fj fj

(Teaching of Mathematics)

ts - Kjyh ML
(Ma f gla g)

lhik xU ghtbra
lhik xU bgUFw
lhik kjjikaw bra

jehL
ghl fHf
f rhiy, brid - 600 006.

 jehL muR

Kj g - 2008

jiyt
nguh. Dr. nf. Rgkh

Kdh nguha kW Jiwjiyt,

fa Jiw, mid bjurh kf gfiyfHf, bfhilfhd.

yhaf kW nkyhthsf

Dr. K. $thr
iz nguha,
fj Jiw,
khy f, (jdh)
brid-600 005.

Dr. E.. uh fnzZ

U. M.K. Ruka

iznguha,
f Ega Jiw,
ghujhr gfiy fHf,
U

Jiz aFe (X),

Ma f Muh g
aff,
brid - 600 006.

yha & xUizghs

eyha

Dr. C.. rnuh#h

cj nguha,
Ma f Muh g aff,
brid - 600 006.

yhaf
Dr. R. ght

eyha.

iuahs,
khtl Ma f, g Wtd,
UZz.

KJiy iuahs,
khtl Ma f, g Wtd,
nj%, fahFk khtl.

eyha

S. KUnfr

eyha.

iuahs,
khtl Ma f, g Wtd,
FKS, U khtl.

S.P.f

Dr. M.. fh nj

KJiy iuahs,
khtl Ma f g Wtd,
uhngil, nt khtl.

U. . uhkf
KJiy iuahs,
khtl Ma f, g Wtd,
bgzh, Utzhkiy khtl.
ts jah : jehL muRfhf
Ma f Muh g aff, brid - 600 006.
70 .v.v. jh mlgLsJ.
bt Mbr Kiw mnlh :

affUJ...
vbghUs thf brybrh jhwth
EbghU fhgJ j.
khztf wikfis tsgLJtJ Ra fLghil tsgJ wj
fUJfis nfLzu brtJ vij fWbfht Kidig
VgLJtJbkd
f
gkhzf
gythF.
fia
fiyl(Curriculum) vD Kiwahd xGfikl mjny f Wtdf
jiyaha gahF.
fiyl fhyF fhy, lF l, NHYF NH, njitnfg,
fgtnfg kh tiuaWfgLwJ. nja Ma f Muh g FGk,
jnghija f mikbfd nja fiyl 2005(NCF 2005)-I
totikJsJ.
1.

gF bt bgw fw mDgt mit g mnthL bjhlgLJj

2. kdghl brtij jJ bghU J fgij cWgLJj

3. ghlfSF mghgL gojj kW br uLj
4. nj Kiwfis nkY beth tFgiw fw braghLfSl
xUizj
5. eho kfsh Kiw kW ehff gghL TWfis fnahL
izj
Kjad jDila tfhL nfhghLfshF. j mogil, murhiz (iy)
v. 82, g f (1) Jiw, eh 05.04.2007go Ma f gla
gofhd fiylK ghllK
jahfgLsd. 2008-2009M
fahL Kj eilKiw cs a fiyl _y khzt
Maf fhQ wfis bgWt.
bjhlJ mit bgUF w
mjtiw bragLJ w
j wikfis mJ mtF Vg thG w; wnuhL xUJ thG
w
midJ ghlgFfY mfgr fw mil bgW w
Mftkhd braghLf <LgL w
M kdghik, a fLof Mat brawid nkgL
bjhiynehF ghit F w
nkY fiyl fhQ nehffis bfhLsJ.
khzt Maf gwid nkgL, mtf KG MSikia
btbfhzj
khzt Mafl ebd, ehL xUikghL, kj nea gfis
tsj
tss gUt f, cley f, thifw f, kf bjhif
f, RWNH f, kj cik f, rhiy ghJfh f, mik
f nghwtF KaJt mj.
nkfl nehff mil bgw, ulhL Ma f gla goF
vL ghlf kW xgJ brKiw gf (Practicum) cUthfgLsd.
iii

t.
v

KjyhkhL ghlf

ulhkhL ghlf

fF FHij (Learning Child)

a f Kiw
(Indian Education System)

fwiy vjhFjY
nkgLJjY (Facilitating and
Enhancing learning)

fwiy vjhFjY
nkgLJjY (Facilitating and
Enhancing learning)

jbkh fj
(Teaching of Tamil)

jbkh fj
(Teaching of Tamil)

kiyahs bkh fj
(Teaching of Malayalam)

kiyahs bkh fj
(Teaching of Malayalam)

bjYF bkh fj
(Teaching of Telgu)

bjYF bkh fj
(Teaching of Telgu)

cUJ bkh fj
(Teaching of Urdu)

cUJ bkh fj
(Teaching of Urdu)

kHiya guhk kW f

kHiya guhk kW f

(Early Childhood Care and Education)

(Early Childhood Care and Education)

My bkh fj
(Teaching of English)

My bkh fj
(Teaching of English)

fj fj
(Teaching of Mathematics)

fj fj
(Teaching of Mathematics)

10

ma fj
(Teaching of Science)

ma fj
(Teaching of Science)

11

r_f ma fj
(Teaching of Social Science)

r_f ma fj
(Teaching of Social Science)

KjyhkhL ghlf

ulhkhL ghlf

t.
1

FHijia cWnehf kW
jkhzhf M

bra lf

g ghit

fiy f kW gaDgt

fij TWj

f fa

clf, cleyf kW
nahffiy

clf, cleyf kW
nahffiy

Rats gkid

Rats gkid

fw fj bghUf

fw fj bghUf

iv

brid gfiyfHf Kdh fa Jiw jiyt Kidt

.v. ghyRuka mtf jiyik, nfhit ghuah gfiyfHf
Kdh bjhiyt f aFe Kidt v.Rthehjis,
bfhilfhd mid bjurh kf gfiyfHf Kdh Jizntj
Kidt v. yR, brid fa nkghL Wtd Kdh
nguha .fzg, Lf fhuhk uha gfiyfHf Kdh
Jizntj Kidt .gf#, ghonr ehafh gfiyfHf
fa Jiw jiyt Kidt nf. Rgkh, brid gfiyfHf
jnghija fa Jiw jiyt Kidt o.Fku, jgu mzhkiy
gfiyfHf fa nguha Kidt v. UZz_ Ma FG
jiytf gy mkf fyJiuaho, f gy MJ njJ
fUJfis gFJ bjhFJ vikgL tsfis cUthf
tfhosd.
xbthU ts FG, Ma f Muh g aff, khtl
Ma f g Wtdf, fa ff, gfiyfHff,
tlhu ts ika, gf, jdht bjhL Wtdfis rhj
fahsfis

nkyhthsfshf

xUizghsfshf

yhafshf bfhLsJ. nkY, Utdju nfus gfiyfHf

Ma fa f Kjt Kidt .nf., brid MjZ
f Wtdf fa Mnyhrf Kidt v.yjh, UZz
Kdh khtl bjhlf f mYty U nf.ehuhazis, brid
gfiyfHf cUJbkh Jiw jiyt Kidt v.ira r A]ir
Mnahiu FGjiytfshf bfhL

Wghik ghlfSF

tsf cUthfgLsd.
fhiuFo mHfgh gfiyfHf Kdh Mkw cWd Kidt
V.v. _, UZz_ mwflis The School mikig rhj
Uk. Rkuh M. bfsjkh, jdht fahsfshd MKjh khajh
knAhghuh kW Kidt ghyh rg (v-ah), ntjh kf
kdts fiy kw cj nguha U. o.v.mUshdj, Jit
gghL kW bkha Wtd KJiy iuahs Kidt j.guRuhk
Ma fahsfS tsf cUthfF gfJsd.
fj vD Ma ika fUJ jhndfw vD
khzt ika fF khs iwa bjhlf f Kiw, braf
v

t fwiyna mogilahf bfhLsJ. a tsf xnth

aY brafis bfhL bjhl khztf jhkhfnt fUij
mJbfhtjhf flikfgLsd. khzt Maf, yffis
gagLJj, g khztfl fw wid nkgLj jkJ tFgiw
fjiy tYgLJj, cWnehF w, tFgiw nkyhik,
ghlbghUs, Jiz fUf kW fw bghUfis gagLJ w,
jiyikg, FHij csaiy mUj Ma midJ wfis
mila tsf tfhL. tsfis fgj _y g<LghL
(Commitment) j m guj MwY (Competence) bghWzl
khzt kdbfhsjf tif fUJfis vLJiuF kh (Communication) cila eyhaf cUtht.
ts (Source Book) vgJ fgjfhd tsf, Mjhuf Kjad
vbfnf csd vgij fhL tfhona. mUJ fwiy
gL njitahd brfis Mfhnf uo khztfsJ mj,
j, gagLJj, gFj, bjhFj, kl wfis nkgLJtJ
jukhd

Ma

bgw

ttFgJ

tfhLtJ

Ma

fahsf flikahF. a tsf TwgLs fUJfis

KGikahf cth, Kiwahf goJ gadiltJ midJ khzt
Maf bghWghF.
tsfis

brikahf

cUthf

cja

midJ

fahsfSF ffUF Ma fahsfSF ffs

khzt MafSF vkJ cskhj ghuhLf!

aFe,
Ma f Muh g aff,
brid 600 006.

vi

mKf
fj vgJ btW NufS, vukakhd KiwfS bfhljy.
FHijf fj g ngr ntL. jfSF thJ To bragl
ntL. rth f fjij TwntL; mnjngh fhz ntL.
MafS, khztfS dK VwFiwa 6 kneu - Mo 1000
kneu neuoahf clUJ gYwd.
vdnt khztf
gKfwfis bgWtjF Ko.
NCF - 2005 mogil wfis gJiu brwJ. mit
mogilfUij czj
tirgLJj
uridia kLj
uridfSF brj
Cj rah vd ghF gf Kjad MF.
wikfis tsgjfhd ghlgFfis cslanjhL fF
Kiwfis a mQFKiwfis bfhLfgLsd.
fj vwh FHijfis jhfns J MuhJ fLoF
tKiwfSF gHfgLJtjfhd braghLf vgJ xU bghU. jF
Vg fw braf bfhLfgLsd.
msfis kLtJ, fis njhuhakhf fhgJ nghw Tikahd
wikfis tsgjfhd braghLfis bfhl ghlgFfS csd.
nkY NCF - 2005 TW Ma gfhd bjhiynehF ghit eF
bragLtjF Vg ghlbghUf mikJsd. y wgrf F
vLJfhlhf bfhLfgLwd.
KGikahd mogil mit fF Kiwfis khzt Ma
bgWj - (vf mikf, toa, msLf nghw ghl myFf ts
csd)
mid tsL jJt-(fj tuyhW, fjbkh nghw ghl
myFf lbgWsd.)
uridia kLj kW fhz - th Kiw vLJfhLl
bfhLfgLsJ.
CJ rah vd ghF gf........ nghw wfis
tsgjfhd braghLfis bfhl ghl myFf nrfgLsd - tiufiy
mikf -Password Strategy etc. nghw a mQFKiw bfhLfgLsd.
fUJ gkhw br thjfis tsl, thjfis kl,
Cffis Muhl cjtjhf fj fj ts mikJsJ.
Ma FG
vii

ghll ((Syllabus)
fj fj - Kjyh ML
gF m (ghlbghU)
myF 1
1.1

fj tuyhW
ghnyhaf - vaf - nuff -nuhkhaf - df#ghaf - af - mnuaf

1.2. ajF fj nkijf

Maglh - ukFjh - ghfuh

- uhkhD# - - jhfu -

fh - nfh - #h nea
myF 2

vf mikf

a vf - Fiwaw KG vf - KGf - jKW vf jKwh vf - Miy vf - bkbaf - uil vf kW

xiw vf - gfh vf kW gFvf
myF 3

msitfS msLjY

msitf tuyhW - mwhl th msitf -msitf

tifghL - bk msitf -

nfhzf msit - ehfho kW

fhy msitf - jtWF jhF y msitf

myF 4

toa

toa tuyhW - , nfhL, nfhLJL, nfhLf fUJ sf

- xGF kW xGfw totf - rk, rtrk kW xj cUtf gf ga fUJ - Kgkhz totf gu kW fdms - Kgkhz
totf kW Kgkhz mRf
ghlf
tF : 1 Kj 5 tiu midJ gFf
tF : 6 Kj 8 tiu (ghlgFf 2, 4, 6)
tF : 9 (ghlgFf 1, 2, 5, 6, 7)
tF : 10 (ghlgF 2 kL)

viii

gF M
myF 5

(fj Kiwf)

fj bkh

fj brhfsa - fj FpLfS, bkh brhfS

fj jik (m) g - Mlr mrh fw uikj gof Mlr fUJiuf - Mlr mrh fw tiff - f j
fj rthf - gaghL fj
myF 6

th Kiw

th Kiw vgJ vd? - xGfhd tiugl Ff - th

nehff - xGfhd lf rh tfhLj cf- fhz iHj
kW iuj-

fhQ ehF t iyf -

fj

fj

cs fiy F tiyf+
myF 7

tiufiy mikf

tiufiy mik - tiufiy mik tiff -tiufiy mmik

- tiufiy mik cTWf - tiufiy mik ts f gF
-CRA mQFKiw
myF 8

xghFG fj

xghFG fj bghUshf ga Kndhl -

xghFG fj mQFKiw

xghFG fj Kiw - fUjhf -xghFG

fj mQFKiw brayhf idL fj c -

xghFG fj gaf -

Mug g fjij fg Mf

tkhd mQFKiw - brat fw xghFG fj

myF 9

bra tfw mQFKiw

bra tfw - fj bratfw mQFKiw

bratfw wgrf- fjghlJF bra tfwYfhd
tFgiw NH - b r a t f w Y , f j b r a g h L f S - t h a
fzFf - fodgF flj - tha fzF xU fodgFah?tha fzFfis fg Ma gF
myF 10

fzLj ayhik

khztf bghJthf br iHf - iHfis tifgLJj

ix

fhy xJL
I

100 kneu

ghlbghU

m) ts
myF 1

6 kneu

myF 2

8 kneu

myF 3

6 kneu

myF 4

4 kneu

M) ghlf
tF I Kj V (midJghlfS)
tF VI Kj VIII tiu (ghlf 1, 3 & 5)
IX tF (ghlf 1, 2, 5, 6, 7)

X tF (ghl 2 kL)

II

5 kneu
14 kneu
13 kneu

fj Kiw

ts
myF 5

4 kneu

myF 6

10 kneu

myF 7

10 kneu

myF 8

8 kneu

myF 9

8 kneu

myF 10

4 kneu

24 kneu

I (myF 1 Kj 4 tiu)
ghlghlf

32 kneu

II (myF 5 Kj 10 tiu)

44 kneu

bkhj 100 kneu

x

bghUslf
gf v
myF 1

fj tuyhW

(History of Mathematics)

myF 2

vf mikf

23

(Number System)

myF 3

msitfS msLjY

48

(Measure & Measurements)

myF 4

toa

73

(Geometry)

myF 5

fj bkh

86

(Language of Mathematics)

myF 6

th Kiw

107

(Problem Solving Method)

myF 7

tiufiy mikf

135

(Graphic Organizer)

myF 8

xghFG fj

150

(Peer Tutoring)

myF 9

brat fw _y fj fj

165

(Activity Based Learning Approach - ABL)

myF 10

fzLj ayhik
(Learning Difficulties)

xi

191

izf
gf v

1.

dhjh flik

205

(Blueprint)

2.

kbg xJL tu

207

(Mark Distribution)

3.

mfkL - kbg gL

208

(Continuous Assessment)

4.

kh dhjh

209

(Model Question Paper)

5.

dhjh - Kf

215

(Profile)

6.

brKiw g

217

(Practicals)

7.

fiy brhf

218

(Glossaries)

8.

nknfh f

227

(Bibliography)

xii

myF 1

fj tuyhW
(History of Mathematics)

1.1

mKf

fj e mwhl thif Kakhd gF twJ. kj d

m tsF, fj tuyhWF beUa bjhl csJ. bkh ghlf
ju ju ghlf fjghl thif bjhlila ghlf KjikahdJ.
bkha Tl (Linguistics) Muh nghJ fj gagLj
gLwJ.ijna cyf bghJ kiwah UFw,
vbzg Vid vGbjg uL
fbzg thG cF
vw Fw vz mtaij UtSt Tsh. vaYF
wFjh w fj nfhghLf tsailjd.
fj J Mt Vgl ntLbk fj tuyhW mta
bjUf ntL. fj tuyhW, fj nkijf tuyhW f
ayhj xwhF. ghl fl Toa MafSF fj tuyhW bjUj
mta. ghl jiynghL mj tsid mjiyig mKfgLa
fj nkijf thif tuyhiw KDiuahf bfhLJ khztfis
fj ghlgh <f aY. nkY j fj tuyhW m khztfSF
M jidia L. fjgh mtf <fgLt. fjayhdJ
mit tsgnjhL fgt thif beKiwfis brikgLJ vgJ
cik.

1.2

fj ts - tuyhW RtLf

cyf ehLf midJ fj tsF cWJizahf UUjhY y

Fl ehLfns wghf JizJsd. mehLfis ga Mid nH
fhngh.
1.2.1. ghnyhaf
bkrgnlhah gF (iwa <uh) thj kf ghnyhaf. .K.
539 M ML Rnkaf ilgl fhy ghnyhaf fhy vd
fUjgLwJ. 1850 M ML tiu fo ijL lj 400 fk
jfLf (Clay Tablet) fblLfgld. ghnyhaf fk vfis
gJ jfLfis cUthd. .K. 1800 Kj 1600 tiu cs fhyfl jh
mfkhd fk jfLf ilJsd. df, afj, Ugo

rkghLf, jhfu njw, nfhz rhf (Trigonometrical function)

Fj fj jftf jfLf FlgoUjd. YBC 7289 vd
bgalgl fk jfL _y

2 k MW jrk l Ujkhf
vGjgLsjid mayh. jfo glij nf fhzyh.

Babylonian clay tablet YBC 7289 with annotations.

The diagonal displays an approximation of the square root of 2
in four sexagesimal figures, which is about six decimal figures.
1 + 24/60 + 51/602+ 10/603 = 1.41421296....

ghnyhaf 60 I mogilahf bfhl vKiwia gagLd.

ghnyha vKiw nH bfhLfgLsJ.

UJjh W eh gagLJ 1 lF 60 beho, 1 kF 60

l, tl nfhz ms 360 0 (60 x 6) Mait gHf tjd. 60-
tFfshd 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 12, 15, 20 kW 30 Matiw gagL d tot
fzFf kW lkfis ifahld.
2

ilf bgw jfLf giHa ghnyhaf fhya (.K. 2000 - 1600)

fk jfLfns mfkhF. vdntjh bkrgnlhah fjij
ghnyhaf fhy vd FLnwh. jfLf thghL, fzFf
kW mj f vGjgoUjd.
ghnyhaf, vf mogil braYF Kng fzlgl
thghil gagLd. 1854 - gnu( EUPHRATES) cs brbfuh
( SENKERAH) ilfgl 2 jfLf 1 Kj 59 tiuyhd vf tfK, 1
Kj 32 tiuyhd vf fdK bghfgoUjd. tffhd
bgUf braiy vikgLj
ab =

( a + b) 2 a 2 b 2
2

(a + b) 2 (a b) 2
Ma Nufis gagLd.
4
tFjYF bgUf jiyia gagLd.
ab =

a
1
1
= a F
vgJ b- bgUf jiy
b
b
b
2,3, 5 Ma gfh fhufis bfhl vfis 60 mokhd vfSF

mjhtJ

gagLd.

