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Al Qaeda, Bin Laden and the New Terrorism of the 21st Century
By
TAN, AVEMAR T.
MA International Studies Program 2002-05695
9 October 2009
Introduction to the Study:
The high-jacking incidents that climaxed into successive and deliberate attacks
against the World Trade Center in New York and the Pentagon in Arlington, Virginia, which
took place in the morning of 11 September 2001, have no doubt been the subject of a
number of articles, news reports and researches. It has sparked the resurgence of public
interest on the phenomena of terrorism that has otherwise vacillated throughout history,
between highs and lows, usually corresponding to when the acts of violence occur.
The perceived severity of the 9/11 Attacks has, however, ignited a greater sense of
fear and anger particularly among the American population and has since spread across the
region through the Bush-driven Global War on Terrorism (GWoT). In turn, this aggression
against Afghanistan, believed to be the stronghold of Osama bin Laden’s Al’Qaeda, and the
subsequent War launched in Iraq, has prejudiced against the Islamic faith, it being
identified as the religious foundation of those who perpetrated the 9/11 and a number of
other similar attacks. Far from being a religion of peace, some critics allege, Islam preaches
connotation and their images are often demonized. The demonization of the enemy and the
absolute polarization of the conflict in turn triggers a sense of deep hostility and mutual
hatred, robbing the situation of any neutral ground (Smelser, 2007; Primakov, 2004). Since
it is in the interest of many to maintain relative peace, the polarization of conflicts along the
As such, there is a need to explore this “new wave” of terrorism that was said to
have been brought about by Al Qaeda under the leadership of Osama bin Laden, through
the September 11 Attacks, to determine whether there is indeed novelty in the terrorism
The alleged network of operations of Al Qaeda also need to be explored and the
analyzed.
Hypothesis:
Osama bin Laden’s Al Qaeda, unleashed a new and novel form of terrorism in the
international arena during this Century through its vast network of operations.
1. Present historical manifestations of terrorism, its motivations and the usual tactics
terrorist attacks
3. Based on previous studies conducted, present the extent of the scope of bin Laden’s
network and to present evidence that disputes the existence of the Al Qaeda
While much debate has surrounded the establishment of a general and widely
acceptable definition of the term “terrorism,” this has not prevented it from becoming the
subject of academic inquiry. Most, if not all, of the works written on terrorism have
however acknowledged the existence of a definitional abyss (Weinberg, White; Lutz and
Lutz; Enders and Sandler, Singh; Laqueur; Smelser). This abyss is attributable to the fact
that the term itself is not value neutral to begin with.1 The term “terrorism” and its root
word “terror” connote negativity, that the person terrorizing is committing some form of
Academicians and state institutions have since floated several definitions. The US,
which has adopted the frontline in the Post 9/11 Global War on Terror (GWoT), defines
The United Kingdom, a staunch ally of the US has its own definition of terrorism:
“the use of violence for political ends and included any use of violence for the purpose of
putting the public or any section of the public in fear” (Weinberg, 2005).
and Neil Smelser, have likewise offered their own working definitions, which have four
One of the most comprehensive definitions proposed for the use of academicians
was offered by James and Brenda Lutz in their work entitled “Global Terrorism:”
Despite the definitional conundrum that has plagued its study, it is erroneous to
conclude that terrorism is a recent phenomenon. Academics note that the word “terrorism”
first entered the vocabulary through the French language between 1793-94 during the
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regime de la terreur or the Reign of Terror under the post-revolutionary government of
Robespierre (Weinberg, 2005; Enders and Sandler, 2006; White, 2003). The execution of
thousands of those who opposed the transformation of the French Society characterized
this period in French history (Enders and Sandler, 2006; Lutz and Lutz, 2004).
Although the term itself emerged only in the 18th Century, there has been record of
terrorist attacks perpetrated in as early as the first century A. D. with the group “Zealots
Sicarri” who sought to provoke a Jewish uprising against the Romans (Laqueur, 1978;
Weinberg, 2005; Enders and Sandler, 2006). The group went about stabbing to death
Jewish leaders who were seen as collaborators with the Romans (Laqueur, 1978, Weinberg,
2005). The murders were perpetrated in broad daylight, often in public places during
feasts or when people filled the market so as the attack would have a large audience
(Weinberg, 2005).
