CHAPTER 10

LANGUAGE AND EDUCATION

 Mastering Language

• Phonology: The sound system

• Morphology: Forming words from sounds
• Syntax: Grammar (sentences from words)
• Semantics: Meaning
• Pragmatics: Context appropriate use
• Nonverbal: Face, tone, gestures
 Language Development

• Prelinguistic Abilities
– First sounds and feedback
– Vocalizations (6-8 weeks)
– Babbling (4-6 months)
– Home language sounds (8 months)
– Comprehension before production
– Joint attention
 First Words

• First Year
– Holophrases: Single words
– Nonverbal information
– Intonation: Question, request, demand
– Nouns first (naming)
• 18 months: Vocabulary spurt of 30-50 words
• 24 months: 186 words
• Wide individual differences
 First Mistakes

• Two-Year-Olds
– Overextension: Too broad
– Underextension: Too narrow
– Overregularization: Applying rules
• “Foots” or “goed”
• Found in other languages
• Suggests an understanding of
grammatical rules
 Two-Year Olds

• Telegraphic Speech: Critical content only

– 2+ word utterances
• Functional Grammar
– Semantic relations expressed
– Context important
• Rules inferred from adult speech
• Age 2-5: Transformational grammar
– “Billy hit” versus “hit Billy”
 Later Language Development

• First grade: 10,000 words

• Abstract terms by adolescence
• Metalinguistic awareness
• Adulthood
– Expanded vocabulary
– Refine pragmatics
 How Language Develops
• Learning Theory (Skinner)
– Accounts for phonology and semantics
– Cannot account for syntax or novelty
• Nativist: (Chomsky) Language Acquisition
Device (LAD)
– Inborn mechanism
– Universality of stages and errors
– Genetic evidence from twin studies
• Interactionist perspective
 Critical or Sensitive Period?

• Critical Period Argument

– Younger learn more easily: All languages
– Deaf children: Same timing, sequence
– Second language learners
• Sensitive Period
– Earlier is better
 Mastery Motivation

• Typical of infants
• Individual differences exist
• Parents Must Provide:
– Sensory stimulation
– Responsive environment
• Early Education: Not necessary
– Important for disadvantaged children
 Achievement Motivation by Age 7

• Mastery Orientation
– Success: internal, stable attribution (smart)
– Failure: external factors (hard test)
– Learning goals (to solve problem)
• Learned Helplessness
– Success: external attribution (luck)
– Failure: internal and stable (I’m dumb)
– Performance goals (I want to look good)
 Contributions to Achievement Motivation

• Infancy
– Stimulating, responsive environment
– Independence and self-reliance
– Set high standards
– Parental involvement
• School Age
– De-emphasize grades
– Focus on learning
 Learning to Read

• Alphabetic Principle
– Printed words related to sounds
– Phonological awareness: decoding
• Emergent Literacy
– Reading to preschoolers
– Repetitious reading and rhymes
– Questions
 Skilled vs. Unskilled Readers

• Skilled Readers
– Understand the phonetic alphabet
– Eyes hit all the words
– Rely on phonology, not context to identify
words
• Unskilled Readers
– Low levels of phonological awareness
– Eyes skip words and parts of words
 Teaching Reading

• Phonics (Code Oriented)

– Analyze words for sounds
– Sound-letter correspondence
• Whole-Word Method (Look-Say)
– Read for meaning
• Research supports phonics
 Effective Schools

• Less Important Factors

– Increased resources (reasonable)
– Average class size (18-40)
– Ability grouping: no advantage found
• Factors that Matter
– Student aptitude
– Task-oriented classes; discipline enforced
– Parental involvement
 Learning Objectives
• What changes in achievement motivation
occur during adolescence?
• What factors contribute to these changes?
• How does science and math education in the
United States compare to science and math
education in other countries?
• What are the pros and cons of integrating
work with school during adolescence?
 The Adolescent in School

• Declining achievement and self-esteem

• Negative school attitudes
• Critical juncture: middle school
• Risk factors
– Minority group, mother’s educational level
and mental health
– Stressful life events, family size, father
absence
 Why Achievement Drops

• Family characteristics
• Cognitive growth
• Negative Feedback
– Younger are praised for effort alone
• Peer pressures, which discourage academic
achievement esp. low income minority peers
• Puberty
• Poor person-environment fit
 Science and Math Education

• Cultural Differences: Asian vs. US students

• Asian: Higher scores
• Differences in Asian schools
– More time in school and on task
– More homework
– Committed parents
– Peers: high values and standards
– Belief in hard work and effort
 Work and School

• Students working 20+ hours per week

– Lower GPA
– Disengaged and bored attitude
– Alienation and anxiety
• Other Findings
– Lower math and science achievement
– More likely to use alcohol and drugs
 The Adult

• Achievement Motivation Stable

– Affected by education, type of work, and
family situations
• Literacy: 22% at 3 rd grade level
– US has more high level and more low level
– Related to poverty
• Continuing Education
– 15 million aged 25+ enrolled in college