International Practical Science Guide Final

International
Practical Science
Guide
advice and activities for primary and
secondary science in the classroom
International
Practical
Science Guide:
advice and activities for primary and
secondary science in the classroom
Edited by:
Silvia Newton
Published by : The Association for Science Education and

University of Cambridge International Examinations
Printed by: Piggot Black Bear, Cambridge.
ISBN: 0 86357 410 6

(ISBN: 978 0 86357 411 5)
© The Association for Science Education and

University of Cambridge International Examinations, 2006
Authorisation is granted by the Publishers for items from the International Practical Science Guide to be
reproduced for personal use or for the use of specific individuals within the purchasing institution.
Permission is needed to copy or reproduce for any other purpose and requests should be addressed to:

1 Hills Road
Cambridge
CB1 2EU
United Kingdom
International Practical Science Guide

Contributors:
Nigerian writing team:

Thomas Iroegbu, Temisan Ige, Etim Ekpe, Tayo Owopetu
co-ordinated by Ben Akpan.
Lynne Symonds (ASE)

Dr. Rosemin Najmudin (ASE)
Dr Rick Nelms (CIE)
Silvia Newton (ASE)
Design and typesetting by Deanna Melchior (ASE)
Acknowledgements
This guide represents the efforts of many people. The Association for Science Education (ASE)
and University of Cambridge International Examinations (CIE) are grateful to all of the contributors.
The editor is grateful to Jane Hanrott (ASE) and Deanna Melchior (ASE) for their support and help
in producing the guide and Peter Borrows, John Tranter and Ralph Whitcher of ASE Safeguards
Committee for their time, helpful advice and comments.

Contents
1 Introduction
1.1 Why teach science, and why teach it practically? 2

1.2 How to use this booklet 2
2 Health and safety

2.1 Risk assessment 3
2.2 Eye protection 4
2.3 Safety screens 5
2.4 Safe working 5
2.5 Some possible hazards 6
2.6 Batteries and cells 8
3 Improvisation
3.1 Laboratory work when there is no laboratory 9
3.2 Heating 10
3.3 Apparatus 11
4 Solutions and recipes

4.1 Stock solutions 15
4.2 Prepared solutions 15
4.3 Storage of solutions 15
4.4 Making up solutions 15
4.5 Precise versus imprecise concentrations 16
4.6 Serial dilution 16
4.7 Percent and weight per volume solutions 17
4.8 Standard solutions 18
4.9 Bench reagents 18
4.10 Diluting concentrated solutions 18
4.11 Other useful chemicals 20
5 Some useful and fun experiments

5.1 Biology 21
5.2 Chemistry 26
5.3 Physics 30
6 Index 35
7 Appendices 37

1
1.0 Introduction
This guide has been co-developed by the Association for Science Education (ASE) and the
University of Cambridge International Examinations (CIE).
ASE is the UK's largest subject teaching association providing advice, support, resources, training
and events for all involved in science education for ages 3 -19 both nationally and across the
world. It is self-funded and, as a body representing more than 17,000 members provides a voice
for teachers and technicians in arenas of influence worldwide.
CIE is the world’s largest provider of international qualifications for 14 -19 year olds. CIE offers a
broad range of qualifications, created for an international audience. These qualifications include
Cambridge IGCSE and International A/AS Level. CIE qualifications are taken in 150 countries and
are recognised by universities, educational providers and employers across the world.
CIE identified the need for guidance for teachers and laboratory technicians on setting up and
carrying out practical work. In many countries practical work is restricted due to lack of equipment,
lack of expertise or other factors. Feedback from teachers shows that practical work is the most
demanding part of the science curriculum. This is especially the case in those schools that have
limited laboratory resources. Despite this, practical activities are one of the most rewarding parts
of science for teachers and students.
The purpose of this guide is to encourage the increased use of practical work from primary
through to the end of secondary schooling. As ASE and CIE believe that much can be done
without expensive equipment, the guide has been written specifically for schools with limited
science resources. It gives advice on preparing and equipping a basic laboratory cheaply, safely
and effectively.
The content of the guide was drawn up in consultation with a focus group conducted by the
African branch of the Commonwealth Association for Science, Technology and Maths Educators
(CASTME) with participants from India, Nigeria and Ghana. The group identified the key issues
of concern in setting up and conducting science practicals.
ASE has written and edited the material with contributions from CIE, drawing on extensive
experience of science education in the UK and abroad. We hope that the end result meets
teachers’ needs and helps to increase confidence in conducting practical science.
We hope that those using this guide will recognise that it is simply a starting point. We would
like to produce a further edition, using contributions from users. If you have ideas that you feel
would be useful to others, please e-mail them to: lynnesymonds@appliedonline.co.uk

2
1.1 Why teach science, and why teach it practically?

n Science practical work is interesting and engages children and students, thus providing
motivation and stimulation that improves progress in science and across the curriculum.
n Practical work is an effective way of learning and reinforcing theoretical concepts in science.
Teachers who make effective use of practical work and experiments often find that students
learn better. Through practical work, teaching is enhanced and becomes more interesting
both for the learner and the teacher.
n Science learning, to be of maximum value, includes observing, asking questions about why
things happen in the way they do, and evaluating. Learners should be encouraged to plan,
measure, record, look for patterns, voice and debate their findings and ideas, and all these
can be enhanced through experimentation.
n Much of what we know about science has been discovered by people doing practical work
and so practical work underpins science education at every level.
n Hand-eye co-ordination, instruction-sequence-following and recording skills are developed

by even the most basic practical work.
n Science does not have to use expensive or complex resources. It can be taught in the
simplest fashion using empty tins, spirit burners, a few test tubes, plastic drink bottles and
materials from home. Cooking food and washing dirt off clothes are everyday examples
of science in action, examples to which all learners can relate. Much of science
may become lost on young people if they cannot see how science applies to their lives.
n Practical work can be carried out using very small amounts of those materials that are more
expensive, so they can be made to last for several years or shared between several schools.
n Using everyday materials published sources of ideas and a little common sense means
that even non-specialist teachers can approach science practical work without being
uneasy that they might accidentally cause danger to their students.
n In summary, scientific practical work can be fun for both students and teachers and results
in a deeper understanding of science than theoretical lessons alone.
1.2 How to use this booklet

This guide is intended to act as a prompt for the teacher to start developing their own ideas
and resources, and as a source of inspiration.
Appendices 3 – 8 includes examples of Cambridge IGCSE / O Level practical lesson
plans, technician guides and student worksheets for lessons with a clear practical focus.

3
2.0 Health and safety during science experiments

In order to make science practical work healthy, safe and exciting, students need to be taught
to work safely. You should always do a risk assessment before carrying out any experimental
work. You also need to take account of the Health and Safety legislation of the country as
the rules vary from country to country.
2.1 Risk assessment

Much of this is common sense and about protecting all the people in the classroom. Before any
practical work is done, you should carry out a simple risk assessment of the material, equipment
and processes used, so that any hazardous situation can be dealt with efficiently and effectively.
In some parts of the world, risk assessments need to be written down to satisfy local law. This
is good practice anywhere, so that other teachers and school managers can see that you have
thought carefully about the potential risks and hazards inherent in the work you are proposing
to do with students.
A risk assessment simply involves a careful examination of what could cause harm to people
and deciding whether sufficient precautions are in place or whether more needs to be done
to prevent harm. The aim of risk assessment is to reduce the risks to an acceptably low level.
A hazard is anything with the potential to cause harm. Hazards will therefore include many
chemicals, electricity at high currents, some micro-organisms and tools that may cause personal
injury.
Hazards are identified by symbols that have definite meanings.
Corrosive: Flammable:
Burns and destroys living Catches fire easily.
tissues, including eyes and e.g. petrol
skin on contact.
e.g. sulfuric acid
CORROSIVE FLAMMABLE
Harmful: Toxic:
Similar to toxic and can enter Can cause death if inhaled,
the body in the same way, but swallowed or taken in
much larger doses are needed through the skin.
to cause harm. e.g. cyanide
HARMFUL TOXIC
Irritant:
Can cause reddening or blistering of the skin. e.g. bleach

4
Risk iss the likelihood

ke hood that a hazard w
will in
n fact cause harm
harm. There are two eelements
ements to rrisk:
sk
1.
1 How likely
ke y itt iss that someth
something ng w
will go wrong?
2.
2 How ser
serious
ous wouwould d itt be iff someth
somethingng goes wrong? For examp
example,
e how many peop
peoplee m
might
ght
be affected and the nature of the theirr injuries?
n ur es?
Risk
R sk assessment involves
nvo ves answer
answering ng these two quest
questions
ons and then dec
deciding
d ng what control
measures, iff any
measures any, are necessary to reduce the rrisk.
sk
The sort of quest

questions
ons that shou
should
d be included
nc uded in
n such a rrisk
sk assessment are
are:
n What information
nformat on iss ava
available
ab e (on the packag
packaging,
ng in
n books
books, cata
catalogues
ogues and on the web) about
the potent
potential
a rrisks
sks and hazards assocassociated
ated w
with
th mater
materials
a s and equ
equipment
pment you intend
ntend to use?
ee.g.
g can cause irritation
rr tat on or iss fflammable.
ammab e
n What are the potent

potential
a rrisks
sks and hazards assoc
associated
ated w
with
th so
solutions?
ut ons? The raw mater
materials
as
used to make up the sosolution
ut on shou
shouldd aalso
so be cons
considered
dered ((in
n re
relation
at on to the teacher and
any techn
technician)
c an) as we
well as the so
solution
ut on at its
ts ffinal
na concentrat
concentration
on ((in
n re
relation
at on to the teacher
and students)
students).
n Has itt been cons

considered
dered whether there iss a way of do doingng the pract
practical
ca that reduces the
chance that an acc accident
dent wwill occur? ee.g.
g rep
replacing
ac ng M
Millon’s
on s reagent (conta
(contains
ns mercury sa
salts
ts
– very tox
toxicc ) w
with
th b
biuret
uret so
solution
ut on (so
(solution
ut on of copper susulfate
fate and sod
sodium
um hydrox
hydroxide
de wh
which
ch
iss an irritant)
rr tant) when test
testing
ng for the presence of prote
protein.
n
n What w will be done to mminimise

n m se the rrisk
sk of acc
accidents
dents occurr
occurring?ng? ee.g.
g avo
avoiding
d ng the use of
fflames
ames when ethano
ethanol (a
(alcohol)
coho ) iss in
n use
use, or us
using
ng a p
pipette
pette ffiller
er (not the mouth) to suck up
acid
ac d from a stock bott
bottle.
e
n What wwill be done to m minimise

n m se the sever
severity
ty of the damage caused by any acc accident
dent that
might
m ght occur? ee.g.
g us
using
ng eye protect
protectionon dur
during
ng pract
practical
ca work involving
nvo v ng irritant
rr tant or corros
corrosive
ve
liquids;
qu ds keep
keeping
ng some cclean
ean water ava
available
ab e in
n the lab
ab to irrigate
rr gate the eyes of someone who
has rece
received
ved a sp
splash
ash of ac
acidic
d c or aalkaline
ka ne mater
materiala or enzyme so solution.
ut on
2.2 Eye protection

Protective
Protect ve spectac
spectacles,
es gogg
goggles
es or face sh shields
e ds shou
should d be worn whenever the rrisk
sk assessment
points
po nts to a rrisk
sk of damage to the eyes or face
face. For examp
example,
e when heat
heating
ng chem
chemicals
ca s or hand
handling
ng
chemicals
chem ca s cclassed
assed as hazardous ((i.e.
e corros
corrosive,
ve irritant,
rr tant harmfu
harmful etc
etc.).)

