I.

Basics of Crystal Plasticity

Plastic deformation
• deformation which remains after load is removed
• atomic rearrangements (change of neighbours)

Plastic deformation of crystals preserves lattice structure.

• shearing of lattice planes against each other (‘slip’)
• plastic displacements are ‘quantized’ in terms of multiple lattice vectors

At low temperatures / high stresses: Deformation of crystals occurs exclusively

by slip of lattice planes

Slip system is characterized by:

r
r n
• slip plane normal
• slip direction s
• slip vector (a lattice vector in the slip direction)
• often: slip planes are most densely packed lattice planes
• slip directions are most densely packed lattice directions

1
On surface: slip can be seen in the form of slip steps along lines where
the slip planes intersect the surface

Example: Slip lines on the surface

of a polycrystalline Ni specimen. Slip
traces from two slip systems are visible

Driving force for slip: Tensile stress σ = F / A

leads to resolved shear stress τ R in slip system
F

φ A

λ τ R = σ cos λ cos φ

r
n
r
s

No shear stress if slip direction or slip plane normal are perpendicular

to the tensile axis

Maximum shear stress if slip plane and slip direction are under 45o
to the tensile axis.In single crystals: Slip starts on slip system with
highest resolved shear stress

2
How do lattice planes slip?

Not: breaking all bonds simultaneously (this would imply a perfectly strong, but
also perfectly brittle material!)

Instead: slip involves motion of defects: Dislocations

‘Side view’ of the motion of an edge dislocation

Dislocation is characterized by slip vector (‘Burgers vector’) and slip plane

Burgers vector: when you make a closed circuit around a dislocation,

there is a mismatch of one lattice vector. This is the Burgers vector

3
 ‘Type’ of dislocation depends on orientation of the dislocation line
with respect to the Burgers vector.

Screw dislocation: line is parallel to Burgers vector

Edge dislocation: line is perpendicular to Burgers vector

Some ‘top views’ of dislocations: (blue = atoms above slip plane

red = atoms below slip plane)

an edge dislocation a screw dislocation

A dislocation loop

Dislocation = boundary of
slipped area

(follow a vertical row of blue atoms

to see the displacement

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Stress required to move dislocations:

1) Stress required to displace dislocation by one Burgers vector (stress to

break bonds): ‘Peierls stress’

2) Stress required to move dislocation across obstacles

A dislocation pinned
by a localized obstacle

Introduction of dislocation obstacles: solution/precipitation hardening

3) Stress required to overcome dislocation interactions: work hardening

Dislocations: Internal stresses and dislocation interactions

Dislocations create lattice distorsions and stress and strain fields

• Typically 5% of work done during deformation is stored as elastic energy

of the dislocation stress fields
2
• Elastic energy per unit length of dislocation line: EL ~ Gb
(Consequence: only dislocations with smallest Burgers vectors occur)

• Stress fields decay like σ ~ Gb / r where r is the vertical distance

from the dislocation

5
Stress fields lead to dislocation interactions

Estimating the magnitude of dislocation interactions:

Dislocation density

length of dislocation lines number of intersection points

ρ= =
unit volume unit area

Mean dislocation spacing d = 1/ ρ

Characteristic interaction stress σ ~ Gb / d ~ Gb ρ

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 dγ
Rate of deformation by slip (shearing rate ):
dt
proportional to

• dislocation density
• Burgers vector modulus b
• dislocation velocity v
dγ
‘Orowan’s equation’: = ρ bv
dt

Dislocation velocity depends on stress, temperature and presence

of dislocation obstacles

Often: thermally activated process with activation energy E

NG
τ   E 
Empirical relation for dislocation glide velocity: v = v0   exp − G 
G  kT 

where NG = stress exponent for glide (typically ~10), T temperature

Dislocation climb:

Dislocation can move perpendicular to its glide plane only if matter

is added or removed: ‘climb motion’

ƒ By climbing, dislocations can move past obstacles

ƒ Climb is possible if diffusion processes lead to transport of matter

ƒ Usually: vacancy diffusion

ƒ Rate of climb depends on concentration and diffusivity of

lattice vacancies : proportional to self-diffusion rate
NC
climb velocity: τ   E 
v = v0   exp − SD 
G  kT 

where NC = stress exponent for climb (typically ~3), ESD activation energy
for self-diffusion (formation + migration energies of vacancies)

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 Diffusional creep:

No motion of dislocations, deformation due to matter transport by

point-defect diffusion

ƒ Stress exponent is small (1 or 2)

ƒ Often grain boundary diffusion: activation energy is small)

ƒ Creep rate τ 
ND
 E 
Γ& = Γ& 0   exp − D 
G  kT 

Different deformation mechanisms are characterized by different

activation energies and stress exponents

Determination of stress exponents:

Experiments at constant
temperature but varying stress

Plot log(deformation rate)

vs. log(stress)

Determination of activation energies:

Experiments at constant stress

but varying temperature

Plot log(deformation rate)

vs 1/temperature

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Different deformation mechanisms operate in general simultaneously
But: Usually one mechanism (the fastest) prevails

Boundaries between different deformation

mechanisms: Equate respective rates

N
dγ τ 
i
 E 
For rates in the form = Γ& i0   exp − i 
dt i G  kT 

we get for the boundary between two mechanisms i and j

N Nj
τ 
i
 E  τ   Ej 
Γ& i0   exp − i  = Γ& j0   exp − 
G
   kT  G  kT 
 Γ& 0  τ  Ei − E j
hence ln i0  + ( N i − N j ) ln  =
 Γ&  G kT
 j 

choose semi-logarithmic representation of stress vs. temperature

Result: ‘Deformation mechanism maps’ (Example: Ni-base superalloy)