱ facilities,ȱ
UNICEFȱandȱWHOȱintroducedȱtheȱ‘BabyȬFriendlyȱ HospitalȱInitiative’ȱ
inȱ 1989ȱ toȱ educateȱ healthȱ workersȱ andȱ promoteȱ andȱ supportȱ
breastfeedingȱ inȱ hospitals.ȱ Aȱ fewȱ yearsȱ later,ȱ afterȱ adoptingȱ twoȱ
previousȱ resolutionsȱ onȱ theȱ subject,ȱ theȱ Worldȱ Healthȱ Assemblyȱ
adoptedȱ Resolutionȱ WHAȱ 45.34ȱ (1992),ȱ callingȱ onȱ companiesȱ toȱ stopȱ
givingȱ freeȱ orȱ lowȱ costȱ suppliesȱ ofȱ formulaȱ toȱ healthȱ facilitiesȱ
providingȱ maternityȱ services.ȱ Becauseȱ theȱ practiceȱ continuedȱ andȱ
expandedȱ toȱ providingȱ freeȱ suppliesȱ toȱ paediatricȱ wardsȱ andȱ otherȱ
healthȱ services,ȱ theȱ WHAȱ adoptedȱ anotherȱ resolution,ȱ WHAȱ 47.5ȱ
(1994),ȱ callingȱ onȱ Memberȱ Statesȱ toȱ ensureȱ noȱ donationsȱ ofȱ freeȱ orȱ
subsidisedȱ suppliesȱ ofȱ breastmilkȱ substitutesȱ andȱ otherȱ productsȱ
coveredȱ byȱ theȱ Codeȱ inȱ anyȱ partȱ ofȱ theȱ healthcareȱ system. 293 ȱ Despiteȱ
theseȱ efforts,ȱ companiesȱ continueȱ toȱ provideȱ freeȱ orȱ lowȱ costȱ formulaȱ
whereȱ nationalȱ provisionsȱ doȱ notȱ prohibitȱ theȱ practice. 294 ȱ Itȱ is,ȱ
therefore,ȱ importantȱ forȱ nationalȱ measuresȱ toȱ banȱ freeȱ andȱ lowȱ costȱ
supplies.ȱȱ
ȱ
Toȱ addressȱ giftsȱ andȱ sponsorships,ȱ WHOȱ adoptedȱ WHAȱ Resolutionȱ
49.15ȱ(1996),ȱstatingȱthatȱfinancialȱsupportȱtoȱhealthȱworkersȱshouldȱnotȱ
createȱ aȱ conflictȱ ofȱ interest.ȱ Thisȱ Resolutionȱ isȱ notȱ strongȱ enough,ȱ
however,ȱ andȱ theȱ practiceȱ isȱ increasingȱ inȱ intensity.ȱ Concernȱ remainsȱ
thatȱ theseȱ substantialȱ benefitsȱ influenceȱ healthȱ workersȱ toȱ endorseȱ
companies’ȱ products.ȱ Resolutionȱ 58.32ȱ ofȱ 2005ȱ urgedȱ governmentsȱ toȱ
ensureȱthatȱfinancialȱsupportȱandȱotherȱincentivesȱforȱprogrammesȱandȱ
healthȱ professionalsȱ workingȱ inȱ infantȱ andȱ youngȬchildȱ healthȱ doȱ notȱ
createȱ conflictsȱ ofȱ interest.ȱ Banningȱ giftsȱ andȱ donationsȱ toȱ healthȱ andȱ
communityȱ workers,ȱ whereȱ enforced,ȱ shouldȱ eliminateȱ theȱ practice,ȱ
andȱwithȱit,ȱtheȱconflictȱofȱinterest.ȱ
ȱ
Theȱ Codeȱ alsoȱ addressesȱ companyȱ practicesȱ ofȱ givingȱ healthȱ workersȱ
officeȱsuppliesȱandȱotherȱitemsȱbearingȱtheȱbrandȱorȱcompanyȱnameȱorȱ
logo,ȱbutȱnotȱinȱaȱwayȱthatȱpreventsȱpromotionȱofȱproductsȱcoveredȱbyȱ
theȱ Code.ȱ Articleȱ 6.3ȱ providesȱ thatȱ healthȱ systemȱ facilitiesȱ shouldȱ notȱ
293
Until these Resolutions, the Code allowed free supplies but placed restrictions on the
practice.
294
252
beȱusedȱtoȱdisplayȱcoveredȱproducts,ȱpostersȱofȱtheseȱproducts,ȱorȱtheȱ
distributionȱ ofȱ materialȱ providedȱ byȱ companies.ȱ However,ȱ Art.ȱ 6.8ȱ
allowȱ companiesȱ toȱ donateȱ equipmentȱ andȱ materialsȱ toȱ healthȱ careȱ
systemsȱthatȱbearȱaȱcompany’sȱnameȱorȱlogo,ȱsoȱlongȱasȱtheseȱitemsȱdoȱ
notȱ includeȱ referenceȱ toȱ aȱ proprietaryȱ product.ȱ Becauseȱ advertising,ȱ
labelling,ȱ andȱ otherȱ formsȱ ofȱ promotionȱ tendȱ toȱ associateȱ productsȱ
withȱ theirȱ manufacturersȱ and/orȱ aȱ brandȬidentifyingȱ logo,ȱ thisȱ Codeȱ
provisionȱ allowsȱ aȱ hugeȱ avenueȱ forȱ evasion.ȱ Displaysȱ ofȱ productȱ
trademarks,ȱ mascots,ȱ andȱ theȱ likeȱ continueȱ toȱ beȱ seenȱ healthȱ
facilities. 295 ȱ Banningȱ theseȱ donationsȱ isȱ theȱ onlyȱ effectiveȱ wayȱ toȱ
preventȱcontinuedȱdisplaysȱinȱhealthȱfacilities.ȱȱ
ȱ
Art.ȱ 7.2ȱ containsȱ anotherȱ bigȱ loopholeȱ byȱ permittingȱ companiesȱ toȱ
provideȱ informationȱ onȱ theirȱ productsȱ toȱ healthȱ professionals.ȱ
Althoughȱthisȱinformationȱshouldȱbeȱrestrictedȱtoȱscientificȱandȱfactualȱ
matters,ȱ andȱ shouldȱ containȱ informationȱ onȱ theȱ benefitsȱ andȱ
superiorityȱofȱbreastfeedingȱandȱwarningsȱaboutȱtheȱnegativeȱeffectȱofȱ
bottleȱ feeding,ȱ thisȱ rarelyȱ isȱ theȱ case.ȱ Theȱ materialsȱ tendȱ toȱ beȱ highlyȱ
promotional,ȱ oftenȱ containingȱ picturesȱ ofȱ happy,ȱ healthy,ȱ ‘moreȱ
intelligent’ȱ babiesȱ andȱ areȱ notȱ restrictedȱ toȱ scientificȱ andȱ factualȱ
information.ȱ Healthȱ professionalsȱ oftenȱpassȱtheseȱmaterialsȱonȱtoȱ theȱ
trueȱ intendedȱ audienceȱ Ȭȱ pregnantȱ womenȱ andȱ mothers.ȱ Byȱ allowingȱ
theseȱmaterials,ȱtheȱCodeȱprovidesȱaȱlegitimateȱavenueȱforȱcompaniesȱ
toȱ promoteȱ theirȱ productsȱ toȱ healthȱ workersȱ underȱ theȱ pretenceȱ ofȱ
scientificȱ orȱ factualȱ information.ȱ Indeed,ȱ companiesȱ provideȱ largeȱ
volumesȱ ofȱ attractiveȱ materialsȱ toȱ healthȱ facilities. 296 ȱ Toȱ stopȱ thisȱ
practice,ȱthisȱtypeȱofȱdistributionȱofȱinformationȱtoȱhealthȱprofessionalsȱ
orȱanyoneȱelseȱshouldȱnotȱbeȱpermitted.ȱȱ
ȱ
Botswana’sȱ regulationsȱ addressȱ theȱ conflictȱ ofȱ interestȱ createdȱ byȱ
sponsorshipsȱofȱhealthȱworkersȱcomprehensively.ȱTheyȱprohibitȱhealthȱ
workersȱ fromȱ acceptingȱ anyȱ gift,ȱ financialȱ assistance,ȱ fellowships,ȱ
studyȱ tours,ȱ researchȱ grants,ȱ fundingȱ forȱ conferenceȱ attendance,ȱ
samplesȱofȱcoveredȱfoods,ȱorȱquantitiesȱofȱfoodȱforȱinfantsȱandȱyoungȱ
childrenȱ pricedȱ atȱ lessȱ thanȱ wholesaleȱ orȱ 80ȱ perȱ centȱ ofȱ retailȱ price. 297 ȱ
Theȱ regulationsȱ alsoȱ prohibitȱ displayingȱ designatedȱ productsȱ inȱ anyȱ
healthȱfacilityȱandȱimposeȱcorrespondingȱobligationsȱonȱmanufacturersȱ
295
Ibid.
296
Ibid.
297
Marketing of Foods for Infants and Young Children Regulations, Art. 9(2).
253
andȱ distributors.ȱ Inȱ addition,ȱ theyȱ prohibitȱ manufacturersȱ andȱ