5
2.3 Safety screens

You may be able to rig up a portable safety screen made of polycarbonate or acrylic so that
simple experiments can be performed safely.
2.4 Safe working

There are a variety of science processes that have the potential to cause harm if they are not
carried out safely. For example, heating ethanol over a naked flame makes a fire very likely,
whereas heating it in a hot water bath makes a fire much less likely. You can demonstrate how
to work safely and students can then practise the technique themselves. Some processes depend
on using equipment such as pipette fillers and hot plates, which you will need to find or improvise
(see chapter 3).
Some processes that could be practised:
2.4.1 Heating solids

n eye protection should be worn at all times
n the burner should be on a flat surface
n all books, materials and chemicals should be moved away from the heat source
n test-tubes being heated should be pointed away from the user and anyone else, and shaken
gently to prevent the contents shooting out
n any hot objects must be placed on a heatproof mat, so students do not burn the work
surface or themselves by touching it
2.4.2 Heating liquids in a test-tube

n the test tube should never be more than a quarter full
n it should be held at an angle of about 45o or less to the horizontal
n bumping can be avoided by adding some broken pieces of pot
before heating

6
2.4.3 Heating flammable liquids (e.g. ethanol, alcohol, acetone or methylated spirit)
n flammable liquids should never be heated directly by a naked flame
n use an electric kettle or a pan on a stove to provide very hot water
n the beaker or basin used as a water bath can be lagged with felt or cotton wool so the water
retains heat for longer
n the water should make contact with the evaporating basin
n if the extraction (for example chlorophyll from plant material) or dissolving is not complete
when the water in the beaker has become too cool, replace it with more hot water
flammable flammable
liquid liquid
very hot
water
lagging
(cotton wool,
table top felt or carpet) table top
2.4.4 Filling of pipettes

Mouth pipetting should be avoided.
Use pipette fillers (see Chapter 3 for improvised pipette filler).
2.4.5 Smelling gases

Students should be shown how to smell gases safely.
n the test-tube of gas should be held so it points away from the face
n warn students not to take deep breaths
n use the hand to waft the fumes towards the nose, and smell gently
2.5 Some possible hazards
2.5.1 Concentrated solutions

Concentrated solutions are sometimes required for experiments.
Concentrated acids and alkalis are corrosive, therefore when handling these
chemicals it is advisable to wear protective glasses.
To make a dilute solution, always add acid to water, never water to acid. CORROSIVE
When diluting concentrated ammonia or concentrated hydrochloric acid, work in a fume

cupboard or well ventilated room, so that any fumes are diffused and exposure is reduced.

7
2.5.2 Carcinogenic (potentially cancer-causing) chemicals

Some laboratory chemicals and reagents have recently been suspected to have carcinogenic
properties. Some of these chemicals may be found in schools, especially in countries recipient
of donated equipment and substances, which may have been sitting in different classrooms for
many years previously.
Such chemicals include:
1,2-dibromoethane (ethylene dibromide)

aromatic amines (some) and their salts:
naphthalene-1-amine (1-naphthylamine),
naphthalene-2-amine (2- naphthylamine),
biphenyl-4,4’-diamine (benzidine) and all other amino-substituted biphenyls
azo dyes (some)
benzene
carbon disulfide
chloroethene (vinyl chloride)
chromium (VI) compounds
hydrazine salts
lead ethanoate (lead acetate)
methanal (formaldehyde)
nickel sulfate and carbonate
nickel (II) compounds
potassium bromate
phenylamine
salts of hydrazine
tetracarbonylnickel (0) (nickel carbonyl)
tetrachloromethane (carbon tetrachloride)
trichloroethane (chloroform)
zinc chromate (VI)
Ammonium dichromate (VI) should be heated in a working fume cupboard as the decomposition
may be incomplete, giving air-borne carcinogenic particles. If a fume cupboard is not available,
heat in a test tube with a loose plug of mineral wool to trap the particles.
2.5.3 Asbestos
Mats, gauzes for heating, fire blankets etc. which are made of asbestos are considered to be
carcinogenic. Ceramic mats or platinised ceramic wool can be used in place of asbestos mats.
Instead of asbestos fire blankets, glass fibre blankets are preferred. Protect desks with materials
such as metal, ceramic, wooden or thick fire-proof plastic or glass mats or sand trays or flat rocks
that will not split with heat such as slate or pumice.
Instead of asbestos–centered wire gauze, use mild or stainless steel gauzes with or without ceramic
centres.

8
2.6 Batteries and cells

Strictly, a battery is a number of cells connected together. However, the term battery is commonly
used for both cells and batteries.
For most work with low voltage d.c., disposable zinc-carbon cells can be used. These can leak if
left for long periods, and the leaking chemicals are corrosive. Alkaline manganese cells may be
useful because they have a much longer shelf life and lower internal resistance, but they can
overheat and vent if short-circuited.
Never attempt to recharge ordinary (non-rechargeable) cells; they may explode.
If you use rechargeable cells, e.g. Nicad (nickel-cadmium) or NiMH (nickel metal hydride), it is
important to use a charger which is designed for them. Avoid high capacity rechargeable cells
as they can produce very high currents if short-circuited. Sealed rechargeable cells can explode
during charging if they are recharged at too high a current. Nicad cells should ideally be discharged
before being charged to avoid loss of capacity. Do not mix brands of cells when using or charging
them. Do not use or charge new cells with old ones.
Car batteries (lead/acid batteries) are unsuitable for pupils to use as power supplies in circuit
experiments. The batteries contain sulfuric acid which is corrosive and would cause injury if spilled
onto the skin or splashed into the eye. If a connector short-circuits the battery (which is quite
likely when pupils connect their circuits), the wire could glow red hot and cause burns and fire.
Car batteries require regular topping up with distilled water. When they are charged, they produce
hydrogen and oxygen. Hydrogen can form an explosive mixture with oxygen or air. Do not
charge in a confined space and ensure good ventilation. Keep flames, cigarettes etc. away. Make
and break connections to terminals with the power off.

9
3.0 Improvisation
Science teaching can be thought to be expensive and difficult if concepts can not always be
demonstrated to students. Where resources are limited or not available, you can use other ways
of teaching and improvise with whatever material is available locally.
The difference between improvised and standard science equipment is that improvisation uses
inexpensive materials (commonly and easily available) from the local environment in place of
more expensive apparatus. The item produced must work as intended and meet a basic teaching
need. Local production of apparatus from local materials on a commercial scale can form an
important source of import substitution.
3.1 Laboratory work when there is no laboratory

One of the difficult issues with teaching science under basic conditions is the aspect of safety
and large classes. You need to learn to be innovative, but stay safe. Divide the class into smaller
groups and allow some students to copy a diagram, make notes or write up a plan whilst
you demonstrate to smaller groups.
The school should be encouraged to use one or more of its classrooms as a room for the teaching
of science only. This will allow you to place a poster of safety rules permanently on the wall or
at least in that classroom. Appendix 1 shows an example of such rules, which could be modified
to suit local circumstances. Where this is not possible you will need to be more organised. With
a bit of thought, forward planning and organisation, it should be possible to carry out most of
the practical ideas in this booklet. You might want to follow the example of a fellow teacher:
“What I did each evening was organise each practical into an individual box or in a tray. Boxes and
trays were stored in a locked place. In my school we have a shed where all the science equipment and
chemicals are stored, so practical boxes were also kept here.”
Where there is no classroom for science, thought is needed about finding a suitable surface to
work on, as well as how realistic it is to do experimental work. Some key points for consideration
are listed below, plus suggestions how to overcome the problems raised.
Electricity: In most classrooms there is at least one electric socket or outlet which can be used
for small lamps and other equipment. Where there is no such outlet, it may be possible to borrow
a small generator for work where mains electricity is essential. For d.c. electricity use disposable
batteries, variable power packs, or lead-acid batteries (see chapter 2.6).
Fire and safety: Buckets of water with ladles and a sand bucket for putting out fires should
always be provided for dealing with spillages and other accidents safely.
Heating: Heat-proof mats made of hardboard or other flameproof insulating materials can be
placed over classroom desks; portable gas cookers or burners can be used to provide heat as
long as these are safe and care is taken not to knock them over.
Waste disposal: Provide empty buckets for collecting waste to be disposed of after the lesson.

