Professional Documents
Culture Documents
com
Received 2 July 2008; received in revised form 1 December 2008; accepted 14 January 2009
Available online 24 February 2009
Abstract
As a passive cooling strategy aimed at controlling increased surface temperatures and creating cooler urban environments, the authors
have developed a passive cooling wall (PCW) constructed of moist void bricks that are capable of absorbing water and which allow wind
penetration, thus reducing their surface temperatures by means of water evaporation. Passive cooling effects, such as solar shading, radi-
ation cooling and ventilation cooling can be enhanced by incorporating PCWs into the design of outdoor or semi-enclosed spaces in
parks, pedestrian areas and residential courtyards. The purpose of the present paper is to detail the development of a 3D CAD-based
simulation tool that can be used to predict and evaluate the thermal improvement effect in urban locations where PCW installation is
under consideration. Measurement results for the surface reduction effect of a PCW are introduced in the first part of the paper. In
the second part, thermal modeling of a PCW is proposed based on analysis results of experimental data. Following that, a comparison
study that integrates the proposed thermal modeling was conducted to validate the simulation method. In order to demonstrate the appli-
cability of the developed simulation tool, a case study was then performed to predict and evaluate the thermal improvement effect at an
actual urban location where PCWs were installed. Simulations were performed by modeling the construction location in two scenarios;
one where the PCWs were composed of dry bricks, and another where the bricks were wet. The results show that, in terms of surface
temperature and mean radiant temperature (MRT), this simulation tool can provide quantitative predictions and evaluations of thermal
improvements resulting from the installation of PCWs.
Ó 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Passive cooling; Void brick; Evaporation; Thermal environment; Surface temperature; Simulation
0038-092X/$ - see front matter Ó 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.solener.2009.01.006
J. He, A. Hoyano / Solar Energy 83 (2009) 1064–1075 1065
Nomenclature
materials with low albedo and high thermal retention capac- radiation cooling and (3) ventilation cooling. It is expected
ities, such as asphalt and concrete. As a result, they absorb a that PCWs will be increasingly installed in outdoor loca-
great deal of solar heat during the day, and their surfaces tions or semi-enclosed locations such as parks, pedestrian
remain warmer than the surrounding air at night due to areas, patios and residential courtyards.
the retained solar energy. This indicates that reducing the As described in literature (e.g. Givoni, 1994), porous
heat absorbed by these surfaces, or otherwise lowering their materials such as unglazed pottery have long been used to
surface temperatures, would be an effective method of improve thermal comfort in residential spaces by assisting
improving outdoor urban thermal environments and miti- passive evaporative cooling. However, previous studies on
gating the urban heat island effect. passive cooling walls that allow wind penetration are scarce.
As a passive cooling strategy for controlling the increase In order to investigate the cooling effects of the devel-
of urban surface temperatures and creating a comfortable oped PCW, experiments have been conducted in the labo-
thermal environment, the authors have developed a passive ratory and at outdoor locations using mock-ups and
cooling wall (PCW) constructed of moist void bricks capa- prototype walls. The experimental results were documented
ble of absorbing water (Shirai, Hoyano et al., 1995, Hoy- in our previous papers (Shirai et al., 1997, 2000, 2002). This
ano and Shirai, 1995, 1997). A PCW has features that paper focuses on the development of a numerical simula-
allow wind to pass through it, and thus reduce its temper- tion tool that can be used to predict and evaluate the ther-
ature by facilitating the evaporation of water stored in the mal improvement effect in developed urban locations where
bricks. As shown in Fig. 1, the PCW provides a shaded PCW installation is under consideration. The measured
area free from direct solar radiation while the PCW surface results of surface temperature reductions resulting from a
itself can be cooled by evaporation. This results in cooler PCW will be introduced in the first part of the paper. In
surfaces in outdoor locations on summer days. Further- the second part, we will describe thermal modeling for pre-
more, the air passing through the PCW can be further dicting external surface temperatures of a PCW. A compar-
cooled when a breeze is blowing. As a result, the following ison study, in which the proposed thermal modeling was
passive cooling effects can be created: (1) solar shading, (2) integrated, will then be conducted to validate the simula-
tion method. In addition, in order to demonstrate the
applicability of the developed simulation tool, a case study
will be carried out to predict and evaluate temperature dis-
tributions of all external surfaces in an actual outdoor
space where PCWs have been installed.