distributorsȱ fromȱ selling,ȱ donating,ȱ orȱ distributing,ȱ orȱ causingȱ theȱ
distributionȱ ofȱ anyȱ equipment,ȱ materials,ȱ orȱ otherȱ servicesȱ withȱ anyȱ
referenceȱ toȱ aȱ designatedȱ productȱ orȱ containingȱ theȱ nameȱ orȱ logoȱ ofȱ
anyȱmanufacturerȱorȱdistributorȱinȱanyȱhealthȱfacility. 298 ȱȱȱȱ
ȱ
Ghana’sȱ regulationsȱ prohibitȱ freeȱ distributionȱ ofȱ samplesȱ ofȱ aȱ
designatedȱ productȱ toȱ anyȱ person.ȱ Theyȱ alsoȱ prohibit,ȱ amongȱ otherȱ
things,ȱdonatingȱanyȱequipmentȱorȱmaterialȱthatȱbearsȱtheȱname,ȱlogo,ȱ
graphic,ȱ trademarkȱ orȱ anyȱ otherȱ descriptionȱ ofȱ aȱ designatedȱ productȱ
forȱuseȱwithinȱaȱhealthȱcareȱfacility.ȱ
ȱ
Boxȱ44:ȱSuggestionsȱforȱProvisionsȱAddressingȱObligationsȱofȱHealthȱCareȱ
Systemsȱ
Nationalȱ lawȱ couldȱ strengthenȱ theȱ Code’sȱ provisionsȱ byȱ prohibitingȱ anyȱ
manufacturerȱorȱdistributorȱofȱanyȱcoveredȱproduct,ȱorȱanyoneȱactingȱtheȱbehalfȱofȱ
either,ȱfrom:ȱ
x donatingȱsuppliesȱorȱprovidingȱdiscountedȱsuppliesȱofȱanyȱcoveredȱ
productȱtoȱanyȱpartȱofȱtheȱhealthȱsystem;ȱ
x providingȱsamplesȱofȱanyȱcoveredȱproductsȱinȱhealthȱfacilitiesȱorȱtoȱhealthȱ
orȱcommunityȱworkersȱforȱanyȱpurpose,ȱincludingȱforȱprofessionalȱ
evaluationȱorȱresearch;ȱandȱ
x giving,ȱoffering,ȱorȱsponsoring,ȱanyȱgift,ȱgrant,ȱsponsorshipȱorȱanyȱotherȱ
contribution,ȱloan,ȱorȱperquisiteȱtoȱanyȱfacilityȱofȱtheȱhealthȱsystemȱorȱtoȱ
anyȱhealthȱorȱcommunityȱworker.ȱ
ȱ
Nationalȱ lawȱ couldȱ furtherȱ prohibitȱ anyȱ healthȱ orȱ communityȱ worker,ȱ orȱ anyȱ
representativeȱofȱanyȱfacilityȱofȱtheȱhealthȱsystemȱfrom:ȱ
x acceptingȱanyȱdonations,ȱdiscountedȱsupplies,ȱorȱsamplesȱofȱanyȱcoveredȱ
product;ȱȱ
x distributingȱorȱdisplayingȱanyȱcoveredȱproductȱinȱanyȱhealthȱcareȱfacility;ȱ
x acceptingȱanyȱgift,ȱgrant,ȱsponsorship,ȱorȱanyȱotherȱcontributionȱfromȱanyȱ
manufacturerȱorȱdistributorȱorȱanyȱpersonȱactingȱonȱbehalfȱofȱeither;ȱandȱ
x accepting,ȱdisplaying,ȱorȱdistributingȱanyȱmaterials,ȱequipment,ȱorȱitemsȱofȱ
anyȱkindȱfromȱaȱmanufacturerȱorȱdistributor,ȱorȱanyoneȱactingȱonȱtheirȱ
behalf,ȱȱincludingȱinformationalȱandȱeducationalȱmaterials,ȱutensils,ȱ
equipmentȱandȱsimilarȱitems.ȱȱ
ȱ
Theȱlawȱalsoȱcouldȱrequireȱhealthȱandȱcommunityȱworkersȱandȱanyȱrepresentativeȱ
ofȱanyȱhealthȱfacilityȱtoȱreportȱinȱwritingȱtheȱprovisionȱorȱofferȱofȱtheȱsameȱbyȱanyȱ
manufacturer,ȱdistributorȱorȱanyȱpersonȱactingȱonȱbehalfȱofȱeither.ȱ
ȱ
298
Marketing of Foods for Infants and Young Children Regulations, Art. 8.3.
254
8.ȱEmployeesȱofȱManufacturersȱandȱDistributorsȱ
ȱ
Althoughȱ theȱ daysȱ ofȱ ‘motherȱ craftȱ nurses’ȱ haveȱ passed,ȱ companies’ȱ
employeesȱstillȱfindȱwaysȱtoȱhaveȱdirectȱcontactȱwithȱpregnantȱwomen,ȱ
newȱmothers,ȱtheirȱfamilies,ȱandȱothersȱwhoȱmightȱinfluenceȱthem.ȱTheȱ
Code’sȱ restrictionsȱ onȱ contactȱ withȱ theȱ publicȱ andȱ theȱ provisionȱ
prohibitingȱeducationalȱfunctionsȱapplyȱonlyȱtoȱcompanies’ȱmarketingȱ
personnel.ȱ Companiesȱ getȱ aroundȱ theseȱ restrictionsȱ byȱ creatingȱ
‘educationalȱ departments’ȱ toȱ handleȱ questionsȱ andȱ developȱ materialsȱ
forȱmothers’ȱandȱbabies’ȱclubs. 299 ȱȱȱȱ
ȱ
Boxȱ45:ȱSuggestionsȱforȱProvisionsȱAddressingȱEmployeesȱofȱManufacturersȱandȱ
Distributorsȱ
NationalȱlawsȱcouldȱstrengthenȱtheȱCode’sȱprovisionsȱbyȱprohibitingȱanyȱemployeeȱ
orȱotherȱpersonȱactingȱonȱbehalfȱofȱaȱmanufacturerȱorȱdistributor,ȱfromȱdirectlyȱorȱ
indirectlyȱsolicitingȱorȱinitiatingȱcontactȱwithȱany:ȱ
x memberȱofȱtheȱpublicȱ
x anyȱemployeeȱofȱtheȱhealthȱsystemȱȱ
x orȱanyȱcommunityȱworkerȱȱ
toȱ promoteȱ aȱ coveredȱ productȱ orȱ provideȱ anyȱ educational,ȱ scientific,ȱ orȱ similarȱ
informationȱrelatedȱtoȱaȱcoveredȱproductȱorȱtoȱfeedingȱorȱnutritionȱofȱinfants,ȱyoungȱ
childrenȱ(underȱaȱspecifiedȱage),ȱorȱpregnantȱorȱlactatingȱwomen.ȱȱȱ
ȱ
9.ȱLabelingȱ
ȱ
TheȱCodeȱaddressesȱtheȱtypeȱofȱinformationȱthatȱshouldȱbeȱpartȱofȱ
labellingȱonȱinfantȱformulaȱcontainers.ȱTheseȱincludeȱnoticeȱaboutȱtheȱ
superiorityȱofȱbreastfeedingȱandȱrelatedȱinformation,ȱpreparationȱ
instructions,ȱwarningȱaboutȱtheȱhazardsȱofȱinappropriateȱpreparation,ȱ
and,ȱwhereȱapplicable,ȱrisksȱofȱcontaminationȱwithȱmicroȱorganisms.ȱItȱ
isȱnecessary,ȱhowever,ȱforȱnationalȱregulationsȱtoȱprescribeȱdetailsȱasȱtoȱ
preciseȱwording,ȱplacementȱofȱtheȱinformationȱonȱtheȱcontainer,ȱsizeȱofȱ
messagesȱinȱrelationȱtoȱtheȱsizeȱofȱtheȱcontainer,ȱdetailsȱonȱfontȱsize,ȱ
colour,ȱandȱstyle,ȱandȱcontrastȱofȱtextȱcolourȱinȱrelationȱtoȱbackgroundȱ
colour.ȱȱ
ȱ
Specifyingȱtheȱdetailedȱwordingȱandȱgraphicsȱthatȱmustȱbeȱusedȱforȱ
messagesȱisȱoneȱwayȱtoȱbeȱsureȱtheȱinformationȱisȱproperlyȱconveyed.ȱ
Forȱexample,ȱIndia’sȱlawȱrequiresȱthatȱtheȱstatement,ȱ‘MOTHER’Sȱ
299
Ibid.
255
MILKȱISȱBESTȱFORȱYOURȱBABY’ȱmustȱappearȱonȱallȱinfantȱfoods. 300 ȱ
Yemen’sȱregulationsȱrequireȱaȱlabelȱthatȱstatesȱ“Breastmilkȱisȱaȱ
completeȱfoodȱcontainingȱallȱtheȱessentialȱelementsȱforȱinfantsȱandȱitȱ
improvesȱtheȱimmunityȱofȱinfantsȱagainstȱdiseases,ȱespeciallyȱ
diarrhoea.”ȱ 301ȱ
ȱ
Brazil’sȱlawȱrequiresȱfollowȬupȱformulaȱforȱyoungȱchildrenȱandȱ
specifiedȱmilksȱtoȱincludeȱtheȱfollowing:ȱ‘Breastfeedingȱpreventsȱ
infectionsȱandȱallergiesȱandȱisȱrecommendedȱupȱtoȱtwoȱyearȱofȱageȱorȱ
more.” 302 ȱItȱalsoȱrequiresȱthatȱtransitionȱfoodsȱandȱcerealȱbasedȱfoodsȱ
andȱotherȱfoodsȱorȱbeveragesȱmarketedȱasȱsuitableȱforȱinfantsȱorȱyoungȱ
childrenȱstate,ȱ“Afterȱtheȱfirstȱsixȱmonthsȱcontinueȱbreastfeedingȱyourȱ
babyȱinȱadditionȱtoȱgivingȱnewȱfoods.” 303 ȱȱ
ȱ
Prescribingȱinȱnationalȱregulationsȱtheȱparticularsȱasȱtoȱtheȱplacement,ȱ
fontȱtype,ȱsize,ȱandȱcolour,ȱbackgroundȱcolour,ȱsizeȱofȱtheȱmessageȱinȱ
relationȱtoȱtheȱsizeȱofȱtheȱpackageȱpanel,ȱandȱotherȱmattersȱwillȱhelpȱ
assureȱtheȱmessagesȱtrulyȱareȱ‘conspicuous,’ȱasȱrequiredȱbyȱtheȱCode.ȱ
Withoutȱtheseȱspecifications,ȱwhatȱisȱ‘conspicuous’ȱisȱaȱsubjectiveȱ
judgmentȱthatȱisȱdifficultȱtoȱenforce.ȱByȱanalogy,ȱtheȱFrameworkȱ
ConventionȱonȱTobaccoȱControlȱ(FCTC)ȱrequiresȱthatȱtobaccoȱproductȱ
packagesȱcontainȱaȱwarningȱcomprisingȱatȱleastȱoneȱthirdȱofȱtheȱmainȱ
displayȱpanelsȱofȱtheȱpackage.ȱTheȱFCTCȱurgesȱratifyingȱpartiesȱtoȱ
requireȱwarningsȱthatȱcompriseȱ50ȱperȱcentȱofȱtheȱmainȱpanels.ȱȱ
ȱ
Nationalȱgovernmentsȱshouldȱconsiderȱprohibitingȱlabelsȱfromȱ
containingȱȱnothingȱotherȱthanȱtheȱlabellingȱinformationȱprovidedȱinȱ
theȱCodexȱAlimentariusȱandȱanyȱrequiredȱmessagesȱandȱwarnings.ȱ
ProhibitingȱadditionalȱtextȱorȱimagesȱwillȱgiveȱfullȱforceȱtoȱtheȱCode’sȱ
prohibitionȱagainstȱtextȱthatȱidealisesȱtheȱuseȱofȱformula.ȱ
Accompanyingȱthisȱprohibitionȱshouldȱbeȱaȱbanȱnotȱonlyȱonȱpicturesȱofȱ
infants,ȱasȱrequiredȱbyȱtheȱCode,ȱbutȱonȱanyȱimagesȱorȱdesigns.ȱIran’sȱ
law,ȱforȱexample,ȱallowsȱonlyȱgenericȱlabelling. 304 ȱAlthoughȱtheȱlawsȱofȱ
300
Infant Milk Substitutes, Feed Bottles and Infant Foods (Regulation of Production, Supply
and Distribution) Act, 1992 (as amended), Sec. 6(1)(a).
301
Prime Minister Decree No. 18 on Regulation of Breastfeeding Promotion and Protection,
Art. 7(1)(a).
302
Resolution RDC No. 222, Art. 4.2.
303
Resolution RDC No. 222, Art. 4.2.2.
304
The International Code, UNICEF, New York, undated; available at
http://www.unicef.org/programme/breastfeeding/code.htm. Accessed August 23, 2006.
256
BrazilȱandȱBangladeshȱdoȱnotȱimposeȱaȱgenericȱlabellingȱrequirement,ȱ
theirȱprohibitionȱonȱphotographs,ȱillustrationsȱorȱotherȱgraphicȱ
representationsȱhasȱbeenȱsuccessfulȱinȱgettingȱtheȱGerberȱbabyȱandȱtheȱ
IsomilȱandȱSimilacȱbearȱoffȱlabelsȱofȱcoveredȱproducts. 305 ȱȱ
ȱ
Gerber changes
its labels in Brazil and
Bangladesh but not
elsewhere
Bangladesh
Malaysia
ȱ
SlidesȱprovidedȱbyȱtheȱInternationalȱCodeȱDocumentationȱCentre.ȱȱ
Labellingȱrequirementsȱunderȱnationalȱlawȱforȱcomplementaryȱfoodsȱ
andȱotherȱsimilarȱfoodsȱwillȱbeȱdifferentȱthanȱthoseȱforȱinfantȱformulaȱ
sinceȱproperȱuseȱofȱcomplementaryȱfoodsȱplaysȱanȱimportantȱroleȱinȱ
youngȱchildȱnutrition.ȱBotswana’sȱregulationsȱrequireȱthatȱlabelsȱonȱ
followȬupȱformulaȱstateȱthatȱtheȱproductȱshallȱnotȱbeȱusedȱforȱinfantsȱ
youngerȱthanȱsixȱmonths. 306 ȱȱTheyȱalsoȱprovideȱthatȱmilksȱmustȱcontainȱ
theȱstatement,ȱ“THISȱPRODUCTȱISȱNOTȱSUITABLEȱFORȱFEEDINGȱ
BABIES.” 307 ȱAȱrequirementȱlikeȱBotswana’sȱcouldȱbeȱstrengthenedȱ
evenȱfurtherȱwithȱaȱwarningȱofȱtheȱharmfulȱeffectsȱofȱfeedingȱtheseȱ
productsȱtoȱinfantsȱunderȱaȱcertainȱage.ȱ
ȱ
Boxȱ46:ȱSuggestionsȱforȱProvisionsȱonȱLabeling
NationalȱregulationsȱcouldȱstrengthenȱtheȱCode’sȱprovisionsȱby:ȱ
x prescribingȱtheȱpreciseȱsizeȱandȱplacementȱofȱtheȱwarningsȱandȱmessagesȱ
(e.g.,ȱonȱtheȱtopȱonȬhalfȱofȱtheȱmainȱpanel,ȱorȱeachȱmainȱpanel,ȱifȱmoreȱthanȱ
one),ȱandȱrequiringȱthemȱtoȱbeȱinȱtheȱlanguageȱorȱlanguagesȱspecifiedȱinȱ
regulations;ȱ
x prescribingȱcolour(s)ȱofȱtheȱtextȱinȱrelationȱtoȱtheȱbackgroundȱandȱtheȱsizeȱ
andȱstyleȱofȱtheȱfont;ȱ
x prohibitingȱtheȱlabelȱorȱpackageȱfromȱcontainingȱanyȱtext,ȱpictures,ȱ
drawing,ȱlogo,ȱtrademark,ȱorȱgraphicsȱofȱanyȱkind,ȱotherȱthanȱthatȱ
305
Resolution RDC No. 222, 5 August 2002, Art. 4.3.1.
306
Marketing of Foods for Infants and Young Children Regulations, Art. 11.
307
257
prescribedȱorȱallowed;ȱ
x prescribingȱlabellingȱrequirementsȱforȱcoveredȱproductsȱlikeȱfollowȬupȱ
formulas,ȱcomplementaryȱfoods,ȱfoodsȱmarketedȱforȱpregnantȱandȱlactatingȱ
women,ȱbottles,ȱteats,ȱandȱdummies;ȱ
x forȱcomplementaryȱfoods,ȱclearlyȱstatingȱtheȱageȱofȱproperȱuse,ȱwithȱaȱ
warningȱaboutȱtheȱȱhealthȱeffectsȱofȱuseȱatȱearlierȱagesȱorȱasȱaȱreplacementȱ
forȱbreastmilk;ȱ
x prohibitingȱanyȱhealthȱclaimȱorȱclaimsȱwithȱregardȱtoȱanyȱcoveredȱproduct,ȱ
orȱalternatively,ȱrequiringȱapprovalȱbyȱtheȱMinistryȱofȱanyȱclaimsȱandȱ
providingȱtheȱevaluationȱcriteriaȱtheȱMinistryȱshouldȱuseȱinȱgrantingȱ
approval;ȱandȱ
x prohibitingȱanyȱmisleadingȱclaimsȱbyȱmanufacturersȱorȱdistributors.ȱȱ
ȱ
Additionally,ȱgovernmentsȱmightȱconsiderȱprovidingȱaȱtemplateȱthatȱmustȱbeȱusedȱ
forȱallȱcoveredȱwarningsȱandȱmessages.ȱ
ȱ
10.ȱImplementationȱandȱmonitoringȱ
ȱ
Theȱlawȱshouldȱimposeȱclearȱauthoritiesȱandȱresponsibilitiesȱonȱtheȱ
government,ȱonȱmanufacturersȱandȱdistributors,ȱhealthȱfacilitiesȱandȱ
workers,ȱandȱonȱagentsȱofȱanyȱofȱtheseȱandȱanyoneȱworkingȱonȱtheirȱ
behalf.ȱAdditionally,ȱitȱisȱimportantȱtoȱensureȱthatȱeachȱrequirementȱ
underȱtheȱlawȱhasȱaȱcorrespondingȱpenaltyȱorȱpenaltiesȱforȱitsȱ
violation.ȱTheȱauthoritiesȱandȱdutiesȱrelatedȱtoȱinspectionsȱandȱ
enforcementȱalsoȱneedȱtoȱbeȱclearlyȱspelledȱout.ȱ(Seeȱdiscussionȱonȱ
inspectionsȱandȱenforcementȱinȱtheȱsectionȱonȱfoodȱfortification,ȱ
above.)ȱ
ȱ
Monitoringȱisȱcriticalȱbecauseȱitȱallowsȱtheȱgovernmentȱtoȱtakeȱactionȱ
toȱenforceȱtheȱlaw.ȱThroughȱmonitoring,ȱtheȱgovernmentȱandȱ
interestedȱorganizationsȱalsoȱwillȱbeȱawareȱofȱtheȱlatestȱindustryȱ
practicesȱthatȱviolateȱorȱevadeȱtheȱlawȱinȱtheirȱcountries.ȱWithȱthisȱ
knowledge,ȱtheȱgovernmentȱcan,ȱwhereȱnecessary,ȱamendȱlegalȱ
requirementsȱtoȱcloseȱloopholesȱasȱwellȱasȱtakeȱenforcementȱactionȱinȱ
responseȱtoȱclearȱviolations.ȱNGOsȱcanȱplayȱanȱimportantȱmonitoringȱ
role,ȱenhancingȱtheȱgovernment’sȱabilityȱtoȱmonitorȱandȱenforceȱtheȱ
law.ȱ
ȱ
BotswanaȱandȱIndia,ȱforȱexample,ȱcreatedȱaȱroleȱforȱsuchȱorganizationsȱ
inȱtheirȱlegalȱframeworks.ȱBotswana’sȱRegulations 308 ȱgaveȱtheȱ
308
258
PermanentȱSecretaryȱpowerȱtoȱdesignateȱspeciallyȱtrainedȱmonitorsȱtoȱ
investigate,ȱobserveȱandȱrecordȱinformationȱregardingȱmarketingȱ
practicesȱatȱpointsȱofȱsale,ȱinȱhealthȱcareȱfacilities,ȱborderȱpostsȱandȱ
offices,ȱthroughȱtheȱmedia,ȱandȱelsewhere.ȱMonitorsȱareȱvestedȱwithȱ
inspectionȱandȱinvestigativeȱauthorityȱandȱtheirȱreportsȱcanȱserveȱasȱ
evidenceȱinȱcourt.ȱIndia,ȱthroughȱMinisterialȱregulations, 309 ȱauthorizedȱ
specifiedȱvoluntaryȱorganizationsȱengagedȱinȱtheȱfieldȱofȱchildȱwelfare,ȱ
development,ȱandȱnutritionȱtoȱmakeȱaȱcomplaintȱinȱwritingȱunderȱ
nationalȱlawȱadoptingȱtheȱCode.ȱ
ȱ
11.ȱAdditionalȱmeasuresȱ
ȱ
Additionalȱprovisionsȱtoȱprotect,ȱpromote,ȱandȱsupportȱbreastfeedingȱ
mightȱincludeȱsuchȱthingsȱas:ȱ
x registrationȱ ofȱ coveredȱ products,ȱ asȱ isȱ requiredȱ inȱ Nigeria,ȱ orȱ
licensureȱ ofȱ manufacturersȱ andȱ distributorsȱ ofȱ coveredȱ
products;ȱ
x aȱspecificȱrequirementȱforȱtheȱgovernmentȱtoȱbothȱfund,ȱasȱwellȱ
asȱimplement,ȱprogrammesȱforȱpublicȱeducationȱandȱtrainingȱofȱ
communityȱandȱhealthȱworkersȱȱonȱappropriateȱinfantȱandȱchildȱ
feedingȱpractices;ȱandȱȱ
x aȱ requirementȱ forȱ inclusionȱ ofȱ suchȱ informationȱ inȱ theȱ
curriculumȱofȱappropriateȱeducationalȱinstitutions,ȱespeciallyȱinȱ
theȱ curriculumȱ forȱ medicalȱ professionals.ȱ These,ȱ alternatively,ȱ
couldȱ beȱ takenȱ asȱ aȱ policyȱ decisionȱ withoutȱ necessarilyȱ
incorporatingȱtheȱrequirementȱintoȱlaw.ȱȱȱ
1.4ȱ AccompanyingȱSocialȱPoliciesȱtoȱProtect,ȱPromoteȱ
andȱSupportȱBreastfeedingȱ
ȱ
Theȱ1990ȱInnocentiȱDeclarationȱaffirmedȱimprovedȱbreastfeedingȱ
practicesȱasȱaȱmeansȱtoȱfulfilȱchildren’sȱrightȱtoȱtheȱhighestȱattainableȱ
standardȱofȱhealth,ȱcallingȱonȱgovernmentsȱtoȱimplementȱtheȱBabyȬ
FriendlyȱHospitalȱInitiativeȱandȱtheȱCode,ȱappointȱaȱBreastfeedingȱ
CoordinatorȱandȱestablishȱaȱmultiȬsectoralȱBreastfeedingȱCommittee,ȱ
andȱenactȱlegislationȱprotectingȱtheȱbreastfeedingȱrightsȱofȱworkingȱ
309
Ministry of Human Resource Development (Department of Women and Child
Development) Notifications of 27 June 1994 and 27 July 1995.
259
womenȱandȱestablishȱaȱmeansȱforȱitsȱenforcement.ȱTheȱGlobalȱStrategyȱ
forȱInfantȱandȱYoungȱChildȱFeeding,ȱadoptedȱbyȱtheȱWorldȱHealthȱ
AssemblyȱandȱendorsedȱbyȱUNICEF’sȱExecutiveȱBoardȱinȱ2002,ȱ
expandsȱtheȱInnocentiȱtargetsȱandȱincorporatesȱtheȱlatestȱscientificȱ
evidence.ȱThisȱincludesȱtheȱoptimalȱdurationȱofȱexclusiveȱbreastfeedingȱ
forȱsixȱmonthsȱandȱtheȱminimalȱdurationȱforȱcontinuedȱbreastfeeding,ȱ
accompaniedȱbyȱsafeȱandȱappropriateȱcomplementaryȱfoods,ȱforȱtwoȱ
yearsȱorȱlonger.ȱȱ
ȱ
TheȱInnocentiȱDeclarationȱ2005ȱreinforcesȱtheȱ1990ȱDeclarationȱandȱ
GlobalȱStrategyȱtargetsȱasȱtheȱfoundationȱforȱactionȱtoȱimproveȱinfantȱ
andȱyoungȱchildȱfeedingȱpracticesȱandȱexpandsȱonȱthem.ȱForȱexample,ȱ
theȱ2005ȱDeclarationȱcallsȱonȱpartiesȱtoȱalsoȱensureȱtheȱhealthȱandȱ
nutritionalȱstatusȱofȱwomenȱthroughoutȱallȱstagesȱofȱlifeȱandȱtoȱgiveȱ
urgentȱattentionȱtoȱfacilitatingȱbreastfeedingȱforȱwomenȱemployedȱinȱ
theȱnonȬformalȱsector,ȱamongȱotherȱsupports.ȱTheseȱdocumentsȱ
togetherȱprovideȱtheȱframeworkȱforȱsocialȱpoliciesȱforȱtheȱprotection,ȱ
promotionȱandȱsupportȱofȱbreastfeeding.ȱȱ
ȱ
1.4.1ȱ TheȱNeedȱforȱMaternityȱProtectionȱasȱanȱAccompanyingȱSocialȱ
Policyȱȱ
ȱ
Unlessȱ maternityȱ protectionȱ rightsȱ areȱ providedȱ inȱ nationalȱ law,ȱ
womenȱinȱpaidȱemploymentȱwhoȱdecideȱtoȱbreastfeedȱfaceȱcompetingȱ
demandsȱ thatȱ canȱ makeȱ breastfeedingȱ impossible.ȱ Additionally,ȱ aȱ
returnȱ toȱ workȱ tooȱ earlyȱ canȱ jeopardiseȱ theȱ mother’sȱ health.ȱ
Consequencesȱ canȱ includeȱ anaemia,ȱ malnutrition,ȱ urinaryȱ tractȱ
infections,ȱ uterineȱ prolapse,ȱ andȱ physicalȱ andȱ emotionalȱ stress. 310 ȱ
Maternityȱ protectionȱ asȱ aȱ matterȱ ofȱ right,ȱ therefore,ȱ isȱ aȱ necessaryȱ
componentȱ ofȱ legislativeȱ reformȱ toȱ protectȱ children’sȱ andȱ women’sȱ
rightsȱtoȱadequateȱnutritionȱandȱhealth.ȱItȱalsoȱreflectsȱrecognitionȱthatȱ
breastfeedingȱ isȱ aȱ socialȱ functionȱ andȱ itsȱ protection,ȱ promotionȱ andȱ
supportȱareȱaȱsocialȱresponsibility.ȱȱȱȱȱȱ
ȱ
Essentialȱ elementsȱ ofȱ maternityȱ protectionȱ include,ȱ atȱ aȱ minimum,ȱ
eliminatingȱ workplaceȱ discriminationȱ onȱ theȱ basisȱ ofȱ pregnancyȱ andȱ
310
Maternity protection coalition statement. IBFAN Press Release 5 June 2000, IBFAN,
Penang, Malaysia, 200. Available at
http://www.ibfan.org/english/news/press/press5june00.html. Accessed August 23, 2006.
260
maternity,ȱ ensuringȱ incomeȱ andȱ jobȱ securityȱ andȱ providingȱ adequateȱ