10
Water: Ideally
Water dea y the room used as a laboratory
aboratory shou
should
d have a ssink
nk w
with
th at least
east a co
cold
d tap and dra
drain,
n
but water can instead
nstead be prov
provided
ded in
n buckets
buckets. Buckets can aalso
so be prov
provided
ded for waste water
water, to
be d
disposed
sposed of after the lesson.
esson DDistilled
st ed or de
deionised
on sed water can be produced us using
ng a home-
made st
still or an ion
on exchange cocolumn.
umn In n many pplaces,
aces tap water iss soft enough for most
experimental
exper menta work
work. Bott
Bottled
ed water produced from desa
desalination
nat on pplants,
ants or other methods that do
not m
mineralise
nera se the water
water, can be bought at the local
oca market or shop
shop.
Whether a laboratory
aboratory or cclassroom
assroom iss used for sc
science
ence pract
practical
ca work
work, at the end of each lesson,
esson
aall chem
chemicals
ca s shou
shouldd be ccleared
eared away to the
theirr norma
normal p
place
ace of storage
storage. Any spspillage
age that has not
aalready
ready been dea
dealtt w
with
th must be wwiped
ped upup, so that the students and teachers who come to use
the room afterwards are not put at any rrisk.
sk
3.2 Heating
Students en
enjoy
oy exper
experiments
ments involving
nvo v ng heat
heating,
ng but these can be hazardous
hazardous. Care must be taken
when heat
heating
ng near a w
window
ndow ((in
n case of draughts) when there iss no g
glass
ass or iff w
windows
ndows are open
open.
3.2.1 Simple fuel burner

SSimple
mp e fue
fuel burners can be made us using
ng empty jam
am jars
ars or su
suitable
tab e g
glass
ass bott
bottles
es w
with
th meta
metal lids.
ds
The fue
fuel can be eeither
ther paraff
paraffin
n or kerosene (but not petro
petrol or gaso
gasoline).
ne)
Note: Kerosene produces a lot
Note ot of soot
soot.
Make a ho holee in n the cover of the jar ar w

with
th a b
bigg na
nail, just
ust large
arge enough for w wick
ck to pass through
through.
Cut a sma
small ppiece
ece of fflexible
ex b e meta
metal sheet and fofold
d itt so that the wwick
ck can just
ust pass through it.t FFixx
itt through the ho holee in
n the lid.
d Pass the wwick
ck through the meta metal tube inn the lid
d and let
et itt d
dip
p into
nto
the fue
fuel. The fuefuel level
eve shou
should d be kept more than ha halff fu
full. The vo
volume
ume of fue
fuel can be reduced
by part
partially
a y ffilling
ng the bott
bottlee w
with
th cotton woo
wool or sand
sand.
cotton str ng w ck
meta tube expans on ho e
cotton woo or sand
g ass ar
f ammab e qu d
Spirit
Sp r t burners shou
shouldd not be kept in n a cclassroom
assroom aall day as the spspirit
r t evaporates and the room
may ffill w
with
th a fflammable
ammab e vapour
vapour. Such burners shou
should d be ffilled
ed just
ust before they are requ
required,
red
preferablyy outs
preferab outside
de or in
n a room or location
ocat on away from the cclassroom,
assroom where there are no naked
fflames.
ames Once they are ffinished
n shed wwith,
th they shou
should
d be removed and empt emptied
ed in
n a safe location.
ocat on
Unlike
Un ke most laboratory
aboratory chem
chemicals,
ca s wh
whichch may have been contam
contaminated
nated and so shou
shouldd not be
put back inn the stock bott
bottle,
e the sp
spirit
r t can be kept for future use
use.
3.2.2 Traditional oil lamp

A ssimple
mp e burner can be made by d dipping
pp ng a ttightly
ght y wound cotton woo wool w
wick
ck into
nto some lard
ard or
oil in
o n a sma
small ttin
n or on a meta
metal lid.
d The fflame
ame iss sooty but itt can prov
provide
de heat ssimply
mp y and cheap
cheaply.
y

11
3.2.3 Camping stoves

These provide a much hotter flame than a ‘normal’ Bunsen burner. They should be regularly
checked for leaks since gas can accumulate and cause unexpected explosions. If they are knocked
over, liquid gas may flow out, causing a very large, yellow flame.
3.2.4 Old domestic or commercial electric cookers can be used if one of the hotplates still works.
3.3 Apparatus
3.3.1 Beakers
Use any locally available containers such as tins, jam jars, plastic milk and soft drink bottles cut
to size. Disposable plastic cups can be used for most acids and alkalis. They may, however,
dissolve in some organic solvents.
Metal containers cannot be used for reactive chemicals such as acids.
Glass containers can be used for all chemical reactions. Ordinary glass containers will tolerate
mildly exothermic reactions, but should not be heated to high temperatures, as the glass may
crack. A small number of genuine heat-tolerant glass beakers can be kept for use only in
experiments where no other container can be used.
Any unmarked container that is used as a beaker may need to be calibrated. This is done using
a measuring cylinder to add regular known quantities of water, say 0.5 cm3 amounts, to the
container. A scale can be marked using a thin line of permanent marker.
3.3.2 Circles
To draw a circle, tie a string around a pencil. A circle is drawn by holding the free end of the
string and the pencil is pulled taut and moved in a circle.
3.3.3 Clamps and stands

branch
There are many possibilities. Stiff, strong wire is flexible, but
taut enough to hold, for example, a metal crucible or other
container. The other end of the wire can be held in place using wire loop
a branch held in place in a tin or glass container full of damp support
soil or sand. damp
sand
3.3.4 Crucibles
You can use metal bottle tops. Warm these directly on a cooking stove or over a gas flame so
that the internal plastic softens and can be pulled out using, for example, a bicycle spoke or small
knife. Be careful of fumes if the plastic starts to burn.
The crucible can be held securely by a strong, rigid wire holder, made by twisting one end of the
wire into a loop with the correct diameter needed to hold the crucible. The other end of the
wire can be inserted into a cork, taped, or covered with flour dough (which is then dried) or any

12
other material that does not conduct heat.
twisted wire cork

bottle cap holder
(metal)
For heating substances requiring a larger container, use the lids of tins or the base cut from a
metal tin which has had the edges filed to ensure that they are not sharp.
3.3.5 Dessicator
A simple, cheap dessicator for storing hygroscopic chemicals (those that pick up water from the
air) can be made from a large plastic container with an airtight lid. Put silica gel crystals or packets
at the bottom and store the bottles with the lids tightly closed.
3.3.6 Electrical experiments

Use whatever is available locally to make bulb holders, circuit boards and electrical circuits.
A simple circuit board is made by nailing nails onto a square wooden board to which wires, bulbs
and batteries can be attached. Strong wire can be used to hold bulbs etc. in place. Rubber bands
are useful for holding wires in place over the batteries. A switch is made by cutting the wire and
baring both ends, so that students can touch them together to complete the circuit.
3.3.7 Funnels and filtering

Students can be asked to design various options, e.g. made from the tops of plastic bottles or
metal, foil or other plastic.
For filter paper, experiment with different locally available paper and cloth.
suck here
3.3.8 Insect collection
n Sweep net
plastic tubing
Make sweep nets using old mosquito net, sewn into a bag, and held in
place using a bent metal clothes hanger, thick metal wire or strips of stick
around which the netting is sewn.
suck here gauze

covering
n Pooters
plastic tubing
Pooters can be improvised using plastic bottles and
straws. These are used to suck up small insects
without harming them or risking getting the insect
in the mouth.
gauze covering
end of tube

13
3.3.9 Measuring
n Current, voltage
Ammeters and voltmeters from educational suppliers are often expensive, but test multimeters
can do as good a job and can be relatively cheap from the local hardware or electrical store.
n Length
Students are given different lengths of string. These can be marked at 0.5 cm and 1.0 cm divisions
with coloured permanent markers or by simply tying knots at 1 cm intervals. For smaller intervals
such as 1 mm, a sheet of graph paper can be cut into strips to give a set of temporary rulers. If
only one sheet is available, it may be possible to copy this (retaining the original for future use)
on a photocopier, fax machine or through a scanner. It may also be possible, through a local
internet cafe, to download images that can be improvised as rulers.
n Small quantities of liquids
For dispensing small quantities of liquids, disposable

plastic syringes can make a cheap and accurate
alternative to expensive glassware and are less likely to
break.
Do not be tempted to use old syringes from hospitals, etc. These can be dangerously contaminated.
Drops of liquid can be transferred by placing a finger over the top of the open end of a tube
(glass, plastic or paper straw) when the other end is immersed in the liquid and then lifting the
finger to release a drop.
3.3.10 Metre ruler

Graduate long, thin, straight pieces of wood. Standard measurements can also be painted on
the walls such as 30 cm and metre rulers. Students can use these as a standard measuring device
against which lengths of string can be cut.
3.3.11 pH indicators
If litmus or universal indicator is not cheaply available, indicators can be made from plant dyes.
For example, extracts can be made from red cabbage or flowers with red or blue petals. The
extracts are blue in alkaline conditions and red in acidic conditions.
3.3.12 Pipette fillers clip

rubber
tubing
n Use a syringe
n (ii) Use a hollow rubber ball (e.g. squash/tennis) with two hollow
rubber tubes glued into holes cut into the ball, and clips or rubber
ball
elastic bands to make it possible to seal each tube.
rubber
tubing

14
3.3.13 Scales
Lids of tins (Ovaltine, Bournvita, Milo etc.) are washed and cleaned
with sand paper. Punch 3 holes at equal spacing along the edge
of the lids. Use thread or string through the holes to support
the scale pan on the beam of a balance. Make up different
weights by mixing ball bearings into concrete balls
or by embedding ball bearings into plasticine balls.
3.3.14 Spatulas
Use spoons or shape them from foil or thin metal sheets. A simple spatula is made using strips
of wood or metal about 10 - 20 cm long, 0.5 – 1 cm wide and 1 – 2 mm thick. Similarly, plastic
drinking straws can be cut open near one end and opened out to make a little flat spoon
or spatula.
3.3.15 Stoppers
Save old corks and bottle stoppers. Cork is easy to shape and cut. Whenever connecting to
tubing, use grease so the tube passes easily through the hole. This also helps to seal the hole
to stop gases escaping.
3.3.16 Timers
n Two containers sitting on top of each other. The top container has a tiny hole through
which water or dry sand drips slowly into the bottom container which is graduated.
n Funnel containing water or dry sand dripping into a graduated container.
n Mark a straight candle at regular intervals using a pen or by grooving small nicks using
a knife and burn it as a timer.
3.3.17 Tubing
Drinking straws, ballpoint pen barrels, polystyrene tubes, rubber and glass can all be used as
tubing. When buying glass tubing, if possible buy different widths for different purposes.
Glass tubing can be bent by heating gently and bending in the direction required.
Bendy drinking straws are very widely available, and can be used as improvised delivery tubes
for various experiments, such as collecting gases under water, as long as the straw does
not get very hot, when it will melt.
Tubing can be held by boring a hole in a cork or a rubber bung. Always rub grease around
tubing to insert it easily into holes, allow movement and to fit the tube tightly into the hole.