1 1 1
, , ...... Ma jiyfSF 60 mokhd Kos
7 11 13

yff mik iy. vLJfhlhf

1
I vLJ bfhnth jF
13

flthW njhuhakhf fzld. mjhtJ

1 7
1
1
40
= = 7 7 = 7
13 91
91
90
3600

ghnyhaf Ugo rkghoF fhz Nuij gagLd.

cjhuzkhf x2 + bx = c vw Ugo rkghil vLJbfhnth. rkgho
b-, c- KGfshf Uf ntoa mtaiy. Mdh c vgJ if v.
rkgho id
2

b
b
x = + + c vd flhf.
2
2

Kgo rkghoF id fhz n 3 +n 2 k mltizia

gagLd.
vLJfhlhf ax 3 + bx 2 = c vw rkghil vLJbfhnth. jid a 2M bgU, b3M tFf.
3

ca 2
ax ax
+
=

vdilF.
b3
b b
3

rkgho y =
y3 + y2 =

ax
vd ulh
b

ca 2
vd ilF.
b3

nghJ n 3 + n 2 k mltizUJ y - kid fhzyh.

UJ x- kid fhzyh.
gugs, fd ms fhz ghnyhaf bghJ fis gagLd.
nkY mtf fj fUJfis fLojd. mit
tl Rws = 3 Kiw tl l
tl gugs = 1/2 (Rws) 2
F - k 3 vd gagLd.
cUis fdms = mogfgu x cau
Kjad MF.
1.2.2 vaf
ghu ifbaGJ uf _ykhf, fbtLf _ykhf,
gHbgU df _ykhf vaf fj mit ga gy
rhWf ekF ilUwd. va fjkhdJ va bkh
vGjglJ. Vfdnt nuf bkh Uj fUJf bAyo
(Hellenistic) fhy UJ va bkhF khwglJ. jdh va
fjkhdJ nuf kW ghnyha fjJl izJ cUth mJ
bAyo fjkhdJ. jid d yha kdf va
tYdfis bfhL kh mikjhf.
vJ kf jf mwhl thifF njitahd mogil
vfjij, totfjij VgL bfhld. tf KG
vfis, dfis TLtjF, fgjF mUjd. mtf
tf rgjkhd fzFfis f bgUfiy, tFjiy ifahld.
xnth ML ie e bts bgUbfLF ie e
gsjhFf yguig msJ t jd. f jh tot
fj wlkhf mikjJ.
vfis FF Kiwf fgHikahd VLf _y ekF
iljit vaUilajhF. mtf gagLa v FpLf .K.
3300F Kglit vd Muhf fhLwd. va vQUf nH
bfhLfgLsd.
4

tfSila vf 10 mokhd vf MF.

1.2.3 nuff
nuf ehL fj vgJ .K. 600UJ 450 tiu cs fj MF.
nuf fj nkijf jhUJ tl mbkfh tiuyhd lf
thJ tjd. nuff cj (inductive) Kiwia gagL
fzFfSF fld.
nuf fj, jhy (.K. 624- 546) kW jhfu (.K. 582-507)
Ma UtU bgU gF tjd. tf vaf, bkrgnlhaf kW
af fj fUJfsh ftugld.
jhy toaiy gagL uLf cauij, fgYF,
flfiuF cs uij fzld. jhfu t njhwf
(Pythagoreans) _y jhfu njw btglJ. nkY tfsh jhfu
_w bjhFfS (Triplet) fLofglJ.
mlho (.K. 384 - 322) KjKj jf fis (Laws of logic)
fLojh. ( K 300) vw fjayhs Elements vw jf
nkfa gF f ugykhf magoUjJ. jf

2 x
jKwh v vW, gfh vf Kotwit vW fojh. nkY T
btofis (Conic) mKf brjh.
Mdh unlhbjd (.K. 230-) gfh vfis ga ma
cikfis fLojh. MO (.K. 287 -212) X nuf fj nkij
t j 75 M ta fj Nuij cUth bfhoUj bghGJ nuhkha
uuh vaggljhf tuyhW TWwJ.
nuf vf nuhkha vfis xjit.
5

I = 1 , = 5, = 10, = 50, H = 100,

H = 500, X= 1000,

X = 5000,

m = 10,000 kW m = 50,000 MF.

.. 4 M whoF mtf 1, 2.............9 tiu cs vfSF
y vGJfis, 10,20..........90 tiu cs vfSF ntW vGJfis,
100, 200.....900 tiu cs vfSF ntW y vGJfis gagLd.
thW vfis Ff 27 vGJf njitgld. 24 nuf
vGJfSl 6F Fpil (Digamma) 90F
900F

Fpil (Qoppa)

Fpil (Sampi) gagLd. nuf vf mltiz nH

bfhLfgLsJ.

1.2.4 nuhkhaf
nuhkhaf gy bgha lfis tFJ fjaYF w
brjd. nkghyf, gy bga rhiyf, ghyf, bghJ folf gy
fod. y msit KiwY ajF Kndw miljd. fhthfS,
ghyfS

fLtjF

gagLaikah

js

Jikahd

fj
fj

mitna

nuhkhaf

bfhiffis

mtfsh

tHfayiy.
nuhkha vQUf giHa nuhk vQUthd vuf (Etruscan)
vQUUJ cUthdJ.

totkhdJ nghJ eh gagLJ

mikUJ rW khWglJ.
nuhkha vQUf iwa fhy flf fofhuf, jf
mKfgff, ir totf, kdf t njhwf nghwt
bgJ gagho csd.
6

nuhkha v

1 (Unus)

5(Quinque)

10 (decem)

50(quinquaginta)

100 (Centum)

500 (quingenti)

1000 (Mille)

w vfis Ff tU fis gagLd.

1.

vj vQUit bjhlJ _W KiwfSF nk gagLj TlhJ.

2.

mf ks v FpoF tyw Fiwj ks vFpL tjh

To bfhsntL.

3.

mf ks vFpoF lw Fiwj ks v FpL tjh

fJ bfhs ntL.

4.

mf ks FpoF Kdjhf Fiwj ks FpLf y

fSF cgnl tuntL.

M
L
D
nuhkhaf mf ks vfis Ff v nk xU nfhold.
V = 5,000

C = 100,000

X = 10,000

= 500,000

= 50,000

= 1 million

0 vw viz Ff nuhkha vKiw j FpL iy.

lk fUij mtf gagLjhjnj jF fhuz MF. nuhkhaf
d vfSF 12 I mokhdkhf bfhld. ehzafis tiw
bfhnl btld. (d vfS ehzaK izfgLsJ).

A Triens coin (1/3 or 4/12 of an as).

Note the four dots .... indicating its value

A Semis Coin (1/2 or 6/12 of an as). Note

the S indicating its value
7

1.2.5. df (.K. 500 - .. 1300)

.K. 212- nguur F Ah(Qin shihuang) xU Kiw F(Qin) ehoF
btna cs midJ jffis vFgo flislh. jid kf
KGtJkhf eilKiwgLjhjjh df fj g y Ff kLnk
ilJsd. nkh (Mojing)fjF Xus gahsh.
rgtF d Ah nguuR (.K. 202- .. 220 tiu) M
UjnghJ fj ftd brYd. mt
xgJ mahafis bfhl fj fiy f
KakhdJ MF. 246, thif fzFf,
trha, ahghu, toa, bgha bjhlghf
Ujd. jhfu njwF fj
%gzid, fha (F) Nuij
mikjd. .. 3 M who tiw
fLof cjdh.
thda Muhahsuhd hbA -
kig njhuhakhf fL, ij gagL
nfhs guig fzlh. ah (Yang Hai
.. 1238 - 1298) kha rJuid fLojh.
nrh 5 M who - kig 7 jrk
8

The Nine Chapters on

the Mathematical Art

lUjkhf

fLojh.

VwjhH

1000

tUlF

kig

gagLd. jh (Tang) nguu fhy Fiw vf, <UW njw,

mf Kiw nea rkghoid fhQj, d njw Mait
fLofgld. ghf Knfhzid, InuhaUF Kng df
fLoUjd.
1.2.6. #ghaf
#gha vf dKiwia gana mikJsd. gojYF uL
jkhd x Kiwia gagLd. mit (1) d -#gha Kiw goj
(2) #gha Fnah Kiw goj. #gha vfis vGJtjF uL
Kiwid filojd. (1) a Kiw (2) d Kiw
1.2.7. af
ntj fj ffhyF ija cnyhf fhynyna cUthdJ. ..
9- who jgjuhkzh vgt kig uL jrk lUjkhf
fLojh. .K. 800- 500 M fhyflf jKwh vf, gfhvf,
fd_y - k, xUgo, Ugo rkghLfis j, jhfu njw
%gz Mait fLofgld.
Na jhjh nfhz mKfgLjglJ. X MoF
365.253627 ehf csd vd fjd. nghija fghd 365.25636305
ehfisl 1.4 behona mfkhdJ.
a fj nkij Maglh -
k 3.1416 vd fzlh. 14 - who
khjth vw fjayh = 31.4159265359 vd
fzlh.

yhaf

vKiwia .. 12 - who Inuha

ehLfSF vLJ brW gagLd.
gJ mokhd vKiw ahUJ
cybfF guaJ. a v KiwahdJ
J - mnua v Kiw vnw Kija
fhyf TwglJ. njtd vKiw
gagho UUwJ.
9

eh gagLJ {a vw thij mnua bkh gagLJ Sifr

vw thijUJ cUthdJ. 0 Kj 9 tiu cs vf y a
bkhf nH bfhLfgLsJ.

1.2.8 mnuaf : (.. 800 - 1500)

KfkJ e kiwF ljl xU whLFshfnt
mtUila lf vJ, Mfh tlghf, bg y ghffis
ia ifgd. HF Kfkhf mtf ahFS tjd.
tf nuf, a fjij bjJ bfhld. kj rhghd rlFf,
UJ ehfis iw bfhL fzl mtfSF fj m njitglJ.
a fj fUJfis mu bkh bkh bgaf a tha
z xUt ghjhF .. 770- tutiHfglh. a v yff
mnua fja izjjF bkh bgaf fhuzkhd. KfkJ
eF njha yha Mahsuhd A% -m - u vgtUfhf
, lh nghwtf f mu bkh bkhbgafgld. nuf,
a ehL f gy yha khztfSF ilF thUjJ.
afj, fj xU MF. KfkJ M-nfhth
(Mohammed ibn Al Khowarizmi VwjhH .. 825) vw mu fj tYe Kj
afj iy vGdh. bga m#g th Kfghyh (Aljebar Wal
M u q u a b a l a h ) MF. d My (Algebra) muh vd
10

miHfglJ. afj, bjahj myJ fla ntoa vf

FpLfshY vGJfshY FfgLwd.
jnghJ gagho cs 1 Kj 9 tiuyhd vf uh (Brahmi)
vQUUJ tutiHfglJ. jf .K. 300- 1,4,6 vw v cUit
gagLd. mjd 2,7,9 I gagLajhf gth csJ.
fw bra
fj tuyhW Fj br bjhF (Scrap Book) jahj.

1.3

ajF fj nkijf y

Maglh, ukFjh, ghfuh, uhkhD#, , jhfu, fh Ma

fj nkijf, fjF Ma gf, fj fLof Matiw
g eh bjJ bfhnth.
1.3.1

Maglh I (.. 476-550)

Maglh I, Maglh II vd Ut g tuyhW

bjwJ. Maglh - I thj 400 MLF
Maglh II thjjhf bjwJ. Maglh - I xU a
fj nkij Mth.
t ghluhF mU cs FRkhuh
(Kusumapura) vD C wjh. t Magoah vw
iy jdJ 23 M ta vGdh. Magoah iy
vGJ nghJ ghluhit Fj nguuR Mljhf tuyhW
TWwJ. t bjah wjjhf TWwd.
Maglh thdrhuF 3 jff vGajhf
bjwJ. Magoah vw 66 fj f
%gz bfhLfgLsJ.

Statue of Aryabhatta on
the grounds of
IUCAA, Pune

Magoah fj kW thda g vGsh. fj

gF va, afj, nfhz, df, rkghLf,
Mait mlF.
Maglh vfis Ff xU JKiwia fLoJ, jdJ jf
FLsh. a vGJf 33 bkbaGJF v kig
bfhLJsh. mit 1, 2, 3.......... 25, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100. jF nkgl
vf 100, 10000, ................1018 tiu vGJl bfhLJsh.
uh (Ifra) vgt Maglh a lkig, -, + Ffis
bjJsh vd TWwh. Maglh tf _y, fd_y g Tsh.
11

by = ax + c, by = ax - c ( a, b, c vgit KGf) vw rkghoF

KjKjyhf KG v f csikfhd nrhjidia Magoah
FlgLsJ.
- kig fhz tU Kiwia Tsh.
100 cl 4 I To mij 8 M bgU ill 62000 I TLf.
tU ilahdJ 20,000 lKs tl RwsF njhuhakhf rk.
mjhtJ =

= 3.1416

10 = 3.1622 vd gagLsd. n KGf TLj, tf, fd

fhQj, Knfhz kW tl gu fhQ Nuf Matiw
fLojh.
Maglh II (.. 920-1000)
t thif tuyhW g rahd jftf bgwgliy.
(Pingree) vgt, Maglh II 950- 1100 tiu thjh vd FLwh. kfh
jhjh (Mahasiddhanta) vw 18 mahafis bfhl id t
cUthsh. by = ax + c vw rkghoF (indeterminate equation) 20
tKiwf fhz tKiw bfhLfgLsJ. nkY ir (sine)
62832
kfSF 5 jrk yff Jakhf fhz mltiz bfhLJsh.
20000
kW fd_y fLoF Kiwid bfhLJsh.
1.3.2 ukFjh (.. 598 - 670)
t X a fj nkij. t c{# wjh. t jij D
Fjh. ukFjh, fj kW thda iwa gahsh. t 628
M ML ukZl jhjh vD iy vGsh. 25 mahaf
csd.
t c{# cs thda fHf (Astronomical Observatory)
jiytuhf gJsh. ika Kakhd fj ikakhf braglJ.
wik f fj nkij tuhAuh F gjnjhL fj thd rhu
(Mathematical Astronomy) vw gia Wdh.
uk Fjh ulhtJ fjfahfh-it (Khnadhakhadyaka) j
67- ta vGdh. 8 mahaf csd. mt Kj yhd uk
Zl jhjh cs 25 mahaf Kj 10 mahaf thda
gaJ. 15 mahaf fj fshd afj, nfhs, a
g FLsh. a bfhL y gfis tiuaWJsh.
12

aij X vQl Todhnyh myJ X vUJ fjhnyh

mnj v ilF. ajh X viz bgUdh 0 ilF vd
Wdh.
if v, Fiw v gagL vfj fis tiuaWJsh.
Fiw vUJ aij fjh Fiw v ilF.
if vUJ aij fjh if v ilF.
aUJ aij fjh ilgJ a.
Fiw viz aUJ fjh if v ilF.
if viz aUJ fjh Fiw v ilF.
aij Fiw v myJ if vzh bgUdh a
ilF. nkY
1)
(+) x (+) = (+)
4) (+) (-) = (-)
2) (+) x (-) = (-)
5) (-) x (-) = (+)
3) (+) x (+) = (+)
6) (-) (-) = (+)
vd Tdh.
aij ajh tFjh a ilF vd Tdh. Mdh
%fiy. (jnghJ jid njubgwhjJ vg.)
Kj n a vf tff TLj fhz cj Nu
n( n + 1)(2n + 1)
vd fLojh.
6

Kj n a vf fdf TLj fhz cj Nu

n(n + 1)
2

vd

fLojh.

Mdh

tfhd

%gz

bfhLfgliy.
ukFjh x ML vgJ 365 ehf 6 k 5 l 19 behof vd
fLoJ jdJ Kj Tsh. t ulhtJ X ML
vgJ 365 ehf 6 k neu 12 l 36 behof vd khsh.
1.3.3. ghfuh I (.. 600 - 680)
a fj nkijahd t brsuhZouh (iwa F#uh khy)
wjh. t Maglh

I- ttjt vd TwgLwJ. t

kAhghfah (Mahabaskariya), yF ghfah (Laghu Bhaskariya) kW Ma

goa ghah (Aryabhatiyabasya) Ma fis vGsh. kAhghfah 8
13

mahafis bfhlJ. it midJ thdaiy gaJ. nkY

nfhz sinx vgj kid fhz

sin x =

16 x ( x )
[5 2 4 x( x )]

vw Nuij gagLsh.
Mf UFnghJ sinx = 1 vd miktij fhzyh.
ghfuh
ghfuh-II

(.. 1114 - 1185)

t .. 1114 M ML ah #auh wjh. t

ghfuhrhah vW miHfglh. t jij knAtuh. knAtuh xU
n#hlU Tl. t FLgjt midtU fj tYefshf Ujd.
ghfuhrhah c{# cs tha fHf (Astronomical
Observatory) jiytuhf Ujh.
tuhAuh, uk Fjh tUF K nj Wtd
gahatf Mt.
ghfuhrhah f tUkhW
1. yht
2. # fj

- fj ga -13 mahaf
x=
- afj ga 2 - 12 mahaf

3. jhj nuhk - gF 1 - fj thda

gF 2 - nfhs - 13 mahaf
4. trd ghZah

- jhj nuhk FJ ghfuhrhah krd

5. fuz FAyh

- jhj nuhk RUa tot

6. tzh

- juhit ga sf (Sisha dhividhi dantra)

x 2 = 9 vw rkghoF uL f csd vd mUjh vgjF

rhWf csd. nkY mjid fzl.
a + a2 + b
a a2 b
a b =

2
2

vw Nuij gagLdh vgJ bjatUwJ.

(Fyzi) vgt yht jfij bga bkh 1587 M ML
bkh bgajh.
yht ghfuhrhah FLs X fia fhngh.
14

ghfuhrhah kf yht. j kfSF kzKof Fl neuij

njbjLjh. nk ghu Ca nH cs ghuij mil neuK
rkkhf UFgo mikjh. yht vghuhjjkhf mghuij vo ghf
xU KJ mt Mil UJ mnfhig GJ lJ. mJ ghu
Jisia _olJ. mZl neu jholJ vgjh mt Ukzij
W lh. fF KG Mjhu iy. t nfhz Mt
fhodh.
sin (A+B) = sinA cosB + cosA sinB
sin(A-B) = sinA cosB - cosA sinB vd fLojh. 1207- M ML
ghfuhrhah fLofis Muha xU f Wtd WtglJ.
1.3.4 $thr uhkhD# (1887 - 1920)
t jeho <nuho 1887 M ML org
22 M eh wjh. uhkhD# bgnwh nf. $thr
Iafh, nfhksjkh Mt. uhkhD# jij xU
J

fil

Fkhjhthf

gahdh.