Fig. 2. Photos and diagrams of void bricks developed by the authors. Fig. 4. Experimental results of cooling effect of the developed bricks.
3. Numerical simulation
2.4. Water consumption of a PCW
3.1. Methodology
Two slit-type PCWs and one open-type PCW were
used to measure water consumption. These test PCWs As can be understood from the measurement results
were facing south during measurements. Measurement described above, PCW surface temperatures can be
results of water consumption for a period of four sum- reduced below ambient air temperature by water evapora-
mer sunny days were presented in Fig. 9. From the fig- tion. In order to predict and evaluate the expected thermal
ure, it can be seen that the maximum of water improvement of a PCW in a developed urban environment
consumption was approximately 35 g/(m2 min). The max- during design stages, numerical simulations are a necessary
imum of diurnal water consumption was 15 kg/(m2 day) and practical alternative to physical experiments. As a
during the measurement period. A significant difference design tool for supporting the prediction and evaluation
Fig. 7. The left and right are a photo of PCWs and thermograph taken at noon on a sunny summer day (Aug. 11), respectively.
1068 J. He, A. Hoyano / Solar Energy 83 (2009) 1064–1075
800 25
600 20
400 15
200 10
0 5
Total horizontal solar radiation
Wind speed Wind direction
3.0 N
2.5
E
2.0
1.5 S
1.0
W
0.5
0 N
25
15
-5
0:00 12:00 0:00 12:00 0:00 12:00 0:00 12:00 0:00
Aug. 9 Aug. 10 Aug. 11 Aug. 12
Fig. 9. Measurement results of water consumption of test PCWs on summer sunny days.
of thermal improvements resulting from the installation of The external surface temperature for each mesh can be
PCWs, we adapted a numerical simulation method using calculated by solving a non-steady-state one-dimensional
the 3D CAD-based simulation tool that was previously heat balance equation in normal to the surface. In the heat
developed by our research group. A PCW was modeled balance equation, three-dimensional radiation irradiated
and a calculation algorithm for its surface temperature on the surface is taken into account. The short-wavelength
was integrated into the simulation tool. The simulation radiation on the surface is direct solar insolation, sky solar
methodology is described below. radiation and reflected solar radiation. Reflected solar radi-
ation includes both specular reflection and isotropic diffuse
3.2. Description of the developed simulation tool reflection. Only the first reflected solar radiation is consid-
ered in the present study. Atmospheric radiation and long-
The simulation process is outlined in Fig. 10. The sim- wavelength radiation from the surroundings are considered
ulation is performed using 3D CAD models for build- in the long-wavelength radiation irradiated on the surface.
ings, trees and other structures in the area being Sky solar radiation and atmospheric radiation are calcu-
analyzed. Three-dimensional spatial forms of the build- lated from the sky view factor for each mesh.
ings, trees, etc., and two-dimensional ground surfaces The sky view factor is calculated by the multi-tracing
are divided into mesh grids, and thermophysical data simulation from the mesh toward multiple hemispherical
of construction materials, such as albedo and conductiv- directions. The tracing direction is established so that the
ity and solar transmittance, are assigned to the grids. An tracing density (interval) comes to have the same shape fac-
automatic mesh-dividing process has been integrated and tor. The sky view factor is estimated by counting the num-
only uniform mesh can be used in the present version of ber of tracers reaching the boundary surfaces. The shape
the tool. A uniform mesh size of 0.2 m was used in the factor for calculating the reflected solar radiation and
simulation. long-wavelength radiation from the surroundings is deter-
J. He, A. Hoyano / Solar Energy 83 (2009) 1064–1075 1069
wetted. As understood from the above-mentioned measure- The PCW (Type2,Ratio of openings=48%) Visualization of surface temperature 20cm
20cm
surface can be considered to be equal to the wet-bulb
temperature.