15
4.0 Solutions and recipes

The following is not intended to cover all possible solutions, but gives some useful tips and
guidance.
4.1 Stock solutions

A stock solution is a solution whose concentration is known. A stock solution should be
chemically stable, so that it does not change with storage. It can be diluted as required to give
solutions of lower concentration for use in the laboratory. Keeping suitable quantities of stock
solution can save time during term in making up solutions, as they only need dilution.
4.2 Prepared solutions

If only small volumes of solutions are required e.g. indicators, then, if they are available in small
quantities, this may be the best way to buy them, rather than having large amounts of pure solid
or liquid that will need to be stored for years. This is because substances are not always very
stable and their activity or constituents may change significantly as time goes by. Many materials
consist of solutions in volatile solvents such as water, ethanol or propanone that will evaporate
even through a closed stopper. If kept for many years, this will affect the concentration of the
dissolved solutes. If the material is toxic or has other harmful attributes, having a large quantity
in storage increases the severity of an accident.
4.3 Storage of solutions

When you get a new bottle of chemical, write the date on it with a permanent marker so you
will know which is the oldest bottle as this is the one that needs to be used first.
Plastic bottles (polyethene or polypropene) with screw tops are a convenient way to store stock
or diluted solutions. They are unbreakable and lighter than glass. Plastic bottles should always
be used for alkalis, which dissolve glass. All bottles should be clearly and legibly labelled in
waterproof ink with the correct name, concentration and hazard symbols relevant to the solution.
Incorrect or illegible labelling is a major problem in schools and a major safety hazard. The
concentration is important and serious accidents can happen if concentrated solutions are used
instead of dilute ones. Always read the label twice and check that the concentration and the
name are correct.
4.4 Making up solutions

One of the tasks that every science teacher or technician has to do is to make up solutions -
reagents, standard solutions, indicators, test solutions, etc. This can be time consuming. One
possible solution is to make up batches of solutions at the start of term sufficient to meet most
of the expected need. Stock solutions can readily be diluted as required. However this only helps
if there is a safe, cool place to store the reagents.
The key steps in making up a solution from a pure solid (or liquid) are:
n weighing (or measuring) out the correct amount of pure solid (or liquid)
n transferring this without loss to a volumetric flask or a measuring cylinder (For solutions
which are highly exothermic, when solutes are mixed with a solvent, small amounts of solute
are added slowly to a large amount of solvent.)

16
n diluting the solution correctly to the mark with solvent

n dissolving fully and thorough mixing of the solution
When solutions are prepared, their concentration is normally quoted in either grams per litre of
solution or moles per litre or dm3 (mol dm-3) of solution. 1 litre is the same as 1000 cm3 or 1dm3.
Remember: when making up solutions, careful weighing and measurement is of no use if you
do not mix the final solution thoroughly to ensure homogeneity so that the substance dissolves
thoroughly and uniformly throughout the liquid.
4.5 Precise versus imprecise concentrations

You need to know when to make up solutions approximately and when they need to be precise,
for example during practical exams or at A level and above. It is not worth spending time and
effort making up solutions if the required task does not require such precise concentrations.
Generally, less precision is needed for solutions such as bench reagents, test solutions, indicators
etc. When making up bench reagents the stock solution can be measured out with a measuring
cylinder. For analytical solutions it should be measured out using a pipette if the concentration
of the stock solution is known precisely.
4.6 Serial dilution

You may need several concentrations of the same solution, for example 1 mol dm-3, 0.1 mol dm-3
and 0.01 mol dm-3. There are two ways to achieve a 1 to 100 dilution. It can be done in one step
adding 1 part solution to 99 parts water or by making a 1 to 10 dilution twice in a row, using the
first solution made as the "stock" for the second solution.
Since measuring small volumes of solution is prone to error, performing a series of dilutions in
order to gradually reduce the concentration of the solution from that of the stock solution is a
faster and more accurate method.
Examples
n To make solutions of 0.1 mol dm-3 and 0.01 mol dm-3 from a 1 mol dm-3 stock solution
i.e. to dilute a solution 10x and 100x:
1. Take 1 cm3 of 1 mol dm-3 stock solution and mix it with 9 cm3 water.
This solution is now 0.1 mol dm-3.
2. Take 1 cm3 of the 0.1mol dm-3 solution that you just made and put that into 9 cm3 of water.
This is now a 0.01 mol dm-3 solution.
3. Take 1 cm3 of the 0.01mol dm-3 solution that you just made and put that into 9 cm3 of water.
stock
solution
water
1.0 0.1 0.01 0.001

17
n To make solutions of 1.0 mol dm-3 and 0.5 mol dm-3 from a 2 mol dm-3 stock solution
i.e. to dilute a solution to half or quarter strength:
1. Take 5 cm3 of 2 mol dm-3 stock solution and mix it with 5 cm3 water.
2. Take 5 cm3 of the 1.0 mol dm-3 solution that you just made and put that into 5 cm3 of water.
stock
solution
water
2 1 0.5
4.7 Percent solutions and weight/volume solutions

Many reagents are mixed as percent concentrations (parts per hundred). When working with a
dry chemical it is mixed as dry mass (g) per volume where the number of g per 100 cm3 = percent
concentration.
n A 10% solution is equal to 10 g solute dissolved in 80 cm3 solvent and then made up to
100 cm3 with solvent.
n For a 3 % solution, you would dissolve 3 g of the substance in 80 cm3 solvent and then make
up to100 cm3 with solvent.
In biology, solutions and suspensions may be expressed in %. This is normally % w/v, which
means percentage, weight / volume. The mass of solute is the ‘weight’.
n To make up a 1 % w/v starch suspension, 1 g of starch is stirred into 80 cm3 of boiling
water and then made up to 100 cm3 with water.
n To make up a 5 % yeast suspension, 5 g of yeast is mixed into 80 cm3 of water and then
made up to 100 cm3 with water.
n To make up a 0.1 % trypsin solution, 0.1 g of trypsin is dissolved in 80 cm3 of water and made
up to 100 cm3 with water.
When using liquid reagents the percent concentration is based upon volume per volume, i.e. the
cm3 per 100 cm3.
n To make 70 % ethanol you would mix 70 cm3 of 100 % ethanol with 30 cm3 water.
Hydrogen peroxide concentrations are commonly expressed as ‘vol’ or else in %. To ensure that
concentrations are correctly calculated, 20 volume (20 vol) hydrogen peroxide solution is a 6 %
w/v solution, and is also approximately 1.8 mol dm-3.
Note This solution should be kept in a darkened container in a dark cupboard as it decomposes
very easily. Beware possible build up of pressure if this happens.

18
4.8 Standard solutions

A standard solution is a solution of known concentration.
n To make a standard solution:
1. Calculate the relative molecular mass of the compound involved. The relative molecular
mass may be found in textbooks or on the side of the bottle with the product information.
It can be calculated from the formula of the compound using the relative atomic mass of
each of the atoms that make it up.
2. Work out how many moles of compound are needed and what volume of solution is
required.
3. Accurately weigh out the mass of solid needed.
4. Dissolve this amount in a suitable solvent.
5. Make the solution up to the desired volume with solvent.
Example: to make a 1mol dm-3 (1M) solution of sodium carbonate, Na2CO3
The relative atomic mass of Na = 23 , C = 12, O = 16 so the relative molecular mass of Na2CO3
is: (23 x 2) + 12 + (16 x 3) = 46 + 12 + 48 = 106
So put 106 g sodium carbonate into a measuring cylinder and make up to 1000 cm3 with water.
4.9 Bench reagents

Bench reagents are the dilute acids, alkalis, metal salts, water-soluble organics that are routinely
used in the laboratory for tests, simple reactions and preparations. These are used diluted
(between 0.1 mol dm-3 and 0.5 mol dm-3) so that they are less harmful than their concentrated
equivalents. As they do not need to be made up precisely, they can be made up using a top-
pan balance (to +/- 0.1g for solids) and a beaker, rather than in a volumetric flask, thus saving
time. The substance is weighed, placed in a beaker, distilled water (if available, otherwise use
cooled boiled water) is added in small quantities, and stirred until the final volume is reached.
If you have bottles larger than a litre, you can use a measuring cylinder to mark exactly where
on the bottle 1.0 litre of liquid would reach.
4.10 Diluting concentrated solutions

It is a good precaution when diluting or dissolving any substance to add it to excess water rather
than add water to the concentrated substance, in case there is an exothermic reaction. If heat
is liberated use cold water and allow the solution to cool before making up to the mark.
Diluting concentrated acids

To dilute concentrated acids you need to know the approximate concentration (molarity) of the
acid (each one is different!). This information is usually found on the bottle.
When diluting concentrated acids always

add the acid to an excess of cold water. SAFETY
T his precaution is essential for Concentrated acids are very
concentrated sulfuric acid, which reacts corrosive and must be handled
violently with water liberating heat. with care.
The container can be cooled by standing Eye protection is essential
it in cold water. Wipe the outside of bottles CORROSIVE
carefully after pouring to remove
any acid drips.