facilitiesȱforȱbreastfeedingȱandȱexpressionȱofȱmilk. 311 ȱȱ
ȱ
1.4.2ȱ TheȱMaternityȱProtectionȱConventionȱandȱRecommendationsȱ
ȱ
TheȱILOȱadoptedȱtheȱMaternityȱProtectionȱConventionȱinȱ1919,ȱandȱ
amendedȱitȱinȱ1952ȱandȱ2000.ȱAlthoughȱtheȱmajorityȱofȱcountriesȱhaveȱ
notȱratifiedȱtheȱConvention,ȱtheȱvastȱmajorityȱhaveȱadoptedȱmaternityȱ
protectionȱlegislationȱthatȱmeetsȱorȱexceedsȱtheȱlevelsȱofȱprotectionȱ
elaboratedȱinȱtheȱConventionȱandȱRecommendations.ȱAȱsummaryȱofȱ
theȱMaternityȱConventionȱandȱRecommendationsȱisȱcontainedȱinȱ
Annexȱ2.ȱȱȱ
ȱ
1.4.3ȱ IncorporatingȱtheȱMaternityȱConventionȱandȱRecommendationsȱ
intoȱNationalȱLawȱ
ȱ
LegislativeȱprovisionsȱimplementingȱtheȱMaternityȱProtectionȱ
ConventionȱandȱRecommendationsȱwillȱbeȱconcernedȱmainlyȱwithȱ
providingȱsufficientȱscope,ȱquantityȱandȱqualityȱofȱbenefitsȱtoȱprotectȱ
andȱsupportȱbreastfeeding,ȱalongȱwithȱstrongȱprovisionsȱforȱnonȬ
discrimination.ȱȱ
ȱ
1.ȱScopeȱ
ȱ
AȱglaringȱgapȱinȱtheȱConventionȱandȱRecommendationsȱisȱthatȱtheyȱdoȱ
notȱapplyȱtoȱwomenȱworkingȱinȱtheȱinformalȱeconomyȱandȱinȱruralȱ
farmingȱwhoȱoftenȱleadȱtheȱmostȱeconomicallyȱfragileȱlives.ȱItȱisȱ
important,ȱtherefore,ȱforȱgovernmentsȱtoȱensureȱmechanismsȱforȱ
protecting,ȱpromotingȱandȱsupportingȱtheȱbreastfeedingȱrightsȱofȱ
womenȱinȱinformal,ȱruralȱandȱdomesticȱemployment.ȱThisȱmightȱbeȱ
accomplished,ȱforȱexample,ȱthroughȱtheȱprovisionȱofȱsocialȱsecurity,ȱ
publicȱassistance,ȱorȱotherȱgovernmentȱfundsȱtoȱwomenȱworkingȱinȱ
theseȱsectors.ȱTheȱgovernmentȱalsoȱcouldȱfundȱbenefitsȱforȱsuchȱ
workersȱthoroughȱprogramsȱlikeȱcooperativesȱandȱmutualȱbenefitȱ
societies. 312 ȱȱ
ȱ
311
Without frequent expression of milk, a sufficient milk supply becomes jeopardised.
312
Key elements of maternity protection at work: Maternity Protection Campaign Kit.
WABA, Penang, Malaysia; undated; available at www.waba.org.my/womenwork/mpckit.htm.
Accessed June 25, 2006.
261
Forȱexample,ȱtheȱIndianȱgovernmentȱsubsidisesȱtheȱSelfȱEmployedȱ
Women’sȱAssociationȱ(SEWA)ȱIntegratedȱInsuranceȱScheme,ȱwhichȱ
providesȱaȱrangeȱofȱsocialȱbenefits,ȱincludingȱaȱsmallȱmaternityȱbenefit.ȱ
SEWAȱisȱaȱmembershipȱorganisationȱforȱwomenȱwhoȱareȱselfȬ
employed,ȱregularȱwageȱearnersȱandȱcasualȱlabourers.ȱInȱBangladesh,ȱ
socialȱsecurityȱcoverageȱisȱextendedȱtoȱdifficultȬtoȬreachȱworkersȱ
throughȱmicroȬhealthȱinsuranceȱschemes,ȱpromotedȱthroughȱ
partnershipsȱwithȱvoluntaryȱorganisationsȱandȱtheȱgovernment. 313ȱ
ȱ
2.ȱMaternityȱLeaveȱȱȱ
ȱ
Guaranteedȱleaveȱisȱnecessaryȱtoȱallowȱwomenȱtoȱtakeȱtimeȱoffȱaroundȱ
aȱbirthȱeventȱwithoutȱfearȱofȱlosingȱtheirȱjobsȱorȱsufferingȱ
discrimination.ȱNearlyȱoneȱhalfȱofȱcountriesȱforȱwhichȱdataȱareȱ
availableȱmeetȱtheȱConvention’sȱrequirementȱofȱ14ȱorȱmoreȱweeksȱofȱ
leave. 314 ȱInȱsomeȱcountries,ȱleaveȱisȱprovidedȱforȱextendedȱperiodsȱofȱ
time.ȱTwelveȱcountriesȱprovideȱ26ȱorȱmoreȱweeksȱofȱmaternityȱleave. 315 ȱ
Korea’sȱlawȱmandatesȱtheȱavailabilityȱofȱaȱmaternityȱleaveȱofȱupȱtoȱoneȱ
yearȱandȱrequiresȱtheȱprovisionȱofȱnursingȱfacilitiesȱforȱinfants. 316 ȱIraq’sȱ
lawȱprovidesȱmaternityȱleaveȱforȱanȱofficialȱtoȱbeȱfullyȱpaidȱforȱtheȱfirstȱ
sixȱmonthsȱandȱhalfȬpaidȱforȱtheȱsecondȱsixȱmonths. 317 ȱSlovakia’sȱlawȱ
grantsȱmaternityȱleaveȱforȱ28ȱweeksȱ(37ȱweeksȱifȱtheȱwomanȱgaveȱbirthȱ
toȱtwoȱorȱmoreȱchildrenȱatȱtheȱsameȱtimeȱorȱifȱsheȱisȱaȱsingleȱmother). 318ȱ
Governmentsȱshouldȱconsiderȱscalingȱupȱleaveȱoverȱtime,ȱifȱnotȱ
immediately,ȱtoȱsixȱmonths,ȱwithȱfullȱpaymentȱandȱcontinuationȱofȱallȱ
benefitsȱtoȱaccommodateȱandȱsupportȱexclusiveȱbreastfeedingȱforȱtheȱ
CodeȬrecommendedȱperiodȱofȱsixȱmonths.ȱAtȱtheȱleast,ȱRȱ191’sȱ
recommendationȱofȱaȱminimumȱofȱ18ȱweeksȱshouldȱbeȱrequired.ȱȱ
ȱȱ
313
Social Protection Sector implementation report 2000-2001, ILO, Geneva (2001); available
at www.ilo.org/public/english/protection/info/imprep2k-01/1c.htm. Accessed August 19,
2006.
314
Maternity at work: A review of national legislation, ILO, Geneva (2005); available at
http://www.ilo.org/public/english/protection/condtrav/pdf/wf-iogpt-05.pdf. Accessed June 25,
2006.
315
Status of maternity protection by country, WABA, Penang, Malaysia (2006); available at
http://www.waba.org.my/womenwork/MaternityProtectionChart21May2006.pdf. Accessed
August 23, 2006.
316
Equal Employment Act No. 3989 (1987) (as amended).
317
Revolutionary Command Council Resolution No. 882 (1988).
318
Notification No. 190/2002 of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs on the Adoption of the Convention of
the International Labour Organization No. 183/2000 concerning the Revision of the Maternity
Protection Convention (Revised), 1952.
262
3.ȱBenefitsȱȱ
ȱ
NinetyȬsevenȱpercentȱofȱcountriesȱstudiedȱbyȱtheȱILOȱprovideȱthatȱ
womenȱmustȱbeȱpaidȱduringȱmaternityȱleave. 319 ȱThirtyȬsixȱpercentȱofȱ
153ȱcountriesȱstudiedȱmeetȱtheȱminimumȱrequirementȱofȱtwoȱthirdsȱofȱ
earningsȱpaidȱforȱaȱminimumȱofȱ14ȱweeks.ȱTwentyȬsevenȱpercentȱpayȱ
atȱ100ȱperȱcentȱofȱpreviousȱearnings.ȱNorway’sȱlaw,ȱforȱexample,ȱ
providesȱforȱ100ȱperȱcentȱpayȱforȱupȱtoȱ44ȱweeksȱofȱparentalȱleaveȱorȱ80ȱ
perȱcentȱofȱpayȱforȱ52ȱweeksȱupȱtoȱaȱmaximumȱbasedȱonȱparentalȱ
income. 320 ȱSenegal’sȱlawȱrequiresȱ100ȱperȱcentȱpaymentȱbasedȱonȱtheȱ
dailyȱwageȱpaidȱonȱtheȱlastȱpaydayȱpriorȱtoȱmaternityȱleave.ȱInȱPeru,ȱ
theȱrateȱofȱpaymentȱisȱbasedȱonȱtheȱaverageȱdailyȱwageȱforȱtheȱfourȱ
monthsȱprecedingȱtheȱstartȱofȱbenefits.ȱPeru,ȱFinland,ȱIreland,ȱandȱ
Portugalȱprovideȱaȱminimumȱcompensationȱforȱlowȱwageȱearners. 321 ȱȱȱȱȱ
Inȱ91ȱofȱ165ȱcountriesȱsurveyedȱbyȱtheȱILO,ȱbenefitsȱareȱpaidȱbyȱ
nationalȱsocialȱsecurityȱschemes,ȱasȱcalledȱforȱbyȱRȱ191,ȱtoȱpreventȱ
discriminationȱbyȱemployersȱbasedȱonȱhavingȱtoȱbearȱtheȱcostȱofȱtheȱ
payment.ȱThereȱisȱaȱmixedȱsystemȱofȱpaymentȱinȱaboutȱ26ȱcountries. 322 ȱ
Unlessȱtheȱleaveȱisȱpaidȱorȱcoveredȱbyȱsocialȱsecurity,ȱcoverageȱhasȱ
beenȱshownȱtoȱbeȱineffective. 323 ȱGovernmentsȱalsoȱshouldȱstriveȱtoȱ
requireȱpaidȱleaveȱatȱaȱrateȱofȱ100ȱperȱcentȱofȱearningsȱforȱtheȱpreviousȱ
period,ȱasȱprovidedȱinȱR191.ȱȱ
ȱ
4.ȱEmploymentȱProtectionȱandȱNonȬdiscriminationȱ
ȱ
Allȱbutȱthreeȱofȱtheȱ56ȱcountriesȱforȱwhichȱILOȱhasȱinformationȱonȱthisȱ
matterȱprotectȱemploymentȱduringȱmaternity.ȱCountriesȱprohibitȱ
dismissalȱduringȱpregnancyȱandȱleaveȱandȱforȱaȱprescribedȱperiodȱafterȱ
leave.ȱMongoliaȱandȱEstoniaȱprohibitȱdismissalȱfromȱtheȱtimeȱofȱ
pregnancyȱuntilȱtheȱchildȱisȱthreeȱyearsȱold. 324 ȱȱȱ
Someȱcountriesȱprohibitȱdismissalȱduringȱmaternityȱwithoutȱexceptionȱ
whileȱothersȱallowȱdismissalȱforȱcauseȱunrelatedȱtoȱmaternity.ȱTheȱ
mostȱcommonȱgroundsȱforȱdismissalȱinclude:ȱseriousȱfault,ȱreasonsȱ
319
Maternity at work: A review of national legislation, ILO, Geneva (2005); available at
http://www.ilo.org/public/english/protection/condtrav/pdf/wf-iogpt-05.pdf. Accessed June 25,
2006.html.
320
Ibid.
321
Ibid.
322
Ibid.
323
Ibid.
324
Ibid.
263
stipulatedȱinȱlaw,ȱcessationȱofȱtheȱundertakingȱorȱtheȱwork,ȱcauseȱforȱ
dismissalȱthatȱpreȬdatesȱtheȱpregnancy,ȱworkȱforȱanotherȱundertakingȱ
whileȱonȱleave,ȱandȱfailureȱtoȱreturnȱtoȱworkȱonȱtheȱexpirationȱofȱleave.ȱ
ManyȱcountriesȱplaceȱtheȱburdenȱofȱprovingȱaȱnonȬmaternityȱrelatedȱ
reasonȱforȱdismissalȱonȱtheȱemployer,ȱasȱrequiredȱbyȱtheȱConvention.ȱ
Someȱlawsȱrequireȱjudicialȱorȱadministrativeȱauthorisationȱbeforeȱ
givingȱnoticeȱofȱdismissal. 325 ȱSomeȱcountriesȱprovideȱforȱcompensationȱ
inȱtheȱcaseȱofȱdiscriminatoryȱdismissal.ȱForȱexample,ȱtheȱlawsȱinȱ
ArgentinaȱandȱEcuadorȱprovideȱforȱaȱyear’sȱsalaryȱasȱcompensation.ȱ
Belgiumȱprovidesȱforȱsixȱmonths’ȱsalaryȱandȱDominicanȱRepublicȱ
providesȱforȱfiveȱmonthsȱcompensatoryȱpay. 326 ȱManyȱcountriesȱalsoȱ
addressȱrightsȱuponȱreturnȱtoȱworkȱfollowingȱmaternityȱleave,ȱ
commonlyȱtheȱrightȱtoȱreturnȱtoȱtheȱsameȱorȱequivalentȱpostȱpaidȱatȱtheȱ
sameȱrateȱasȱbeforeȱtheȱleave.ȱȱȱȱȱ
ȱȱ
5.ȱBreastfeedingȱMothersȱ
ȱ
Breastfeedingȱbreaksȱallowȱmothersȱtoȱfeedȱtheirȱbabiesȱorȱexpressȱ
theirȱmilkȱforȱlaterȱfeedings.ȱExpressionȱofȱbreastmilkȱisȱimportantȱforȱ
maintainingȱtheȱsupplyȱofȱbreastmilk.ȱLegislationȱinȱatȱleastȱ92ȱ
countriesȱprovidesȱforȱbreastfeedingȱbreaksȱinȱadditionȱtoȱregularȱ
breaks,ȱusuallyȱofȱ30Ȭminuteȱduration,ȱtwoȱtimesȱperȱday.ȱLegislationȱ
inȱmoreȱthanȱtwoȱthirdsȱofȱcountriesȱforȱwhichȱtheȱILOȱhasȱdataȱ
providesȱforȱpaymentȱduringȱbreastfeedingȱbreaks,ȱasȱrequiredȱbyȱtheȱ
Convention. 327 ȱTheȱlawȱinȱEstoniaȱprovidesȱbreaksȱforȱfeedingȱchildrenȱ
youngerȱthanȱ18ȱmonthsȱatȱleastȱeveryȱthreeȱhoursȱforȱ30ȱminutesȱeach.ȱ
Colombianȱlawȱprovidesȱforȱtwoȱ30ȱminuteȱbreaksȱbutȱallowsȱforȱ
additionalȱbreaksȱwhereȱthereȱisȱaȱmedicalȱcertificateȱindicatingȱtheȱ
need.ȱInȱEcuador,ȱwhenȱaȱworkplaceȱdoesȱnotȱprovideȱaȱnursery,ȱaȱ
nursingȱmotherȱisȱentitledȱtoȱworkȱonlyȱsixȱhours/dayȱduringȱtheȱfirstȱ
nineȱmonthsȱafterȱconfinement.ȱInȱsomeȱcountriesȱwhereȱleaveȱisȱ
unpaid,ȱatȱaȱveryȱminimumȱbreastfeedingȱbreaksȱareȱpaid.ȱȱȱȱ
ȱ
Colombianȱlawȱrequiresȱthatȱeveryȱemployerȱestablishȱinȱorȱnextȱtoȱtheȱ
premisesȱaȱroomȱforȱnursingȱorȱaȱsuitableȱplaceȱforȱchildcare. 328 ȱTheȱ
lawȱinȱEcuadorȱrequiresȱthatȱanyȱemployerȱwithȱ50ȱorȱmoreȱemployeesȱ
325
Ibid.
326
Ibid.
327
Ibid.
328
Ibid.
264
provideȱnursingȱorȱdayȱcareȱfacilities. 329 ȱInȱCambodia,ȱemployersȱwithȱ