Fgnfhz rhufgh bjU cs xU o

tjd.

nghJ

mUfhafkhf

khwgLsJ.
1892 M ML mnlhg Kj nj fhu
xU g nrjh. 1894 kh - bjYF t gF khdh. t jhjh
kw mYtyuhf fhu gahdh. mt gUJ XbgwnghJ
uhkhD#U, mt jhahU L Fgnfhz tjd. mF ffa (Kangayan)
Mug g nrjh.
uhkhD# jdJ 16 ta A synopsis of elementary results in pure and applied mathematics by George S.Carr vw jfij gojh. m 5000 F nkyhd njwf
Ujd. Jnt uhkhD# fj mf <LghL fhl fhuzkhUjJ. mLj
ML mt bgndh (Bernoulli)viz fLojh. y (Euler constant)
vid 15 jrk yffSF Ujkhf fLojh.
1904 ML g goig Kojh . tUF Fgnfhz muR f
gof go cjbjhif iljJ. uhkhD# kw ghlfis l fj
mf Mt fhoajh w ghlf nj bgwiy. vdnt mtUF go
cjbjhif WjglJ. 1906 - F.A. glgo nj bgwiy. mt
15

ehl KGtJ fj ghlnyna UjJ. gl bgwhkny fia L

btna jahf fj Muhia Jtdh. 1909 M ML #]iy 14
M nj 9 taJ ua #hdakhis kzjh.
khtl cj Ma . uhkrh Iaiu (a fj fHf Jtat)
rJ jdF tUth Jiw VnjD xU ntiy nflh. j fj
fLofis mtl fhodh. uhkrh Ia mjid ghJ L c
m wDF F ntiy bra ntlh vW T brid cs mtuJ
egfis(fj

Jiw

cstf)

ghf

brh

xU

foj

bfhLjDdh. mjid ghj cj Ma egf beiy khtl

Mauhd uhkruuh-F (a fj fHf bray) foj vGd.
uhkruuh uhkhD# fj gah <fglh. vD it midJ
t brhj fLofsh vd rnjfglh. uhkhD# jdF Kig
cs nguha RjhdhF cs bjhlig Tdh. uhkhD# eg ..
uh#nfhghyrhaU tiu g vLJTdh. uhkruuh uhkhD#
fj mit nrhJ ajh. uhkhD#UF cj mJ bridF
mD fj Muhia bjhlu brjh. uhkrh Ia cjl
mtUila fj Muh fLiu Kj Kjyhf Journal of Indian Mathematics
btahdJ.
uhkhD# mj j 1 + 2 1 + 3 1 + ... vw fzif bfhLJ MW khj
fhyF mjfhd ilia vG mDkhW TUjh.
mLj

_W

jf

ahUnk

mfzfhd

ilia

bjfiy. d uhkhD# j nehLjf 105 MtJ gf

fzfhd il fhQ rkghil bfhLUjh

x + n + a = ax + (n + a) 2 + x a ( x + n) + (n + a) 2 + ( x + n) etc
ij gagLdh mj fz il 3 vd bjatU. bgndh v
gf FJ Muh j vGdh.
1912-M ML brid V.. mYty (Accountant Generals office) khj
%.20 rgs jfhf g iljJ. xU y thunyna mg Ko
jUth brid fg fHfJF (Account of the Madras Port Trust) F
zjh. mj zgJl khy f fj nguha ghR
fojij nrJ mDdh. 1912 , kh khj fzfuhf %. 33 khj rkgs
16

ntiy iljJ. mt mYtyf gia ntfkhf KoJ L neu a

fj fHf bghUshs v. ehuhaz Ia kW r uh
tfSl izJ j fj Muh gia bjhljh.
1913 M ML #dt 16 M eh uhkhD# .v. Aho vgtUF
foj vGdh. 1913 ut 8 M nj Aho uhkhD#UF jid rFgo
g foj vGdh. uhkhD# btehL bry UgiybaD, j
egf kW Aho tWjyh

nf{ gfiyfHfF

brwh. 5 MLf mF Aho kW o MnahUl j Muh

gia bjhljh. 1916- Muhgl uhkhD#UF iljJ. gF
vfSfhd Muhfhf mgl iljJ. 1917 org 6- yl fj
fHf uhkhD# nj braglh. uha brhiro cWduhf nj
bragl ulhtJ a tnu. uha brhiro tuyhnyna s
ta nj bragltU tnu Mth.
yh t cl iy f nkhrkiljJ. Kj cyfngh nghJ
mtUF mt Ua irt cz ilfiy. vdnt mt 1919- ah
Udh. j 32- ta yf thUJ Lglh. mt kiwjhY
mt L brw fj bghf W mtiu idgLJwJ.
uhkhD# ifbaGJ uia nH fhzyh.

1.3.5 (.K. 325 - 265)

v cs mbyrhoah wjh.
t Elements vw jf _y f ugykhdh.
t mbyrhoah Mauhf gjh. o
w g U jkhd brf cL. mnua vGjhs
xUt, besnu kf vW t la (Tyre)
vD l wjh vW Tdh. ulhtJ br
t bkfhuh (Megare) wjh vW TwgLwJ.
17

 j Elements vw jf tiuaiwf bfhLUjh.

uL fSF ilna nenfhL tiua Ko.
ne nfhL tiuj, tl tiuj g FoUjh.
bfhLfgl nfhoF izahf xU tna xnu xU nfhLjh
tiua Ko vgjid FoUjh.
mtUila Elements vw jf 13 fshf J vGjglJ.
Kj 6 f toa (Plane Geometry) FjJ. mjhtJ Kj 3 f
Knfhz, izfu, brtf, rJu Mat mogil gfis, 4tJ
tl gf, tlij xoa fzFfis, 5tJ j
g, 6 tJ toa gaghL g. 7tJ bgU bghJ
tFfis, 8tJ kW 9tJ f bgUf bjhl (Geometry Progression)
g, 10 tJ j Kwh vfis 11, 12 MtJ f Kgkhz
toa g vGjglJ.
1482 M ML Elements- Kj g btahdJ. mj wF 1000 F
nkgl gf btahd. toa (Geometry) jij vd tiu FLt.
1.3.6 jhfu (.K 569 - 475)
t xU nuf fjayhsuhth. jhfu jij rhr (Mnesarchus)
jh jha(Pythais). t jhah brhj C rnkh (Samos). jhfu jij
X ahgh. jhfu j FHijgUt
ahghu jkhf mofo jijl bt
brth. jhfu gog wikahdt. t
ghl vGJtY, ghLtY yik ft. t,
tUila _W jJt Mafsh f
<fglh. m_t Kakhdt bgif
(Pharekydes) Mth. kw Utf xUt njy
(Thales). kbwhUt mdhnkl (Anaximader)
Mth. jhfu, j 18 M ta njyi[
rjh. mtiu vJ ehoF brW nkY
y fj fUJfis fFgo Tdh.
.K. 535 - jhfu vJ brwh. .K. 525 - v J bga kd
gilbaLjh. jhfui[ xU ifahf v ghnyhDF mDdh. .K 520-
jhfu ghnyhid L btna rnkhRF brwh. mF xU gia (The
18

Semi Circle) Wdh. g ghl fgnjhL mofo mua Tl fG

lkhf mikjJ. .K 518- jhfu rnkhi[ L bj jhF brwh.
jhfu xU kj kW jJt rhj g Wdh. mg mf
cWdf nrjd.
jhfu ir fj nfhghLf g (Mahematical Theory of Music) mf
ftd brYdh. mt wj ir nkij. ir f _y tU gzij cl
ey FatUF cjt gagLdh.
jhfu vf gfis g Muhjh. xiw
vf, uil vf, Knfhz vf, bra vf
(Perfect Numbers) g MuhJ xnth vQF X
jjik cL vwh. 10 vgJ X mjkhd v. J Kj

.
. .
. . .
. . . .

4 a vf TLjiy bfhlJ. j vfis

to Fjh xU Knfhz tot ilF.
ghnyhaf 1000 MLfSF Kng jhfu njwij bjJ
itUjd. nkY jhfu, Knfhz nfhzf TLj U
brnfhzfSF rk vW fljh. ijna bghJikgL n
gfKs gynfhz cnfhzf TLj 2n - 4 brnfhz vW,
btnfhzf TLj 4 brnfhzf vW Tdh.
t society at Croton vw fj fHfid cUthdh. cs
cWdfis Pythagoreans mjhtJ jhfu tnjhwf vW miHjd.
.K. 513 - t blnyh (Delos) brW j giHa Ma bgifbyRF
(Pherekyeles)gil brjh. Ma wF jUth MaUl gjh.
j Ma wj wF L Fnuhl tjh. .K .510- Fnuhl (croton)-
Ujtfsh ng (sybaris) jhfglJ. .K. 508- ML Fnuhl Uj
jhfu brhiro, irnyhdh (cylon) jhfglJ. jhfu bklhbghoa j
brwh. Fnuhl wj irnyh(cylon) uthj braf <Lglh. mt
jhfuRl izJ fj fHf gahw Udh. mt u thj
bra ofhjjh jhfu mtiu nrfiy. jdh nfhg bfhl
irnyh fj fHfij ojh.
t bklhbghoa (Meta Pontium) wjjhf TwgLwJ. y t
fHf ofgljh kdKilJ jbfhiy brJ bfhljhf TwgLwJ.
19

jhfu bklhbghoaUJ L Fnuhl tjh vW

TwgLwJ. t .K 480F wF thjjhf bjwJ.
1.3.7 fh (.. 1777 - 1855)
fh bu fh (Carl Friedrich gauss) vgt 1777
M ML u (Brunswick) vD C wjh.
t jij bfAh fh (Gebhard Gauss) t jh
blnuhah bg(Dorothea Benze) Mth. fh jij xU
T bjhyh. j jij fzL w Uj
jtiw fh _W taJ FHijahf UF nghnj
Udh. fh j Tikia j jhlnk
bgwjhf Tdh.
1784 M ML t g nrfglh.
t Ma d (Buttnner). t wikfis fL
tUfhf y jffis tutiHjh. Ma cjahsuhd kho
ghl (Martin Bartels) fhF j ftd brYdh. ghl fj tYe.
t fhr (Kazan) gfiyfHf nguhauhf gahdh.`
fh 1788- iliy f gy g nrjh. 1791- mtUF mu
go cjbjhif iljJ. iliy f wJ saikah fh
Collegium Carolinum vw Wtd nru njbjLfglh. 1792 Kj 1795 tiu
fh, l, y, byuh{ Mnah Muhfis gojjh. mt TL,
bgUf ruhr (Arithmetic - Geometric mean) iwa Muhf brjh. fh
uUJ nfhob# brwh. mF cs yf mtUF f
gaglJ. mF xGF gy nfhz mik g (construction of regular polygon) afj mogil njw %gz (Proof for fundametal theorem of Algebra) Matiw fLojh.
fh 1798 - ug Udh. 1807 tiu mF Ujh. fh
va 1801- f bgU gahdh. fhyf fh fj
midJ fY wikia %jh. Fghf convergence vw Fj ga
cikfis btbfhzjt Mth.
1.3.8 nfh ((Cauchy) (1789 - 1857)
1789- gh wj nfh bgnwh - uhnfh, nk
bkl Mt. tuJ jij xU tHfP. nfh f vikahd thifia
Udh. Mug fia mtuJ jijlUJ fwh. jDila
20

UlF mUfhik tJ tj yuh vw fjayhsiu rf

bdU fj nkijahd yhyh tUj nghJ yhyhi[ rf th
iljJ. nkY yuh nfh jijl, nfh fhy f bgw
Phahf tUth vW cW Tdh. nkY 17 taF K fj jff
vjid fhl ntlh vW Tdh. Mdh mjfhd fhuz
sfgliy.
18-M who W bengha MF tjJ, nfh
jij muR gia L y gh[&F brwh. nfh 1804- iliy
fia Kojh. 1805 M ML vnfh (Ecole) g bjh Eg f
nrjh. 1809-M ML bgha tYeuhf gahdh. 1810-M ML
brg (Cherbourg) brW bengha fg gil jsF cjdh.
nfhF Kj Kj bgUik nrjJ yuh bfhLj xU th
fzid mjhtJ (Convex Polyhedran is rigid) F gynfhz glf
foUfgoUF vgjF fljhF. nkY nfh njwkhdJ
y ciunfhid xU _oa wgughdJ foUfgoUF (any closed
surface is rigid) gFahf iw brjJ KakhdJ MF. ulhtJ milthf
bgkho ciunfhSF flikahF mjhtJ xbthU KG vQ
mf grkhf n, n - nfhz vf TLjyhf vGj Ko vgjhF. (Every Integer is the sum of atmost n, n-agonal numbers)
1814- nfh bjhifpL njwid bu fFG
rkjh. j wj tUlkhz 1857 tiu fj ma gy fLofis
bt cyFF bfhzjh.
Fghf
xUf (Convergence) jij nfh v
gh (divergence) jij fh Mth.
Ka F:
nehg grhdJ fj ghl w brgtfSF ilahJ vgJ
midtUF bjj xW. Mdh mjF izahf fj ghlF kLnk
bfhLfgL gR, fj khnkij Vg (Abel ) bga Vg gR
bfhLfgLwJ.
1.3.9 #h nea ((John Napier 1550 - 1617)
#h nea vw fj nkij 1550 M ML fhyh cs vogh
ef wjh. t bgnwh r mgh nea (Sir Archibald Napier) kW
n#d nghbt (Janet Bothwell). t btehLF brW f gwh. t
gw l g rahd jft ilfbgwiy.
21

nea kj rhj f mf <LghL

bfhoUjh.
dh nea Mt
kjfUJ fjF khaJ. mf yf
vfis bgUf, tFf, fd fhz mf neu
njitgLwJ.
vdnt jid vikgLj X
mltizia jahf ntL vgij nehfkhf
bfhL braglh. 20 ML fhy MF 1614 M
ML fzLj ga Mirifici Logarithm Orum Canonis
Descriptio vw jfij btlh. jjf
37 gf sfK. 90 gf klif mltiz, thda, aa, aF
iy kW n#hl Ma Jiwf MF cjwJ.
My fj nkij bA (Henry Briggs) vgt nea klif
mltizia vikgL gagLj vdh. blnlh jf
btpoF vgt neaiu rJ mt fL oig
ghuho j Ugij bjjh. vgt fUij nea tuntwh,
neaU, vgtU izJ klif mltizia vikgLd.
nkY v gilfis bfhL bgUf ms nfh xiw nea
fLojh. nea gilf bjhlfg fj bgUfYF W
gagLjgL tUwJ.
fwit
ehLfS fjK

ajF fj nkijf

ghnyhaf

Maglh

vaf

ukFjh

nuff

ghfuh

nuhkhaf

uhkhD#

df

#ghaf

jhfu

af

fh

mnuaf

nfh

#h nea

fw bra
fj nkijf glbjhF(Album) jahj.
22

myF 2

vf mikf
(Number System)
2.1

mKf

vQ vGJ fbzd jF. vf Phd wnfhby

va fja EiHth. ntj fhyfUnj af
vfis dfis gagL tUwd. nkY gfh vfis
gHf <LgLd. Mdh nuff gF vfis kLnk vfshf.
gfh vfis vfiy vW fUd. Mdh af gF vf kW
gfh vfis vfshf fUa fhuzdhnyna a (0) vw vid
Fiw vfis kW Ko ()id fhz KojJ. Fghf ukFjh
Kj Kiwahf Fiw vfis mKf brjh. t fl vw thijfhf
Fiw Fpoid (-) gagLdh. kW va mogil brafshd +, , x, Mat fis VgLdh. 766 A.D- a vQUfshd
(yff) 0,1,2, ... 9 Matiw mu fj tYdf ghjh jiiklJF
bfhL brW gagLj bjhld. a v Kiw nuhkha v
Kiwidl vjhf wjhf mikj fhuzdh nuhkha mu
Mizia nuhkha ahghu r_fd a v Kiwia gagLj
bjhld vgJ tuyhW.

2.2

a vf ( Natural Numbers)) myJ vQ vf

(Counting Numbers))
fj mogilahf va miktjh midJ tif vf.
va ehF mogil braghLf vthW mikwJ vgjid fhgJ
mta. nkY (wbkhfUJ) My fUJ jHhf br
nghJ mj bghU khwh tz ghJ bfhs ntoaJ f mta. v
fj jf Koahj My thijf finite, infinite, countable, uncountable MF. F neuoahf bghU bfhlh finite kW countable uL
xnu khahf infinite kW uncountable Mait xnu khahf njhW.
Mdh it KY ntwhdit vgjid bjJ bfhL vf ga
fUF bryyh. a vfSF (Natural Number) bdhU bga vQ
vf (Counting numbers) MF. eh 1,2,3, ... vd aghf vQtjF
gagLJtjh jF bga tu fhuzkhwJ. mgoahdh Countable vw
thij cshj j bghU vd? mjhtJ vljf MF.
mjhtJ xU v TwgL nghJ mj mLj v brhyToa tif
23

mikkhdh mjid vljfJ vdyh. Mdh vljf tif

(Countable) cs xU mik xU v brhygL nghJ mLj v
brhyToa tif Uf ntoa mtaiy. J vljfjfhd
(Countable) xU cjhuznka tiuaiw my. nghJ xU a v Tdh
mLj a v brhy Kokh? rakhf Ko vdnt, a vf
vljf (Countable) tifia rhjJ. mgoahdh a vf
vif v mlf Toajh? rakhf iy. mjhtJ a vf
vif vylfhJ. mjidna My infinite vnwh. rakhf
a vf vyla tifia rhjjy. Mdh it vylfh
vzjf (myJ Kowh vzjf) (Countably infinite) tifia rhjJ.
mthwh KoW vzjf (Countably finite) myJ vyla
vzjf tifF cjhuz Tl Kokh?
10 vw a vF TLjyhf 35 vw a vF Fiwthf
cs a vf bjhF vw cjhuzjid vLJ bfhsyh.
a vfSF if KG vf (Positive integers) vw bgaU cL.
mjhtJ fz FLnthkhdh
N = {1,2,3,...} MF.
a vf fz Kj cW 1 vd bj. fil cWid Tl
aYkh? ayhJ. vdnt J xU Kowh (Infinite) bjhF MF. xU cW bj
gr mLj cWid Tl aY.
nkY cW I F Kija v mjhtJ K ilahJ. vdnt a
vf fzF viy (Lower bound) cL. Mdh nk viy (Upper
Bound) ilahJ.
a vf fz mogil brafis gagLj aYkh
vgjid ghngh.
U a vf TLj vnghJ a vzhfnt UF vgjid
mnth.
U a vf bgUf vnghJ a vzhfnt UF
vgij mnth.
U vf ahr mjhtJ xU a vUJ bdhU a
vid fFnghJ foghf mJ a vzhf UFkh?
Uf ntoa mtaiy.
c.