Since then, acts which may be characterized as terrorist it nature have been carried
out in various instances, such as during the Russian Revolution (Enders and Sandler, 2006).
Leonard Weinberg (2005) and David Rapoport (1984) categorize modern terrorism
as occurring in four separate “waves”: the first between the period of 1880 to the onset of
World War II which occurred mostly within or involving the Russian Empire; the second
wave which covers the post World War II terrorist tactics used by nationalist, communist
threat of terrorism had increased dramatically and the fourth, which has been
characterized as being “far more menacing than… any point in its modern history” and
within the context of a political arena that was still largely dominated by the aristocracy
and the Empire, more specifically during the turning point when revolutionary ideals such
as those which spawned the French Revolution were spreading across the European region
In Russia for instance, the tide of nationalism, and combined with the yearning of
groups such as the Russian People’s Will to establish a liberal constitutional regime that
was to usher in socialism became the fuel which fed the people’s conviction in launching
assassinations against the aristocrats, such as Czar Alexander II in 1881 (Primakov, 2004;
White, 2003; Enders and Sandler, 2006; Weinberg 2005). These acts were greatly
Nechev, who, writing with the hopes of igniting a democratic revolution, were able to spark
instead, a radical one (White, 2002). Severe repression, wherein the entire executive
committee of the People’s Will was eliminated, met the path to radical revolution (Enders
beginning of the 20th Century (Weinberg 2005). The Bolsheviks under Vladimir Lenin who
initially opposed these kinds of tactics, eventually, when they found it convenient, engaged
in terrorist acts such as politically motivated bank robberies that funded their cause
(Weinberg, 2005). Other groups such as the anarchists also undertook such politically
motivated Spanish Foreign Minister and the King of Italy among others (Weinberg, 2005).
Groups, which sought independence for their people such as Ustascha who wanted
to create an independent Croatia, also began to employ terrorist tactics culminating in the
assassination of the Yugoslav king, Alexander and the French foreign minister in 1934
Rapoport (1984), saw the increased diversity in the goals pursued by terrorist groups. A
number of groups sought independence from their colonizers others, usually ethnic
minorities, sought separation, while others, such as the communists desired change and
Taking place just after the Second World War which had destroyed the trappings of
aristocratic power and which had effectively changed the power relationships in the
international arena, colonies of former empires found the grip of their European
motherland weakening (Weinberg 2005; White, 2002). In areas where the colonial power
sought to maintain its dominant posture, such as in Indonesia and French Indochina and
countries such as Yemen, Cyprus, Kenya, Palestine and Algeria, terrorism was also a
dominant method employed to counter colonial rule (Enders and Sandler, 2006). In Algeria
for instance, the Front de Liberation Nationale (FLN) who allegedly employed tactics that
were previously used by Jewish terrorists led the revolt against the French rule. (Enders
and Sandler, 2006). The use of terrorist tactics was however, more common in areas where
there were marked ethnic divides or where communist insurgents sought dominance
(Weinberg, 2005). Pockets of conflict such as those in Vietnam, Western Europe and Latin
America with their varied causes likewise showed increased propensity to use terrorism as
those that involved transportation increased the frequency and volume of travelers (Kiras,
n. d.; Weinberg, 2005; Lutz and Lutz, 2004). This also opened a new avenue for terrorists
and high-jacking became one of the means through which they could air their demands
(Primakov, 2004).
had become widespread and the threat had evolved into an international problem
(Weinberg, 2005). For instance, terrorist activity perpetrated by guerillas in the Latin
America continued within the context of a socialist revolt. These were opposed, with
varying degrees of success, through equally varied degrees of repression (Weinberg, 2005).