100ȱorȱmoreȱfemaleȱemployeesȱmustȱsetȱupȱaȱnursingȱroomȱandȱ
daycareȱcentreȱinȱtheirȱestablishmentsȱorȱnearby.ȱAȱnursingȱroomȱmustȱ
beȱprovidedȱinȱorȱnearȱanyȱplaceȱofȱemploymentȱwithȱmoreȱthanȱ25ȱ
womenȱemployees. 330 ȱToȱaddressȱhygienicȱconcerns,ȱmoreȱworkplacesȱ
areȱprovidingȱfacilitiesȱforȱexpressingȱandȱstoringȱmilk. 331 ȱȱ
Governmentsȱshouldȱrequireȱemployersȱtoȱprovideȱpaidȱbreastfeedingȱ
breaksȱoftenȱenoughȱforȱwomenȱtoȱmeetȱtheirȱbabies’ȱfeedingȱneeds.ȱ
Paymentȱshouldȱbeȱoutȱofȱtheȱsocialȱsecurityȱfund,ȱasȱitȱisȱforȱpaymentȱ
ofȱleave,ȱsoȱthatȱthereȱisȱnotȱaȱfinancialȱincentiveȱforȱemployersȱtoȱ
discriminate.ȱȱȱȱ
ȱ
1.4.4ȱ SuggestionsȱforȱAdditionalȱProvisionsȱ
ȱ
Governmentsȱshouldȱestablishȱandȱfundȱmechanismsȱforȱreceiving,ȱ
investigatingȱandȱresolvingȱcomplaints.ȱAsȱalways,ȱclearȱenforcementȱ
powersȱandȱdutiesȱneedȱtoȱbeȱspecifiedȱinȱtheȱlaw.ȱFinally,ȱtheȱlawȱ
couldȱrequireȱtheȱgovernmentȱtoȱfundȱpublicȱeducationȱprogrammesȱ
andȱmaterialsȱforȱinformingȱwomenȱofȱtheirȱrightsȱunderȱtheȱlaw.ȱȱȱ
ȱ
1.5ȱ EstablishingȱaȱPolicyȱEnvironmentȱtoȱProtectȱagainstȱ
ChildhoodȱObesityȱandȱPromoteȱPhysicalȱActivityȱȱ
ȱ
1.5.1ȱ IntroductionȱtoȱtheȱProblemȱofȱOverweightȱChildrenȱandȱ
Obesityȱ
ȱ
Developingȱcountriesȱareȱexperiencingȱanȱincreaseȱinȱoverweightȱandȱ
obesityȱinȱchildrenȱunderȱ5ȱyearsȱofȱage.ȱThisȱisȱtheȱcaseȱevenȱinȱ
countriesȱwithȱlowȱgrossȱnationalȱproductȱperȱcapitaȱandȱwhereȱchildȱ
andȱmaternalȱunderȬnutritionȱisȱwidespread. 332 ȱRiskȱforȱobesityȱstartsȱ
inȱuteroȱandȱisȱassociatedȱwith,ȱamongȱotherȱfactors,ȱbothȱmaternalȱ
underȬnutritionȱandȱoverweightȱmothers. 333 ȱPopulationsȱinȱcountriesȱ
undergoingȱincreasedȱurbanisationȱandȱeconomicȱtransitionȱareȱ
329
Ibid.
330
Ibid.
331
Ibid.
332
332
Ibid.
333
Ibid.
265
consumingȱdietsȱhighȱinȱenergyȱdensity,ȱfat,ȱsugar,ȱandȱrefinedȱgrains,ȱ
andȱlowȱinȱcereals,ȱfruitsȱandȱvegetables.ȱCombinedȱwithȱdecreasedȱ
physicalȱactivityȱamongȱchildrenȱdueȱtoȱmoreȱtelevisionȬviewingȱandȱ
otherȱsedentaryȱactivities,ȱaȱfavourableȱenvironmentȱisȱcreatedȱforȱ
childrenȱtoȱbecomeȱoverweightȱorȱobese. 334 ȱȱ
Overweightȱandȱobesityȱincreaseȱtheȱriskȱforȱdyslipidemia,ȱ
hypertension,ȱhyperpinsulinism,ȱinsulinȱresistanceȱandȱdiabetes.ȱ
These,ȱinȱturn,ȱsignificantlyȱincreaseȱtheȱriskȱforȱcardiovascularȱdiseaseȱ
andȱsomeȱformsȱofȱcancer. 335 , 336 ȱAȱUSȱstudyȱfoundȱthatȱanȱobeseȱpersonȱ
experiencesȱaȱ50ȱperȱcentȱreductionȱinȱproductivityȱandȱvisitsȱaȱdoctorȱ
88ȱperȱcentȱmoreȱoftenȱthanȱaȱhealthyȱpersonȱduringȱaȱsixȬyearȱperiod.ȱ
Obesityȱcontributesȱtoȱabsenteeismȱandȱreducesȱproductivityȱofȱtheȱ
population. 337 ȱConsequentlyȱthisȱreducesȱtheȱcountry’sȱdevelopmentȱ
potential,ȱfeedingȱtheȱviciousȱcycleȱofȱpovertyȱandȱtheȱongoingȱdenialȱ
ofȱhumanȱrightsȱforȱbothȱchildrenȱandȱadultsȱthatȱpovertyȱcreates.ȱ
ȱ
1.5.2ȱ TheȱNeedȱforȱLegislationȱȱ
ȱ
Worldwide,ȱ155ȱmillionȱschoolȬageȱchildrenȱareȱoverweight,ȱincludingȱ
approximatelyȱ40ȱmillionȱwhoȱareȱobese.ȱDevelopingȱcountriesȱoverallȱ
haveȱseenȱaȱsevenȱperȱcentȱincreaseȱinȱchildhoodȱobesityȱprevalenceȱ
rates.ȱAfricaȱhasȱseenȱanȱastoundingȱ58ȱperȱcentȱincrease. 338 ȱTheȱ
growingȱincidenceȱofȱTypeȱIIȱdiabetesȱinȱchildrenȱisȱsoundingȱanȱalarmȱ
thatȱcallsȱforȱactionȱnowȱtoȱchangeȱsocialȱandȱphysicalȱenvironmentsȱ
thatȱpromoteȱoverweightȱandȱobesity.ȱLegislativeȱreformȱisȱnecessaryȱ
toȱcreateȱenvironmentsȱthatȱpromoteȱchildren’sȱaccessȱandȱexposureȱtoȱ
healthyȱfoods,ȱdecreaseȱaccessȱandȱexposureȱtoȱunhealthyȱfoodsȱ
throughȱmarketing,ȱandȱencourageȱincreasedȱphysicalȱactivity.ȱȱȱ
334
Hoffman, D., Obesity in developing countries: Causes and implications, FAO, Rome,
undated; available at www.fao.org/DOCREP/003/Y0600M/y0600m05.htm. Accessed June
25, 2006.
335
Ibid.
336
337
Hoffman, D., Obesity in developing countries: Causes and implications, FAO, Rome,
undated; available at www.fao.org/DOCREP/003/Y0600M/y0600m05.htm. Accessed June
25, 2006.
338
266
Inȱadditionȱtoȱtheȱindividual,ȱpublicȱhealth,ȱandȱsocioȬeconomicȱ
consequencesȱofȱobesity,ȱthereȱisȱtheȱissueȱofȱmanipulatingȱchildrenȱ
throughȱtheȱmarketingȱofȱjunkȱfoods.ȱȱ
Childrenȱlackȱtheȱcognitiveȱabilityȱtoȱunderstandȱadvertisingȱandȱ
promotionȱorȱtoȱdistinguishȱprogrammeȱcontentȱfromȱadvertisement.ȱ
Theyȱalsoȱcannotȱappreciateȱtheȱconsequencesȱofȱestablishingȱbadȱ
eatingȱhabitsȱthatȱcanȱpersistȱoverȱaȱlifetimeȱandȱincreaseȱtheȱriskȱofȱ
chronicȱdiseases. 339 ȱYet,ȱchildrenȱinȱmanyȱcountriesȱareȱbombardedȱbyȱ
directȱandȱindirectȱfoodȱadvertisingȱandȱpromotion,ȱusuallyȱofȱtheȱ
unhealthyȱvariety.ȱȱ
ȱ
Foodȱcompaniesȱandȱfastȱfoodȱrestaurantsȱspendȱbillionsȱmarketingȱ
unhealthyȱandȱjunkȱfoodsȱtoȱkids. 340 ȱWorseȱyet,ȱschoolsȱinȱmanyȱplacesȱ
allowȱthemselvesȱtoȱbeȱvehiclesȱforȱmarketingȱtheseȱproductsȱtoȱtheȱ
childrenȱinȱtheirȱcare.ȱAtȱtheȱsameȱtimeȱthatȱschoolsȱteachȱnutritionȱandȱ
healthȱeducation,ȱmanyȱundermineȱtheseȱeducationalȱeffortsȱbyȱsellingȱ
highȬsugarȱsodasȱandȱhighȬsugarȱandȱȬfatȱsnacksȱinȱvendingȱmachinesȱ
orȱschoolȱcanteens.ȱManyȱallowȱunhealthyȱfastȱfoodȱtoȱcompeteȱwithȱ
schoolȬprovidedȱmeals,ȱwhichȱinȱmanyȱcasesȱareȱalsoȱunhealthy.ȱTheȱ
CRCȱrecognisesȱtheȱneedȱtoȱprotectȱchildrenȱfromȱinformationȱandȱ
materialsȱinjuriousȱtoȱtheirȱwellȬbeing.ȱThisȱshouldȱincludeȱprotectionȱ
againstȱmarketingȱofȱjunkȱfoodsȱtoȱchildren.ȱWhenȱtheȱstateȱbecomesȱaȱ
partyȱtoȱthisȱmarketingȱthroughȱtheȱpublicȱeducationȱsystem,ȱforȱ
exampleȱbyȱallowingȱsponsorshipsȱofȱschoolȱprogramsȱandȱmaterials,ȱ
theȱcaseȱforȱlegislativeȱreformȱinȱthisȱareaȱbecomesȱevenȱstronger.ȱ
ȱ
1.5.3ȱ Issuesȱ
ȱ
1.ȱScantȱevaluationȱdataȱ
ȱ
Mostȱlegislativeȱandȱprogrammaticȱinitiativesȱinȱthisȱareaȱhaveȱnotȱyetȱ
beenȱevaluatedȱforȱimpactȱonȱreducingȱobesity.ȱForȱexample,ȱthereȱisȱ
noȱdirectȱevidenceȱthatȱincreasedȱtaxationȱonȱunhealthyȱfoodsȱaffectsȱ
ratesȱofȱobesity,ȱalthoughȱstudiesȱhaveȱlinkedȱfoodȱpricingȱwithȱ
339
Mello, M. et. Al, “Obesity - The New Frontier of Public Health Law”, New England
Journal of Medicine, vol. 354 (June 15, 2006), p. 2601-2610; available at
http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/full/354/24/2601?query=TOC.
340
Nestle, M., “Food Marketing and Childhood Obesity - A Matter of Policy”, New England
Journal of Medicine, vol 354 (June 15, 2006), p. 2527-2529; available at
267
consumptionȱpatterns.ȱThereȱareȱclearȱstudies,ȱbyȱanalogy,ȱshowingȱ
thatȱhigherȱcigaretteȱtaxesȱreduceȱtobaccoȱconsumption. 341 ȱAȱrecentȱ
studyȱshowsȱtheȱrelationshipȱbetweenȱadvertisingȱinȱParents’ȱMagazineȱ
andȱaȱreductionȱinȱbreastfeedingȱrates. 342 ȱStudiesȱalsoȱareȱlackingȱtoȱ
demonstrateȱtheȱeffectivenessȱofȱadvertisingȱrestrictionsȱ(asȱcomparedȱ
toȱadvertisingȱbans).ȱDrawingȱagainȱfromȱtheȱtobaccoȱcontrolȱexample,ȱ
studiesȱhaveȱshownȱthatȱinȱcountriesȱwhereȱdirectȱandȱindirectȱtobaccoȱ
advertisingȱhasȱnotȱbeenȱbannedȱbutȱmerelyȱrestricted,ȱtheȱtobaccoȱ
industryȱsubstitutedȱitsȱpromotionalȱactivitiesȱtoȱpermittedȱforms. 343 ȱȱȱ
ȱ
2.ȱContentȱofȱlegislationȱ
ȱ
Becauseȱgovernmentsȱhaveȱonlyȱfairlyȱrecentlyȱbegunȱtakingȱlegislativeȱ
actionȱinȱthisȱarena,ȱglobalȱguidanceȱforȱspecificȱpolicyȱandȱlegislativeȱ
contentȱhasȱnotȱyetȱbeenȱdisseminatedȱinȱtheȱsameȱwayȱasȱforȱtheȱotherȱ
nutritionalȱtopicsȱdiscussedȱinȱthisȱsubchapter.ȱȱNationalȱlegislativeȱ
activityȱhasȱnotȱoccurredȱinȱtooȱmanyȱcountries,ȱandȱeffectivenessȱ
evaluationȱdataȱareȱnotȱyetȱavailableȱwhereȱitȱhas.ȱAsȱaȱresultȱofȱtheseȱ
factors,ȱthisȱsubsectionȱwillȱsimplyȱhighlightȱtheȱareasȱforȱpolicyȱandȱ
legislativeȱdevelopmentȱproposedȱbyȱsomeȱinternationalȱandȱregionalȱ
healthȱorganisationsȱandȱconsumerȬȱandȱhealthȬbasedȱNGOs.ȱȱ
ȱ
Legislativeȱtopicsȱapplicableȱtoȱobesityȱpreventionȱandȱphysicalȱ
activityȱpromotionȱmightȱinclude:ȱȱ
ȱ
3.ȱMandatingȱandȱfundingȱeducationȱandȱpublicȱawarenessȱȱ
ȱ
AccordingȱtoȱWHO’sȱGlobalȱStrategyȱonȱDiet,ȱPhysicalȱActivityȱandȱ
Health,ȱarticulatedȱinȱWHAȱ57.17ȱ(2004),ȱtheȱpublicȱneedsȱtoȱ
understand,ȱamongȱotherȱthings,ȱtheȱrelationshipsȱamongȱdiet,ȱ
physicalȱactivityȱandȱhealth,ȱandȱbetweenȱenergyȱintakeȱandȱoutputȱ
needs.ȱWithoutȱthisȱknowledge,ȱhealthyȱfoodȱchoicesȱcannotȱbeȱmade.ȱ
Becauseȱchildrenȱareȱexposedȱtoȱfoodȱadvertisingȱandȱpromotionȱ
almostȱeverywhereȱtheyȱturn,ȱstartingȱatȱaȱveryȱearlyȱage,ȱmediaȱ
341
Jha, P. and F. Chaloupka, Curbing the epidemic: Governments and the economics of
tobacco control, World Bank, Washington, D.C. (1999).
342
Foss, K. and B. Southwell, “The relationship between advertising in Parents Magazine
and breastfeeding 1972-2000”, International Breastfeeding Journal, 1:10 (2006); available at
http://www.internationalbreastfeedingjournal.com/content/1/1/10. Accessed August 30, 2006.
343
Ibid.
268
educationȱ(theȱskillȱofȱunderstandingȱtheȱnatureȱofȱmassȱmediaȱ
communicationsȱandȱemployingȱcriticalȱthinkingȱinȱinterpretingȱthem)ȱ
shouldȱbeȱintroducedȱinȱschoolsȱearlyȱon. 344 ȱTheȱgovernmentȱwillȱneedȱ
toȱprovideȱfundingȱforȱtheseȱactivitiesȱandȱforȱinitiativesȱlikeȱmassȱ
mediaȱcampaigns,ȱschoolȬbasedȱnutritionȱeducation,ȱworkplaceȱ
healthyȱeatingȱandȱphysicalȱactivityȱpromotionȱinitiatives,ȱandȱsimilarȱ
strategies.ȱȱȱȱ
ȱ
4.ȱBanningȱmarketingȱtoȱchildrenȱ
ȱ
Foodȱadvertisingȱaffectsȱfoodȱchoicesȱandȱinfluencesȱdietaryȱchoices. 345 ȱ
Manyȱgovernmentsȱprohibitȱorȱrestrictȱadvertisingȱduringȱtelevisionȱ
programsȱtargetingȱchildren. 346 ȱȱEightyȬfiveȱperȱcentȱofȱ73ȱcountriesȱ
surveyedȱbyȱWHOȱwereȱfoundȱtoȱregulateȱtelevisionȱadvertisingȱtoȱ
childrenȱwithȱrespectȱtoȱtimingȱandȱcontent.ȱTwoȱcountriesȱhadȱbannedȱ
advertisingȱtoȱkids. 347 ȱTheȱfoodȱindustryȱmarketsȱandȱpromotesȱitsȱ
productsȱthroughȱmanyȱmedia,ȱbothȱdirectlyȱandȱindirectly.ȱTacticsȱ
includeȱadvertisements,ȱproductȱplacementsȱinȱtoys,ȱgames,ȱ
educationalȱmaterials,ȱsongs,ȱmovies,ȱcharacterȱlicensing,ȱcelebrityȱ
endorsements,ȱinternetȱandȱmobileȱphoneȱtextȱmessaging,ȱdisplaysȱatȱ
retailȱoutletsȱ(includingȱproductȱdisplays),ȱandȱstockingȱorȱslottingȱ
policiesȱthatȱmakeȱjunkȱfoodsȱaccessibleȱtoȱchildren,ȱtoȱnameȱjustȱaȱ
few. 348 , 349 ȱAllȱformsȱofȱdirectȱandȱindirectȱadvertisingȱandȱpromotionȱ
willȱneedȱtoȱbeȱaddressedȱinȱaȱcomprehensiveȱway.ȱMarketingȱandȱ
promotionȱinȱschoolsȱisȱaȱgrowingȱtrendȱand,ȱasȱdiscussedȱabove,ȱ
shouldȱbeȱprohibited.ȱȱ
ȱ
ȱ
ȱ
ȱ
344
Global Strategy on Diet, Physical Activity and Health, WHA 57.17 WHO, Geneva (2004);
available at http://www.who.int/child-adolescent-
health/New_Publications/NUTRITION/gs_iycf.pdf. Accessed August 23, 2006.
345
Ibid.
346
Hawkes, C., Marketing food to children: The global regulatory environment, WHO,
Geneva (2004); available at http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2004/9241591579.pdf.
347
Ibid.
348
Nestle, M., “Food Marketing and Childhood Obesity - A Matter of Policy”, New England
Journal of Medicine; 354:2527-2529 (June 15, 2006). Available at
349
“Obesity: How is the food industry responding?” Investor Responsibility. Accessed June
29, 2006.
269
5.ȱLabelingȱȱ
ȱ
Foodȱlabellingȱshouldȱprovideȱconsumersȱwithȱaccurate,ȱstandardisedȱ
andȱunderstandableȱinformationȱonȱcontentȱtoȱenableȱthemȱtoȱmakeȱ
healthyȱchoices. 350 ȱLabellingȱrequirementsȱalsoȱcanȱmandateȱanȱ
indicationȱofȱtheȱnutritionalȱdisadvantagesȱofȱaȱproductȱ(aȱwarning).ȱȱ
Inȱaddition,ȱmisleadingȱclaimsȱwillȱneedȱtoȱbeȱaddressed.ȱForȱexample,ȱ
foodsȱlabelledȱasȱ’90ȱperȱcentȱfatȱfree’ȱareȱmisleadingȱbecauseȱ10ȱperȱ
centȱfatȱcontentȱisȱstillȱfairlyȱhigh. 351 ȱȱUnderȱtheȱproposedȱEuropeanȱ
UnionȱRegulationȱonȱNutritionȱandȱHealthȱClaimsȱMadeȱonȱFoods,ȱ
claimsȱlikeȱ‘highȱfibre’ȱwillȱhaveȱminimumȱamountȱofȱfibreȱperȱunitȱ
defined.ȱToȱmakeȱhealthȱclaims,ȱcompaniesȱwillȱhaveȱtoȱprovideȱ
scientificȱevidenceȱandȱgetȱpreȬmarketingȱapproval.ȱAȱpositiveȱlistȱofȱ
wellȬestablishedȱhealthȱclaimsȱwillȱbeȱdeveloped. 352 ȱȱ
ȱ
6.ȱFiscalȱPoliciesȱ
Pricingȱinfluencesȱfoodȱconsumptionȱchoices. 353 ȱInfluencingȱpricingȱofȱ