5 - 5 = 0. F 0 xU a v iy.
3-7 = -4. F -4 xU a v iy.
24

xU a vid bdhU a vzh tFjh ilF v

foghf a vzhf UFkh? Uf ntoa mtaiy.
a v 1-I a v 2- tFFnghJ ilgJ

1
MF. J a
2

v my.
F

xU Koid (result) jtW vW %f xU vLJfhL nghJkhdJ.

mnj neu Koid xU vLJfhL _y %f TlhJ.

Kothf N vw a vf fz Tl kW bgUf Ma
braf kLnk KGikahf bragL.

a vf fj braid gagLJnghJ Kj v
bgajhf ulhtJ v ajhf gagLjglikia
fhf.

a vf tFj braid gagLJ nghJ Kj

cWid ulh cW bfhL tFFnghJ a tUkhW
gagLjglikia fhf.

a vf 0 vw (yfid) cUid eh gagL

cnsh. J yfkhf lbgwnj ju vzhf lbgwiy
vgjid ftd bfhs.

0 vgJ vzhf yfkhf gagho csJ.

2 . 3 Fiwaw KG vf (Non-negative Integers)

0 vw v, Fiw KG vfis fLoF Kd fLofgl
vzhF. xU vif Mug iy 0 vd bfhsgL. vQtjF
vJ iyba mj vif Ko 0 MF. fjayhsf 0-I
vzhf fUJnghJ fjayhsuynjh 0 F iy vw bghU
bfhtjh 0 -I vzy vW brhtJKL. mJ ray.
eh Vfdnt vQtjF gaglToajh a vfSF vQ
vf vw bga cL vgjid ghnjh. a vfis itJ
vifia bjhlF K bjhlf iyid brhy ayhJ. vdnt
bjhlf iyid mjhtJ 0 vw vid a vfSl nrF nghJ
vQtjfhd njit KGik milwJ. mjhtJ {0,1, 2, ......)vw fz
ilwJ. F viyahf FlgLs 0 vgJ vzhF. j
vf mikid My whole numbers myJ non-negative intergers vW
TWt. j Fiwaw KG vf vW FLtnj bghU bghjjhf
UF.
25

a vf (myJ) vQ vf (myJ) if KG vifis

N = {1,2,3........} vd FLnghJ Fiwaw if KG vfis
W = {0,1,2,3,.....} vd FLnth.
nghJ W- ehF mogil brafis bragLJ nghJ Tl kW
bgUf kLnk KGikahf Fiwaw KG vid bfhLFnk ju fj
kW tFjiy KGikahf bragLj ayhJ. mjhtJ
U Fiwaw KG vf TLj xU Fiwaw KG vzhf
U Fiwaw KG vf bgUf xU Fiwaw KG vzhf
UF.
U Fiwaw KG vf ahr xU Fiwaw KG vzhf Uf
ntoa mta iy.
U Fiwaw vf tFj xU Fiwaw KG vzhf Uf
ntoa mtaiy.
F
(1) (a) a vf vthW fj nghJ Kj v bgajhf
ulh v jhf vLJ bfhnwhnkh mthnw Fiwaw
KG vfY vLJbfhnwh.
(b) a vf vthW tFj nghJ Kj cWid ulh
cW bfhL tFF nghJ akhf UFkhW vLJ
bfhnwhnkh mthnw Fiwaw KG vfY vLJ
bfhnwh.
(2)

Fghf 0 vw v l bgWtjh

0 1 0
, , nghw tFjf Ka
1 0 0

gF twJ.
y mogil nfhghLf
(1) aij ayh Fiwaw KG vdh tFF nghJ a
ilF.
(2) ayh Fiwaw vid ajh tFF nghJ xU v
ilgiy. jid tFf tiuaWfgliy
(undefined) vW FLnth. ca fj j gaghL f
KakhdJ.
(3) aij ajh tFFnghJ neuoahf xU v ilgiy
tFf mDkfglhj (not permitted) bra vW jid
FLnth. Mdh ca fj (calculus) j tot f
KaJt thjjhF.
nkFl _W fUJfis flthW Muhayh.
26

xU bgUf TF bjhlila uL tFj TWf cL vd ekF

bj. mjhtJ
6 x 7 = 42 vw bgUf TF =

42
= 7;
6

5 x 4 = 20 vw bgUf TF =

42
= 6 vd
7

20
20
= 4;
= 5 nghw tFj TWfS
5
4

cL.
nghJ fhQ bgUff U tFj TWfis fhngh.
1x0=0

2x0=0

13 x 0 = 0

125 x 0 = 0

(a)

0
= 0;
1

0
=0
2

0
=0
13

0
=0
125

(b)

0
=1
0

0
=2
0

0
= 13
0

0
= 125
0

(a)-go aij ayhj KG vfsh tFf ilgJ

akhF.
(b)-go aij ajh tFf gy kf ilwd. jid
tiuaWfgliy vW tFf FlhY ca tFf jid
njubgwhj v (indeterminate) vW FLt.
1 2 3
1
, , , ....F KG v cL vd vLJbfhlh = x vd MF.
0 0 0
0
mjhtJ jid bgUf gydhf vGJnghJ 1 = 0 x x vd mik. J
VWbfhsToajy.
nkY

1 2 3
, , nghwtF izahf vj vQ ilahJ. tiw
0 0 0
bghJthf Ko vW brhyhY vw FplhY FLt. Fghf
Ko myJ vgJ xU vzy. xU FpL (symbol) kLnk.
vdnt

vdnt

0
= njubgwhjJ (indeterminate)
0
0
=0
1

1
= tiuaWfglhjJ (not defined) MF.
0
Fghf

1
I vdFLtij d ghfyh
0
27

2 . 4 KGf (Integers)
Fiwaw vfis xU nfho rk u UFgoahf fhQ
tif FLnth.
+

F 0 vgJ bjhlf iyia FLwJ. xbthU if KG vQ

rku 0-F tygfkhf mikJsJ.
0F lgfkhf rkuf cs 1,2,3..........Ma vfis vthW
FLtJ.
3

F 0 MdJ lgfkhf bjhlf iyid FLwJ.

nkfhQ uL mikfis xnu nfhL mikghf khWnghJ
tygf mikJs if KG vfS lgf mikJs vfS xnu
kh mikJ LwJ. Mdh lgf mikJs vf tygfF
vir mikJsjh, mbtfSF Fiw (v) Fpoid
gagL xnu nfho mikfyh. mjhtJ,
0

F 0F lgf mikJs vfshd -1,-2,-3,........Mait Fiw KG

vf MF. Fghf 0 vgJ if KG vf bjhlf iyahf Fiw
KG vf Ko iyahf mikwJ. vdnt 0I if KG v vnwh
myJ Fiw KG v vnwh brhl ayhJ. Mdh KG vf fz
if KG vf, Fiw KG vf kW 0 mlF. 0 vgJ xU KG v Mdh
ifky. Fiwky.
_W tifahd vf nrif fzid KG vf (KGf
vW y FLt) (Integers)vg. mjid Z vW FLt.
Z = {... -3, -2, -1, 0,1,2,3...}
KGvf nfhL mik

MF.
28

a vf bdhU bga if KG vf (positive integers) vd

nghJ bjatUwJ. jid vGJ Fpo N (or) Z+ vd Flyh.
KGf fzUJ Fiw vf fzid lh
ilfToa fz {0,1,2,3,.....} MF. vdnt jid Fiwaw KG vf (Nonnegative Integers) vnwh.
Fiw KG vfis fz {......, -4, -3, -2, -1} vd vGjyh
mjhtJ
N (m) Z+ = {1,2,3......}
W = {0,1,2,3.........}
Z = {....., -3,-2,-1,0,1,2........)
Z- = {.......,-3,-2,-1}
akw KG vf fz (Non-zero intergers)
Z - {0} = { ........-3,-2,-1,1,2,3,.....} MF.
vyh fzf cWfS tir gL vGjgLsij ftf.
nkfl vf fzf
1.
2.
3.
4.

Kj cW
fil cW
viy
nk viy

tiw Muha.
nghJ va mogil brafis (arithmetic operations) KGf
(integers) fz ghngh.
a vf kW Fiwaw KG vf fz Tl kW bgUf
braf kLnk KGikahd it jjd. fjY, tFjY KGikahd
fis juiy.
nghJ fjYF, KGf fz KGikahd id bfhLgij
fhzyh.
U KGf(integers) TLj kW bgUf gy vnghJ KG
vzhf UF. nkY U KGf ahrK xU KG vzhfnt
UF.
U KGf tFj foghf KG vzhf Uf Kokh?
(jnghJ ajh tFgjid jngh)
Uf ntoa mtaiy.
29

2 3 =

2
3

47 =

4
7

F :
jKW vfis(Rational Numbers)g bjahj gr KG vf
tFjiy gagLJ nghJ eilKiw if KG v kLnk ilahf
tUgoahd fzFf gagLjlikia fhf.

2 . 5 jKW vf (Rational Numbers)

nkFLs U cjhuzfY U cWfS KGf
vfshfnt csd. Mdh KothdJ KGf vzhf iy vgjid
mnwh. jid t bra eh Vfdnt nkgL bfhL tU
vf fzid nkY nkgLj Ka brnth.
j vwh ekF bj. xU vid j mogil vGj
Kokhmjid jKW v vdyh. mjhtJ jKW v vgJ

p
vw
q

jKW mogil [p,q vgit KG vf (integers) Fghf q 0] vGj ay

1 3 4
ntL. vyh dfis cjhuzfshf
p
vLJ bfhsyh. , , vw
2 2 7
q
4 1 3
, ,
df jKW vfSF cjhuzf. nkY
nghw
7 2 2
dfS jKW vfSF cjhuzf. jKW vf fzid
Q vW FLt. mjhtJ

Q=

: p,q vgit KGf, q 0

M. vyh KGfis

} vyh KGfS jKW vfsh?

p
, q = 1 vd vGjyh. vdnt vyh KGf myJ Z-
q

cs vyh cWfS jKW vfshF. Fghf 0 vw vQ jKW

vzhF. jKW vf fzUJ (Q) if vfis kL jJ
vLF nghJ mj fzid if jKW vf vngh. jid Q+ vd
FLnth. akw jKW vf bjhFid Q - {0} vd vGj
ntL.
nghJ jKW vf fz ehF mogil brafis
ghngh.
U jKW vf TLj xU jKW v MF.
30

U jKW vf ahr xU jKW v MF.

U jKW vf bgUf xU jKW v MF.
U jKW vf tFj xU jKW vzhf Uf ntLkh?
akw U jKW vf tFj xU jKW vzhf
foghf UF.
a vw jKW v gF tUnghJ mij tFj
0

tiuaWfglhj xwhfnth 0 njubgwhjjhfnth mikJ L. vdnt

0
akw jKW vf bjhF mjhtJ Q - (0)- tFj KGikahf
bragL. Q - {0}- TlY fjY KGikahf bragLkh? braglhJ. V?
nghJ vyh a vfS (N). vyh Fiwaw if GK vfS (W),
vyh KGfS (Z) vyh dfS KW vfshF. Mdh xU jKW
v xU a vzhf Uf ntoa mta iy.
xU jKW vxU a vzhfnth xU Fiwaw if KG
vzhfnth Uf ntoa mtaiy.
xU jKW v xU KG vzhf Uf ntoa mtaiy.
xU jKW v xU dkhf Uf ntoa mtaiy.
8
0-I if kW Fiwaw jKW
16v vW Tl Kokh?
jKW v l tot (Standard form)
xU jKW v l tot (Standard Form) vgJ
(1) gFahdJ if vzhf Uj ntL.
(2) gFF bjhFF 1-I ju bghJ tF Uj TlhJ.
4
4
vgj ltot jKW v 5
5

vgj ltot jKW v

1
2

4 4 4
,
,
Ma totf xnu jKW vidna
5 5
5
FwJ vgjid ftd bfhf.

nkY

vnfho jKW vf
31

7
3

-2

-1

1
3

4
3

1
2

jidF
uL jKW vfSF il bdhU jKW v UFkh?
mthbw UjKW vfSF il vjid jKW vf
UF.
jKW vf f Kakhd g
vjbthU jKW vid U tiff jrk to vGjyh. mjhtJ
1.

KoW jrk vif

2.

Koyh jrk vif (L U tif)

(i)

p
- q MdJ 2
q

(m)

(m)

2 kW 5 Ma gfh fhufsh Md

vzhf U (cjhuzkhf 4 = 2 x 2, 25 = 5 x 5, 8 = 2 x 2 x 2)

p
- jrk
q

tot cs jrk yff Kowjhf mik.

vLJfhL

3
4

= 0.75;

1
2

= 0.5;

2
5

= 0.4;

5
8

= 0.625

(ii) q-MdJ 2 (m) 5 yhj VnjD xU fhuia bfhoUFkhdh

(6 = 2x3, 12 = 2x2x3, 15= 3x5)

p
- jrk tot cs jrk yff
q

Kowjhf mik.
Mdh xU Fl yff L L mJnt bjhlJ tU.
c..

1
= 0.333.... = 0. 3
3

2
= 0.181818.... = 0.1 8
11
1
= 0.142857142857.... = 0.142857
7

1
= 0.08333.... = 0.08 3
12

2
= 0.1333.... = 0.1 3
15
32

3
= 0.230769230769.... = 0.230769
13

tUJ eh bjJ bfhtJ, vjbthU KW

v i d ( i ) KoW jrk vif myJ (ii) Fl yff
L L lbgW tif Kotw jrk vif bfhl jrk
to vGjyh.
nkY thW bfhLfgl jrk totfis

p
vw jKW v
q

toY kh mikfyh. vLJfhLfis ghngh.

0.75 =

75
3
=
100 4

0.675 =
0.35 =
0.431 =
0.142857 =

675 27
=
100 40
16
45
431
999
1
(vthW ilwJ)
7

0.142857 vgj jKW v tot = ?

x = 0.142857
mjhtJ . x = 0.142857142857...

... (1)

jid 1000000M bgUf(V)

1000000x = 142857.142857142857

... (2)

(2) - (1) 999999 x = 142857

142857 1
=
999999 7

nghJ
0.1512034189......vw jrk toid jKW vzhf vGj
Kokh? KoahJ v, V?

2.6 jKwh vf (Irrational Numbers)

2 = 1.414 vgJ rah?
3 = 1.732 vgJ rah?
33

r v (1.414)2 = 2

kW

(1.732)2 = 3
vd rahf ilFkh? nkbrhd U kfS rahd kf my.
mit njhuhakhd kf. mthbw

2 , 3 nghwt kid jrk

to
(i) Kos jrk yffis bfhljhfnth myJ
(ii) Kotw jrk yff Mdh Fl yff L L
tUkhW vGj aYkh?
rakhf KoahJ. mthW vGj KoahJ v
kfis

2,

3 nghwt

p
(p, q vgit KGf q 0) vw to vGj ayhJ. mjhtJ
q

2,

3 nghwit jKW vf my vW bghU.

F

2 - kghdJ 1 F 2 F ilna csJ vgJ bj. Mdh

p
tot vGj ayiy.
q
p
3 - kghdJ 1 kW 2F ilna csJ vgJ bj. Mdh q
tot vGj ayiy.
mjhtJ xU viz

p
(p,q vgit KGf q 0) vw j tot
q

vGj KoahJ v mjid jKwh v vnwh.

j jKwh vf vif v (finite) mlFkh?
mlfhJ.
f Ka F
jKW vf bjhF vljf tifia rhjJ MF. nkY
Kowh tifia rhjJ MF. Fghf N xU v brhygLkhdh mLj
v brhy Ko Q mthW ayhJ vD fj nfhghLfgo J
vljfjhdJ (countable) MF. mjdh countable vgj
jHhfid rahf J bfhs ntL. j tiuaiwahdJ
cafj jh gagLjgL vgjid id bfhf.
vylfh (infinite) jKwh vf csd. Mdh vjbthU
jKwh vzhf UjhY mjDila njhuha k _y v nfho
mj lid nfhoLfhl aY.
34

-3

.9

-2

-1

0 rakhf jKwh v iy vgJ bj. 2 + 3 ,

5,

2 7

nghwit jKwh vfns. (V?) nghJ jKwh vf fz 4

mogil brafis gagLJnth.
uL jKwh vfiz Todh jKwh v vnghJ
ilFkh?
uL jKwh vfis fjh jKwh v vnghJ ilFkh?
uL jKwh vfis bgUdh jKwh v vnghJ
ilFkh?
uL jKwh vfis tFjh jKwh v vnghJ ilFkh?
j ehF dhfSF il : ilf ntoa mtaiy vgnj.
V?
2+ 3 , 2- 3 Ma uL jKwh vfns. tiw TLnghJ
ilF 4 vgJ jKW v.
4+ 3 , 5+ 3 Mait jKwh vfns. tiw fF nghJ ilgJ
-1 vw jKW vnz MF.
2+ 3 , 2- 3 Ma uL jKwh vfis bgUF nghJ ilf
ToaJ 1 vw jKW vnz.
4 + 2 3 , 2 + 3 Matit jKwh vf. Mdh j tFj 2 vw
jKW vzhF.
vdnt jKwh vf fz 4 brafS KGikahf bragLj
ayhJ. f thf eh milj Utifahd v bjhFf
(1)

jKW vf

(2) jKwh vf
F
jKwh vf bjhF vzjfjy (uncountable) tifia
rhjJ. j cshj mj bjantLbk cafjF bry
ntL.
35

2.7

bkbaf ( Real Numbers))

jKW kW jKwh vf bjhF bkbaf (Real Numbers)

MF. F bk vw thij cshj bghU vdbt xU v
nfho eh FL vF cfj lid njhuhakhfnth, myJ
rahfnth Fl aY vW bghU.
vdntjh v nfhoid bkba nfhL (Real line) vg. Jtiu eh
ghj vf vJthD mtiw bkba nfho Rofhl aY.
thW Rofhl Koahj vf csdth? M. mtiw fybgf
(Complex numbers) vd FLthf. mj vfis jnghJ eh jngh.
bkbaf bjhFid R vW FLt. bkba nfhL

MF.
akw bkbaf bjhFid R - {0} vd FLt.
if bkbafis R+ vdFLt
nghJ R- 4 tifahd mogil brafis ghfyh.
Tl, fj, bgUf Mait KGikahf R- bragL. mjhtJ
U bkbafis Todh ilgJ bkbazhF.
U bkbafis fjh ilgJ bkbazhF.
U bkbafis bgUdh ilgJ bkbazhF.
Mdh 0- xU bkba. Mjyh tFj nghJ KGikahd
ilfhJ. 0-I dh tFjY KGikahf bragL.
mjhtJ, R - {0}- tFj KGikahf bragL.
R-{0}- Tl, fj braf KGikahf bragLkh? braglhJ. V?
vj U bkbafS (x, y) fhQ VnjD xU tir F
cgoUF. mjhtJ (i) x < y or
(ii) x =y or (iii) x >y
bfhLfgL bk vf bjhFid VW Kfkhfnth wF
Kfkhfnth tirgL vGj aY. jid tir g (order relation) vg.