19
The following table gives the molarities of some concentrated acids and volumes to use for
preparation of approximately 1 mol dm-3 or 1M bench reagents.
Relative Molarity of Volume for

Acid Formula Molecular concentrated acid 1000 cm3
Mass / mol dm-3 1 mol dm-3 solution
Hydrochloric acid, (aq) HCl 36.5 11.3 88.5
Nitric acid, (aq) HNO3 63 15.8 62.3
Sulfuric acid, (aq) H2SO4 98 18.4 54.35
Ethanoic or acetic acid, (aq) CH3COOH 60 17.5 57.1
Examples:
n For a litre of 1 mol dm-3 solution of hydrochloric acid, HCl measure out 88.5 cm3 of concentrated
hydrochloric acid. Pour this into 700 cm3 distilled water and then make up to 1000 cm3
(1 dm3) with water.
n For only 100 cm3 of 1 mol dm-3 acid, take 8.8 cm3 of concentrated HCl and make up to 100
cm3 with water.
n 354 cm3 (4 x 88.5) concentrated HCl diluted to 1000 cm3 (1 dm3) would give ~4 mol dm-3 HCl
and so on.
Diluting concentrated alkalis

n Sodium hydroxide
SAFETY
Solutions of sodium hydroxide can be Sodium hydroxide pellets or
made by dissolving NaOH pellets in water. concentrated solutions of NaOH
The reaction with water is vigorous and are very corrosive.
exothermic. Eye Protection is essential.
Do not add water directly to NaOH Even dilute solutions can do
CORROSIVE
pellets. Add the pellets to excess cold water serious damage to the eye.
in a large beaker and mix to dissolve. Allow Handle the pellets with tweezers, forceps or a
spatula.
the solution to cool mark.
n The mass of one mole of NaOH in grams = 23 + 16 + 1 = 40 g

Thus a 1 mol dm-3 (1M) solution contains 40 g in 1000 cm3 (1 dm3).
It is easier to dilute a stock solution than make it up fresh each time, so make up 4 mol dm-3 or
6 mol dm-3 NaOH and dilute as required. This solution can be used to top up reagent bottles or to make
up more dilute solutions.
NaOH pellets and solutions go 'off' when standing in air as they absorb CO2 from the air and the
pellets also absorb water. If the bottle has been opened the pellets tend to stick together and
can be hard to dislodge. It is a good idea to keep opened bottles in a desiccator (see chapter 3).
For analytical work NaOH solutions must be freshly made up. Try to keep bottles as full as possible
to avoid contamination from the air.
n Ammonia
Relative Molarity of concentrated Volume for 1000 cm3

Ammonia Formula molecular solution 1 mol dm-3 solution
mass / mol dm-3
Ammonia NH 3 17 18.3 54.6

20
4.11 Other useful chemicals

Water in this section refers to distilled water if available. Otherwise used boiled and filtered water.
Chemical Volume / cm3 Concentration / mol dm-3 Mass / g
Copper sulfate 1000 0.1 16.0

Potassium hydroxide 1000 0.1 5.6
Potassium iodide 1000 0.1 16.6
Silver nitrate 1000 0.1 17.0
Sodium carbonate 1000 0.1 10.6
Sodium chloride 1000 0.1 5.8
Sodium hydroxide 1000 0.1 4.0
Note: You may not need 1000 cm3 of solution. To make smaller volumes with the same
concentration, reduce the volume and mass in proportion, e.g. half the relative molecular mass
in half the volume of water, or 1/10th the relative molecular mass in 100 cm3 of water.
Remember that the smaller the mass measured, the more inaccurate that measurement may be.
This will affect the concentration when small volumes at low concentration are required. Under
these circumstances it may be better to prepare solutions at a higher concentration than required,
and then dilute using serial dilution.
To change the concentration of the solution that is being prepared, either decrease or increase
the mass of solute or volume of solvent.
n Benedict’s solution (test for reducing sugar)

Benedict’s is a safer alternative to Fehling’s as it doesn’t contain sodium hydroxide.
1. Make solution A by dissolving 173 g of sodium citrate and 100 g of anhydrous sodium
carbonate [irritant] in 800 cm3 warm water and leave to cool. Filter if a precipitate forms.
2. Make solution B by dissolving 17.3 g of copper (II) sulfate in 100 cm3 of water.
3. Mix solutions A and B and make up to 1000 cm3 with water.
n Biuret solution (test for protein)

1. Dissolve 1.5 g of copper (II) sulfate [harmful, harmful to the environment] in 500 cm3 of
water.
2. Make 0.1 mol dm-3 sodium hydroxide solution as described above.
3. Mix equal volumes of the two solutions when needed.
n Iodine solution (test for starch)

1. Dissolve 2 g of potassium iodide in 300 cm3 of water.
2. Dissolve 1 g of finely divided iodine crystals [harmful] in the potassium iodide solution.
This may require repeated shaking for up to 24 hours.
n Lime water
1. Mix 10 g of calcium hydroxide with 1 dm3 of warm distilled or boiled water.
2. Mix thoroughly and allow to settle.
3. Pour off the clear liquid which is lime water and store in a stoppered bottle to prevent carbon
dioxide in air reacting with it.

21
5.0 Some useful and fun experiments

All of the following experiments should be tried and tested before using in the classroom.
If in doubt, do not try in front of the students. Remember to do a risk assessment before carrying
out any experiments.
See chapter 2 for advice on safe working practices.
5. 1 Biology
5.1.1 Photosynthesis
The equation for photosynthesis:
Carbon dioxide + water + light energy g starch + oxygen
n Test for starch

SAFETY
1. Place a leaf or part of a leaf from a plant
into a beaker of boiling water for about Alcohol is highly flammable.
10 seconds to soften it and stop any
reactions. Keep alcohol away from all
flames.
2. Put the leaf into a test tube of alcohol
Warm the tube containing FLAMMABLE
and stand it in a water bath for alcohol in a beaker of hot water.
5-10 minutes to remove the green (see chapter 2.4.2)
chlorophyll.
3. Wash the leaf in hot water to soften it.
4. Cover leaf with iodine solution.
The areas in the leaf containing starch turn blue/black.
n Need for chlorophyl
1. Take a leaf from a variegated plant (one which has green and non-green areas where it
has no chlorophyll).
2. Draw the leaf and label the coloured and non-coloured areas. Test the leaf for starch.
The areas on the leaf which containing chlorophyll turn blue/black showing the presence of
starch is only made where chlorophyl is present.
n Need for light
1. Cover some of the leaves of a healthy potted plant with dark paper or foil for a few days.
2. Test a uncovered leaf and a covered leaf for starch.
The leaf left in the dark will not contain starch showing that photosynthesis does not take place
in the dark.

22
n Need for carbon dioxide

SAFETY
1. Place a dish containing sodium
hydroxide pellets (to absorb carbon Handle the NaOH pellets with
dioxide) beside a potted plant inside tweezers or forceps.
Be careful not to let the alkali
a plastic bag.
touch the leaves or yourself.
CORROSIVE
plant plastic
bag
dish with
sodium
hydroxide
Place another similar plant inside a plastic bag with a dish containing saturated sodium hydrogen
carbonate. (If this is not available then do not cover the plant with a plastic bag.)
2. Leave both plants for a few days in good light.
3. Test a leaf from each plant for starch and compare the results.
The leaf from the plant with the sodium hydroxide has no starch in it, showing no photosynthesis
has occurred, as photosynthesis requires carbon dioxide.
n Effect of different wavelengths of light
1. Collect different coloured bottles, for example, clear, green and brown plastic bottles.
Cut off the bottom half of each bottle.
2. Grow some small seeds such as peas or beans in small pots in a rich compost soil. Place a
similar sized bottle top over each pot. Leave the plants or two weeks near the window or
outside. Don’t forget to water the plants.
3. Test leaves from each plant to find out if starch has been produced.
5.1.2 How water travels in plants

n Students can be shown a variety of root hairs, for example, on carrot, onion, pea or bean
seedlings.
n Place some small seedlings in water coloured red or yellow using food dye or turmeric for
about 1 hour.
Cut sections of the plant root and stem and observe under a hand lens. Only part of the
stem is stained. These are the xylem vessels which carry water from the roots throughout
the plant.
5.1.3 Observing diffusion

n Using a spatula, forceps or tweezers, drop a crystal of potassium manganate [harmful] into
a glass jar or beaker full of water.
n Pipette a drop of ink into the water at the base of a container.
Observe what happens.
Coloured particles spread out until they are equally distributed through the liquid.
Diffusion is the movement of particles from an area of high concentration to an area of low
concentration.

23
5.1.4 Observing osmosis

Osmosis is the movement of water molecules across a semi-permeable or partially permeable
membrane from an area of high solute (e.g. salt or sucrose) concentration (and lower water
concentration) to where the solute is in lower concentration.
n Measuring osmosis
1. Cut a peeled potato, yam or similar into pieces 3 cm x 1 cm x 1 cm.
2. Place one piece into a dish of water, another into a dish containing strong salt or sucrose
solution. Leave for 30 minutes.
3. Remove the pieces of potato and measure the length of each.
The piece in water should feel hard and be slightly longer than 3 cm, as water is drawn into the
cells by osmosis.
The piece in salt solution should feel soft and have become slightly shorter or remain the same
length, as water is lost from the cells by osmosis.
This investigation can be extended by using different concentrations of salt or sucrose solution
and measuring the change in length. Pieces that remain unchanged in length are in a solution
of the same osmotic pressure (isotonic) as that of cell sap.
n Observing osmosis
Use strips of cucumber or chilli (or other locally available plant with a skin or waxy coating). Put
strips in water and different concentrations of salt or sucrose solution and observe which way
they curl. The skin prevents the cells on one side of the strip from stretching. If strips curl towards
the skin / waxy side, they are taking in water. If strips curl away from the skin / waxy side they
are losing water. If strips remain unchanged then they are in a solution of the same concentration
(isotonic) as the concentration of the cell sap.
5.1.5 Food tests

Students can test a variety of local fresh and dried foods for the following nutrients: fat, protein,
starch and reducing sugar.
n Test for fats

1. Rub the food sample onto a piece of paper.
If present, the fat will make a translucent stain on the paper.
n Test for proteins (Biuret test)

1. If the food sample is not in a liquid form, mash it up and add a little water to make a suspension.
2. Add four drops of 0.1 mol dm-3 sodium hydroxide solution [irritant] to the sample.
3. Add an equal number of drops of copper (ll) sulfate solution and shake.
A purple colour is seen if protein is present.
n Test for starch

1. Add a few drops of iodine solution to the food sample.
It turns blue-black colour if starch is present.

24
n Test for reducing sugars (Benedict’s test)
1. If the food sample is not in a liquid form, mash it up and add a little water to make a suspension.
2. Place about 2 cm3 of the sample into a test tube and add an equal volume of Benedict’s
solution.
3. Warm in hot water bath for five minutes. There is no need to heat test tubes directly, placing
the test tubes in very hot water for a few minutes will give a colour change. (see 2.4.3)
A yellow / green / orange or brown precipitate develops if reducing sugar is present.
Students can compare the amount of reducing sugar in different foods (fruits and vegetables)
by carrying out the above test on equal sized pieces (1 cm3).
To get an idea of the actual concentration of reducing sugar present, students should first
prepare a set of standard colours to compare. This is done by carrying out Benedict’s test on
known concentrations of glucose solution, for example, 1 g/100 cm3, 0.5 g / 100 cm3 , 0.1 g / 100
cm3.
5.1.6 Investigating yeast respiration

The test tube or jar containing the yeast and sugar mixture can be placed in cold, warm and hot
water to compare the difference in the rate of respiration. The bubbles of gas coming out of the
mixture can be counted for 10 to 30 minutes to compare the rates.
rubber or
plastic tubing
yeast in
sugar water
solution
The bubbles can also be passed through lime water to show that when the yeast is respiring
carbon dioxide is being produced.
5.1.7 Enzymes
n Amylase is an enzyme which breaks down starch, turning it into maltose.
Amylase can be purchased commercially.
Warning: some people develop sensitivity to commercial amylase.
Once sensitised an individual may have an allergic reaction to small doses.
A safer alternative is for students to use their own saliva (by holding a small amount of water in
the mouth for a few minutes and then spitting it into a beaker).
Because saliva can spread infections such as colds and sore throats, proper hygiene must be
observed. Students should use only their own saliva samples and be responsible for cleaning up
their own equipment. After use, students should place all equipment contaminated with saliva
directly into freshly prepared bleach for at least 15 minutes. The glassware should be washed
with hot water and detergent. Tables etc should be wiped with disinfectant and hands washed.