healthyȱfoodsȱrelativeȱtoȱunhealthyȱfoodsȱcanȱbeȱaccomplishedȱthroughȱ
measuresȱlikeȱtaxesȱ(higherȱonȱjunkȱfoods,ȱlowerȱonȱhealthyȱfoodsȱlikeȱ
freshȱfruitsȱandȱvegetables),ȱsubsidiesȱ(lowerȱforȱproductsȱthatȱare,ȱforȱ
example,ȱhighȱinȱfatȱandȱhigherȱforȱhealthyȱfoods),ȱandȱreducedȱtariffsȱ
onȱfruitsȱandȱvegetables.ȱȱ
7.ȱSchoolȱPoliciesȱ
ȱ
Creatingȱaȱhealthyȱeatingȱenvironmentȱinȱschoolsȱhasȱmeant,ȱinȱsomeȱ
jurisdictions,ȱbanningȱsalesȱofȱjunkȱfoodsȱandȱsugaryȱsodasȱ(e.g.,ȱ
England,ȱsodasȱandȱhighȱsugarȱsnacks;ȱFrance,ȱsodas;ȱandȱNewȱSouthȱ
Whales,ȱsodas)ȱandȱestablishingȱnutritionalȱrequirementsȱforȱschoolȬ
providedȱmealsȱ(England).ȱNutritionȱeducation,ȱasȱdiscussedȱabove,ȱ
alsoȱisȱanȱimportantȱcomponentȱofȱschoolȱpolicies,ȱasȱareȱrequirementsȱ
forȱphysicalȱeducationȱinȱtheȱcurriculum.ȱ
ȱ
350
Global Strategy on Diet, Physical Activity and Health, WHA 57.17 WHO, Geneva (2004);
available at http://www.who.int/child-adolescent-
health/New_Publications/NUTRITION/gs_iycf.pdf. Accessed August 23, 2006.
351
“Obesity: How is the food industry responding?” Investor Responsibility. Accessed June
29, 2006.
352
Ibid.
353
Ibid.
270
ȱ
ȱ
8.ȱPhysicalȱactivityȱpromotionȱ
ȱ
Manyȱinitiativesȱforȱpromotingȱphysicalȱactivity,ȱsuchȱasȱprovidingȱ
pathsȱforȱcyclingȱandȱwalking,ȱandȱpublicȱtransportationȱpoliciesȱareȱtoȱ
beȱundertakenȱatȱtheȱlocalȱlevel.ȱNationalȱgovernmentȱcanȱestablishȱ
policyȱguidanceȱandȱprovideȱfundingȱtoȱlowerȱlevelsȱofȱgovernmentsȱ
forȱnewȱinitiativesȱinȱthisȱarea.ȱȱȱȱȱ
ȱ ȱ
1.6ȱ Participatoryȱprocessesȱȱ
ȱ
Anȱ importantȱ componentȱ ofȱ aȱ rightsȬbasedȱ approachȱ toȱ nutritionȱ isȱ aȱ
participatoryȱprocessȱinvolvingȱallȱstakeholders,ȱwithȱspecialȱoutreachȱ
toȱ populationȱ groupsȱ mostȱ affectedȱ byȱ inadequateȱ nutrition.ȱ Inȱ theȱ
micronutrientȱ realm,ȱ nationalȱ alliancesȱ involvingȱ governments,ȱ foodȱ
producers,ȱ healthȱ andȱ nutritionȱ professionals,ȱ academicsȱ andȱ
researchers,ȱ civilȱ societyȱ andȱ internationalȱ agenciesȱ haveȱ beenȱ keyȱ toȱ
theȱsuccessesȱachieved. 354 ȱTheseȱalliancesȱhaveȱbeenȱinvolvedȱinȱpolicyȱ
development,ȱ programmeȱ implementation,ȱ monitoringȱ andȱ
evaluation.ȱ Similarȱ alliancesȱ wouldȱ beȱ wellȱ equippedȱ toȱ addressȱ
obesityȱ preventionȱ andȱ physicalȱ activityȱ promotion.ȱ Theȱ conflictȱ ofȱ
interestȱ withȱ involvingȱ theȱ foodȱ industryȱ inȱ addressingȱ obesityȱ mustȱ
beȱborneȱinȱmind,ȱhowever.ȱ
ȱ
Withȱ regardȱ toȱ breastfeeding,ȱ theȱ Innocentiȱ Declarationȱ callsȱ forȱ aȱ
breastfeedingȱ coordinatorȱ andȱ aȱ multisectoralȱ nationalȱ breastfeedingȱ
committee.ȱ Participatoryȱ processesȱ forȱ maternityȱ protectionȱ willȱ needȱ
toȱ includeȱ theȱ involvementȱ ofȱ employers,ȱ tradeȱ unions,ȱ workers,ȱ
especiallyȱfromȱinformalȱandȱruralȱeconomies,ȱandȱhealthȱandȱnutritionȱ
NGOs.ȱ Itȱ alsoȱ willȱ beȱ essentialȱ toȱ includeȱ NGOsȱ involvedȱ withȱ
breastfeedingȱ promotion,ȱ healthȱ promotion,ȱ andȱ women’sȱ rightsȱ inȱ
maternityȱprotectionȱefforts.ȱOfȱcourse,ȱtheȱroleȱofȱchildrenȱofȱsufficientȱ
ageȱ inȱ theȱ processȱ shouldȱ beȱ assured,ȱ asȱ appropriate,ȱ inȱ accordanceȱ
withȱtheȱCRCȱframework.ȱAȱparticipatoryȱapproachȱshouldȱbeȱtakenȱinȱ
allȱ phasesȱofȱlegislationȱ reformȱforȱnutrition,ȱ fromȱ analysingȱtheȱneedȱ
354
Andersen P., Vitamin and mineral deficiency: A global progress report, Micronutrient
August 23, 2006.
271
forȱ reform,ȱ toȱ planningȱ legislativeȱ andȱ programmeȱ interventions,ȱ toȱ