In West Asia, the Palestinian Liberation Organization, which had earlier launched a
massive campaign against Israel, had changed its strategy, adopting what was essentially a
terrorist campaign against Israel and the states that supported the latter (Lutz and Lutz,
2004; Enders and Sandler, 2006). In the summer of 1970, members of the PLO, under the
tutelage of Yasser Arafat, high jacked four commercial planes using their hostages as
leverage for their demands (Lutz and Lutz, 2004; White, 2002). While negotiations had
succeeded in releasing the hostages, the PLO ended up blowing up the planes, an act that
reverberated throughout the world (Weinberg, 2005). Jordan, one of the states from which
the PLO operated responded to this event with a massive campaign to disarm the group,
expelling them (White, 2002). Known as the “Black September,” the Jordanian move
crippled PLO and it was thus forced to migrate to Lebanon where it later reestablished its
headquarters (White, 2002). Over the next few years, the PLO continued to launch massive
terrorist attacks including the one perpetrated against the Israeli athletes who were
The “wave of terror” that spread during this decade did not confine itself to the
Latin American and the West Asian region. As the United States continued its increasingly
employing terrorist acts (Weinberg, 2005). It must also be noted that terrorism
orchestrated by racist and right wing groups such as the 1995 bombing of the Murrah
Building in Oklahoma City, have generally been more prevalent (Lutz and Lutz, 2004;
Weinberg, 2005).
The violence of what has since been popularly referred to as the Oklahoma City
bombing was however eclipsed, rather permanently, by the horror witnessed on that
fateful day of September the 11th, a single incident that has brought, by far, the largest
number of casualties, not to mention the lives lost as a result of the wars waged in its wake
(Pettiford and Harding, 2003; Singh, 2007; Weinberg 2005; Primakov, 2004). It is this latter
incident, which Weinberg eventually identifies as having ushered in the new wave of
Two questions, however, beg for answers. First of all, is there really something new
in this “new” wave of terrorism? Second, could the Al Qaeda really be credited for ushering
Al Qaeda, the terrorist organization allegedly run by Osama Bin Laden took the
center stage when, in the aftermath of 9/11, the responsibility for the attacks were
leader and a name who can be blamed for the tragic events of 9/11.
simply as “the Base”) was the successor of the Maktab-al Khidamat (MAK) or the Afghan
Service Bureau, which Bin Laden and Sheik Abdullah Azzam created in 1984, to recruit
young Muslims for the war against the Soviet Red Army’s invasion of Afghanistan (Singh,
2007; Weinberg, 2005; Pettiford and Harding, 2003). Due in part to the funding and
support extended by the United States in its attempt to undermine Moscow and the spread
of Communism, training camps were set up and Bin Laden was able to train the mujahidin’s
who were instrumental in warding off the Soviets (Singh, 2007, Pettiford and Harding,
After the latter’s defeat and the triumph of the MAK, the group metamorphosed
(Pettiford and Harding, 2003). Not only was the name changed to “Al Qaeda,” according to
Weinberg but its objective also changed (Weinberg, 2005). In addition to aiding other
Muslims who were struggling against oppression, the group now desired to establish a pan-
Islamic state that would unite all Muslims (Pettiford and Harding, 2003; White, 2002). This
was consistent with Bin Laden’s desire to cure the conflict that pitted the Sunni Muslims
such as Hassan al Banna, Sayyid Qutb and Mawlana Mawdudi during his early years at the
civilization” and their Islamic revivalist and reformist teachings (Singh, 2007). This,
combined with the influential and rising tide of pan-Islamist thinking and Bin Laden’s
adherence to the purist form of Islam called Wahhabism that has since evolved and has
been adopted by Saudi Arabia as its state religion, became the ideological foundations of his
subsequent movements to unite the Muslim world and reestablish the Caliphate (Jacquard,
2002; White, 2002, Singh 2007; Weinberg, 200; Primakov, 2004; Chandler and Gunaratna,
2007).