Because the simulation methodology is valid under low
wind velocity weather conditions (wind speed less than
3 m/s), the wind velocity on the windward and leeward Brick openings
sides of a PCW is assumed to be the same as the input
Fig. 13. Description of surface temperature calculation method.
weather data. The PCW surface temperature is calculated
by solving Eq. 3, using Eqs. 1 and 2 as boundary condi-
tions. The brick openings are composed of quadrangle sur-
sured surface temperatures. Measurements were conducted
faces as shown in Fig. 13. Each square is 20 20 cm and
using the experimental PCW shown in Fig. 14. A compar-
equal to the size of the minimum mesh used in the calcula-
ison study was carried out to determine the evaporation
tion. Temperatures of the quadrangle surfaces are consid-
efficiency. Surface temperatures of the experimental PCW
ered to be equal to the wet-bulb temperature. The
were calculated using the proposed simulation method
number of the squares is determined by the ratio of open-
under calculation conditions in which the evaporation effi-
ings to the sectional area of a brick. The ratio of openings
ciency was assumed to be a value between 0.0 and 1.0. The
is 34% and 48% for a slip-type and open-type brick,
results of the comparison study showed that strong agree-
respectively.
ment was found between the simulated and measured sur-
face temperatures when the value of evaporation efficiency
3.4. Validation of the simulation method was between 0.4 and 0.6. As an example, Fig. 15 shows
diurnal variations of simulated and measured surface tem-
In order to validate the proposed simulation method, we peratures on a sunny day. The evaporation efficiency was
carried out a comparison study of the simulated and mea- assumed to be 0.5 in the simulation of surface temperature.
Weather conditions for the day are indicated in Fig. 16.
Wind speeds were measured below 2 m/s throughout the
day.
As shown in Fig. 15, the measured surface temperature
was slightly different at different measurement points and
the maximum temperature difference was approximately
5 °C. The average values of the measured surface tempera-
ture for three measurement points ((S1–S3) provided in
Fig. 14) were compared with the simulated results. The cor-
relation between the simulated surface temperature and the
average measured surface temperature is presented in
Fig. 17. From an examination of this figure, it can be deter-
mined that the simulated surface temperature agreed within
Water supply
Measurement
points
S1
S2 M2
S3 M3
M4
12 8 M5 M1
1008
10
6
8
6 4
4 2
588
2 0
0
-2
-2
-4 -4 Water
Difference between surface temperature and ambient air temperature tank
Fig. 12. The top photo shows the test PCWs. The middle and bottom are 660 100 100
thermographs of the PCWs that were exposed to direct daytime solar
radiation. Fig. 14. An experimental PCW and locations of measurement points.
J. He, A. Hoyano / Solar Energy 83 (2009) 1064–1075 1071
20 Ambient air
Average of (S1+S2+S3)
15
Table 2
Thermal properties of the void brick.
Solar reflectance Thermal conductivity Specific heat
10 (W/m K) (kJ/(kg K))
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Time (hour) 0.3 0.8 840
90 30 800 4
Total horizontal solar radiation
Relative humidity (%)
Wind speed
60 15 200 1
10 0 0
50
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Time(hour)
4. Case study
30
Simulated surface temperare (ºC)
25
20
15
10
Measured surface temperature (ºC) Fig. 18. Photos of the actual developed location where PCWs were
installed. The top photo is a view from Northwest. The middle photo is a
Fig. 17. Correlation between simulated and measured surface birds-eye view from Southwest. The bottom shows an internal view of the
temperature. rest station from the Southeast.