25
Amylase can also be obtained from an extract of germinating beans.
Germinate 40 or 50 beans such as mung beans or similar. When the roots are 2-3 cm long, grind
the beans up in 100 cm3 of water and sieve the mixture. The cloudy solution obtained contains
amylase.
Students can carry out a variety of investigations into the conditions needed for enzymes to
work.
1. Place drops of iodine on a white tile for testing the reacting drops of
mixture. iodine
2. Each test tube should contain the same volume and solution
concentration of enzyme.
3. Add an equal volume of 0.5 % starch suspension to each white
tile
test tube.
4. At regular intervals, remove a drop of the reacting mixture
and test with iodine solution. Initially the iodine solution
will turn black, but if the amylase breaks down the starch, the iodine solution will remain
unchanged.
n Effect of pH
1. Set up three test tubes of 0.5 % starch suspension.
2. The control test tube should be pH 7.
Add a few drops of 0.4 mol dm-3 dilute acid for acidic
conditions. Add a few drops of 0.4 mol dm -3 dilute
alkali [irritant] for alkaline conditions.
control pH 3 pH 8
n Effect of temperature
Students can investigate the effects of cool, warm and hot conditions.
One sample of saliva can be boiled, to show that heating denatures enzymes.
n Catalase
Students could compare the amount of catalase present in different fruits and vegetables.
Catalase breaks down hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen.
If fresh stocks of hydrogen peroxide are available, a 2 vol solution can be used.
If stocks have been in the laboratory for some time, use a 5 vol solution.
The amount of oxygen gas produced can be measured by counting the bubbles of gas
evolved using apparatus similar to that used in yeast respiration in 5.1.6.

26
5.2 Chemistry
5.2.1 Burning
n Observing burning
1. Light a candle on a flat surface. Watch it carefully. Write down all you can see about the
wax, the wick and the flame. Are there any smells? What colours are seen in the flame?
Now put the candle out in as many ways as you can. Can it be put out without blowing
or touching it? Write a sentence about the candle using the words melt and solidify.
2. Ask students to observe and record what happens when a match is burnt.
3. Ask the students ‘What would you do if there was a fire in the classroom, in the school, at
home, or in your neighbourhood? Students can draw up a list of ‘Fire Precautions’ for
their class and / or school.
n The factors needed to help a candle burn
1. Use three different sized glass containers. Find the volume of each container by putting
water into the container and measuring the volume of water. This is equal to the volume
of air inside the container.
2. Time how long each candle burns in the different volumes of air.
n Heating substances
Examples of substances that can be heated are:

salt solution, copper foil, zinc oxide, water, copper (II) sulfate, iron wool, wood.
Note: beware salt solution spits as it nears dryness.
n Chemical or physical changes
Ask students which of the following activities makes a new substance:

n Striking a match
n Frying an egg
n Eating an egg
n Heating a metal pan
n Burning a candle
n Heating water until it boils
n Compare different fuels e.g. candel, animal fat, ethanol, meths
This can be done by placing the fuel in a small crucible below a test tube) containing a
known volume of water and finding the temperature rise per gram of fuel.

27
5.2.2 Chromatography – separating colours strip of filter

paper, folded
test tube over the top
Experiment with a variety of dyes such as ink, local food
colourings, plant extracts (dyes) and solvents such as water,
ethanol. The paper source for separating the individual
colours in the dye will also need to be found through trial spot of substance
and error if filter paper is unavailable. to be separated
solvent
5.2.3 Density of different types of water

Collect samples from a local well, tap, river, pond or sea water. An equal volume of each can be
left to dry in glass or evaporating dishes.
match
A ‘floatometer’ can be made.
This is a piece of plasticine or dough dried around a match so that the
match floats in the liquid. The match is marked and the depth at which dried clay
the ‘floatometer’ sinks in the different liquids can be noted, giving an dough or
idea of different densities. plasticene
5.2.4 Investigating materials

n Properties
Provide a range of materials such as newspaper, card, plastic, leaves, grass, cloth, pieces of leather.
Students can find the best material for travellers to make a temporary home by investigating
various properties, for example, water-proof, conductivity (heat insulation - keeping hot water
warm), hardwearing etc.
n Solubility
Use common and locally available materials such as soap, sugar, salt, sand, maize meal, flour, iron
filings, oil, rice powder, washing soda, chalk / limestone (calcium carbonate), egg shell, washing
soda, etc.
Students can test the substances in cold and warm water, dilute (less than 0.4 mol dm-3) sodium
hydroxide and dilute (less than 0.4 mol dm-3) hydrochloric acid.
Students decide how they know the material has dissolved (hint – use small amounts and stir
after each addition).
5.2.5 Rates of reaction

Calcium carbonate reacts with hydrochloric acid.
Students are given calcium carbonate (marble chips) in different forms – powder, small pieces
and large pieces. The same mass of different sized calcium carbonate is reacted with a fixed
volume of dilute hydrochloric acid. (Use concentrations less than 2 mol dm-3.)
Students can be asked how they will measure the rate of reaction, e.g time to dissolve, rate of gas
production (counting bubbles), loss of mass over time are all good ideas and they may come up
with others.
Students can also find out if the concentration of acid or the temperature makes a difference to
the reaction rate.

28
5.2.6 Testing different soaps

n Test locally available soaps and detergents on pieces of cloth containing stains such as tea,
grass, soil and colour from fruit juice such as orange. The soap can be compared in cold and
warm water, with stirring or left untouched. Each cloth must be the same size and contain
equal amount of stain. Stain the cloth and dry before the lesson.
n Put 10 cm3 water in a test-tube. Find how many drops of liquid or spatulas, if solid, of locally
available soaps or detergent are needed to form a lather which lasts for 1 minute. Shake the
test tube after each addition of soap.
5.2.7 Comparing everyday acids and alkalis

n Find the pH of different household chemicals, e.g. soap, vinegar, water, etc.
n Ask the students to design an experiment to clean up an acid spill.

How would they decide which household chemical is best for cleaning up an acid such
as vinegar which may have spilled on a desk?
5.2.8 Rusting
n What makes iron rust?
1. Place iron nails or iron wool in tap water, salt water and heated water.
(If water is boiled, dissolved oxygen is removed from the water. The iron can be placed in
the heated water and a layer of oil added slowly to the top of the water to prevent oxygen
re-entering the water as it cools).
oil
nail
air tap salt boiled

water water water
2. Leave for a few days for best results.

n How can iron be prevented from rusting?
Students can try painting, or covering the metal with oil in order to find the best method.

29
5.2.9 Making and testing gases

n Oxygen
Mix manganese (IV) oxide (the black paste inside dry batteries, although care must be taken in
extracting it!) with hydrogen peroxide and collect the gas that comes off in test tubes. Close
these with a bung.
If manganese oxide is not available, crushed potato or liver can be used to break down the
hydrogen peroxide. (see enzymes 5.1.7)
gas
water
reaction
mixture
plastic or
glass container
Test for oxygen: A glowing splint or strip of wood should re-light.
n Hydrogen
Use the same apparatus as for making oxygen. Add small pieces of magnesium to dilute
hydrochloric acid and collect the gas coming off in test tubes. Close these with a bung.
Test for hydrogen: Hold a lit splint or wooden stick to the mouth of the test tube. An audible
‘pop’ will be heard.
n Carbon Dioxide
Use the same apparatus as for making oxygen. Add chalk or egg shells and an acid and collect
the gas coming off in test tubes. Close these with a bung.
Test for carbon dioxide: It turns lime water cloudy.
If you bubble a lot of carbon dioxide through lime water it goes clear again.
5.2.10 Separating mixtures

Students can be asked how they can separate different mixtures. For example:
n juice from sugar cane after the sugar has been pounded (sieve through a cloth)
n water and oil (they are immiscible, so the liquid on top can be poured off)
n alcohol and water or water from salt water as in desalination (distillation for liquids with
different boiling points)

30
5.3 Physics
5.3.1 A model racing car

Provide students with a range of materials such as cotton reels, tin cans (beware sharp edges),
elastic bands, mouse traps, old springs, washers, candle stubs, straws, beads, card circles, paper
clips or pieces of strong but bendable wire, matchstick size wood or plastic sticks.
Ask students to design and make a model car propelled by an elastic band, mouse trap or spring,
whose speed or distance travelled can be measured.
(side view)
candle stub
elastic
Cotton reel racer band
pencil
match cotton
reel
5.3.2 Investigating pendulums

Hang a small weight or ball of dough (made from flour and water and dried), plasticine or papier
mache from the horizontal bar of a chair. The time taken for ten swings of different lengths of
string can be measured and a graph drawn of the results.
5.3.3 Building bridges

n Students investigate what shape makes the strongest bridge.
They can be given five equal sized cards which they shape and test or different shapes to
compare (e.g. a rolled card, flat piece, corrugated, folded).
n Students work in groups and are given a card 30 cm x 20 cm and 20 cm of sticky tape.
The group which makes the longest bridge able to support the weight of a stone wins.
5.3.4 Thermal conductivity cover

(card/metal)
Materials of different colours conduct heat (thermal)
energy at different rates.
Tin cans or glass jars of the same size with a cover can
thermometer
be either painted or covered in white, black and silver
paper. water
A thermometer is inserted into the water inside the can
through a hole in the cover.