implementingȱandȱmonitoringȱtheirȱeffectiveness.ȱ
ȱ
1.7ȱ CreatingȱJusticiableȱRightsȱȱ
ȱ
Creatingȱ aȱ justiciableȱ rightȱ ofȱ redressȱ empowersȱ individualsȱ andȱ
membersȱofȱcivilȱsocietyȱwithȱaȱmeansȱforȱclaimingȱtheirȱrights.ȱInȱthisȱ
regard,ȱ theȱ lawȱ canȱ provideȱ forȱ aȱ privateȱ rightȱ ofȱ actionȱ byȱ anyȱ
individualȱ harmedȱ asȱ aȱ resultȱ ofȱ nonȬcomplianceȱ byȱ anyȱ dutyȬbearer,ȱ
governmentalȱ andȱ nonȬgovernmentalȱ alike.ȱ Anȱ individual,ȱ therefore,ȱ
wouldȱnotȱbeȱrequiredȱtoȱrelyȱonȱtheȱgovernmentȱforȱprotectingȱhisȱorȱ
herȱrights.ȱRather,ȱanȱindividualȱwouldȱbeȱableȱtoȱbringȱactionȱagainstȱ
theȱ governmentȱ forȱ failingȱ toȱ fulfillȱ anyȱ ofȱ itsȱ directȱ obligationsȱ ofȱ
implementationȱandȱenforcement.ȱAnȱindividualȱalsoȱwouldȱbeȱableȱtoȱ
bringȱ legalȱ actionȱ directlyȱ againstȱ aȱ privateȱ dutyȱ bearerȱ (e.g.,ȱ foodȱ
company,ȱemployer)ȱforȱanyȱfailureȱtoȱcomplyȱwithȱanyȱdutyȱimposedȱ
onȱitȱbyȱlaw.ȱ
ȱ
Aȱrightȱtoȱbringȱpublicȱlitigationȱbyȱcivilȱsocietyȱorganisationsȱshouldȱ
beȱestablishedȱinȱtheȱlaw,ȱwhereȱappropriate.ȱInȱtheȱcaseȱwhereȱaȱdutyȱ
bearerȱ failsȱ toȱ fulfillȱ itsȱ duty,ȱ representativeȱ organisationsȱ canȱ beȱ
empoweredȱtoȱbringȱanȱactionȱonȱbehalfȱofȱanyȱintendedȱbeneficiaryȱtoȱ
seekȱ aȱ courtȱ orderȱ forȱ fulfillmentȱ ofȱ thatȱ dutyȱ andȱ theȱ awardȱ ofȱ anȱ
establishedȱ civilȱ penalty,ȱ alongȱ withȱ recoveryȱ ofȱ costsȱ andȱ waiverȱ ofȱ
filingȱfees.ȱȱ
ȱ
1.8ȱ MechanismsȱforȱMonitoringȱandȱAccountabilityȱ
ȱ
Forȱ allȱ ofȱ theȱ programmesȱ discussedȱ inȱ thisȱ subȬchapter,ȱ theȱ lawȱ
shouldȱ chargeȱ theȱ governmentȱ withȱ aȱ clearȱ dutyȱ toȱ establishȱ andȱ
implementȱ processesȱ forȱ periodicallyȱ monitoringȱ theȱ effectivenessȱ ofȱ
itsȱ nutritionȱ interventions,ȱ includingȱ theȱ effectivenessȱ ofȱ legalȱ
provisionsȱ andȱ theirȱ implementationȱ andȱ enforcement.ȱ Thisȱ way,ȱ
programmaticȱ adjustmentsȱ andȱ legislativeȱ amendmentsȱ canȱ beȱ
undertakenȱ asȱ appropriate.ȱ Differentȱ modelsȱ forȱ doingȱ thisȱ include,ȱ
amongȱ others,ȱ monitoringȱ byȱ theȱ state,ȱ specialȱ rapporteurs,ȱ
ombudspersonsȱorȱcivilȱsociety.ȱȱȱ
ȱ
Inȱ China,ȱ forȱ example,ȱ theȱ governmentȱ undertakesȱ aȱ fiveȬyearȱ reviewȱ
272
processȱ designedȱ toȱ monitorȱ progress,ȱ budgets,ȱ trainingȱ andȱ bestȱ

