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Motion Control Study Guide

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Table of Contents
Table of Contents

y Motion Control Basics

Introduction Page 4
Comparison of approaches; the role of speed, torque, inertia, and accuracy

Step motor technology Page 4

Open-loop control; what makes a step motor a step motor; distinguishing
qualities of different types of step motors; understanding step motor makeup

Feedback control and control theory Page 6

The functions and limitations of a closed-loop servosystem; feedback and
control loops; types of linear systems; stability of linear systems; Nyquist
and Routh

Step response Page 10

The five basic parameters: delay, rise time, time to peak, overshoot, and
settling time; what step response says about a system’s dynamics

y Sample Questions
Level One Page 12

Level Two Page 12

Level Three Page 12

Level Four Page 13

Level Five Page 13

3
 Motion Control Study
Step motor technology • open-loop control
All motion controls aim to maneuver loads
down paths with a regulated motion. Open-
loop designs rely on their predefined setup
(and not feedback) to output target motion
tasks. In contrast, if movements are achieved
by comparing actual load motion to target mo-
tion and then making corrections, the system
is closed loop.
No matter what control type is used, it
must account for four design parameters:
• Speed. How fast does the controlled de-
vice have to move? This parameter is typically
specified in rpm, inches per minute, or the
time it takes to get from A to B.
• Torque. How hard does the motion
control device have to work to move the load?
This is expressed in rotational units as a
force through a lever arm, lb-ft, or lb-force for
linear systems.
• Inertia. How much torque is required
to change the speed of the moving parts?
Inertia defines the resistance of all physical
parts to changes in speed or direction. The
smaller and lighter the parts, the easier it is
to change the speed.
• Accuracy. How close to the ideal motion
4
path must the motion control come when mov-
ing or coming to rest? This is often expressed
as an error in degrees or inches between
actual and target position.
Step motor technology
Step motors serve as a way to position a
load without using position-feedback devices
and their associated circuitry. Motor position
is controlled through adjusting the electrical
current running through the phase windings.
Thus step motors typically run open-loop;
there are no sensors for position, velocity or
acceleration. Nor is there a feedback loop to
correct for errors between the commanded
load position and its actual position.
The variable reluctance (VR) step mo-
tor is one of the oldest types. It contains no
permanent magnets and consequently can be
designed to operate over a rather large tem-
perature range. More recently, the variable-
reluctance design began serving as the basis
for switched reluctance-type motors.
Energization of coils wound on the sta-
tor teeth of the motor causes magnetic flux
that crosses an air gap between the rotor and
y Motion Control Study
Step motor technology • open-loop control

stator. The teeth on the rotor are oriented

so that at any given time, some of the teeth
don’t line up exactly with stator teeth. When
the teeth don’t line up, some of the flux cross-
ing the air gap is at an angle that is not per-
pendicular with the tooth surfaces. Torque
then results until the rotor rotates to a stable
equilibrium position. All in all, the torque vs.
position relationship of the rotor is a function
of the phase winding current. A rising cur-
rent in the stator winding has no effect when
the stator and rotor teeth are aligned. (It
does, however, result in more motor stiffness.)
Thus the step motor rotor rotates by selec-
tively energizing stator teeth. The step mo-
tor’s step angle is the difference between the
spacing of the stator teeth and rotor teeth. For
example, if stator teeth are spaced every 40°
and the rotor teeth are every 65°, the motor
step angle is 25°.
The positional resolution of a step motor
is proportional to the number of rotor teeth,
or the polecount of the motor. Motors with
high polecounts also tend to produce torque
vs. position qualities that are more sinusoi-
dal than those having few teeth. Step motors
also exhibit a cyclic torque happening at the
same per-revolution rate as the polecount.
Each torque cycle also contains a positive and
negative maximum holding torque and two
zero-torque points.
ing resistance and a position-dependent
inductance driven from a voltage. The voltage
across the phase winding is thus equal to the
IR drop through the winding, plus the induc-
tive voltage, plus the electromotive force of the
motor.
A type of step motor called a hybrid step
motor has a construction that resembles a
high-resolution variable-reluctance motor.
The main differences are in how the rotor is
constructed and the winding interconnections.
A VR step motor has rotor teeth running
straight along the length of the rotor lamina-
tion stack. In contrast, hybrid step motors
have rotors that contain both magnets and
some teeth that on some segments of the rotor
are offset by a half-tooth pitch from those on
the other segments. The magnets separate ro-
tor sections and are magnetized axially. The

Further, the holding torque of the motor

rises in proportion to the square of the cur-
rent amplitude when winding currents are
relatively low. At higher currents the teeth
go into saturation and torque rises progres-
sively less steeply as current rises.