1072 J. He, A. Hoyano / Solar Energy 83 (2009) 1064–1075
Fig. 19. Plan (left) and section (right) of the developed location with incorporated PCWs.
Fig. 20. Birds-eye views of 3D CAD models for the developed location with incorporated PCWs.
40 100
The input weather data is for a reference weather year,
Absolute humidity
Absolute humidity
Relative humidity
35 80
g/kg(DA))
1000 2.5 form easily during the day. Diurnal variations of air tem-
Solar radiation W/
800 2.0
Wind speed perature, relative humidity, wind speed and solar radiation
600 1.5
are shown in Fig. 21.
400 1.0
200 0.5
Fig. 22 shows the simulated surface temperature distri-
0 0.0 bution for both cases at three different times (09:00, 12:00
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 and 15:00). At 09:00, the surface temperature of the dry
Time hour) brick wall that was not exposed to direct solar radiation
Fig. 21. Weather conditions for a sunny summer day (Aug. 5) in Tokyo.
was nearly equal to the ambient air temperature, whereas
the surface temperature of the wet brick wall was several
degrees lower than the ambient air temperature. At 12:00
design and layout of the rest station are provided in and 15:00, the surface temperatures of the dry brick wall
Fig. 19. 3D CAD models for the location are shown in exposed to direct solar radiation rose above 40 °C and were
Fig. 20. higher than the ambient air temperature by 5–10 °C. The
surface temperature of the wet brick wall, on the other
4.2. Simulation results hand, remained below the ambient air temperature. As
can be seen at the lower right corner of Fig. 22, the ground
The developed location was modeled in two scenarios: surface in the rest station with a roof was also kept at a
(1) Case 1 stipulates that the PCW was composed of dry lower temperature by the surrounding PCWs.
bricks (without the evaporative cooling effect) and (2) Case Fig. 23 shows diurnal variations of the brick surface
2 stipulates that the PCW was composed of wet bricks. temperature for points P1 and P2 indicated in Fig. 19. P1
Simulations were performed using hourly weather data and P2 were set at a height of 1 m above the ground. As
for a typical sunny summer day (August 5) in Tokyo. seen in Fig. 23, in Case 2 (with wet brick walls) the surface
J. He, A. Hoyano / Solar Energy 83 (2009) 1064–1075 1073
Fig. 22. Simulation results of surface temperature distribution for the dry (left) and wet (right) brick walls.
1074 J. He, A. Hoyano / Solar Energy 83 (2009) 1064–1075
temperature (P1) of the Southeast-facing brick remained tion can be visually understood by comparing the simula-
lower than the ambient air temperature throughout the tion results of the two cases.
day. Furthermore, the former was 5 °C lower than the lat- In conclusion, in terms of surface temperature and mean
ter during the daytime. The surface temperature (P2) of the radiant temperature (MRT) distribution, the authors
southwest-facing wet brick wall was about 1 °C lower than found that the developed simulation tool can be used dur-
the ambient air temperature, except during the period of ing design stages to evaluate the thermal improvements
13:00–17:00. During the period of 13:00–17:00, the surface that might result from installation of PCWs in developed
temperature (P2) of the wet brick went higher than the urban environments.