The immediate trigger of Bin Laden’s anger particularly against the United States
was, the refusal of the King of Saudi the use of his mujahidin as defense against the
perceived threat emanating from Iraq following the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait (Weinberg,
2005). Refusing, the Saudis turned instead to the United States for help, a decision that
infuriated Bin Laden and drove him to condemn the Saudis openly (Weinberg, 2005). In
response, Bin Laden was stripped of his Saudi citizenship and, fearing reprisal, he and his
mujahidin fled to Pakistan and then to Sudan where they were invited by Hassan al Turabi,
the latter’s spiritual leader (Institute for Counterterrorism, 2006; Weinberg, 2005; Abuzza,
2002).
For two years, between 1994 and 1996 Bin Laden set up businesses and
(Institute for Counterterrorism, 2006; Rabasa, 2008). Due to pressure from the United
States however, Sudanese government was forced to ask Bin Laden to leave (Institute for
camp in Afghanistan that was by then under the Taliban regime (Institute for
Counterterrorism, 2006; Chandle and Gunaratna 2007; Jacquard, 2002). It was from his
organization called the Al-Jabhah al Islamiyya al-Alamiyyah li-Qital al-Yahud Wal Salibiyyin
or the Islamic World Front for the Struggle against the Jews and the Crusaders (Institute for
Counterterrorism, 2006) .
Beginning in the 1990s, a number of terrorist attacks have been attributed to Bin
Laden and his network. These included the bombings in Riyadh in November 1995,
Dhahran in June 1996, Yemen in December 1992 and the World Trade Center in February
1993 (Institute for Counterterrorism, 2006). It was only after the capture of Mohammed
Sadiq Odeh, one of the suspects in the WTC bombing that the extent of the Al Qaeda’s
Organizationally, the al Qaeda may be divided into two, the center, headed by the
Emir General and the periphery that forms his international network (Weinberg, 2005).
Some claim that the said network spans over 70 countries but this is yet to be confirmed
(Weinberg, 2005).
controlled Afghanistan, by virtue of its geographical proximity and religious affinity, has
been linked with the Chechen nationalist groups operating within the Ichkerian Republic of
was said that Bin Laden had even thought of transferring headquarters to Chechnya
(Brownfield, 2003).
Source: http://www.umt.edu/cali/MapCentralAsia.jpg
Since it first infiltrated the region, it was alleged that the Chechens had begun to
employ terrorist tactics such as the attack in the Moscow theater in the fall of 2002
(Williams, 2004). Suicide bombings have also begun to be adopted by the nationalist
separatist group in their undertakings (Brownfield, 2003). It has also been reported that
Islamic extremist groups such as the Al Qaeda have provided approximately $100 Million in
being of moderate orientation the Chechens, through their frequent contact with the
Islamic mujahidins who were of the radicalized Wahhabi Islamic faith, are feared to have
undergone radicalization of their own (Brownfield, 2003). As such, the conflict shall cease
to be secular and shall be subsumed into the wider Islam against the West umbrella.
Southeast Asia, which has one of the highest concentrations of Muslim population in
Asia has also been linked with the Al Qaeda network. Groups operating within the region
such as the Jemaah al Islamiah and the Abu Sayyaf have metamorphosed from separatist
groups into terrorist organizations, which form part of the periphery of Bin Laden’s
massive network. Through the former mujahidin who trained in Afghanistan and who, after
their victory, returned to their respective countries, domestic struggles were linked with
the international network, radicalizing them also in the process (Abuza, 2002). While in
Afghanistan, these men were exposed to the works of al Banna, Madudi and Qutb that
advocated for the “reconstruction of Islam to achieve political goals” (Singh, 2007). Due in
part to the region’s porous borders, relatively large Muslim population and the long history
of insurgency and Muslim separatism in the region, Southeast Asia has become the second
Similarly, East Africa’s porous borders combined with the environment of weak
governance and collapsed states, made the region conducive to the presence of Islamist
extremists (Rabasa, 2008). In addition, its “geographical proximity and social, cultural and
religious affinities” with the Arabian Peninsula make it all the more vulnerable and
where Sudan, a state from which Bin Laden once had exercised his influence, remains a
priority area in al Qaeda’s global strategy (Rabasa, 2008). Within the East African region, al
Qaeda successfully carried out the bombings of US embassies in Kenya and Tanzania in
1998 (Shinn, n. d.). Since then, the authorities have foiled a number of plots, which had
been spearheaded by domestic insurgent groups linked with the al Qaeda (Shinn, n. d.).