The equivalent circuit of a motor phase

5
winding is the series connection of a wind-
 Motion Control Study
Step motor technology • open-loop control

consists of a bobbin-
wound coil and the stator
is typically stamped.
The rotor is typically
a cylindrical ferrite or
rare-earth molded mag-
net bonded to the shaft.
Rotor bearings are often
sintered bronze sleeve
bearings.

overall torque produced by one phase in the
hybrid step motor tends to be proportional to
the product of winding current and magnet
strength.
Another kind of commonly used step motor
is called the canstack motor. Sometimes, it
is called a tin can motor or claw-type perma-
nent-magnet step motor. Each phase winding
Closed loop and the definition of servomotor
Torque in a canstack
step motor arises when
the field generated by
winding currents deflects
the magnetic field produced by the magnet.
Its basic torque and electrical equations are
the same as those for a hybrid step motor. The
main difference in operation is that there are
higher eddy current losses because of the how
the stator is constructed.
Most canstack motors have nominal step
angles of 15 and 7.5°. The result-
ing stiffness is appreciably less
than that of hybrid step motors
having 50 poles.

A scale can provide

feedback.
Feedback control
A feedback control system
takes the difference between a
reference input and some aspect
of the system being controlled
to generate an error signal. The
The term servomotor implies that a motor will be used in a con- controller uses the error signal
trol system with feedback — in a closed-loop system. The basic to generate an output used to
principles of servomotors are similar to other ac and dc motors, drive the system toward the de-
but: • Rotor size and weight are reduced to minimize inertia. • Heat sired state. In the case of motion
buildup within the motor is also minimized — with fins and high- controllers, the reference input is
temperature materials. • All servomotors accommodate feedback usually either a commanded po-
6 devices (such as encoders and resolvers) that are typically mount- sition or a commanded velocity.
ed inside the motor housing.
y Motion Control Study
Closed-loop and feedback control
The feedback is usually the position or the ve-
locity of the load, respectively. The controller
uses the difference between the sensed state
of the load and the commanded state to deter-
mine how much signal to send to the actuator
in order to reduce the error toward zero.
The process just described is that of a ser-
vomechanism. Another type of feedback con-
trol system is called a regulator. Regulators
primarily maintain the controlled variable
or system output almost exactly equal to a
desired value despite any disturbances. Also,
a regulator usually contains no integrating
elements in its feedback loop.
All control systems that manage physical
parameters are nonlinear — but if the time-
varying parameters are slow and the non-lin-
earities are small, designers typically analyze
such systems using linear fixed-parameter
analysis.
The most important property of a lin-
ear system is that superposition will apply.
Thus in linear systems the shape of the time
response is the same regardless of how big or
small the size of the input or initial condition.
Linear systems can also be described by lin-
ear constant coefficient differential equations.
Control systems are nonlinear when
control elements exhibit properties such as
saturation, limiting, backlash, or hysteresis.
Superposition does not hold in such cases.
The response of the system will depend on the
size of the input and on the initial conditions.
It is typically difficult to solve such systems
with nonlinear differential equations, so the
typical practice is to use numerical or graphi-
cal methods.
Linear control systems are often cat-
egorized by the nature of their steady state
performance. Type-0 systems are typically re-
ferred to as regulator systems. The zero refers
to the value of the exponent of the Laplace S
parameter in the denominator of the transfer
function. Type-1 systems are typically ser-
vocontrol systems. For reference inputs that
change with time at a constant rate, a con-
stant error is necessary to produce a steady
state rate of the controlled variable. Type-1
systems are also referred to as zero-displace-
ment-error systems. In type-2 systems, a
constant acceleration of the controlled vari-
Servocontrol fast facts
Most closed-loop systems are servosystems, making
corrections on the fly. The word servo (an abbreviation of
servomechanism) is defined as an automatic device for
controlling large amounts of power by means of very small
power, and automatically correcting mechanism performance.
Electric, hydraulic, pneumatic, and even pure mechanical
servosystems exist. Most common are electric varieties: These
consist of servomotor, comparator, amplifier, feedback device,
and trajectory or command generator.
The comparator (via a feedback device) monitors motor shaft
position and compares this against what the motor should be
doing as defined by the system command signal. The output
from the comparator is the difference between the two and is
called position error.
If there is error, the amplifier or drive converts the low-level
comparator error-signal output into high-current signals —
which are then applied to the motor windings to cause rotation
in the direction that will minimize position error.
The command generator provides the target or command
position signal that tells the motion control system how to move
the servomotor and load.
Single-axis servo motion controls combine these parts;
sophisticated controllers provide these servo capabilities plus
PLC logic and more.
 Motion Control Study Closed-loop and feedback control