31
n In hot conditions, the cans can be left outside and the temperature of the water measured
at the start of the day, and at regular intervals during the day.
Draw a graph of the results with a different coloured line for each container to find the best
absorber.
n Alternatively, the containers can be filled with hot water, and the temperature measured
at regular intervals.
Draw a graph of the results with a different coloured line for each container to find the best
insulator.
5.3.5 Convection currents insert

Cut a circular piece of paper or foil into a coil and string
here
suspend with a piece of string:
Hold the coil over a candle, convection currents due to hot air rising will cause the coil to turn round.
Do not put the coil too close to the flame, especially if using paper, as it may catch fire.
5.3.6 Springs (Hooke’s Law)

If small springs are not available locally, springs can be made by
twisting a wire round a pencil or stick. Each spring should have a
hook-shape at its base onto which weights can be suspended.
Equal weights can be made by hanging similar sized beads or small spring ruler
stones onto a wire with sticky tape or embedding cement balls onto
string. Each weight can be suspended using paper clips or wire loops.
Each time a weight (the load) is suspended on the spring, the
change in length is measured until the spring loses its stretch. load
A graph of the results can be drawn. A straight line indicates that the
change in length is proportional to the load added to the spring.
Different sized springs (length, diameter) or those made of different

materials can be compared.
5.3.7 Testing strength of paper

Similar apparatus to that used in 5.3.6 can be used to test the strength of different types of paper.
Use a variety of locally available sources of paper such as newspaper, tissue paper, paper used
to wrap bread etc.
1. Cut identical strips 10 cm long and 2 cm wide of each type of paper.
2. Reinforce the ends with sticky tape, and then form a loop at each end of the strip.
3. Hang the strip from a stick through one paper loop.
4. Onto the loop at the base, hang identical weights (concrete balls or beads hooked on a
wire).
5. Find the number of weights (the load) needed to break each test paper.

32
5.3.8 Magnetism
n Steel and iron nails can be magnetized by stroking the nail from one end to the other using
one end of a magnet. Another way is to coil thick fuse wire or insulated copper wire around
the nail tightly. The two ends of the wire are then connected to a dry cell battery. Don’t
use a lead acid or other type of battery as it may overheat and explode. (see chapter 2.6)
The nail becomes magnetized and can be used to pick up pins.
n A compass can be placed at both ends of the magnet to see if there is any difference in the
direction of the magnetic field.
n To see the magnetic force field, place a bar magnet under a sheet of paper. Either sprinkle
iron filings onto the paper or place filings in a sealed plastic bag and place this above the
magnet. (This is preferable, to prevent iron filings sticking to the magnet or being spilled
and getting transferred to eyes from fingers.)
5.3.9 Static charge

n Charge a comb by rubbing it on hair or cloth.
Bring the comb near some tiny pieces of paper and these will be attracted to the comb.
n Hold the charged comb near a thin stream of water flowing from a tap.
The comb causes a change in the direction of the water stream.
n Charge a balloon by rubbing it on a cloth.

When moved towards a student’s hair, the static force attracts the hair. This only works in
a dry atmosphere.
5.3.10 Electrical experiments

n Comparing electrical conductivity of materials
A simple circuit can be set up with batteries (cells) connected to two wires as shown.
When the circuit is completed (joined), the bulb should light.
Different metals and non-metals (e.g. nail, coin, copper strip, glass, wood, paper, iron, rusty iron,
magnesium, thick fuse wire – any material locally available) can be used to complete the circuit.
Those that conduct electricity will allow the bulb to light. Those that are non-conductors or
insulators will not allow the current to pass through and so the bulb will not light.
cells
bulb A ammeter
material
to be tested

33
n Current and voltage
If a multimeter is available, the changes in voltage and current could be measured and students
could investigate the effect of using different lengths of the same type of wire or using equal
lengths of different thicknesses or types of wire.
cells
bulb A ammeter
material
to be tested
voltmeter

34 31
References
Byers, Childs, Laine (1994) The Science Teachers’ Handbook,

Heinemann, Oxford ISBN 0-435-92302-1
Oladimeji, (1987), Guide to Production of Primary Science Equipment by the Teacher,

Nigerian Educational Research and Development Council
The Association for Science Education (2006) Safeguards in the School Laboratory [11th edition],
ASE, Hatfield, UK. ISBN: 0 86357 408 4 (ISBN: 978-0-86357-408-5 Valid from 2007)
The Association for Science Education (2001) Be Safe [3rd edition]

ASE, Hatfield, UK ISBN: 0 86357 324 X
University of Cambridge International Examinations (2002)

Planning for Practical Science in Secondary Schools, CIE, Cambridge, UK.

35
6. Index
A E
acids electrical experiments 12, 32, 33
concentrated 6 electricity supply 9
diluting 18–19 enzymes experiments 24–25
experiments 25, 28 amylase 24–25
alkalis catalase 25
concentrated 6 eye protection 4
diluting 19–20
experiments 25, 28 F
ammeter 13 fat, test for 23
ammonia 19 filtering 12
amylase 24–25 flammable liquids, heating 6
apparatus improvisation 11–14 food tests 23–24
asbestos 7 fats 23
proteins 23
B starch 21, 23
sugar, reducing 24
batteries 8
fuel burners 10
beakers 11
funnels 12
bench reagents 18
Benedicts G
solution 20 gases
test 24 making carbon dioxide 29
Biuret making hydrogen 29
solution 20 making oxygen 29
test 23 smelling 6
bridges, building 30
burners 10 H
burning experiments 26 hazards 3, 6–8
hazard symbols 3
C heaters 10–11
carcinogens 7 heating
calibrating containers 11 burners 10
car, model, making 30 camping stoves 11
carbon dioxide cookers 11
making 29 flammable liquids 6
test for 29 improvisation 9
catalase 25 oil lamps 10
cells (see batteries) substances 5, 26
chromatography 27 Hooke’s law experiment 31
circles drawing 11 hydrogen
clamps 11 making 29
conductivity experiments test for 29
electrical 32, 33 hydrogen peroxide 17
thermal 30–31
convection currents experiment 31 I
crucibles 11 Improvisation 9-14
current apparatus 10-14
experiments 33 electricity 9
measuring 13 fire and safety 9
heating 9, 10
D waste disposal 9
density experiment 27 water 10
dessicator 12 indicators, pH 13
diffusion experiments 22 insect collection 12
diluting solutions 16, 20 insulators experiment 32
iodine solution 20
iron experiments 28

36
Index continued. . .
L S
large classes 9 safety 3–8
length, measuring 13 fire and 9
limewater 20 screens 5
liquids symbols 3
flammable 6 safe working 5-6
heating 5, 6 scales 14
measuring 13 serial dilution 16-17
soaps experiment 28
M sodium hydroxide 19
magnetism experiments 32 solutions 15-20
materials experiments 27, 33 bench 18
measuring concentrated 6
current 13 diluting 16–20
length 13 making up 15–20
liquids 13 percent 17
voltage 13 serial dilution 16-17
metre rulers 13 stock 15
mixtures, separating 29 standard 18
model car, making 30 storage of 15
multimeter 13 weight per volume 17
spatulas 14
O springs experiment 31
oil lamp 10 stands 11
osmosis experiments 23 starch test 21, 23
oxygen static charge experiment 32
making 29 stoppers 14
test for 29 storage of chemicals 15
sugar, reducing, test for 24
P sweep net 12
paper
filter 12 T
testing strength 31 tests
pendulum experiment 30 carbon dioxide 29
percent solutions 17 fat 23
photosynthesis experiments 21 hydrogen 29
pH oxygen 29
experiments 25, 28 protein 23
indicators 13 reducing sugar 24
pipettes 6 starch 21, 23
fillers 13 timers 14
plant experiments tubing 14
photosynthesis 21–22
water transport 22 V
pooter 12 voltage
protein, test for 23 experiments 32, 33
measuring 13
R voltmeter 13
rates of reaction experiments 27–28
respiration experiments 24
W
waste disposal 9
risk 4
water supplies 10
risk assessment 3–4
rusting experiment 28 Y
yeast experiments 24

37
7. Appendices
Appendix 1
We suggest that you display a similar poster in the
school science laboratory and inform students of the rules
SCIENCE SAFETY RULES

The biggest danger in the laboratory is YOU.
You are a danger whenever you are ignorant or careless or both.
Remember this because the person most likely to suffer from your mistakes is you.
USE CARE AND COMMON SENSE AT ALL TIMES

1. Never go into a laboratory without permission.
2. Do not rush or run in the laboratory.
3. Keep your bench and nearby floor clear, with bags and coats well out of the way.
4. Never touch apparatus or chemicals or remove anything from the laboratory

without permission.
5. Long hair should be tied back and ties, clothes etc. should not be allowed to hang
freely especially when heating things.
6. Always wear eye protection when told to do so.
7. Always listen to and follow the instructions given.

Check labels carefully and keep tops on bottles except when removing substances
from them. If in doubt, ask.
8. Never taste or eat anything in the laboratory.
9. If you get burnt or splash chemical on your skin, wash the affected area at once,
with lots of water.
10. Never put waste solids in the sink. Put them where your teacher instructs you.
Wipe up all small spills and report bigger ones and breakages to your teacher.

38
Appendix 2
SCIENCE PRACTICAL WORK and INVESTIGATIONS
Hints for students to help plan, carry out and write up practical investigations.
TITLE n What is the problem or task you have been set?

BEFORE THE INVESTIGATION n Decide what you want to find out.
n What will you need to do to find this?
VARIABLES n What are the things that can be changed in this
investigation?
PREDICTIONS n Using your scientific knowledge predict what you think
will happen when you change the variable(s).
METHOD n Give step by step instructions on how you will do the
investigation, including details of the quantities you will use.
n What will be measured? How will this be done? Will you
need to repeat your measurements?
n Have you decided how you will record any results or
observations? You may need to prepare a table for results
which needs to be filled in.
SAFETY n Have you checked for safety symbols and made sure you
are working safely, e.g. is the desk cleared, hair tied back?
DIAGRAM n You may need to draw and label a diagram to show how
you will set up your apparatus.
DURING THE EXPERIMENT n Have you written down all your readings or observations,
with units?
Note: take readings to 1 or 2 decimal places if appropriate.
n Have you repeated your measurements to make them
reliable?
AFTER THE EXPERIMENT n Can you draw a graph of your results?

Analysing Evidence and Note: label the axes and include units.
Drawing Conclusions n Describe any patterns you notice in your results and graphs.
n Do these patterns agree with your predictions? If not, what
is the reason? Was your prediction wrong? Were your results
inaccurate?
n What did you learn from the experiment? Can you explain
your results and observations using your scientific
knowledge?
EVALUATION n Describe any odd or unexpected results? Explain why these

unexpected results may have happened? Did you have any
problems taking readings, or in the method?
n If you could do the experiment again, would you change
it? If yes, describe any improvements you would make.