Source: http://www.africa-adventure.com/images/east_africa_map.jpg
to author Jason Burke, “al Qaeda does not exist” (Burke, 2008). While noting that the term
al Qaeda, from the Arabic root word qaf-ayn-dal has been used since the mid-1980s by
radical Muslim groups, the same, had in fact, multiple meanings ranging from: “a base, as in
a camp or a home, a foundation, such is what is beneath a house or a pedestal that supports
a column;” “the lowest, broadest layer of a large cumulonimbus-type cloud” and, also, it
could mean “a precept, rule, principle, maxim, formula, method, model or pattern” (Burke,
2008). The term was also used by Abdullah Azzam, who had been identified in other books
as the founder of the Maktab-al Khidamat (MAK/Afghan Service Bureau) when in 1987 he
According to Burke, some analysts had misinterpreted this to mean that a group
with the name al-qaeda al sulbah had been established in that year (Burke, 2008). From
Burke’s analysis, he concludes that Azzam’s writing, with its reference to “vanguards,”
which is a term that is also replete in Islamic writings, was talking of al-qaeda al sulbah
not as an organization but rather as a mode of activism, a tactic. Even in the book An
Encyclopedia of Jihad, put together between 1991 to 1993 in Pakistan, the al Qaeda
organization is notably absent according to Burke. It was in 1996 when the CIA, through
one of its reports, first used the term: “by 1985 bin Laden had… organized an Islamic
mentions that it is unclear whether the term al-Qaeda was made in reference to an existing
organization considering the fact that throughout the entire CIA report, the said term was
never mentioned again. It was in the following year that the US State Department used the
same term for the first time but used it to refer to “an operational hub, predominantly for
like-minded Sunni extremists.” In that sense, it was not an organization to begin with.
militant extremist group had been established at some point during the 1980s under the
auspices of Osama Bin Laden and whether or not it is called the Al Qaeda, and whether or
importance in light of evidence which links local radical Islamic groups in Russia, Southeast
Asia, and East Africa among others, to the network of mujahidin created by Bin Laden in
taken strong root. Whether or not an organization called al Qaeda exists or did exist in the
1980s, of more concern to policy makers, state decision makers and counterterrorism
operatives, is the existence of real links between radical Muslim groups in the world. This,
coupled with the strength of their adherence to their Islamic roots, and their selective and
radical interpretations of the Quranic text, their religious motivation and justification
historic accounts that terrorism perpetrated in the name of religion is not unique to the
21st Century nor is it unique to Islam. The Sacarri, during the 1st Century A.D. undertook
their assassinations with the justification that it would usher in the end of days (Lutz and
Lutz, 2004). The trend of reinterpreting religious text to justify otherwise socially
unacceptable acts is therefore nothing novel. Suicide bombing, a tactic that has recently
been on the rise, and is what has often been used in attacks linked to Islamic extremist
groups is equally not a new phenomena, in fact, according to Robert Pape, it has been a
tactic employed by separatist groups such as the Tamil Tigers (Pape, 2006). Even the
operations carried out by the Palestinian Liberation Organization in the 1970s to the
1980s.
Where does the novelty lie then? It is concluded that terrorism in the 21st Century,
differs very little from its past manifestations. In fact, its motivations, tactics and methods
are similar to terrorist attacks occurring in other decades and in other locations. What may
be regarded as the novelty of the “Osama Bin Laden brand” of terrorism as opposed to
others before it and other groups of different ideological or religious orientation lies in the
scope of its network, whether it be al-Qaeda, or under the guise of another organization
altogether. In addition, there is novelty in Osama Bin Laden’s ability to bring together
Islamic groups of various nationalities, with numerous and varied grievances under the
March 2003.
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