able demands a constant error under steady A linear control system is unstable when
state conditions. These systems maintain it has an unbounded response to any bounded
a constant value of the controlled variable signal. In a Laplace analysis, the stability of
speed with no actuating error. Consequently the system depends on the location of poles or
they are sometimes called zero-velocity-error zeros in the complex S plane plot of the con-
systems. trolled variable divided by the reference input,
written with Laplace operators. Poles are
defined by S=0 in denominator, zeros by S=0
Bode plots: Visualization of control building blocks
in the numerator.
40 A differential action provides early correction
(or system damping). Because it responds to the
There are several ways of determining
rate of change of error, it cannot be used alone. stability. Among the most widely used are
20 -20 A quadratic action reflects behavior at the Routh-Hurwitz Criterion, Nyquist Sta-
natural frequencies. Decreased damping increases
G(s) = (jv)
system response _ at the risk of overshoot. bility Criterion, and Root-locus methods.
10 A proportional action reduces disturbance The Nyquist criterion considers a system
error (providing for system stiffness)
for which the open loop transfer function
Magnitude (dB)

but never completely gets rid of it.

0 is given by G(s). Adding feedback H(s) al-

A first order action acts as low-pass
filter to eliminate noise. The larger the lows construction of a closed loop with the
time constant t, the slower the response.
transfer function given by G/(1 + GH). Most
-10
An integral action eliminates steady-state
errors. However, because it is the area stability investigations start with the case
under the actuating signal's error curve,
it can induce an oscillatory response. where H=1. Then the characteristic equa-
-20
tion, used to predict stability, becomes G + 1
= 0. Stability can be determined by examin-
-40

180ƒ

Setting the gain usually improves

steady-state system response, but often at Bode plots represent system transfer functions.
Phase (degrees) Lead

90ƒ the cost of stability. Adustments

with lag and lead compensators help. Today, software and dynamic signal analyzers
automate their use for comparison of input-output
0ƒ
signals. Multiplying input by a system’s Bode plot
= 0.1
predicts output. Conversely, by working backward
-90ƒ = 0.2
= 0.3 from plots generated experimentally, one can
Lag