39
Appendix 3
University of Cambridge International Examinations /

Science Practical Lesson Plan (a template)
When (date / time / lesson) Where (room)
Who (teacher / class) Title

Temperature, amylase and starch digestion
Aim / focus / context To investigate the effect of temperature on enzymes
Learning outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
n explain enzyme activity in terms of the lock and key hypothesis 3b (syllabus reference)
n investigate and describe the effect of temperature on enzyme activity 3c
n follow a sequence of instructions Assessment Objective C1
n interpret, evaluate and report upon observations and experimental data
Assessment Objective C4
n evaluate methods and suggest possible improvements Assessment Objective C6
Teaching and learning activities
10 minutes – introduction and context – teacher led session to remind students of the effect
of temperature on enzyme action and the reasons for it in terms of the lock and key
hypothesis; as temperature increases, molecules move faster, increasing collisions between
enzyme and substrate; at higher temperatures, thermal vibration breaks weak bonds in the
enzyme, changing the shape of the active site so that substrate does not fit causing
denaturation.
10 minutes – demonstration of key elements of method.
30 minutes – practical work including recording of temperature and time taken for starch
to disappear, adding own results to class results on the board. Each group of students to
be allocated a different temperature so that all the temperatures are covered. If groups
work quickly, can allocate them another temperature so that all temperatures are
investigated several times.
10 minutes – teacher led explanation how to write-up the experiment including calculation
of rate of reaction as 1/time and correct graph to plot.
Homework – write up, plot graph of results and describe and explain in writing what the
graph shows.
Resources
Practical materials listed on the Technical Information sheet
Blackboard and chalk

40
Appendix 4
Science Practical – Technical Information
Title
Temperature, amylase and starch digestion
Students to work alone Students to work in groups of 4
Apparatus and materials
n amylase enzyme 1% solution
n fresh 1 % starch solution made by stirring 1 g of corn starch or similar into

80 cm3 of boiling water until dissolved, making up to 100 cm3
n iodine solution
n straws or droppers for transferring iodine solution
n test-tubes
n means of timing
n white tiles
n syringes to measure 1 cm3
n bowls or beakers of water at approximately 10 oC, 20 oC, 30 oC, 40 oC, 50 oC and

60 oC, each containing a thermometer – some of these will need ice added from
time to time, and for others, hot water will need to be added
n ice
n kettle or means of heating water
Risk assessment
Amylase enzymes may cause allergic reactions on the skin or eyes of some people.
Other materials at the concentrations used present few hazards, but care should be
taken to avoid contact with skin or eyes.

41
Appendix 5
Science Practical – Student Worksheet
Aim
To investigate the effect of temperature on enzymes
Background Information
n For the enzyme amylase, the substrate is starch which is broken down to form maltose, a sugar.
n When starch is present it turns iodine solution blue-black, but when all the starch has been
broken down, the iodine solution remains a brown or yellow colour.
n Increasing the temperature increases the speed at which both enzyme and substrate
molecules move, so that as temperature increases, the number of collisions between the active
site of the enzyme and the substrate increases and therefore the rate of reaction increases.
n At high temperatures, there are more vibrations within the enzyme molecule, so that weak
bonds are broken. As a result the shape of the active site changes so the substrate no longer fits
into it. The enzyme is now denaturated.
n The time taken for the starch to be removed is the opposite of (inversely proportional to) the
rate of reaction, so 1/time can be used to represent rate of reaction.

n amylase enzyme 1 % solution [danger of irritation] if spilt on eyes or skin
n 1 % starch solution
n beakers or bowls of water for water baths
n thermometer
n test-tubes
n means of timing
n dry white tile
n dropper pipette or straw to take samples from the bottom of test-tubes
n syringe
Method
Your teacher will tell you which temperature water bath to start with.
1. Put 1 cm3 of amylase solution into a labelled test tube and place in the water bath. Leave for 5
minutes. Record the temperature of the water bath.
2. Put small drops of iodine solution on the dry white tile so they are well separated.
3. Add 1 cm3 of starch solution to the amylase solution in the test tube in the water bath, and start
timing.
4. Take a drop of mixture from the test-tube and add to the first drop of iodine on the tile – record
the time and the colour of the drop.
5. Repeat step 4 after 1 minute, 2 minutes and every minute for 10 minutes or until the iodine
drop stays brown or yellow. The time it takes for the drop to remain brown or yellow is the end
point – record this time in minutes and the final temperature of the water bath.
6. If there is time, your teacher will give you another temperature to investigate.
Write-up
1. Calculate rate of reaction as 1/ time for each temperature.
2. Draw a graph of temperature against rate of reaction (temperature is the independent variable
so is on the x-axis).
3. Describe the effect of temperature on the rate of reaction using information from your graph.
4. Explain the reasons why temperature has an effect on the rate of reaction.
5. Evaluate how effective your method was and suggest possible improvements.

42
Appendix 6
Science Practical Lesson Plan
When (date / time / lesson) Where (room)
Who (teacher / class) Title

Observation of animals / plants
Aim / focus / context

To develop skill in making observations
Learning outcomes
Candidates should be able to:

n make and record observations, measurements, calculations and estimates with due
regard to precision, accuracy and units Assessment Objective C3
n interpret, evaluate and report upon observations Assessment Objective C3
Teaching and Learning activities
15 minutes – Introduction to the skills that are required to be developed – observing

the material, drawing it accurately, taking measurements and calculating the magnification
of the drawing – teacher led session
30 minutes – making the observations and drawings using a hand lens, measuring the
length of the same part of the specimen and drawing and calculating the magnification
Resources
Practical materials listed on the Technical Information sheet

43
Appendix 7

Science Practical – Technical Information
Title
Observations of animals / plants
Students to work alone P Students to work in groups of
n Hand lens
n Fresh dead crustacean such as a freshwater or marine shrimp or crab (or a preserved
insect) or a twig with or without leaves from a plant
n Tweezers or forceps
n Ruler to measure in mm
n Calculator
n Paper with no lines
n Sharp medium-hard (hb) pencil
Risk assessment
Dead animals may be contaminated with bacteria which may pose serious risks to health.
To minimise any risk place the material in a dish and tell the students not to handle the
material or to use tweezers or forceps.

44
Appendix 8
Science Practical – Student Worksheet
Aim
To develop skill in making observations
Learning Outcomes
By the end of this practical you should be able to:
n make and record observations, measurements, calculations and estimates with due
regard to precision, accuracy and units Assessment Objective C3
n interpret, evaluate and report upon observations Assessment Objective C4
Background Information
This practical involves you in working with unfamiliar animal / plant material – you may
have seen the specimen before, but you will need to look at it very carefully.
You will need to observe, draw, measure and calculate accurately.

n hand lens
n fresh dead crustacean such as a shrimp / preserved insect / plant twig
n ruler to measure in mm
n calculator
n paper with no lines
n sharp medium-hard (HB) pencil
Method
Look carefully at the specimen, avoid touching it too much so you don’t damage it, as
well as to minimise any safety risks.
Lay the specimen down so that it will not fall and change its position, for example, on its
side.
Make a large, clear outline pencil drawing of the specimen, carefully representing all the
structures that you can see, showing them in the correct position and proportions.
Measure and record the length of the specimen, and then measure and record the same
length on your drawing.
Measure and record the length of several parts of the specimen, such as the width, the
length of its antennae, the length of its front legs etc. and then measure and record the
same lengths on your drawing.
Write-up
Calculate the magnification of your drawing compared to the actual size of the specimen
using the measurements that you made – show each stage of your calculation.
Repeat the magnification calculations using the other measurements that you made.
Explain why you do not get exactly the same magnification for every set of measurements
you made.
Explain why measurements and calculations made of small structures are less likely to be
accurate than those made from large structures.

The Association for Science Education
College Lane
Hatfield
Hertfordshire
AL10 9AA
United Kingdom
Tel: +44 (0)1707 283000
Fax: +44 (0)1707 266532
Email: info@ase.org.uk
Web: www.ase.org.uk
University of Cambridge International

Examinations
1 Hills Road
Cambridge
CB1 2EU
United Kingdom
Tel: +44 1223 553554
Fax: +44 1223 553558
Email: international@cie.org.uk
Web: www.cie.org.uk
TM IPSG 0601
© The Association for Science Education
and University of Cambridge Local
Examinations Syndicate 2006

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International

Published by : The Association for Science Education and

Printed by: Piggot Black Bear, Cambridge.

ISBN: 0 86357 410 6

© The Association for Science Education and

University of Cambridge International Examinations

International Practical Science Guide

Nigerian writing team:

Lynne Symonds (ASE)

Design and typesetting by Deanna Melchior (ASE)

International Practical Science Guide

1.1 Why teach science, and why teach it practically? 2

2 Health and safety

4 Solutions and recipes

5 Some useful and fun experiments

International Practical Science Guide

International Practical Science Guide

1.1 Why teach science, and why teach it practically?

n Hand-eye co-ordination, instruction-sequence-following and recording skills are developed

1.2 How to use this booklet

International Practical Science Guide

2.0 Health and safety during science experiments

2.1 Risk assessment

Hazards are identified by symbols that have definite meanings.

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Risk iss the likelihood

The sort of quest

n What are the potent

n Has itt been cons

n What w will be done to mminimise

n What wwill be done to m minimise

2.2 Eye protection

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2.3 Safety screens

2.4 Safe working

Some processes that could be practised:

2.4.1 Heating solids

2.4.2 Heating liquids in a test-tube

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2.4.4 Filling of pipettes

2.4.5 Smelling gases

2.5 Some possible hazards

2.5.1 Concentrated solutions

When diluting concentrated ammonia or concentrated hydrochloric acid, work in a fume

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2.5.2 Carcinogenic (potentially cancer-causing) chemicals

Such chemicals include:

1,2-dibromoethane (ethylene dibromide)

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2.6 Batteries and cells

Never attempt to recharge ordinary (non-rechargeable) cells; they may explode.

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3.1 Laboratory work when there is no laboratory

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3.2.1 Simple fuel burner

Make a ho holee in n the cover of the jar ar w

meta tube expans on ho e

cotton woo or sand

3.2.2 Traditional oil lamp

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3.2.3 Camping stoves

Metal containers cannot be used for reactive chemicals such as acids.

3.3.3 Clamps and stands

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