ambient air temperature because the brick surface was
exposed to direct solar radiation. 6. Final remarks
In order to thoroughly comprehend the thermal
improvement of the PCWs on thermal comfort in the The main goal of the study presented in this paper is to
developed location, the mean radiant temperature (MRT) describe a simulation tool for quantifying the improvement
at a height of 1 m above the ground was used as an evalu- effect of the PCW on the thermal radiation environment
ation index. The simulated results of the MRT distribution from surface temperature reductions. Except the radiation
for Case 1 and Case 2 at 12:00 are shown in Fig. 24. The cooling effect, the PCW can also provide air temperature
MRT for Case 2, (wet brick walls), was 2–3 °C lower than reduction effect and ventilation cooling effect as well. In
that for Case 1 (dry brick walls). Furthermore, from the
lower thermal image seen in Fig. 24, it can also be stated
50
that the MRT near the wet brick walls was the lowest
P1 (dry brick surface)
and measured 2–4 °C less than the ambient air Temperature (ºC) 45 P2 (dry brick surface)
temperature. P2 (wet brick surface)
40 Ambient air
5. Conclusions
35
order to evaluate these effects, a coupled simulation Hoyano, A., Shirai, K., et al., 1997. Experimental evaluation of the
method is being developed (Kakuya et al., 2007). This cou- evaporative cooling effect produced by practical application of a feed
water-supplied passive cooling wall made of water-permeable ventila-
pled simulation method makes it possible to predict solar ble bricks, Proceedings of ISES 1997 Solar World Congress, Taejon,
and thermal radiation, airflow and humidity distribution. Korea, 310–316.
However, the calculation load is too great (the computing Shirai, K., Hoyano, A., et al., 1997. Investigation of thermal comfort in an
time is too long) to carry out the coupled simulation on a outdoor space partly enclose by a passive cooling wall made of water-
PC at the present time. It still requires a lot of research permeable ventilable bricks, Proceedings of ISES 1997 Solar World
Congress, Taejon, Korea, 233–238.
and development efforts to integrate the coupled simula- Shirai, K., Hoyano, A., et al., 2000. Effect of a passive cooling wall to form
tion method into a design tool that can be used by a general micro-climate in a semi-outdoor space (Formation of outdoor and
designer. In such situation, the simulation tool proposed in semi-outdoor comfortable space through evaporative cooling by
this paper is very useful for the designers who require a water-permeable perforated wall, Part 1). Journal of Architecture,
quick analysis of the improvement effect by the difference Planning and Environmental Engineering (Transactions of AIJ) 527,
21–27, in Japanese.
of surrounding materials and spatial forms on the thermal Shirai, K., Hoyano, A., Oguri, K., 2002. Evaluations of coolness at a
radiation environment during the design phase. space constructed with passive cooling walls (Formation of outdoor
and semi-outdoor comfortable space through evaporative cooling by
Acknowledgement water-permeable perforated wall, Part 3). Journal of Architecture,
Planning and Environmental Engineering (Transactions of AIJ) 552,
15–20, in Japanese.
This work was in part supported by the New Energy and Givoni, B., 1994. Passive and Low Energy Cooling of Buildings, An
Industrial Technology Development Organization of Japan International Thomson Publishing Company.
(NEDO) under Contract No. 0827001. Asawa, T., Hoyano, A., Nakaohkubo, K., 2008. Thermal design tool for
outdoor spaces based on heat balance simulation using a 3D-CAD
References system. Building and Environment 43, 2112–2123.
Shimokawa, K. et al., 1996. Prediction of thermal environment on streets
with roadside trees part 5 –A study on thermal characteristics of the
Shirai, K., Hoyano, A., Horiguchi, T. 1995. Development of water-
foliage crown by measurements–, Summaries of Technical Papers of
permeable ventilable bricks as the basis for a new evaporative cooling
Annual Meeting (Environmental Engineering). Architectural Institute
technique, the International Solar Energy Society 1995 Solar World
of Japan 8, 131–132, in Japanese.
Congress, Harare, Zimbabwe.
Kakuya, A., He, J., Hoyano, A., 2007. Numerical analysis of the microclimatic
Hoyano, A., Shirai, K., 1995. Design and development of an evaporative-
effect of bioclimatic design using a combination of CFD and outdoor
cooling prototype wall made of water-permeable ventilable bricks, the
thermal simulation, Proceedings of the 24th International Conference on
International Solar Energy Society 1995 Solar World Congress,
Passive and Low Energy Architecture, Singapore, pp. 641–648.
Harare, Zimbabwe.