2 . 8 w v bjhFf
1) uil vf (Even Numbers)
2) xiw vf (Odd Numbers)
36

3) gfh vf (Prime Numbers)

4) gF vf (Composite numbers)
nkFl ehF tif v tiffis ghF Kd tFgh, tF,
fhuf g bjUf ntL. tFj nfhghoid idgLJnth.
tFgLv
D
=
d
tFF v
Divident = quotient x divisor + remainder (i.e) D = q x d + r
F D vgJ tFgL v
d vgJ tFgh myJ tFF v
q vgJ <;

r vgJ

F Fghf d-I My divisor vW TWnwh.

bghJthf X vid xU tFF v tFFkhdh mj
tFF vid tF vW jY divisor My vW FLnth.
Mdh tFj nfhgho cs divisor vw brh tF vw bghU
tuhJ. mj jHhf tFF v myJ tFgh MF. vdnt My
divisor vw brhYF lnfg tFgh, tF vw bghUf csd.
vyh tFfS mbtQF tFghdhf UF. Mdh tFgh
tFahf Uf ntoa mta iy.
nkfhQ ehF tifahd w vf bjhFf xU Fl v
fzid (Number set) bghWJ tiuaWfgL.
2.8.1 uil kW xiw vf
xU KG v 2 vw vzh tFgL nghJ 0 Mf U mbt
uil v MF. j tiuaiwgo N,W,Z- uil vf bjhF
khWgL. mjhtJ
N- uil vf {2,4,6,........} MF.
W- uil vf {0,2,4,6,....} MF.
Z- uil vf {...,-4,-2,0,2,4,....} MF.
xU KG v 2 vw vzh tFgLnghJ 0 Mf yhk U
mbt xiw v MF.
j tiuaiwgo
37

N- xiw vf {1,3,5......} MF.

W- xiw vf {1,3,5,....} MF
Z- xiw vf {...-3, -1, 1, 3, 5........} MF.
vdnt xiw kW uil vfis KGf (integers) myJ mj
cfzf kLnk tiuaWfyh.
eh Vfdnt tF vw brhid ghnjh. mjhtJ xU vzhdJ
xU tFgL vzh tFgLkhdh mjid tF vnwh.
mthbw vjbthU vF 1, mj vQ vnghJ tFfshfnt
UF vgJ bj.
fhu vgJ 1 , mj vid jj w tFfshF.
vLJfhlhf 18 vw v tFf 1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 18 MF. Mdh
fhuf 2, 3, 6, 9 kLnk MF.
2.8.2 gfh vf kW gF vf ((Prime Numbers and Composite Numbers))
gfh kW gF vfis a vf fz kLnk tiuaWfgL
vgjid ftd bfhf.
xU a vF 1 kW mj v Ma U tFf kLnk U
mj a v xU gfh vzhF (Prime Number). mjhtJ 1-F bgjhd xU
a vQF fhuf yhk U mj v gfh vzhF.
mthbw W gfh v vd? 2-MF. jF 1,2 Ma U
tFf csd. Mdh fhuf iy. gfh vf bjhFid w v
bjhF khahf KY mJ bfhS tif vGj ayhJ. Mdh
mLjLj gfh vfis Tl aY. UD {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23,
29,...} vd gfh vfis vGjyh.
Fghf uil gfh v 2 vgJ kLnk csJ vgij ftf. w
midJ xiwgil gfh vf.
uLF nkyhd tFfis bfhl xU a vid gF vf
vnwh.
mthbw W gF v vd?
4. MF j tFf 1, 2, 4 MF. mjhtJ jF 2 vw fhu csJ.
nghJ a vf fz X v, gfh v iyba mjid
gF v vW Tl aYkh?
1 vw a v gF vzh? gfh vzh? jF xnu xU tF kLnk
csjh jid gF vzhfnth myJ gfh vzhfnth fUj ayhJ.
38

vdnt 1-I jj a vf X v gfh v iyba mjid

gF v vdyh.
gF vf, gfh vf kW 1- bjhF xU a vf fzkhf
mik.
F gfh vgj bghU gFf ayhj mjhtJ bgUfyhf vGj
ayhj mjhtJ fhuf bgUfyhf vGj ayhj vgjhF.
gF vgJ gFf aY mjhtJ fhuf bgUfyhf vGj aY
vW bghU. gF vf {4, 6, 8, 9, 10...} MF.
F
1.

U bjhlj a vf gfh vfshf Uf aYkh? mthbw

ytiw Fl aYkh?

2.

vyh xiw vfS gfh vfsh?

gF vf fzF kW gfh vf fzF jahf

fzbga ilahJ.

4.

uil vf fzF xiwgil vf fzF jahf

fzbga ilahJ.

5.

vjbthU gF vid gfh fhuf bgUfyhf vGj Kokh? M.

6.

uil v + uil v
uil v - uil v
uil v x uil v
uil v uil v

7.

N- cs uil vf 4 tif mogil braf vit KGikahf

bragL?
W- cs uil vf 4 tif mogil braf vit KGikahf
bragL?
Z- cs uil vf 4 tif mogil braf vit KGikahf
bragL?

8.

xiw
xiw
xiw
xiw

9.

N - cs xiw vf 4 tif mogil braf vit KGikahf

bragL?

v + xiw v
v - xiw v
v x xiw v
v xiw v

uil v
uil v (Z-)
uil v
xU KG vzhfnt Uf ntoa
mtaiy.

uil v
uil v (Z-)
xiw v
KG vzhf Uf ntoa
mtaiy.

W- cs xiw vf 4 tif mogil braf vit KGikahf

bragL?
39

Z- cs xiw vf 4 tif mogil braf vit KGikahf

bragL?
10.

xiw v + uil v
xiw v - uil v
xiw v x uil v
xiw v uil v

xiw v
xiw v (Z-)
uil
xU KG vzhf Uf ntoa
mtaiy

2 . 9 bt glf v mikf (Venn Diagram)

Jtiu eh ghj v mikfis btglf _y vjhf J
bfhsyh, F
N W Z Q R

N
0

1, 2, 3, ...

Z
0

Z
W

(or)

Z+

N
irrational

1
prime

rational
Q

composite

40

odd

odd
even

ev

Z
odd
Q

even

Z
W
N

irrational

2 . 1 0 a (0) kW 1 ga wf
0-I g
(1) 0-X yfkhf vzhf bragL.
(2) 0- W - viy.
(3) 0- ifaw, Fiwaw KG v.
(4) 0- vgJ W,Z- X uil v
(5) 0-I vj vnzhL TodhY mj v k khWtiy
(mjdh Tl jid rk cW vg)
(6) 0-I vj vUJ fjhY mj v khWtiy.
(7) 0-I +0, -0 vW va vGJtJ cfjjy.
(8) 0-I vj akw v bfhL tFjhY ank ilF.
(9) 0-I vj akw v bfhL bgUdhY ank ilF.
(10) 0-I 0 bfhL tFjh njubgwhj tot (indeterminate form)
ilF.
(11) akw vid 0 bfhL tFgJ tiuaWfglhj (undefined)
xwhF. ca fj + myJ - vd lij bghWJ bghU
bfhsgL.
(12) 0 xU jKW v.
1-I g
(1)

1-vgJ a vf viy.

(2) 1- xU gF vQ my gfh vQ my.

41

(3) 1- N, W, Z- xU xiwgil v.
(4) vj vid 1 M bgUdhY mj v khWtiy.
(mjdh 1-I bgUf rk cW vg)
(5) vj vid 1- tFjh mj v khWtiy.
(6) 1 xU KG, jKW, bkba.

2.11

Ko () vwh vd?

a#& ntj (BC 400-300 ) If you remove a part from infinity or add a part to
infinity still what remains is infinity vd FlgLsJ.
vw Fplhd infinity y bkhahd infinitas vw brhUJ
(bghU - unboundedness - viyyh) tjjhf TwgLwJ. ca fj
1 2
vf gagho nghJ ( , .....MatF izahd) Ko (infinity) -I
0 0
mofo ifahsgL. J v khahd njhwij bfhLjhY w
vfis nghW jid ifahSj ayhJ. Koyh uF Koyh
neuF Koyh msF Tl fj vw Koia gagLJt.
j l tiuaWfgl vj kid nrjhY dhY mj jik
khwhjJ. xU bkba mythf UD mJl vj bkbaiz
nrjhY myJ fjhY mJ Mfnt UF. vw Fpoid #h
th (John Wallis - 1655) vw fjayhs mKfgLajhf fj
ya TWwJ.
msl Koahj, viyyh, fbga nghw bghUgLgo
mikwJ jF - FpL nrJ vGJtJ cL. bk v nfhoid tiu
nghJ -
+ vd FlgL. if vf viyyh gFid +
0
vW Fiw vf viyyh gFid - vW FlgL.
tygf viyyh uid + vdbfhlh lgf viyyh
uid - vdbfhsyh. nkny cs viyyh cauid + vd
bfhlh nH cs viyyh jhid - vdbfhsyh.
rhjhuz tFj _y -id ma Ka brnth. tFj vgJ
bjhlahd fj Kiw vgJ ekF bj. F eh gagLJ 0 -I
8
2
vgjid fhz, vjid Kiw 8-UJ 2 ff aY vgjid flh
nghJkhdJ. 8 fis 2 f j vjid FHijfSF bfhLf
aY?

vzhf fUj ntLnk ju iy vw bghUgLgo fUjTlhJ.

42

1) 8 -2 = 6
xU FHijF bfhLjhW.
D bfhLf aYkh?
M. D 6 f csd.
bfhLf.
2) 6-2 = 4
uL FHijfSF bfhLjhW.
D bfhLf aYkh?
M. D 4 f csd.
bfhLf.
3) 4-2 = 2.
_W FHijfSF bfhLjhW.
D bfhLf aYkh?
M. D 2 f csd.
bfhLf.
4) 2-2 = 0.
ehF FHijfSF bfhLjhW.
D bfhLf aYkh?
ayhJ.
V? J lJ.
mjhtJ if UF tiu bfhLJ bfhnl Ufyh.
bkhj vjid FHijfSF bfhLfgl KojJ?
4 FHijfSF.
1
vw tFjiy fj Kiwgo
0
ghnghkh? if cs f vts?
1
mgoahdh nkbrhd go

xU FHijF bfhLfgl ntoa vts?

0 (J v. khwhf iy my)
Kj FHijF 0 bfhLj d vts j UF?
1 0 = 1
j csjh?
M.
mthbw mLj FHijF bfhLfyhkh?
M.
43

ulh FHijF bfhLj d j vts UF?

1 0 = 1
j csjh?
M.
mthbw mLj FHijF bfhLfyhkh?
M.
thW (1) akhFtiu bfhLJbfhnl Ufyh. vnghJ
akhF.
vnghJ akhfhJ.
mgoahdh vts FHijfSF 0 bfhLf aY.
msyh FHijfSF bfhLJbfhnl Ufyh. mj
msyh vifia eh vw FpL _y FLnwh.
nkY cglj Ko g
zkj: zj
zh zKjanj
za zkhjha
znk thtZanjanj
vdTwglLsJ,
mjhtJ,
mJ uz, J uz; uzW uz njhWwJ.
uzW uzij mfdhY vRtJ uznk F uz vgJ
id FLwJ. nkY UJ vj Fl kid mfdhY
k khWtiy vd mf.

2.12 bjhl jik (uL tifid F gF):

bghJthf u (Complement) vw fUid gy jtwhf gagL
tUtij fhzyh.
cw (interior) fSF u (complement) vdbtW nflh clnd
btw (exterior) f vW g brhtJ a.
mjhtJ cw yhj f vitbawh clnd btw f
vW il Tl ayhJ. cwid, btwid izF viy
fis kwJ Lnwh. j viyfjh uL tif fSF
ilna bjhl jikia bfhLwJ.
44

exterior

interior

boundary

Fiwaw KG vf vwh clnd if KG vf vW jtwhf J

bfhL uL tifid izF 0-I kwJ Lnwh.
mwhl ff bjhl jikia ghfyh. cns - btna vw
U iyfis fToa myJ izf Toa xU gF cns
KogFahf mikJ btna bjhlfkhf mik. gf - u vw U
iyfis fToa neugF (khiybghGJ) myJ izf Toa xU
neu gF gf bghG Kothf u bghG Mugkhf miktij
fhzyh.
xU o thrgoid o cgF vnwh myJ o
btwF vnwh brhy ayhJ. thrgoahdJ o cns, o
btna Ma gFfis izF lkhf miktij fhzyh.
nj nghWjh if vfis Fiw vfis izF vzhf
myJ F vzhf 0 miktij fhzyh. mjdhjh 0 ifky;
Fiwky.
nkbrhd cjhuzfgo ua nfl tuf
nfhghodhnyna jtwhld vgjid bjJ bfhsyh.

fj

vdnt u vgJ v (opposite) vgJ xwy.

2 . 1 3 vwh vd?
fj lbgW xU Kakhd v MF. J xU nuf vGJ
MF. a n#h vgtuh 1706 - mKfgLjgL ydh
gaghoF tjjhf Muhahsf FLwhf. y lf j
vid tl kh (circular constant) Moa kh (Archimedes Constant), Ynlh v (Ludolophss number) vW FLthf.
vgJ xU tl RwsF mj lF cs jkhF.
C
F C vgJ tl Rws. d vgJ tl l.
d
tl msid khdhY - k khWtiy. nkY vgJ xU
tl gugsF mj Muid xU gfkhf bfhl xU rJu

mjhtJ =

gugsF cs j vW tiuaWfyh. mjhtJ =

tl gu
45

A
F A vgJ
r2

c
r

x r2

22
vw jKW vzhf myJ 3.14 vw KoW jrk
7
yff cs vzhf gagLJtij mnth. it njhuha kfns

bghJthf id

ju cikahd kf my.

22
vW vGJtnj rahdJ. Mdh
7

22
(myJ) 3.14 vw njhuha kfis rkkhd kfshf
7
gagLnsh vgjid mf.

tFf

MdJ xU jKW vnz my. J xU jKwh vzhF. mjhtJ

id KG vf jkhf vGj ayhJ. vgJ xU jKwh v
vgjid 1761- n#hf bA yhg vgt fLojh.
nkY MdJ xU Miy v (transcendental) vgjid 1882-
bgodh nth kh (Ferdinand Von Lindemann) Wdh. mjhtJ
vjbthU gYW nfhit rkghoF MdJ xU _ykhf UfhJ
vgjhF.
eh Vfdnt Flgo xU jKwh vzhf Ugjh jid
Kos jrk vifs vzhfnth myJ Fl yff L
lbgW tif Kotw jrk yff cs vzhfnth vGj ayhJ.
njitid bghWJ jrk jhdf njhuha kF kid
vLJ bfhtJ ku.
fgh _y - nfhofzfhd jrk yffis Tl jnghJ
fzl aY. UD 50 yffSF njhuhakhf - k
3.14159265358979323846264338327950288419716939937510 MF.
j yff KowhJ kW Fl yff L L
Ug tUkhW mikahJ.
xU jKwh vzhf UD vnfho mJ 3-F 4F il
miktij fhzyh. vdnt bkba nfho l bgWtij fhzyh.
46

2.14 e (y v) vwh vd?

bkba nfhlhdJ, KGikaila ntLkh bdhU Miy v
(transcendental Number) g bjJ bfhtJ eyJ. mjhtJ e vw Miy
v y vgtuh mKfgLjglikah mtuJ bgauh y v vW
miHfgLwJ. J jKwh vzhF. j v cafj f
gagho csJ. j njhuha k 2.71828 MF. mjhtJ e ~ 2.71828 MF
vdnt j vQ bkba nfho lbgW vgjid
bjJbfhnth. nghJ bkba nfhoid KGikahf tiunth.
3

12
-3

-2

-1

2 2

2.15 mwk vf (algebraic numbers) vwh vd?

bkbaf Miy vfis jj vfis mwk vf vdyh.
mjhtJ gYW nfhit rkgho (polynomial equation) bkba _yf
midJ mwk vfshF.
vLJfhlhf x2 - 4x + 3 = 0 vw gYW nfhit bk _yf 1,3
MF. it mwk vf MF.

fwit
vf mikf

a vf

0 rhj mogil cikf

rhj mogil cikf

KGf

jKW vf

jKwh vf

bkbaf

Miy vf

mwk vf

fw bra

,,eMad ga tuf vLJfhLf vGJj

47

myF 3

msitfS msLjY
(Measure & Measurements)
3.1

mKf

eh xU bghUis g bjUnwh vwh mj msitid,

vzh brhy bjUf ntL. mthW xU v msitah brhy
Koaiyba mbghUis ga bjikna fhuz vgJ ydhwJ.
msit V
V? (Why measure?)
xU bghUis msLnwh vwh mjid jukhd rk JLf
(Standard Pieces) vifahf vQnwh vW bghU. mJ skhf, gughf,
fd msthf Ufyh. bghUshdJ f ajhf U rkJLf
ms trnfg FiwJ bfhs Toa tr csJ vgjid mnth.
U bghU iwid fhz eh nyh uhik jukhd rkJlhf bfhlh
jf iw .uhik jukhd rkJlhf bfhsyh.
vdnt xU bghUis ga m ntLkh mj msitid ga
jid ntL.
jidna bf vw oZ Ph flthW FLwh.
To learn something.
When you measure what you are speaking about and express it in
numbers, you know something about it, but when you cannot (or do
not) measure it, when you cannot (or do not) express it in numbers,
then your knowledge is of a meagre and unsatisfactory kind.

3.2

msitf tuyhW

mwhl th msitf f aikahj xwhF.

JfilF brW Jia thF nghJ

rijF brW fhffis thF nghJ
ghfhul gh thF nghJ
ngU gaz brtjF nghJ MF bjhiy kW fhyij
fzL nghJ
fhyiyia FF nghJ
njhl guig fzL nghJ
bjho bfhss fhQ nghJ
thfd ntfij fzL nghJ
48

jFj msitfis gagLna fzLnwh. mit l rhuh

msitf, l msitf vd U fshf csd.
gbdLfhykhf gagLjgL tj l rhuh msitfSF khwhf
midJ ehLfS VWbfhw tif l rhj msitf
tiuaWfgL gagho csJ.
Kfhy sfis msf bghUf jiknfg rh, KH, f#,
fhyo, jgo nghw l rhuh msitf gagho Ujd. J nghW kz
fofhu, Na H, ru njhw, eruf iy Mad fhyij
msf Kndhf gagLd.
xbthU msL egfjik cilajhf midtU VWbfhS
go, bghJthd myif gW tifY njhWfglnj l rhj
msitf MF.
uh ehltuhd fha bksl (Gabriel Mouton) vw mP bk
msitf jij vW miHfgLwh. mt 1670 M ML msa jrk
Kiwia mKfgLdh.
Kfhy cs myF Kiw s, iw, fhy Ma _W myFf
kL mogil myFf vd tiuaWfgoUjd.mit C.G.S., M.K.S., F.P.S.
MaitahF.
C.G.S. Kiw (C.G.S. Systems)
Kiw mso sid brol (cm) vw myfhY, iwid
uh (g) vw myfhY, fhyid dho (s) vw myfhY mslgld. vdnt
jh ij C.G.S. Kiw vnwh.
M.K.S. Kiw (M.K.S. System)
Kiw sid l (m) vw myfhY, iwid nyhuh (kg)
vw myfhY, fhyid dho (s) vw myfhY mslgld. vdntjh
ij M.K.S. Kiw vnwh.
F.P.S. Kiw (F.P.S. System)
sij mo (Foot) vw myfhY, iwia gL (Pound) vw myfhY,
fhyij dho (Second) vw myfhY mslgld. Mifah .F.P.S. Kiw vd
bga bgwJ.
bghGJ y ehLf iwF gL vw myF W gutyhf
gagho csJ.
49

S.I myF Kiw

jnghJ eh gagLtU msit KiwahdJ Mnuahduh
mKfgLjgl gdhL myF mik Kiw, (International system of units)
RUfkhf S.I. KiwahF.
jnghJ cyf KGtJ S.ImyFKiw gwgL tUwJ. VG
mogil myFf csd. mit:
1.

sij msf l

2.

iwia msf ..