practicesȱtoȱrenewȱhighȬlevelȱpoliticalȱcommitmentȱtoȱitsȱuniversalȱsaltȱ
iodizationȱprogram. 355 ȱAsȱmentionedȱinȱtheȱsectionȱonȱtheȱCode,ȱabove,ȱ
Botswana’sȱ implementingȱ regulationsȱ authoriseȱ theȱ designationȱ ofȱ
speciallyȱ trainedȱ monitorsȱ toȱ investigate,ȱ observeȱ andȱ reportȱ onȱ
marketingȱ practicesȱ andȱ presentȱ evidenceȱ inȱ court.ȱ Theȱ Brazilianȱ
Departmentȱ ofȱ Justice,ȱ inȱ collaborationȱ withȱ NGOs,ȱ establishedȱ theȱ
positionȱ ofȱ aȱ nationalȱ rapporteurȱ forȱ monitoringȱ theȱ rightȱ toȱ food,ȱ
waterȱ andȱ ruralȱ land.ȱ Thisȱ endeavourȱ wasȱ initiatedȱ byȱ aȱ nationalȱ
networkȱofȱcivilȱsocietyȱorganisations. 356 ȱȱȱ
ȱ
1.9ȱ Issuesȱchecklistȱ
ȱ
x EstablishȱorȱreinvigorateȱmultiȬsectoralȱcoordinatingȱ
committeesȱ(orȱsimilarȱbodies)ȱcomposedȱofȱbroadȬbasedȱ
governmentalȱandȱcivilȱsocietyȱrepresentatives,ȱespeciallyȱthoseȱ
responsibleȱforȱchildȱwellȬbeing,ȱon:ȱȱ
- micronutrientȱmalnutrition;ȱ
- breastfeedingȱ promotionȱ andȱ accompanyingȱ socialȱ policies;ȱ
andȱ
- childhoodȱoverweightȱandȱobesity.ȱ
ȱȱ
Coordinationȱ amongȱ theseȱ committeesȱ willȱ beȱ importantȱ
becauseȱ micronutrientȱ malnutrition,ȱ breastfeedingȱ andȱ obesityȱ
areȱ allȱ interconnected.ȱ Lessonsȱ learned,ȱ forȱ example,ȱ fromȱ theȱ
Code’sȱ marketingȱ restrictionsȱ canȱ beȱ applied,ȱ withȱ someȱ
adaptation,ȱtoȱmeasuresȱregulatingȱtheȱmarketingȱofȱjunkȱfoods.ȱȱȱȱ
ȱ
x Conductȱaȱlegislativeȱreviewȱofȱnutritionȱpolicies,ȱlawsȱandȱ
regulations,ȱspecificallyȱrelatedȱtoȱmicronutrientȱmalnutrition,ȱ
breastfeedingȱprotection,ȱpromotionȱandȱsupport,ȱandȱ
childhoodȱoverweightȱandȱobesity,ȱwithȱspecialȱinquiryȱinto:ȱ
- whetherȱ existingȱ measuresȱmeetȱorȱ exceedȱ theȱ internationalȱ
standardsȱ ofȱ theȱ Codex,ȱ theȱ Codeȱ andȱ theȱ Maternityȱ
Protectionȱ Conventionȱ andȱ Recommendationsȱ andȱ whetherȱ
355
Ibid.
356
Report of the Intergovernmental Working Group for the Elaboration of a Set of Voluntary
Guildelines to Support the Progressive Realization of the Right to Adequate Food in the
Context of National Food Security, FAO, Rome (2004); available at
http://www.fao.org/docrep/meeting/008/j1877e.htm.
273
theyȱimplementȱtheȱframeworksȱofȱtheȱInnocentiȱDeclarationȱ
andȱtheȱGlobalȱStrategyȱonȱInfantȱandȱYoungȱChildȱfeeding;ȱ
- whetherȱ groupsȱ mostȱ affectedȱ orȱ atȱ riskȱ ofȱ nutritionalȱ
deficiencies,ȱ especiallyȱ childrenȱ andȱ adolescentȱ girlsȱ andȱ
womenȱ ofȱ childbearingȱ age,ȱ areȱ fullyȱ protectedȱ byȱ existingȱ
measures;ȱ ifȱ not,ȱ whatȱ gapsȱ existȱ andȱ whatȱ strategicȱ plansȱ
areȱnecessaryȱtoȱfillȱthem;ȱȱȱ
- whetherȱ existingȱ measuresȱ protectȱ andȱ promoteȱ theȱ bestȱ
interestȱ ofȱ theȱ child,ȱ includingȱ givingȱ priorityȱ toȱ children’sȱ
bestȱ interestsȱ overȱ competingȱ interestsȱ (forȱ example,ȱ
mandatoryȱ fortificationȱ toȱ addressȱ deficienciesȱ thatȱ areȱ
widespreadȱ andȱ thatȱ especiallyȱ affectȱ childrenȱ andȱ
adolescentȱ girlsȱ andȱ womenȱ ofȱ childȱ bearingȱ age,ȱ banningȱ
marketingȱofȱjunkȱfoodsȱtoȱchildren);ȱ
- whetherȱexistingȱmeasuresȱadequatelyȱprotectȱchildrenȱfromȱ
intentionalȱ orȱ unintentionalȱ discriminationȱ (forȱ example,ȱ
highȱratesȱofȱironȱdeficiencyȱinȱgirlsȱandȱwomen);ȱ
- whetherȱ existingȱ measuresȱ adequatelyȱ protectȱ children’sȱ
rightȱ ofȱ life,ȱ survival,ȱ developmentȱ andȱ protectionȱ (forȱ
example,ȱ whereȱ thereȱ areȱ lowȱ ratesȱ ofȱ breastfeedingȱ andȱ
highȱratesȱofȱchildȱmalnutritionȱand/orȱsicknessȱandȱdeath);ȱȱȱ
- whetherȱ existingȱ lawsȱ haveȱ takenȱ intoȱ accountȱ theȱ viewsȱ ofȱ
childrenȱ(forȱexample,ȱwithȱregardȱtoȱfortification,ȱmarketingȱ
ofȱjunkȱfoods);ȱandȱȱȱ
- whetherȱ dutyȱ bearersȱ areȱ clearlyȱ identifiedȱ andȱ justiciableȱ
rightsȱandȱremediesȱareȱcreatedȱforȱeachȱbreachȱofȱduty.ȱ
x Conductȱaȱsituationȱanalyses,ȱincluding:ȱ
- ratesȱ inȱ theȱ entireȱ populationȱ andȱ inȱ subpopulationsȱ ofȱ
micronutrientȱ malnutrition,ȱ breastfeeding,ȱ childhoodȱ
overweightȱ andȱ obesity,ȱ physicalȱ activity,ȱ infantȱ andȱ childȱ
malnutrition,ȱ morbidity,ȱ andȱ mortality,ȱ andȱ theȱ factorsȱ
influencingȱtheseȱratesȱȱȱ
- identificationȱofȱtheȱgroupsȱaffectedȱbyȱinadequateȱnutritionȱ
andȱ theȱ groupsȱ mostȱ vulnerable,ȱ barriersȱ toȱ theirȱ accessȱ toȱ
adequateȱandȱappropriateȱfoodsȱand,ȱasȱapplicable,ȱadequateȱ
protectionȱofȱbreastfeeding;ȱandȱȱ
- identificationȱofȱadditionalȱnutritionȱandȱotherȱpublicȱhealthȱ
interventionsȱ thatȱ mayȱ beȱ necessaryȱ toȱ reachȱ childrenȱ andȱ
274
adolescentȱ girls,ȱ womenȱ ofȱ childbearingȱ age,ȱ andȱ anyȱ otherȱ

underservedȱpopulations.ȱȱ
x Developȱstrategicȱplansȱwithȱmeasurable,ȱtimeȬboundȱ
objectivesȱandȱclearȱrolesȱwithȱrespectȱto:ȱ
- eliminatingȱ deficienciesȱ inȱ iodineȱ andȱ Vitaminȱ Aȱ andȱ
reducingȱironȱdeficiency;ȱ
- increasingȱ theȱ ratesȱ ofȱ exclusiveȱ andȱ continuingȱ
breastfeeding;ȱandȱ
- reducingȱorȱatȱleastȱcontainingȱtheȱrateȱofȱchildhoodȱobesity;ȱ
usingȱ aȱ childȱ impactȱ analysisȱ inȱ developingȱ theȱ planȱ andȱ
monitoringȱindicators.ȱȱȱ
x Ensureȱanȱadequateȱbudgetȱforȱnutritionȱandȱbreastfeedingȱ
protectionȱandȱpromotionȱinterventions,ȱincludingȱforȱtheirȱ
monitoringȱandȱenforcement.ȱȱ
x Assessȱinstitutionalȱcapacityȱinȱregardȱto:ȱ
- implementing,ȱmonitoringȱandȱevaluatingȱinterventionsȱandȱ
theȱeffectivenessȱofȱlegislativeȱmeasures;ȱandȱ
- inspectingȱandȱenforcingȱlegalȱrequirements.ȱȱ
x DevelopȱprogrammesȱforȱcapacityȬbuildingȱwhereȱgapsȱareȱ
identified.ȱ
x Conductȱanȱanalysisȱtoȱidentifyȱpotentialȱunintendedȱ
consequences,ȱincludingȱthoseȱonȱotherȱrightsȱguaranteedȱbyȱ
theȱCRCȱandȱotherȱhumanȱrightsȱinstruments,ȱofȱplannedȱ
legislativeȱreform.ȱȱ
x Developȱmechanismsȱforȱmonitoringȱandȱperiodicȱreportingȱonȱ
legislativeȱmeasuresȱandȱnutritionȱprogrammeȱinterventions,ȱ
withȱcivilȱsocietyȱinvolvement.ȱȱȱ
ȱ
ȱ
ȱ
ȱ
ȱ
ȱ
ȱ
ȱ
ȱ
ȱ
ȱ
275
Chapterȱ5:ȱAnnexȱ1ȱ
SummaryȱofȱtheȱCode’sȱProvisionsȱ
ȱ
Scopeȱ (Art.2):ȱ Theȱ Codeȱ appliesȱ toȱ productsȱ marketedȱ orȱ otherwiseȱ
representedȱ toȱ beȱ suitableȱ forȱ useȱ asȱ aȱ partialȱ orȱ totalȱ replacementȱ ofȱ
breastmilk,ȱfeedingȱbottles,ȱandȱteats.ȱȱ
ȱ
InformationȱandȱEducationȱ(Art.ȱ4):ȱTheȱgovernmentȱisȱresponsibleȱforȱ
planning,ȱ providing,ȱ andȱ disseminatingȱ informationȱ onȱ infantȱ andȱ
youngȱchildȱfeeding,ȱorȱcontrollingȱitȱtoȱensureȱobjectiveȱandȱconsistentȱ
information,ȱwhichȱincludes:ȱ
ȱ
x theȱbenefitsȱandȱsuperiorityȱofȱbreastfeedingȱ
x maternalȱnutritionȱandȱpreparationȱforȱandȱmaintenanceȱofȱ
breastfeedingȱ
x negativeȱeffectȱofȱintroducingȱpartialȱbottleȱfeedingȱonȱ
breastfeedingȱȱ
x difficultyȱofȱreversingȱaȱdecisionȱnotȱtoȱbreastfeedȱ
x properȱuseȱofȱinfantȱformulaȱwhereȱneeded,ȱsocialȱandȱfinancialȱ
implications,ȱhazardsȱofȱinappropriateȱuseȱofȱbreastmilkȱ
substitutes,ȱandȱnoȱtextȱorȱpicturesȱthatȱidealiseȱbreastmilkȱ
substitutesȱ
Distributionȱofȱinformationalȱorȱeducationalȱequipmentȱorȱmaterialsȱisȱ
allowedȱ throughȱ theȱ healthȱ careȱ systemȱ ifȱ madeȱ atȱ theȱ requestȱ ofȱ theȱ
governmentȱandȱitȱdoesȱnotȱreferȱtoȱaȱproprietaryȱproduct.ȱȱ
ȱ
Theȱgeneralȱpublicȱandȱmothersȱ(Art.ȱ5):ȱȱThereȱshouldȱbeȱno:ȱ
ȱ
x advertisingȱorȱotherȱpromotionȱofȱcoveredȱproductsȱtoȱtheȱ
generalȱpublicȱȱ
x directȱorȱindirectȱprovisionȱofȱsamplesȱȱ
x pointȱofȱsaleȱadvertising,ȱsamples,ȱotherȱpromotionalȱdevicesȱatȱ
retail,ȱsuchȱasȱspecialȱdisplays,ȱdiscountȱcoupons,ȱpremiums,ȱ
specialȱsales,ȱlossȬleaders,ȱorȱtieȬinȱsalesȱ
x distributionȱofȱarticlesȱorȱutensilsȱwhichȱmayȱpromoteȱtheȱuseȱ
ofȱbreastmilkȱsubstitutesȱ
x directȱorȱindirectȱcontactȱwithȱpregnantȱwomenȱorȱmothersȱbyȱ
marketingȱpersonnelȱ
ȱȱȱ
276
Healthȱ careȱ systemsȱ (Art.ȱ 6;ȱ WHAȱ 47.5):ȱ Noȱ facilityȱ ofȱ aȱ healthȱ careȱ
systemȱshouldȱbeȱusedȱforȱpromotingȱcoveredȱproducts,ȱincluding:ȱȱ
ȱ
x displayingȱproducts,ȱplacardsȱorȱposters,ȱorȱdistributionȱofȱ
materialȱfromȱaȱmanufacturerȱorȱdistributorȱotherȱthanȱ
scientificȱandȱfactualȱinformationȱȱprovidedȱbyȱcompaniesȱtoȱ
healthȱprofessionalsȱȱ
x usingȱ‘professionalȱserviceȱrepresentatives’,ȱ‘mothercraftȱ
nurses’,ȱorȱsimilarȱpersonnelȱprovidedȱorȱpaidȱforȱbyȱ
manufacturersȱorȱdistributorsȱ
x allowing,ȱifȱnecessary,ȱdemonstrationȱofȱinfantȱformulaȱbyȱ
anyoneȱotherȱthanȱhealthȱworkersȱorȱcommunityȱworkersȱ
x donationsȱorȱlowȱpriceȱsalesȱofȱsuppliesȱofȱbreastmilkȱ
substitutesȱinȱanyȱpartȱofȱtheȱhealthȱsystemȱ
x donatedȱequipmentȱorȱmaterialsȱthatȱreferȱtoȱanyȱproprietaryȱ
productȱcoveredȱbyȱtheȱCodeȱȱȱȱ
ȱ
Healthȱ workersȱ (Art.ȱ 7;ȱ WHAȱ 58.32):ȱ Healthȱ workersȱ shouldȱ
encourageȱandȱprotectȱbreastfeedingȱandȱshouldȱnot:ȱ
ȱ
x acceptȱfinancialȱorȱmaterialȱinducementsȱtoȱpromoteȱcoveredȱ
productsȱfromȱmanufacturersȱorȱdistributorsȱ
x giveȱsamplesȱofȱinfantȱformulaȱorȱotherȱcoveredȱproductsȱtoȱ
pregnantȱwomen,ȱmothers,ȱorȱmembersȱofȱtheirȱfamiliesȱ
x ȱ
Healthȱ workersȱ shouldȱ discloseȱ anyȱ contributionsȱ madeȱ byȱ aȱ
manufacturerȱ orȱ distributorȱ ofȱ anyȱ fellowship,ȱ studyȱ tour,ȱ researchȱ
grant,ȱattendanceȱatȱaȱprofessionalȱconference,ȱandȱtheȱlike.ȱ
ȱ
Memberȱ statesȱ shouldȱ ensureȱ thatȱ financialȱ supportȱ andȱ otherȱ
incentivesȱforȱprogrammesȱandȱhealthȱprofessionalsȱworkingȱinȱinfantȱ
andȱchildȱhealthȱdoȱnotȱcreateȱconflictsȱofȱinterest.ȱ
ȱ
Employeesȱ ofȱ manufacturersȱ andȱ distributorsȱ (Art.ȱ 8):ȱ Salesȱ
incentivesȱforȱmarketingȱpersonnelȱshouldȱnotȱbeȱbasedȱonȱvolumeȱofȱ
salesȱ andȱsalesȱquotasȱshouldȱ notȱbeȱ set.ȱMarketingȱpersonnelȱ shouldȱ
notȱ performȱ educationalȱ functionsȱ inȱ relationȱ toȱ pregnantȱ womenȱ orȱ
mothersȱ ofȱ infantsȱ andȱ youngȱ children.ȱ Theyȱ shouldȱ haveȱ writtenȱ
approvalȱ ofȱ theȱ appropriateȱ governmentalȱ authorityȱ toȱ performȱ otherȱ
functions.ȱȱȱ
277
ȱ
Labellingȱ(Art.ȱȱ9;ȱWHAȱ58.32):ȱLabelsȱshouldȱbeȱdesignedȱtoȱprovideȱ
necessaryȱ informationȱ aboutȱ appropriateȱ useȱ andȱ shouldȱ notȱ
discourageȱ breastfeeding.ȱ Labelsȱ onȱ infantȱ formulaȱ containersȱ shouldȱ
haveȱaȱclear,ȱconspicuous,ȱeasilyȱreadableȱandȱunderstandableȱmessageȱ
printedȱinȱtheȱappropriateȱlanguageȱthatȱincludesȱtheȱfollowingȱwordsȱ
orȱstatements:ȱȱ
ȱ
x ‘ImportantȱNotice’ȱorȱtheȱequivalentȱ
x theȱsuperiorityȱofȱbreastfeedingȱ
x shouldȱbeȱusedȱonlyȱonȱtheȱadviceȱofȱaȱhealthȱworkerȱasȱtoȱtheȱ
needȱforȱitsȱuseȱandȱtheȱproperȱmethodȱofȱuseȱ
x instructionsȱforȱappropriateȱpreparationȱandȱwarningȱofȱtheȱ
healthȱhazardsȱofȱinappropriateȱpreparationȱ
x informationȱthatȱpoweredȱformulaȱmayȱcontainȱpathogenicȱ
microȱorganismsȱandȱmustȱbeȱpreparedȱandȱusedȱappropriatelyȱ
x ȱ
Thereȱ shouldȱ beȱ noȱ picturesȱ ofȱ infantsȱ orȱ picturesȱ orȱ textȱ whichȱ mayȱ
idealiseȱ formulaȱ useȱ orȱ whichȱ containsȱ theȱ termsȱ ‘humanised’ȱ orȱȱ
‘maternalised’ȱorȱsimilarȱterms.ȱ
ȱ
Nutritionȱandȱhealthȱclaimsȱshouldȱnotȱbeȱpermittedȱunlessȱspecificallyȱ
providedȱforȱinȱnationalȱlegislation.ȱȱ
ȱ
Qualityȱ(Art.ȱ10):ȱCoveredȱproductsȱshouldȱmeetȱCodexȬrecommendedȱ
standards.ȱȱ
ȱ
Implementationȱ andȱ monitoringȱ (Art.ȱ 11):ȱ Governmentsȱ shouldȱ
implementȱ theȱ Codeȱ throughȱ appropriateȱ legal,ȱ policy,ȱ orȱ otherȱ
measures.ȱ Governmentsȱ haveȱ anȱ obligationȱ toȱ monitor,ȱ inȱ
collaborationȱ withȱ UNȱ agencies,ȱ NGOs,ȱ andȱ civilȱ society.ȱ
ManufacturersȱandȱdistributorsȱshouldȱabideȱbyȱtheȱCodeȱirrespectiveȱ
ofȱwhetherȱtheȱnationalȱgovernmentȱhasȱtakenȱstepsȱtoȱimplementȱtheȱ
Codeȱthroughȱnationalȱmeasures.ȱȱȱȱ
ȱȱ
ȱ
ȱ
ȱ
278
Chapterȱ5:ȱAnnexȱ2ȱ
SummaryȱofȱtheȱILOȱMaternityȱConventionȱ
andȱRecommendationsȱ
Scopeȱ (Articlesȱ 1ȱ andȱ 2):ȱ Theȱ Conventionȱ appliesȱ toȱ allȱ employedȱ women,ȱ
butȱ ratifyingȱ membersȱ mayȱ excludeȱ limitedȱ categoriesȱ ofȱ workersȱ whenȱ
coveringȱthemȱwouldȱ“raiseȱspecialȱproblemsȱofȱaȱsubstantialȱnature.”ȱȱ
Maternityȱ leaveȱ (Articleȱ 4):ȱ Womenȱ coveredȱ underȱ theȱ Conventionȱ areȱ
entitledȱ toȱ maternityȱ leaveȱ ofȱ notȱ lessȱ thanȱ 14ȱ weeks.ȱ Maternityȱ
Recommendationȱ (R)ȱ 191:ȱ membersȱ shouldȱ endeavourȱ toȱ extendȱ theȱ leaveȱ
periodȱtoȱatȱleastȱ18ȱweeks.ȱȱ
Benefitsȱ (Articlesȱ 6ȱ andȱ 7;ȱ Rȱ 191):ȱ Cashȱ benefitsȱ shallȱ beȱ providedȱ forȱ
maternityȱleaveȱandȱleaveȱdueȱtoȱillnessȱorȱcomplications.ȱBenefitȱlevelsȱshallȱ
beȱatȱaȱlevelȱthatȱensuresȱtheȱwomanȱcanȱmaintainȱherselfȱandȱchildȱinȱproperȱ
conditionsȱofȱhealthȱandȱwithȱaȱsuitableȱstandardȱofȱliving:ȱȱ
x Cashȱbenefitsȱbasedȱonȱpreviousȱearningsȱshallȱbeȱnoȱlessȱthanȱ
twoȱthirdsȱofȱpreviousȱearningsȱorȱcomparableȱamount.ȱWhereȱ
practicable,ȱcashȱbenefitsȱshouldȱbeȱraisedȱtoȱtheȱfullȱamountȱofȱ
previousȱearnings.ȱȱ
x Aȱlargeȱmajorityȱofȱcoveredȱwomenȱmustȱbeȱableȱtoȱsatisfyȱtheȱ
conditionsȱforȱqualifyingȱforȱcashȱbenefits.ȱ
x Whereȱaȱwomanȱdoesȱnotȱmeetȱtheȱconditionsȱtoȱqualifyȱforȱ
cashȱbenefits,ȱsheȱshallȱbeȱentitledȱtoȱadequateȱbenefitsȱoutȱofȱ
socialȱassistanceȱorȱpublicȱfundsȱuponȱmeetingȱanyȱrequiredȱ
meansȱtest.ȱȱ
x Toȱprotectȱagainstȱdiscrimination,ȱcashȱbenefitsȱshallȱbeȱ
providedȱthroughȱcompulsoryȱsocialȱinsuranceȱorȱpublicȱfunds.ȱ
x Inȱcountriesȱwhereȱtheȱeconomyȱandȱsocialȱsecurityȱsystemȱareȱ
notȱsufficientlyȱdeveloped,ȱbenefitsȱmayȱbeȱpaidȱatȱleastȱatȱtheȱ
levelȱprovidedȱforȱsicknessȱorȱtemporaryȱdisability.ȱȱȱ
Employmentȱ protectionȱ andȱ nonȬdiscriminationȱ (Articlesȱ 8ȱ andȱ 9;ȱ Rȱ