= 0.5
= 0.7 determine a Bode plot and reveal load effects,
-180ƒ = 1.0
machine resonances, and suitable electrical
0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 2 4 6 8 10
G( compensation techniques.
v s)
Frequency ratio vn into quadratic factors (rad) =
[1
+2
1 1 1 1 2 4 6 10 z( j Bode’s notation leverages the fact that, for a
10t 5t 2.5t t t t t t
G( v v
n )
Frequency v into first order factors (rad) s) +
( jv
given sinusoidal input, resulting output is always
= v
(1
0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 2 4 6 8 10 + n ) 2] -1 sinusoidal, and usually at the input’s frequency.
jvt
G( ) -1
Frequency v into integral and derivative factors (rad) s)
=
(jv - However, systemic storage and release of energy
0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 2 4 6 8 10 ) 1
G(
s)
often warp magnitude and phase. The twin charts of
Frequency v into gain factor (rad) =
K a Bode diagram reveal these distortions.
y Motion Control Study
Closed-loop and feedback control
ing the roots of this equation using the Routh
array, by examining the open-loop transfer
function using its Bode plots (see previous
page) or the polar plot of the open-loop trans-
fer function using Nyquist criterion.
Any Laplace domain transfer function can
be expressed as the ratio of two polynomials,
usually written as T(s) = N(s)/D(s). Zeros of
the T(s) are the roots of N(s) = 0. Poles of the
T(s) are roots of the D(s) = 0. For stability,
the real part of every pole must be negative.
If T(s) is formed by closing a negative unity
feedback loop around the open-loop transfer
function G(s)=A(s)/B(s), then the roots of the
T(s) denominator (also called the characteris-
tic equation) are also the zeros of 1 + G(s), or
simply the roots of A(s) + B(s).
Step response
Controls are often characterized by how
they respond to a step function. In the case of
a motion system, the step is usually a com-
mand to change position or speed.
Step-response dynamics consist of five
basic parameters — delay, rise time, time
to peak, overshoot, and settling time. These
factors are indicative of the inertia, damping,
and spring forces present in most systems, as
well as the dynamic limitations of the control-
ler, drive, motor, and mechanical components
themselves. Often, one of the major challenges
in designing motion controls is determining
how much deviation in the step response is
acceptable for a given application.
• Rise time is how long it takes feedback
to initially reach 90% of the target value.
• Overshoot is the maximum deviation
of feedback in the inverse direction of value.
When evaluating step responses, note that
Servo limitations
Closed-loop motion controls make no distinction
between shaft disturbances and command signal
changes. Both cause the motor shaft to move to the
commanded position — so if the command signal
is changed to any position, the system responds by
moving the motor shaft accordingly. That said, real-
world motion control exhibits compromised output.
1. If the load on the motor shaft or speed ex-
ceeds the maximum motor and amplifier torque and
speed, the system will exhibit position error.
2. Feedback devices cannot detect shaft position
changes that are less than the sensor resolution.
3. All servosystems are limited in how rapidly
they respond to changes — so motor shafts can to
respond imprecisely to rapid command sequences
or changes in load. In extreme cases, the system
can become unstable; response may be so slow,
that by the time it responds, the motor shaft may
already be moving in a different way. This is called
instability, oscillation, or hunt, and can actually
cause a system to never come to rest ... or hunt for
the commanded position indefinitely.
although overshoots seem serious, they can-
not be in positioning. Minimizing overshoot
can severely affect tracking ability, but it can
safely be done in moderation by profiling the
reference command.
• Settling time is the time it takes to
reach final stabilization, with a small toler-
ance about the target.
Note: It is not easy to achieve a “clean”
step response for evaluation. Small step
responses may be severely distorted by me-
chanical friction, sensor quantization, and
other non-linear phenomena such as cogging.
For high-gain feedback systems, a power
9
 Motion Control Study A closer look at step response
Error correction example
Assume that a system is on, and that its motor
shaft and command generator are both at 0°. The
system is at rest. Position error is zero.
Now, some outside force or torque moves the
motor shaft 1° clockwise. The comparator detects
this difference and responds by commanding the
amplifier to produce counterclockwise torque and
turn the motor shaft. System activity is continuously
monitored, so the comparator senses the shaft’s
counterclockwise direction and responds by de-
creasing its signal position error to the amplifier. As
the motor rotates back to its 0° position, position
error decreases until the motor shaft is at 0°. Finally,
the comparator’s output returns to zero. In fact, the
same sequence of events can occur in the other
direction: Closed-loop servosystems are bidirec-
tional and provide equal response for clockwise and
counterclockwise moves.
amplifier saturates with very small tracking
steps. Large step responses are less affected
by friction, but are highly distorted by ampli-
fier saturation.
How do time constants relate to settling
time?
Both are a measure of response speed.
Step response: A system’s dynamic fingerprint
140
Tolerance band
Output (% final value)
120
Overshoot
100
80
60
40
Delay
20
Rise time
10 Time to peak
Settling time
Time constants gauge how quickly a response
builds, while settling time indicates how long
it takes the output (in the event of oscilla-
tions) to settle within a given band around
the final value. The most general term to
describe response speed is “hertz” — the
maximum frequency at which the system can
respond without exceeding a given amount of
lag between the input and output.
What are the sources of inertia,
damping, and spring force?
System inertia includes rotor and load
inertia; damping (a resisting torque propor-
tional to speed) includes friction, drag, and
motor cogging; spring forces originate in the
magnetodynamics of the motor and in the
twisting of couplings, shafts, and other me-
chanical components.
How does motion control improve
response?
Increasing controller gain boosts system
stiffness, which gives faster response. Increas-
ing damping can also improve speed because
it reduces the tendency to ring or hunt.
Let us revisit the inherent instability of po-
sition control systems. Consider a closed-loop
The response to a step command
reveals a motion system’s dynamics.
In it you’ll find measures of a system’s
ability to overcome inertia, damping,
and spring forces. Delay is the time to
reach 50% of the final value; rise time is
the time it takes to go from 10 to 90%;
and settling time is the time it takes
the output to settle within a specified
Time tolerance band (expressed in percent)
around the final value.
y Motion Control Study
A closer look at step response