3.

neuij msl dho

4.

rhuij msl Ma

5.

btgiyia msl bf (Thermodyanamics)

6.

bghUf msit msl nkh

7.

btr msit msl nfoyh

S.I- yhj myFfis Tl eh gagL tUtij fhzyh.

vLJfhlhf
hectare

- Area

bAnl

gu

day (d)

- Time interval

eh (d)

neu

Hour (h)

- Time interval

k (h)

neu

Minute (min) - Time interval

l (min) -

neu

Tonne (t)

l (t)

iw

- Mass

cyf ruij ghnghkhdh gyjugl myFf cUthfgL

btntW ehLf gagho csikia mayh.
msit bghU
X msitia khg myF KagF twJ vLJfhlhf
xU bfhofg cauij fzl mJ vj mydh msfglntL
vgij Kj Ko brj ntL. d mj my vjid klF
vgnj mbfhofg caukhF. mtyid luhf vLJbfhlh,
l vw cW bragl my klfhf bfhofgd cau ilgij
fhnwh.
xU jf s 30 br vd fUJ nghJ 1 br vW bragl my
30 klfhf jfd s csJ vgJ ydhwJ. UJ msoY X
vQ myF iznj tUtij fhzyh.
50

3.3

mwhl th msitf

fj msitf vwl cau, s, MH, u nghw l

rgjgl msitf gu, wgu, bkhjgu nghw Ugo msitf,
fdmsthd Kgo msitf kLnk idF tU. Fghf eh ftf
ntoaJ vdbt nkbrhd midJ xUgo, Ugo, Kgo msitf
csikntahF. j msitfis jJ gy msitfis eh bjJ
itUnwh. mjhtJ,
nfhz msL

o kW nuoa

btgiy msL

bra, ghu, bf

rj msL

blg

ml msL

myF ilahJ (bkba)

fg jhf

f ntfw

MIPS

nkFl midJ msitfS e mwhl th

izUwJ. l msnfh vgJ rg (2004) Rdh nguiy
m nghJ midtU crj brhyhf Ujij mnth. fgkhdJ vj
l ikakhf bfhL mj ms vj l msF csnjh, mj ms
_y Rdh nguiy vrifid kfSF KTo brhy aY. Mdh
l msnfh TL nghJ (J klif logarithm tifia rhjJ. mjhtJ 1
l kW 2 l msfSF il 1 ahrkhf UjhY jhf 10-
klfhf khWtjF) ntf gklF mfwJ.

3.4

msitf tifghL

y msitfSfhf gagLjgL Nufis mj khf

mLFf vifia bghWJ tifgLjyh.
3.4.1 xUgo msitf : (Linear measure)
F l kW Rwsfis cjhuzkhf bfhsyh.
s, u, MH, cau midJnk l msitia rhjit.
xU rJu Rws
( gf s a cila)

: 4a

xU brtf Rws : 2(l+b)

(l s, b mfy)
xU tl Rws
(Mu r)

: 2r
51

nkFl msf gagLjgLs cWf khf mL go

1 MF. mjhtJ, khfis jJ, a,l+b, rMat go 1 MF. vdnt
tiw xUgo msitf vnwh.
f
xUgo msitF ntW VnjD msitf csdth?
3.4.2 Ugo msitf (Square measurements)
bghJthf gu ga msitfns Ugo msitfshf csd. Fghf
gugs fhQ y Nufis ghngh.
a gfKs rJu gugs

: a2

l,b gffSila brtf gugs

: lxb

mogf (b) FJau (h)

cila Knfhz gugs

cUis tisgugs (r, h)

: 2rh

cUis bkhj gugs (r, h)

: 2rh+ 2r2

T tisgugs (r, l)

: rl

nfhs wgugs (r)

: 4r 2

tl gugs (r)

: r 2

xU izfu(b, h) gugs

: bxh

1
bxh
2

midJ NufY eh btntW khfis gagLnsh.

Mdh midJ NufY khf mLFf TLj 2 Mf
mikJsij ftf. vdnt gugs rkjgl midJ msitfS
Ugo msitfshF. F myid FL nghJ rJu myF myJ myF2
vw brhfis gagLJnwh.
3.4.3 Kgo msitf (Cubic Measurements)
bghJthf fd msfns Kgo msitfshf tUwd. vLJfhlhf
fdrJu fdms (a)

a3

fdbrtf fdms (l,b,h)

lxbxh

cUis fdms (r,h)

r 2h

T fdms (r,h)

1 2
r h
3

nfhs fdms (r)

4 3
r
3

52

Ma Nufis vLJ bfhnth. F khfis jJ khf

mLFf TLj 3 Mf tUtij ftf. vdnt it Kgo msitf
MF. j myid fd myF myJ myF3 vw brhfsh gagLJnwh.
nkbrhd fUJfW eh bjJ bfhtJ vdbt xU
Nu go 1 Mf U mJ s rgjgl brifid
go 2 Mf U gugs rgjgl brifid
go 3 Mf U fdms rgjgl brifid FwJ
vgjid mayh.
nghJ nkbrhd 3 msitfSF bjhlghd bk msitfis,
bfhss (Kfj ms) kW Wj msitfis fhngh.

3 . 5 bk msitf
bghUf s, bfhss, vil Kjatiw msf gagL ms
Kiwf gy tifgL. gy ehLf jkbfd jahd ms Kiwfis
bfhLsd. vD bk msitf, fzl f vjhf Rygkhf
csjh cy cs bgUghikahd ehLf bk ms Kiwiana
gagLJwd.
bk ms Kiw
s mogil myF l ()
vil mogil myF uh ()
bfhss mogil myF l ()
bk msitf w Jiz myFf g mLFf csjh, J
jrkKiw vd miHfgLwJ.
mltizia
myF

1000

100

10

1
10

msit

nyh

bAlh

blfh

bl

bga

1
100

1
1000

bro

uh
l

nkd myFf blfh, bAlh, nyh (Kiwna gJ, W, Mu vw

bghU) vw KizfSl miHfgLwd.
d myFf bl, bro, (Kiwna 10 xW, 100 xW, 1000 xW
vw bghU) KizfSl miHfgLwd.
53

dkhw 1
nkd myif d myfhf khw brj :
bk Kiw xU nkd myif d myfhf khw bra mjid
g mLFf bgUf ntL
nH cs mltizia fhf

x 10

Mu

x 10

x 10

gJ

x 10

xW

x 10

x 10

Mu

xW

xW

xW

(1000)

(100)

(10)

(1)

1

10

1

100

1000

nyh

bAlh

blfh

bl

bro

()

(bA)

(blfh)

uh

(bl)

(br)

()

l
dkhw 2
d myif nkd myfhf khw brj :
bk Kiw xU d myif nkd myfhf khw bra mjid g
mLFf tFf ntL.

xW

10

10

10

gJ

10

10

Mu

10

nH cs mltizia fhf:

Mu

xW

xW

(1000)

(100)

(10)

(1)

1

10

xW
1

100

nyh

bAlh

blfh

bl

bro

()

(bA)

(blfh)

uh

(bl)

(br)

()

1000

l
vLJfhLf _y d myFfshf nkd myFfshf vthW
khWwJ vgjid fhzyh.
54

3.5.1 l msitf
bjhiyfh xU eh bg kiH msit vthW mwd?
l, bro l vw myFfis bfhL myth? xU tFgiw s
kW mfyij vthW msnwh? l myth? uL lfSF
ilnas bjhiyit vthw TWnwh? nyh l myth?
it midJ s, mfy, cau, bjhiy nghw l msitf
y vLJfhLf MF.
khw mltiz
10 .. = 1 br..

100 br.. = 1 .

10 br.. = 1 bl .

1000 . = 1 ..

10 bl . = 1 l
10 l = 1 blfh l
10 blfh . = 1 bA..
10 bA.. = 1 ..
nghJ y d myFfshf nkd myFfshf vthW khWwJ vgij
fhngh.
vLJfhL 1
2 ..-I d myFfshf
20 bA.. (2 x 10 )

= 2 x 101

200 blfh . (2 x 100)

= 2 x 102

2000 . (2 x 1000)

= 2 x 103

20000 bl . (2 x 10000)

= 2 x 104

200000 br.. (2 x 100000)

= 2 x 105

2000000 .. (2 x 1000000) = 2 x 106

2 .. =

vdilF.
vLJfhL 2
3456789 .. - I nkd myFf khw brj

3456789 3456789
=
101
10

3456789 .. = 345678.9 br..

3456789

= 34567.89 bl .
100
55

3456789
102

 3456789 = 3456789
= 3456.789 .
103
1000

3456789 = 3456789
= 345.6789 blfh .
104
10000
3456789 = 3456789
= 34.56789 bA..
105
100000

3456789 = 3456789
= 3.456789 ..
106
1000000
vdilF.
F
1.

nj bra Kiwid kw uL msitfshd Wj kW

bfhsitfY gwyh.

2.

jrk Kiw nkd myfhf khW nghJ jrk ia lwkhf ef,

d myfhf khW nghJ jrk ia tywkhf ef vjhf khw
brayh.

vLJfhL 3
4682.5 .. I luhf khw ntLkh 1000 M tFf ntL (V?)
F d myif nkd myfhf khWnwh.
4682.5
.
vdnt 4682.5 .. =
1000
= 4.6825 .
vLJfhL 4
5.2345 .. -I luhf khw ntLkh mjid 1000 - bgUf ntL (V?)
F nkd myif d myfhf khWnwh.
vdnt, 5.2345 ..

= 5.2345 x 1000 .
= 5234.5 .

vLJfhL 5
3 .. 5 bA.. 2 blfh . 7 , vgij luhf khWj
3 .. 5 bA.. 2 blfh . 7
= (3 x 1000) + (5 x 100) + (2 x 10) + 7.
= (3000 + 500 + 20 + 7) .
= 3527 .
56

RUFKiw
..

bA..

blfh .

.
7

= 3527 .

(RUF Kiw myFfis flf Kiwahf wF tir vG

fhnwh)
vLJfhL 6
7256 liu nyh l TWj
1000 . = 1 ..
vdnt 7256 . =

7256
..
1000

= 7.256 ..
RUf Kiw
..

bA.. blfh .

.
6

= 7.256 ..

bk msitf TlY, fjY

bk msitf g mLFfis mogilahf bfhlit. vdnt,
bk msitf TlY, fjY va cs Tl kW fj
nghnw mik.
vLJfhL 7
TLf :

6 . 5 bl . 2 br.. + 7 . 5 br.. + 3 . 6 bl . 8 br..

bl

br. .

+7

+3

17

TLj = 17. 2bl . 5 br..

vLJfhL 8
xU isahLl ehF gff sf 35 . 42 br.., 16 . 83 br..,
63 . 25 br.., 15 . 93 br.., mliy xU Kiw Rtjh bkhj vts
bjhiy MF.
57

Kj gf s

.
35

br..
42

ulhtJ gf s

16

83

_whtJ gf s

63

25

ehfhtJ gf s

15

93

131

43

l bkhj bjhiy = 131 . 43 br.. MF.

bk msitf bgUfY, tFjY
bk myFf g mLFf mikJsd vgij Vfdnt
fnlh. bk msitf bgUfY, tFjY va cs
bgUfiy, tFjiy xUF.
vLJfhL 9
xU Uil ijf 1 . 80 br.. J njit. xU ijafhu 52 UilfSfhd
Jia thdh. mt tha J ms vts?
1 Uil ijf njitahd J = 1 . 80 br.. = 1.80 .
~ 52 Uil ijf njitah J = 1.80 x 52
njitahd J ms 93 . 60 br..
F
bfhLfgl msfis xnu myfhf(nkd / d) kha jh
bgUfnth myJ tFfnth ntL.
vLJfhL : 10
7. 9 bl . 2 br.. sKs fRU xUJ 22br.. sKs
JLf vjid btobaLfyh?
fRU bkhj s = 7. 9 bl . 2 br..
= 700 br.. + 90 br.. + 2 br..
= 792 br..
xU Jo s

= 22 br..

792 br.. s bgWtJ 792 22 JLf = 36

vdnt, 36 JLf bto vLfyh.
F
bk msitf tFgL viz tFF viz xnu myfhf
kha tFf ntL.
58

3.5.2 gu ga y fUJf
gu vw brhiy gagLj mbghUshdJ U gkhz bghUshfnth
myJ Kgkhz bghUshfnth Uf ntL. fd msid g
ngrntLkhdh mJ xU Kgkhz (fdbghU) bghUshf Uj ntL.
xU xGfhd tot cila bghUid flthW tifgLjyh. mjF
jFjgo gufisnah fd msfisnah fzlyh.
btntW gugik bfhl bghUf
rkjs bghUf (Plane surface)
xU bghU midJ gffS rkjsfshf mikUjh mbghU
rkjsbghU vdgL.
(v-L)

fdrJu, fdbrtf

tisjs bghUf (Curved Surface)

xU bghU KGgF tisjskhf mikUjh mbghU
tisjs bghU vdgL. (v-L)
nfhs.
rkjsK tisjsK izj bghUf
xU bghU gFf rkjsfis tisjsfis bfhoU
mJ rkjsK tisjsK izj bghU MF. (vL)
cUis,
T,
miunfhs.
wgu (LSA - Lateral Surface Area)
xU fd cUt nkgu kW mogu fyhf cs gfguf
TLj wgu vdgL.
(v-L)
fdrJu

Hlgl gF fyhf cs ehF rJuf gugsf TLj MF.

J 4a2 rJu myFf MF. F a vgJ fd rJu gf ms.
tisgu (CSA - Curved Surface Area)
tisjsij csla xU fd cUt nkgu kW gu
U mit fyhf cs va gF tisthd gF gung tisgu
vdgL.
(v-L)
cUis
59

Hlgl gF fyhf cs va tisgu cUis tisgu

MF. cUis tisgu 2 rh r. myFf MF. F r vgJ cUis
Mu kW h vgJ cUis cau.
(v-L)
nfhs
nfhsF nkgu kW moguf iy. jF tisgu kLnk cL
nfhs tisgu = 4r 2 r. myFf MF. F r nfhs Mu MF.
bkhj wgu (TSA - Total Surface Area)
xU fdcUt mogu, nkgu kW wgu (myJ) tisguid
csla guf TLj mfd cUt bkhj wgu MF.
(v-L)
miunfhs
miunfhs bkhj wgu

miunfhs tisgu +
miunfhs mogf gu

2r 2 + r 2

3r 2

F r miunfhs Mu MF.
cUis bkhj wgu = 2rh + 2r2
3.5.3 gugs msitf
xU jfij xU nkir J itjh mJ nkir J J lij milJ
bfhwJ. fUgyif Rt J J lij milJ bfhwJ. jiuJ xU
ghia gudh, gh jiu milJ bfhS l ms mbghU
gugs vdgLwJ.
vdnt, xU bghU xU rkjsgF milF l ms mbghU
gugs vdgLwJ.
gugs myF
glij ghf - mJ 1br gf ms bfhl
xU rJu MF. vdnt, 1 br.. rJu vnwh.
mj gugs 1 rJu brol MF. ij
RUfkhf 1 r.br.. vd vGjyh. ijna eh
myFrJu vnwh. gugsit msgjfhd
mogil myF j myF rJu MF.
60

1 br..
1 br..

1 br..
1 br..

xU bghU gugsit Ff rJu brol (m) br. 2 vw myF

gagLjgLwJ.
rJu tot ms kW gugsit cW nehFf.
tot

rJu gf ms
1br rJu

1 r.br

2br rJu

4 r.br

3br rJu

9 r.br

l msitf
1 br..

rJu gugs

= 10 ..

gu msitf
1 r.br..

= 100 r... (10 x 10)

1 bl . = 10 br..

1 r.bl . = 100 r.br..

1 .

1 r..

= 10 bl .

= 100 r.bl .

1 blfh . = 10 .

1 r.blfh . = 100 r..

1 bA.. = 10 blfh .

1 r.bA..

= 100 r.blfh .

1 ..

= 10 bA..

1 r...

= 100 r.bA..

1 .

= 100 br..

1 r..

= 10000 r.br..

(100 x 100)

nkY ta gugs D bgjhf UFkhdh mj gugsit

rJul (m) V (m) bAnl nghw myFfsh Fnwh
100 r..

= 1 V

100 V

= 1 bAl

10000 r.. = 1 bAl

vLJfhL: 11
6 r.. -I r.br.. - Mf khw brj
1 r.. = 10000 r.br..
6 r.. = 60000 r.br..
61

vLJfhL 12
758 r.. -I (m) Vuhf (M) bAnluhf khw brj
(m)

100 r..= 1 V
758 r.. =

(M)

758
V
100

10000 r.. = 1 bAnl

758 r.. =

= 7.58 V

758
bAnl
10000

= 0.0758 bAnl

vLJfhL 13
3.2. bAliu
(m)

(m) V

1 bAl

(M) rJu l TWj

= 100 V

(M)

3.2. bAl = 3.2 x100 V

1 bAl

= 10000 r..

3.2. bAl = 3.2 x 10000 r..

= 320 V

= 32000 r..

3.5.4 fd ms msitf
ekJ mwhl th eh gy lbghUfis ghJ mtiw gagL
cnsh. mthwhd y bghUf nH bfhLfgLsd.

bghUfis vj X lyhtJ itjh vd MF? mit

itfgLw lij (Space)milJ bfhS myth? mj lij
mbghU fdms vnwh.
vdnt, xU bghU milJ bfhS l msit mbghU fd
msit vnwh.
j, gh, vbz nghw utf tot mwit. mit
bfhfyf totij milJ bfhwd. Mifah bfhssit
bfhL fzlyh.
bfhss : X clw lbghU cw ms mj bfhss
vd miHfgLwJ.
62

fdms myF
myF fdrJu totij fhf. mj
xbthU 1 br.. sKilaJ. mj xbthU
1 br..

KfK 1r.br.. gugs cilaJ.

mj fdms = mogugs x cau MF.

1 br..

jid RUfkhf 1f. br.. (m) 1 br.3 vd vGjyh.