191):ȱȱ
x Anȱemployerȱmayȱnotȱterminateȱaȱwomanȱduringȱpregnancyȱorȱ
leaveȱorȱfollowingȱherȱreturnȱtoȱworkȱforȱaȱprescribedȱperiod,ȱ
279
exceptȱonȱgroundsȱunrelatedȱtoȱtheȱpregnancy,ȱbirth,ȱorȱ
nursing.ȱTheȱburdenȱofȱproofȱrestsȱwithȱtheȱemployer.ȱȱ
x Aȱwomanȱisȱguaranteedȱtheȱrightȱtoȱreturnȱtoȱworkȱtoȱtheȱsameȱ
orȱequivalentȱpositionȱpaidȱatȱtheȱsameȱrate.ȱTheȱperiodȱofȱleaveȱ
shouldȱbeȱconsideredȱasȱaȱperiodȱofȱserviceȱforȱtheȱ
determinationȱofȱrights.ȱȱ
x Ratifyingȱmembersȱmustȱadoptȱmeasuresȱtoȱpreventȱ
discriminationȱbasedȱonȱmaternity,ȱincludingȱnotȱrequiringȱaȱ
pregnancyȱtestȱorȱcertificationȱofȱnonȬpregnancyȱuponȱ
applicationȱforȱemployment,ȱunlessȱnationalȱlawȱprohibitsȱorȱ
restrictsȱemploymentȱofȱpregnantȱorȱnursingȱwomenȱorȱwhereȱ
thereȱisȱaȱrecognisedȱorȱsignificantȱriskȱtoȱtheȱhealthȱofȱtheȱ
womanȱorȱchild.ȱ
Breastfeedingȱmothersȱ(Articleȱ10;ȱRȱ191):ȱWomenȱshouldȱhaveȱoneȱorȱmoreȱ
dailyȱ breaksȱ orȱ aȱ dailyȱ reductionȱ ofȱ hoursȱ forȱ breastfeeding,ȱ adaptedȱ toȱ
particularȱneeds.ȱTheseȱareȱ toȱbeȱcountedȱandȱpaidȱ asȱworkingȱ time.ȱ Whereȱ
practicable,ȱ cleanȱ andȱ safeȱ facilitiesȱ forȱ nursingȱ atȱ orȱ nearȱ theȱ workplaceȱ
shouldȱbeȱestablished.ȱȱ
Periodicȱ Reviewȱ (Articleȱ 11):ȱ Eachȱ memberȱ mustȱ examineȱ periodically,ȱ inȱ
consultationȱ withȱ theȱ prescribedȱ organisations,ȱ theȱ appropriatenessȱ ofȱ
extendingȱtheȱperiodȱofȱleaveȱorȱincreasingȱtheȱrateȱofȱcashȱbenefits.ȱȱȱȱ
ȱ
ȱ
ȱ
280

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Handbook on Legislative Reform

The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this

Photo credit: UNICEF/HQ04-0604/Giacomo Pirozzi

2.3 Reform of Legislation ......................................................................................87

5.2 Criminal Liability of Legal Entities ...............................................................206

principlesȱ andȱ provisionsȱ ofȱ humanȱ rightsȱ instrumentsȱ asȱ basicȱ

Directa o indirectamente, el proceso de presentación de informes sobre la

Sin embargo, a pesar de estos avances logrados en todo el mundo, en muchos

Este Manual sobre reforma legislativa en favor de la infancia (el Manual)

Los objetivos fundamentales del Manual son:

Estados Parte dirigidas a cumplir con los instrumentos

Este Manual promueve un enfoque basado en los derechos humanos con

El objetivo del Manual es servir de orientación a legisladores, parlamentarios,

El Manual está concebido para que se utilice, en su totalidad o en parte, como

El Manual sitúa a los niños en el centro de los procesos de reforma al

El Manual analiza diferentes tipos de leyes, entre ellos leyes constitucionales,

A manera de ejemplos, el Manual incluye pasajes extraídos de una selección

El Manual analiza todo el proceso de redacción de leyes, que incluye la

El Manual está dividido en varios volúmenes, que incluyen una serie de

Los distintos volúmenes están concebidos para que se complementen el uno al

Volumen I del Manual

El primer volumen incluye los cinco capítulos siguientes:

Capítulo I Reforma amplia e integral en favor de la infancia

Capítulo V Reforma legislativa para la protección de los

Resumen de los capítulos

El Capítulo I “Reforma amplia e integral en favor de la infancia” establece el

El Capítulo II “Armonización de la legislación nacional relativa a la infancia

El Capítulo III “Reformas constitucionales en favor de la infancia” presenta

El Capítulo IV “Cumplimiento de los derechos de la infancia a una nutrición

El Capítulo V “Reforma legislativa para la protección de los derechos de los

legislativas, que deben en última instancia conducir al cumplimiento de los

Directement ou indirectement le mécanisme d’établissement des rapports de la

Les principaux objectifs poursuivis avec ce Manuel sont les suivants :

Le présent Manuel préconise d’inscrire les réformes législatives en faveur des

Ce Manuel servira de référence aux législateurs, parlementaires, juristes,

Ce Manuel devrait servir de guide pratique, dans son intégralité ou par

Ce Manuel place les enfants au centre du mécanisme de réforme en les

Le manuel analyse différent types de législations : droit constitutionnel,

À titre d’exemple, le Manuel cite des extraits de dispositions des législations

illustrations et des sources d’inspiration concernant l’énoncé et la manière

Le Manuel décrit le mécanisme de rédaction d’un projet de loi dans son

Le Manuel est divisé en plusieurs volumes comprenant chacun plusieurs

Les différents volumes se complètent et l’ensemble contient tous les éléments

Le premier volume se compose de cinq chapitres :

Chapitre I Réforme globale et en profondeur de la législation

Résumé des chapitres

Le Chapitre I « Réforme globale et en profondeur de la législation en faveur

Le Chapitre II « Conformité de la législation nationale relative aux enfants

Le Chapitre III « Réformes constitutionnelles en faveur des enfants » présente

Le Chapitre IV « Réalisation du droit de l’enfant à une nutrition adéquate

thisȱinȱtheȱlegalȱprovisionsȱrelatingȱtoȱbirthȱregistration. 129 ȱTheȱlawȱ

survivalȱandȱdevelopment. 140 ȱHowever,ȱthereȱisȱalwaysȱtheȱexpectationȱ

acknowledgeȱ thatȱ courtsȱ areȱ generallyȱ alreadyȱ involvedȱ inȱ aȱ

theȱ federalȱ executiveȱ branchȱ ofȱ governmentȱ asȱ theȱ Crown’sȱ

Constitutionalȱ provisionsȱ onȱ childrenȱ inȱ armedȱ conflictȱ areȱ limited.ȱ

forȱ theȱ rightsȱ toȱ freeȱ expression,ȱ associationȱ andȱ information.ȱ

mattersȱ affectingȱ theirȱ welfare,ȱ providedȱ appropriateȱ mechanismsȱ areȱ

children,ȱ countriesȱ couldȱ considerȱ simplifiedȱ orȱ illustratedȱ versions.ȱ

enumeratedȱ inȱ andȱ protectedȱ byȱ theȱ Constitution).ȱ Inȱ suchȱ

However,ȱ aȱ practicalȱ problemȱ mayȱ ariseȱ whenȱ childȱ victimsȱ ofȱ

proceedings,ȱ interviewsȱ mustȱ beȱ conductedȱ withȱ childȱ victimsȱ byȱ

childrenȱ areȱ involved,ȱ allȱ informationȱ regardingȱ childrenȱ shouldȱ

Displacementȱ disruptsȱ familyȱ andȱ communityȱ networksȱ whichȱ