Definitions
pendulum in viscous damping
Bandwidth: the frequency range 0< v <cutoff frequency. Related oil stops its oscillation. A similar
to settling time, bandwidth indicates the frequency where gain starts opposing force, if proportional to
to fall off from its low-frequency value by 29.3% (or to -3 dB), which rotor velocity, can be applied to
implies a less responsive system. a motor to stabilize a positioner.
Decibel: a logarithmic measure of gain. An increase of 20 dB Because motor position is
translates into an increase in magnitude by a power of 10. known, a differentiator is all that’s
Error: the difference between the required signal and the actual needed to find velocity.
signal. Controls correct error. Now when the control loop is
Gain: expresses the increase of a signal’s power. It is the voltage closed, two operations are per-
ratio of error to output. Lowering gain in systems allows friction to formed: The first generates a
damp vibration — at the cost of stiffness and positional accuracy. corrective signal proportional to
the error. Its dynamic effect is like
Gain margin: the factor by which gain can be increased before
that of the force of gravity on the
a system becomes unstable. Increased loads and resonances limit
pendulum. The second operation,
gain increases because of the instability they induce.
based on the derivative, has an ef-
Phase margin: additional phase lag that will make a system fect analogous to viscous damping.
marginally stable. Gain margin expresses the same information in Working together, the two opera-
a different form. Phase margin is the open loop phase (when gain tions cause the motor to stably
equals 1) minus 180° ... so the higher, the better. move, like a damped pendulum,
to the target position. The propor-
system, and suppose that the motor starts at tional and derivative terms give
10° and must stop at 0°. The system gener- this control technique its name: PD compensa-
ates a current proportional to the error, which tion.
energizes the motor windings and produces a
torque that accelerates the shaft toward 0°. Deadband
Once stability is established, deadband must be addressed.
As the motor approaches zero, position er-
Consider a motor that stops near (but not exactly at) a command
ror and acceleration decreases. Velocity, how-
position of zero. The resulting torque produced by the small position
ever, continues to increase — so by the time
error may be insufficient to overcome friction and move the motor
the motor reaches its intended destination, it’s
the rest of the way.
going too fast to stop, and may overshoot the
position by as much as 10°. This sets up the The range of positions at which the motor may stop short of its
reverse process, causing the motor to go back destination is called the deadband, and is a reflection of system ac-
and forth indefinitely. Stabilizing compensa- curacy. To correct such position errors, an integrator can be added
tion is needed. to the compensation algorithm. With an integrator, the drive signal
continues to increase as long as there is a position error. Thus, even
In fact, there’s similarity between position
a small error eventually spurs corrective action. It may take 20 msec
controls and a simple pendulum. Both behave
or so, but with PID compensation, positioning systems are more ac-
according to the same dynamic equations, evi-
curate than those without it.
denced by sinusoidal motion. Submerging the
 Motion Control Study
Sample questions

Following are actual questions from the THE WORLD’S SMARTEST

ENGINEER game. Try your hand at these and see how well you’ll
do when you’re logged into smartestdesignengineer.com and the
clock is ticking!

Level One
In a classic servosystem, position feedback is subtracted from the position com-
mand to derive what parameter?
In a conventional servo positioning system, when following error is zero, the
resulting velocity command is?
In multiaxis positioning systems, what type of control technique is often used
to synchronize axes to a master axis?
In servo positioning systems, the acronym SCF commonly refers to . . .?
In a permanent-magnet stepper motor, what is the result of an increasing
number of teeth?

Level Two
Another term for an elliptical filter is a?
Differential equations describing motion controller operation are normally
written in matrix form, also known as?
What user inputs does an average motion controller need to calculate
a motion trajectory?
In a thin-disk-rotor permanent magnet stepper motor, what material is
used for the disk?
If acceleration is linear, what is the shape of the velocity-time curve?

Level Three
In a control system, the frequency at which gain is equal to one is known as?
To calculate delay in a low-pass filter, divide the filter phase lag by?
The input range of a certain PWM modulator is + 10 V to - 10 V. If the input to
12 the modulator is - 5 V, the output would be?
y Motion Control Study
Sample questions

If the phase winding current through a step motor rises while the motor
shaft is at a rest position, the result is?
Low-pass filters designed for servo positioning systems typically have trans-
fer functions with poles placed to?

Level Four
A three-phase synchronous generator is operating at 1200 rpm, at 60 Hz.
What is the number of poles in the generator?
When a torque is applied across a compliant coupling, the resulting
deflection is?
Electric motors have long been thermally characterized using what’s
generally called the ___-parameter thermal model.
If a linear motion system is running at 250 degrees C, what temperature
coefficient should be applied to life calculations?
A motion system consisting of a motor moving a load through a pulley has an
idler pulley X times larger than the motor pulley. The reflected inertia of the
idler pulley at the motor is?

Level Five
When a load couples to a motor through a compliant coupling material such
as polyurethane, the resulting damping torques are proportional to . . .?
Step motor control schemes that compare rotor position to the estimated
direction of the phase current vector are known as . . .?
In the Bode attenuation-phase plot of a simple system, a 20 dB/decade gain
rate of change corresponds to a phase shift of . . .?
When a nonlinear feedback system exhibits sudden discontinuities in the
input/output amplitude ratio and in phase angle as a function of frequency,
it is said to exhibit?
The rotor in a typical hybrid step motor is characterized by?

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