1 br.. fdrJu msit Ff fd

1 br..

brol (m) br. 3 vw myF gagLwJ.

3.5.5 Kfj msitf myJ bfhssitf
kUJtf FHijfSF kUJ kW nghnah brhL kUJ
nghwt msfis vthW zwhf? l jhnd?
jfhy du FtisfY (Cans), FfY (Bottles) fgLwJ.
Ftisf kW Ff bfhssf vd bjkh? l kW
l myth? nkflit Kfj msit (m) bfhssitfSF y
vLJfhLf MF.
khw mltiz
10 ..

= 1 br..

10 br..

= 1 bl .

1000 .. = 1 .

10 bl . = 1 .
10 .

= 1 blfh .

10 blfh . = 1 bA..
10 bA.. = 1 ..
nkfl khw mltizfis gagL Kfj msitf X
myid mt kw myFfSF khw brayh.
vLJfhL 14
3. 500 .. -I .. Mf khw brj:
3. 500 .. = (3 x 1000.) + 500 ..
= 3000 .. + 500 ..
= 3500 ..
RUfKiw :
.

bl .

br.. ..
0

= 3500 ..
63

utbghU fd msit mJ itfgLs bfhfy bfhssit

bfhL eh fzLnwh.
3.5.6 fd msF bfhsF ilnaahd bjhl
10 br.. mss clw fhahd xU fdrJuij vLJbfhf.
jD 1000 .. (m) 1 . jiu Cdh j fdrJu KGtJkhf
juh uggLtij fhzyh.
vdnt, 10 br.. gf mss fdrJu bfhss = 1000 ..
10 br.. x 10 br.. x 10 br.. = 1 .
1000 f.br.. = 1 .
id bfhf 1 3 = 1 .. myJ 1 f.br. = 1 .. vd mayh.
vLJfhL 15
bfhLfgLs fdmsfis bfhss vthW khWth?
(m) 37 br.3
(m)

(M) 5.63

1 br.3 = 1 ..

(M)

37 br.3 = 37 ..

1 3 = 1000 .
5.6 3 = 5.6 x 1000 .
= 5600 l

vLJfhL 16
bfhLfgLs bfhssfis fdms vthW khWth?
(m) 9317 .. (M) 73.46 .
(m) 1 .. = 1 br.3
9317 .. = 9317 br.3

() 3 ..

(M) 1 . = 1000 f.br..

73.46 . = 73460 f.br..

() 1.. = 1 3
3.. = 3 3

3.5.7 Wj msitf
m, rfiu, gU nghw bghUfis kif filf UJ eh vj
msf thFnwh. uh, nyhuh nghw msf myth? fhf
gtf fhffis vthW vil nghLwd? nyh uhf myth?
bkhj ahghf bghUfis mf ms vgo thFwhf vd bjkh?
Flh kw lf jhnd? jf iy f mf. vdnt, ehkh
jfij mf ms thf KoahJ. kf uh kW uh ms
kLnk jfij thFwhf. jifa msf Wj msitfSF y
vLJfhLf MF.
64

khw mltiz
10 .. = 1 br..

1000 .. = 1 .

10 br.. = 1 bl .

1000 . = 1 ..

10 bl . = 1 .

100 .. = 1 Flh

10 . = 1 blfh .

1000 .. = 1 l

10 blfh . = 1 bA..

10 Flh = 1 l

10 bA.. = 1 ..
nkfl khw mltizfis gagL Wj msitf X myid
mt kw myFfSF khw brayh.
vLJfhL 17
7256 uhik nyhuhkhf khw brj
= 1 ..
7256
7256 . =
..
1000
= 7.256 ..

1000 .

RUf Kiw
.. bA..
7

blfh .

.
6

= 7.256 ..

vLJfhL 18
4 l 8 F 15 .. -I . .khf khWj
1 l = 1000.. kW 1 Flh = 100 ..
vdnt, 4 l, 8F 15 .. = (4 x 1000 .) + (8 x 100 .) + (15 )
= (4000 + 800 + 15) ..
= 4815 ..
vLJfhL 19
xU rJz TlF tHfgl 125 .. 325 . gU 78 .. 675 .
brythlJ. D vts ifU UF?
.. .
tHfglJ =

125

325

brythdJ

78

675

46

650

gU ifU = 46 .. 650 .
65

3.6

nfhzf msit (Measurements of angles)

1
xU nfhz ms bjhlf iyUJ Ko iy tiu
klF
360
0
RHF rkkhf Ujh 1 ghif (One degree ) vg. mij 1 vW
FLnwh. ghifia fiyf kW fiyfshf nwh.

mJ,

1 ghif (10 ) = 60 fiyf (minutes 60)

1 fiy (1) = 60 fiyf (seconds (60)
nfhz msid tl msit (circular measure) Kiwahf
mslyh. j ms myif nuoa vnwh.

nuoa ms (Radian measure)

tiuaiw : r vw MuF rkkhd tl

tlika 0 jhF nfhz
xU nuoa vdgL.

1c
o

ij 1c vd Fnwh.
F
1.

nfhz ms vf fhz eh nuoaid gagLJnwh.

2.

nuoa vw thijia y rkaf vGjhkY Llyh.

Mfnt xU RH myF (Unit) bfhLfgliy v mJ
nuoaid FF.

3.

1c c vgJ tl msit FF.

ghiffSF nuoafSF cs bjhl

(Relation between Degrees and Radians)
r MuKila tl Rws 2r vdnt
1 myF MuKila tl Rws 2. vgJ

1c
o

r=1

xU KGRW v vgJ 1 myF MuKila tl

gia KGikahf RW.
vgJ lRahf xU KGRW v = 2 nuoa vnwh. xU
KGRW = 3600 vgJ ekF bj. 3600 = 2 nuoaf myJ 1800 = nuoa.
10 =

nuoa MF.
180

3 . 7 ehfho (Calendar) kW fhy msitf (Time Measure)

ehfho vwJ eh, thu, khj nghw fUJf e fK
njhWwjyth! ehfhoia Calendar vW My TWnwh. iwa
66

nj vd? 09.09.2009 vd bfhnth. nj vgJ ehSF bgaLj vgJ

bj.

xU njD eh, khj, ML nghw fUJf c ml

Uwd. tiw ju kj rhj, tf rhj, thf rhj, r_f

rhj fhyiy Na ru rh RH isfis fJ
TwgoUgij ghfyh. thW fhyl gntW ffis ga
tuf bfhLfgoUwd tiw goaL ghJ nkY gy
fUJfis mJ bfhsyh.
r_f, kj, tf, thf Kjad rhj ehfis tirgLf
fhL mikF fhyl vW bga. fhyl vgij X mik Kiw
vdyh. begLa ffis tirahf bfhl goaiy fhyl
X cthf jh bfhsgLwJ.
fhyl mik Kiw (Calender Systems)
fhyl mik Kiwia mogilahf bfhL gntW tiff csd.
(i)

ru RHia mogilahf bfhlJ yha

fhyl.

jid rufhyl vW TWt.

(ii)

Na afij mogilahf bfhlJ bga

fhyl

ij Na fhyl (Solar Calendar) vg.

(iii)

ru kW Na affis mogilahf bfhL miktJ

#] fhyl (Jewish Calender)
it kLk thda fhyl va fhyl vd 34 tif
fhylf csd.

cyf ms nfha (Gregorian) fhyl midJ ehodU

gagLJ bghJthd fhyluhF (dh, ah cgl). y tif
fhylfis g ghnghkh
Na fhyl
J xbthU Na ehfis mogilahf bfhlJ. Na eh vgJ
mLjLj uL Na kiw ilgl fhy msit FgjhF. mjhtJ
1 Na eh = 1 gf + 1 u. Na cjaij kiwit mogilahf
bfhLsJ vgj kiwKf bghU Na RHahF. vdnt Na
RH ff MoF ML fhy msf W ntWghLf fHyhkyth!
j isthf ML kW rhjhuz ML nghwit fwd.
67

iwa fhyl g
gntW tif fhylf fhzglhY e ah eilKiw cs
fhyl nfha fhyl (Gregorian Calender) MF. tuyhWf fhyij
AD (Anno Domain) kW BC (Before Christ) vW gagL tUnwh. J
jt kjij rhJsJ vgJ bjthf bjwJ. cyfkakhFjiy neh
eil nghL fhyfl kj rhj fUJfis cJL CE (Common Era)
kW BCE (Before Common Era) vd AD kW BC F khwhf cyf ms
mffgL lJ.
brJ ghf
ehfho VnjD xU eh njid nkTa brfgo
thf
bjJ bfhf

iu khjkhdJ j tUl Kj khjkhf UJ tjJ.

MytUl 2009 Kj ij khj j tUl Kj khjkhf
eilKiwgLjgLwJ.

UtSt ML vgJ eilKiw cs nfha MLl

39I Tl ilF,

rf MoF, nfha MoF 71 MLf ahr.

fhy msitf
gila fhy kf gf bghG Na iy, H mik
Matiw bfhL, u erufis bfhL neuij mJ
bfhld.
rhjhuz neuK unt neuK; rhjhuz ML ML
xU eh eu Kj kWeh eu tiu cs neuij 1 eh vW
fzLnwh. jidjhnd Rtu xUeh MwJ kW Naid
R xUKiw ty tu MF fhy 1 ML MF.
eilKiwYs fhyfzL thghil ftf.
60 behof = 1 l

12 khjf = 1ML

60 lf = 1 k

52 thuf = 1ML

24 k = 1 eh

365 ehf = 1 ML

7 ehf = 1 thu

366 ehf = 1 ML

30 ehf = 1 khj
68

 ML
tUlij 4 M tFjh, 0 tUkhdh, mtUl ML vdgL.
MoF 366 ehf kW Mo ut khjF 29 ehf MF.
(v- L) 1952, 1960, 1984
F 1
bfhLfgl tUl whL v, mtUl 400 M tFglhjh
tUl MF.
(v-L) 2000, 2400, 2800
1900 vgJ tUlkh? iyah? vgij brJ ghf.
F 2
xUtUlfhd ehfis dkhf cs gFia L 365 vd
bfhLnsh. jid rkgLj tUlfis cUthnsh. j
tUlfY

cs

dgFia

bra

whLf

bragLsikia fhf.
eu 12 kKj egf 12 k tius fhyij Kgf(K.g/ A.M)
vW, egf 12 kKj eu 12 k tius fhyij gf
(.g/ P.M) vW TWnwh. L, g nghw lf bghJthf 12 k neu
fofhufis gagLJnwh. Mdh unt, khd nghFtuJ
nghwJiwf 24 k neu fofhuij gagLJwd. tifahd 24
k neu fofhu neuij bghJthf unt neu vnwh. unt
neuf Kgf (a.m) gf (p.m) vW FLtiy.
unt neuf eu 12 kia 24.00 k (m) 00.00 k vW
FLnwh.
njngh egf 12 vgij 12.00 k vd,
9.10 K.g. vgij 09 - 10 k vd
9.10 .g vgij 21 -10 k vd Fnwh.
F 3
1.

.g vW Ffgl rhjhuz neuij unt neuF

khWtjF rhjhuz neuJl 12 kia TlntL.
69

2.

unt neuij rhjhuz neukhf khW nghJ 12 kF mfkhf

cs neuUJ 12 kia ff ntL.

3.

unt neuij FF nghJ k vW FlntL K.g,

.g vW FlTlhJ.

3.8

jtWF jhF y msitf

bghJthf My cs brhfis j ifahS nghJ jtwhf

bghU bfhL gagL tUtij fhzyh. Fghf

Speed - Velocity

ntf - irntf

Mass - Weight

iw - vil

Distance (length) - Displacement

u - lbga

Matiw vLJbfhsyh.
F ntf, iw, u vgit Fplw msitf. Mdh irntf,
vil, lbga nghwit FpL csit. mjhtJ btl rhjjhF.
Mfnt nf FlgLs thijfis khW thijf _y
gagLjTlhJ.
lbga kW u (Displacement & Distance)
lbga vgJ U iyfSF ilgl xU irl Toa FWa
bjhiynt MF. J xU btl msL (v k kW irl ToaJ)
MF. Mdh u vgJ ir Fpo msfgL l msitahF
B
B

A
A

ntf kW irntf
X myF fhy (xU beho) bghU flF bjhiy, ntf vdgL.

mjhtJ ntf =

flj bjhiy (d)

fhy (t)
70

(d) l
(t)brf

d
t

m/sec

vdnt, ntfij msf m/s vw myif gagLJnwh, ntf nfyh

(vkig kL) msthF. d MdJ vnghJ ifahfnt UF
xU Fl irl Toa ntf, irntf vdgL.
irntf =

lbga (s)
fhy (t)

(s) l
(t)brf

s
=

m/sec.

F s Fiwahfnth, ifahfnth Ufyh. irntf kW ntf it

uLnk m/s vw myfh msfgLwJ. irntf btl (vk kW
iria rhJ) msthF.
iw vil (Mass & Weight)
xU bghU mls gUbghU ms mj iw (Mass) vdgL.
iw vgJ mj bghU cns UF gUbghU msthF. iw vgJ
xU nfyh (scalar) msthF. iwia nyhuh (kg) vw mogil myfh
msnwh.
iw vil xwy, vil vgJ mbghU J bragL <
ir MF. bfhLfgl bghU vil vgJ lJF l (bt space)
khWgL. Vbd < ir (g) vgJ btid(space) bghWJ khWgL
ms vgJ FljfJ.
vil vgJ btl msthF.
vil (weight) = iw x < KLf
W= mxg

MF

p KLf (g) k 9.81 /2 MF

F :
x irntf
xahdJ xU beho brY bjhiy x irntf vdgL.
fh myJ btl x
irntf = 3 x 108 l / dho
= 30,00,00,000 l / dho
x ML (Light Year)
bjhiyYs fUJ x id miltjF gy a
MLf Mwd. jdh f bjhiy x Moid bfhL
71

mslgLwJ. xU ML fhy xf VwFiwa 3 x 108 l / dho

ntf bryToa bjhiyit xU ``x ML vnwh. tha
bjhiyfhd myF x ML MF.
1 x ML

30,00,00,000 x 60 x 60 x 24 x 365 1/4

9.46 x 1015

9.46 x 1012 .

ngul fSF ilnaahd (eruf) bjhiyit msf

gagL f bga msitna x ML msitahF. J fhy ms nghW
njhdhY, J uij FLwJ vgJ bj.
fwit

msitf tuyhW

CGS, MKS, FPS, Kiwf

SI myF Kiw

msit bghU

Ugo msitf

Kgo msitf

Kfj msitf

Wj msitf

nuoaf / o

ntf / irntf

iw / vil

lbga / u

fw bra

gntW tifahd, msitf kW mltiz

(Measaurement Coversion Table) nrfj

gtif,
gdhL
gHikahd
(tufSl) nrfj
72

ehfho

myF 4

toa
(Geometry)
4.1

mKf

Literacy vw vGj bgwtf vgjfhd mogilid My

3R bjUf ntL vW TWthf. mit Read, Write, Arithemetic MF.
F x mikig bghWJ R, R, R vW vLJ bfhsgLwJ. _whtjhf
FlgLs arithemetic vw va toaY mlFwJ.

4 . 2 toa tuyhW
Geometry vw thijahdJ Geo() kW metron (msLj) vw
nuf thijfsh cUthdJ. toa _yij ghnghkhdh mJ
yid msgjfhf cUthdJ vgjid bjJ bfhsyh. gila
vaf toaiy Kj Kj gagLj bjhld vgJ tuyhW.
mtf nenfhLfsh milgl (Rectilinear Figures) cUtfSF (Knfhz,
brtf nghwit) msL Kiwia gagLd. d ghnyhaf
khahd totfSF gufis fL mjFa Nufis
mKfgLd. it ghu (1650 BC) - _y bja tUwJ.
vafS, ghnyhafS mwhl thif KiwF tiw
gagLdhfns ju maYF mogilahf bgJ cjtiy vgJ
bj.
2500 BC - 1750 BC fhyf Auhgh, bkhfrjhnuh mfthuh
nghJ jhf (Potteries) fblLfgl btobfhS tlf,
miunfhsf nghw cUtf lbgUjJ bjatUwJ. UJ
gila fhyjtf toaiy g bjUjhf vgJ bjs
bjthwJ. Mdh vj msF J itUjhf vgjfhd Mjhuf
ilf bgwiy.
ntjfhyfY ntj gdf toaiy gagL ntjrhiyfis
cUthsJ bjatUwJ. (800BC - 500 BC) nkY Rg Nuf
(Sulbasutras) gufis fhz Nuf gagLjgLsij mayh. a
fj toayhsfshf ukFjh, ghfuh II, Maglh Mnahiu Flyh.
ukFjh tl ehfufis, ghfuh, jhfu njwF toa Kiw
(dissection Proof) %gzK, Maglh Urkgf Knfhzf, uLf
fdms kW - njhuha kid bfhLJsd.
73

nuf fj khnkijahd (Euclid) (300 BC) vgt toa

jij vW nghwgLgt. toa cj Wt (Proof by deductive reasoning)
vw a id KjKjyhf mKfgL toaiy vikahf
totikjt.
j Vfdnt WtgLs Kofis y
ciunfhfis (axioms) myJ monfhf(postulates) gagLdh.
Kiwidna toa (Euclidean Geometry) vnwh. toa f
Kakhf, - 5 tJ ciunfh f KaJt thjjhF.
if a straight line falling on two straight lines makes the interior angles
on the same side less than two right angles, the two straight lines, if
produced indefinitely meet on that side on which are the angles less
than the two right angles
U nenfhLfis xU nfhL
FWfhf btL nghJ xnu
gf
mikj
cmik
nfhzf TLj 180 o F
Fiwthf U FWF nfho
mgf U nfhLfis L
nghJ
mit
xiwbahW
btobfhS.

A
B
A+B<

jid 1729- nsbga(Playfair) vw fhyhJ fjayhs kh

mikjh. mJnt dh nsbga ciunfh MdJ. j ciunfh
cikahdJ / cikawJ vgjid Muh br Kana Non - Euclidean
toaMugkhdJ.
toa TW fUJnfhf y
1.

xU js cs U btntW fis cslajhf Xnu xU

nenfhL kLnk ilF.

2.

xU js cs U btntW nenfhLfSF xWF nkyhd

bghJ f Uf ayhJ.

3.

xU nenfhL mj jyhj xU bfhLfgoU m

tahf, bfhLfgl nenfhoF izahf xnu xU nenfhL
kLnk tiuaKo.

4.

U btobfhS nenfhLf uL
nenfhLF izahf Uj ayhJ.

xU

Fl

nkfl fUJ nfhf

(1) , nfhL, nfhLJL, xUgf, tl ika kW Mu,
brnfhz, rtrk, cnfhzf nghw fUJfis J bfhs cjwJ.
74

(2) izf, Lf, tiuf, btLf nghw fj id brhfis J

bfhs VJthwJ.

4 . 3 , nfhL, nfhLJL, nfhLf fUJ sf

, nfhL, js Ma _W nrJ flgl fj fLkhdnk
toa (Geometry) vdgLwJ. toa gagLjgL nenfhLfshf
UjhY myJ tistiufshf UjhY mj mogil ahf mikwJ.
Fghf efU xU ghijna nenfhlhfnth myJ tistiuahfnth
mikwJ. vdnt midJ totfSF na Mjhu.
4.3.1.
toa mogil fUJ MF. cafj ia
tiuaWj vgJ mDkfglhj bra vd TwgLwJ vgjid bjJ
bfhSj eW. Vbd btntW fjayhsf ia tiwaWjhY,
mtfl UJ xUj fUJ bgwgliy. vD ia g tU
fUJfis bgwyh.

vyh toa fUJfSF mogil MF.

vgJ 0-gkhz bfhlJ. mjhtJ, mjF s, mfy, cau

vgd ilahJ

ia sf aYnk ju, tiuaWf ayhJ

(v.L) bg TKid MF. U nfhLf xU
bto bfhS.

vj U fSF ilY xU ia fhz aY.

4.3.2. nfhL
vylfh f bjhF xU nfhL vdyh. nfhL vgJ 1 gkhz
toa cUt MF. Vbd nfhoF s kLnk cL. mfy, cau vw
gkhzf ilahJ.
xU js xU akghij xU nfhL vd tiuaWfyh.
xU js tiuagl xU nfhL ilklkhfnth brFjhfnth myJ
rhthfnth mik
xU js tiuagl U nfhLf
-

rkkhf

btL nfhLfshf

iz nfhLfshf

brFJ nfhLfshf
mikayh.
75

xU nfhoid My vGJf a vGJfsha l,m,n ...vd

Ffyh myJ mnfho J mikJs VnjD U fis bfhL
Ffyh. (v-L)
l

nfhoid AB vd Ff aY.

xU nfhoid UwK vts u ntLkhdhY lyh

vgjh mjF Fl s ilahJ.

xnu js mikahj btlh nfhLf xiwnahW rfhJ.

tF xU jsmikah nfhLf (Skew Lines) vnwh. U
nfhLfis csla jsid cUthf ayhJ.

4.3.3. nfhLJL (Line Segment)

xU nfho J mik VnjD U f kW mU fSF
ilnaahd midJ f bjhFig xU nfhLJL vnwh.

PB
AB
AP
A

A
B
gl
vgJ xU nfhL JL. thnw,
,
, vgdtiw
nfhLJLf vdyh. xU nfhLJo, U Ko f csjh
mjF Fl s cL.

jidF
xU F s, mfy, cau ilahbj, s akhwJ. xU
nfhLJL vylfh fshyhdJ. mthbw vjbthU
nfhLJo sij a vW Tl aYkh? ( x 0)
4.3.4. nfhLf (Ray)
xU nfho J 0 vw mikjh, mnfhoid 0- U
ffshf wJ vdyh. nfhLfUF Fl s ilahJ.

F OA kW OB Ma U nfhLff csd.
76

4.4. xGF kW xGfw totf

Nufis gagL s, gu, fdms nghwtiw fzL
tif mikj cUtfis xGF totf vW Twyh. vLJfhlhf
rJu, brtf, izfu, rhtf, rtf nghwit ehfu vw bghJ bga
ju, w bgaiu bgWs totf MF. it xGF ehfuf
vdgL. nkY nfhs, T, cUis nghw cUtfSF jFj
s, mfy, Rws, gugs, fdms
Madtiw fzL Tw aY. xGF ehfuf Rws, gugs
Madtiw fzl, Nuf gagLwd.
vdnt xGfhd totf bfhl cUtfSF kLnk Nufis
bfhL Rws, gugs fzl aY.
thnw fdrJu, fdbrtf nghwitfS xGF totfshF.
xU gy nfhzF neuoahf Nufis gagL fhQj ayhJ. mJnt
xGF gynfhzkhf U fhz aY. 3 ne nfhLfsh xGfw milgl
cUt cUthf aYkh? ayhbj V?
mthbw, xGfw cUtf vwh vd? Nufis gagL
s, gu, fdms Madtiw neilahf fzl ayhJ v mit
xGfw cUtf vdyh.
y fis gagL (vLJfhlhf tiugljh nghwd)
xGfw cUtf Rws gugs Matiw njhuhakhf fzl aY.

(1)

(2)

(3)

nkfl totf xGfhd totfsh? jid rahd Kiw xGF

totfshf J njitahd Nufis gagL njitahd
msitfis fhz aY. Mfnt nkTatiw xGfw tot vd Tw
ayhJ.
gl 1 - tlgF rJu gF izJsJ.
gl 2- xU rJuUJ rhtf gF fgLsJ.
gl 3- xU brtf gF, tlgF izJsJ.
77

fl totfis fhf

tiw xGfhd totF khw aYkh?

Vfdnt mj Nufis gagL, s, Rws, gugs Ma
msitfis fhz ayhJ. vdnt tiw xGfw totf vnwh.
Mdh, xU xGfw U gkhz, Kgkhz totfSF njitahd
s, gu, fd ms Matiw E fj (Calculus) _y fhz aY
vgjid mJ bfhf. F ijga fUJfis jfyh.
4.4.1. Knfhzf
U nfhL JLfsh xU _oa cUtij bgw Koahjyth? vdnt
_oa cUtij bgw ntL v Fiwj gr 3 nfhL JLf Uf
ntL. thW,
_W nfhL JLfsh milgl myJ _oa cUtij Knfhz
vnwh. (_W nfhzfis cUthFtjh bga tu fhuzkhwJ.)
mnfhLJLfis Knfhz gff vd, uL
nfhLJLfSF ilna VgLtij nfhzf vd Twyh.
nfhzf mogilY, gff mogilY Knfhzfis
flthW tifgLjyh.
Knfhz tiff

gff mogil

nfhzf mogil

- rkgf Knfhz

- FWnfhz Knfhz

- Urkgf Knfhz

- brnfhz Knfhz

- mrkgf Knfhz

- nfhz Knfhz

Knfhz Ka g
xU Knfhz U gf msf TLj _whtJ gf
sij l mfkhf UF. j gig mogilahf bfhl Knfhz
rk (Triangle inequality) vgij gy jiyf cafj ghfyh.
78

4.4.2. ehF gff bfhl milgl totf

xU _oa cUt bgw Fiwjgr _W nfhLJLf njit vd
fnlh. jF nkgl nfhLJLfsh xU milgl cUtij bgw
aYkh? mt w tiff kW gf g F fhngh.
bghJthf, ehF gffsh milgl cUtij ehfu vnwh.
ehfu, VnjD w gfis bgU, w bgaL
miHnwh.
ehfu

w ehfu (xGF)

rJu

brtf

xGfw ehfu

izfu

rhrJu

rtf

ehfuf tiuaiw kWk w gfis g VHh tF

fj ghl gF l bgWsJ. jnghJ mtilnaahd y xWik,
ntWikfis fhzyh.
jidF
toa Knfhzid jJ ehfuf wlid bgWsJ
vgjid mnth.
1.

rJu, brtf, izfu, rh rJu vyhnk ehfuf.

2.

ehfuf v nkFl xwhf Uf ntoa mtaiy.

3.

rJu, brtf, rhrJu vyhnk izfu MF.

4.

izfu v rJukhf, brtfkhf myJ rhrJukhf Uf

ntoa mtaiy.

5.

xU rJu, brtfkhf VWbfhsgL.

6.

xU brtf rJukhf Uf ntoaiy.

7.

rJu xU rhrJu MF (rh - 0).

8.

rhrJu rJukhf Uf ntoaiy.

vjid nfhLJLfsh xU _oa cUtij bgwKo. _W myJ

_F nkgl nfhL JLf vjid UD mij bfhL xU _oa
cUtij bgw aY.
79

nfhL JLf vif

cUt bga

Knfhz

ehfu

Infhz

mWnfhz

vGnfhz

v nfhz

bghJthf 5 myJ IF nkgl nfhL Lfsh cUthF

milglcUtid `gy nfhz vdyh.
gynfhz midJ gff sfS rkkhf U mjid
`xGF gy nfhz (Regular Polygon) vnwh.
xGF Infhz IJ gff sfS rk vd. xGF
mWnfhz MW gff rk vd mayh.

4 . 5 . Kgkhz totf kW Kgkhz mRf

Kgkhz totfSF, Kgkhz mRfSF ilna cs
ntWghoid khzhff czJ bfhSj mta MF.
Kgkhz totf vgJ xU js mikf ayhj toa cUtf
MF. mj cUtf y f kLnk jsJl bghU UF.
totf

jsJl bghUJ f

fd rJu

rJu mogu kL

fd brtf

brtf mogu kL

cUis

tl mogu kL

tl mogu kL

nfhs

xnu xU kL

nkY Kgkhz cUtfSF s, mfy, cau vw _W

gkhzf csjh tF fd ms cL.
Kgkhz mRf
P vw VnjD xU ia vLJ bfhnth. jid xU gkhz
tiugl Ff.
80

<

x'

P
-5

-4

-3

-2

-1

>
x

gl P- myFu 3 vgJ bjthwJ. mjhtJ P-vD

M UJ 3 myF u csJ vdyh.
P-vw lkhd lid xU js myJ gu Fl,
x-mR kW y-mRfis gagLJnwh.
vLJfhlhf P (3,4) v
P- x-mRu 3 myF
y-mRu 4 myF vd bghUgL.

thnw Q- mRu (-2,3) vd fhnwh.

P- lkhd Ulij xU TW bt (Space) Fl ntL
v, x,y kW z vw _W mRfis gagLJj ntL.
y
4

P (1,3,2) v
P- x - mRu = 1

>

>

>

vLJfhlhf,

(3, 4)

Q(-2, 3)

y - mRu = 2

z - mRu = 3 vd mayh.

<
>
0
nkfltUJ xU lkhd
x' -4lid
-3 -2 -1 (Location)
1
2 tiuaWf.
3
4 x
-1

- x mR kL
-2
- x, y mR kL
- x, y, z mRf Madtiw gagLjyh vd -3
mnwh.

<

Kgkhz cUtfSF s, mfy, cau Ma-4 _W gkhzf

y'
csd. Mdh Kgkhz mR vgJ xU lkhd lid
tiuaWf gagLwJ.

4.6

rk, rtrk kW xj cUtf

(Symmetry, Congruence & Similarity)

fzF ghl rk kW xj cUtf MatF ilnas

ntWghoid czj mta MF. tid xnu bghUgLgo jtwhf
ifahSj TlhJ.
81

rk (Symmetry)
rk vgJ xU fj fUJ MD aif `rk bfhl
bghUf mHif, fiy czit bfhLsJ v mJ ifahfhJ.
jF tiuaiw ntLkh eh rh vw ca fjF bry
ntoaJ tU. vdnt vLJfhLf _y J bfhnth.
x U i y m i k i g v L J b f h l h , m J , e L e u i d
bghWJ U wK rkuhf csJ. mjhtJ eL euid xU mrhf
bfhL kldh UgfK bghUJkhW mik. bghJthf
vjbthU bghUis xU nenfhlh U rkkhf f Kokh,
mj nfhil bghWJ mJ rk jik bfhlJ vdyh. e cl
mik Tl rk jik cilaJ vgjid bjJ bfhsyh. gy
folf ghgjF mHfhf UwJ v mjF fhuz rk
jikna MF.
rJu vw mikig vLJ bfhnth.

2
1
gl 1 vw mirbghWJ mtot rkuhf csJ. thwhf 2,
3, 4- rk mRfshF. mjj mir bghWJ rJu rkuhf csJ.
vdnt xU toa cUt xU mir bghWJ U rkTWfshf
bgU mjF rk jik csJ vdyh.
brtf, izfu, rtf, rhrJu Mat rk jik csjh?
KaW ghf.
82

totbthj cUtf (Similarity) kW xUir

(m) rtrk cUtf ((Congruent))
eh ghF cUtf y
(i)

tot (shape) xnu khahf ms (size) khWgL.

(ii)

totY (shape) msY (size) xnu khahf Ugij

cznwh.

Kj tif xj cUtf tifY

ulh tif rt rk cUtf tifY fgLwJ.
1)

U nfhL JLf rtrk v mit rkkhd sKilaJ

vdbghU. l, m Ma nfhLJLf rtrk.
m

5 br.

5 br.

l
2)

U Knfhzf rk rk v xj gffS, nfhzfS

rkkhf Uj ntL. PQR, ABCMa Knfhzf rtrk,
A

AB = QR
AC = PQ
BC = PR

B
3)

B= R
A= Q
C= P

U nfhzf rt rk v mj nfhzf ms rkkhf Uj

ntL. B , P Mait rt rk
P
A
600
ABC = RPQ
600
B

Mdh tobthj cUtf thW Uf ntoa mtaiy.

83

vLJfhlhf fhQ Knfhzfis vLJ bfhnth.

A

nkfl gl,
rkkhf nkY,

Kiwna

MatF

vw jY csJ v ABC, PQR Ma Knfhzf xj

Knfhzf MF.
vdnt
(i)

xj nfhzf rkkhf.

(ii)

P
Q
CR,CA
xj gff jf
rkkhf
U
A, B
,,
AB
BC

PQ

mit xj totf vdyh.

QR

RP

vdnt xj cUtf vw fUid ma Fiwjgr uL

cUtf mta vd bjthwJ.
F
(i)

vyh rkgf KnfhzfS xj cUtf

(ii)

btntW gf msf cs vyh rJufS xj cUtf

(iii)

btntW gf msf cila x G F

Infhz,

xGF

mWnfhz Kjad xj cUtfshF.

vyh brtffS xj cUtfshf mikkh?
(iv)

s, mfyf jf rkkhf Ujh kLnk brtffis

xj cUtfshf fUjyh.

84

jidF
A

E,F Kiwna ABCD vw brtf AB,CD eLf v, rk,

tobthj cUtf kW rtrk Ma fUJfis Muhf.

fwit

toa tuyhW

fUJnfhf

, nfhL

xGF totf

xGfw totf

Knfhz g

Kgkhz totf

Kgkhz mRf

rtrk / rk / xj cUtf

fw bra
xGfhd totf / cUtf -thif gaghL
goa
mHFzfiyf fj tot / cUtf gaghL

85

myF 5

fj bkh
(Language of Mathematics)
5.1 mKf
vQ, vGJ fbzd jF
fF xghf fUjgLs v, vGJ Kjad Kiwna
fjij, bkhait FgitahF. th bt bgw uL
mid xUt bgwntoa mtaijna TW bjwd. j
kj tsnahL rKjha tsF, fj m, mjdh VglToa
ma kW bjhEg ts mtakhwJ. iwa cyf mrh
cyfkhf UwJ. jF izahfjkjf tsu ntLkhdh
FHij gUtUnj fj mit mtf tsJ bfhs ntL.
vdnt fj xU Ka ghlkhf Mugf Kj lbgWsJ. fj
vwl eh idTgit vf, mtiw gagLJ lf, Kiwf,
toa cUtf, FpLf, rkghLf, tiuglf Kjad MF.
itaidJ fj mogiljid rf MF. tiw tsJ
bfhtjF fjbkh ilidahf mikwJ.
fjbkh vgJ FpLfis bfhL mikJsJ. vQUfns
FpLf vwhY vQUfis ju stiw FpLf vnwh.
FpLf midJ bkhdUF bghJthdJ.
nfhLfS, fS, glfS fjbkh FpLfshf gagL
tUwd. vdnt FpLf vgJ tha mik RUa totkhF. rahd
bghUjkhd FpLfis gagLjiy v vkiwahd bghU bfhLF
th csJ. vdnt fjbkhia bjhlf iynyna rahf J bfhtJ
f mtakhF. FpLf catF mf ms gagLjgLwJ.
mit iwa ma tsF Ka gFtwJ. fgh FpLf
gaghL mf ms csij fhzyh.

5.2

fj brhfsa

fjbfW jahf xU bkh UwJ. fjbkhia My

Symbolic Language vnwh. J cyf ms mffgl FpLf
bjhF MF. it bkh, d, l tF mghgL, cyfehLf
midY khw gagho csJ. fjnf ca gaghoid
86

bfhl TWfis, FpLfis fjbkh vnwh. fj

FpL bkhna mj jjikahF. fj msf bjhlf
FpLf _y bjfgLwd. vLJfhlhf,
a=b

&

b = c v

a = c

vgij

fj bkhahdJ xU

FnfhSl Jakhf RUfkhf FLwJ. F a , b, c vgit

vGJfshf gagliy. khwhf vQUfshf gagLjgLwd.
xbthU rkghL, xik(inequality), vf xLj jikfS
fj thafshF. =, >, < vgit tfhd FpLfshF
3 = 3, 5 > 2, 1 < 9
v fj mogilahd vfns vQUfshf FpLf
_yjh FfgLwd.
a vQUf 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9

5.3

fj FpLfS bkhbrhfS
v yf FpLf

0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9

va mogil brafSfhd FpLf

, , , , , , ,
fzbraf ,

+, , ,

fjbjhlfis sF FpLf y
=, , <, >,
j vQUf.
nuhkhah vf I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII, IX, X, L, C, D, M
afj My vGJfis khfSF, khfSF
gagLJnwh. vLJfhL: x+ y = a
F x,y vgd khf; a vgJ kh vd bfhsyh.
totf Kidfis Fl My vGJfis
gagLJnwh.
D

Q
87

 Fl

fjgFf

bkh

vGJfis

gagLJnwh
, , , , , , , , , .............
fj xU ianah myJ nfhghilnah RUfkhf FpL
Kiw TWtJ Nu vdgL.
1.

rJu gf ms a myF v mj gu, A = a2 r.m

2.

tl Mu r myF v mj

gu A = r2 r.m.
Rws C = 2r myF

totfS FpLfS
fj bkh totfisna FpLfshf y lf gagLJnwh.
rJu
brtf
Knfhz

ABCD

ABCD

ABCD

ABCD

ABC

ABC

nfhz

ABC

AB

ABC

AB

nfhLJL

PQ

PQ

fj bkhid
*

bghUf bkh (Things Language)

FpL bkh (Symbolic Language)

braghL bkh (Functional Language)

glbkh (Picture Language)

vD mogilY tifgLjyh.
fj bkh vGJj (Mathematical Statement)
yffshd 0, 1, .......9 vw FpLfis lk vw xU fUid
bfhL midJ vfis cUtha Kiw fj bkhnf ca
wjikahF.
vLJfhL 1
xU v gh, m gh, xiw Todh ilF. mbt
ahJ ?
88

 :
njitahd viz n vf.
fz go :

n 1 n
+ +1 = n
2 2 2

mjhtJ

n n
+ +1 = n
2 4

nghJ fhgJ vjyth?

vLJfhL 2
xU v UklFl uil To mjid IJ klfhFf.
: bfhLfgl viz x vf.
v UklFl uil TLf. mjhtJ 2x + 2
mj IJ klF 5(2x+2)
vLJfhL 3
xU akw vQl 20 I Toa ilF vUJ mj IJ
klif ff akhwJ. mbt ahJ?
:
fLof ntoa v x vf.

fzgo x + 20 5x = 0

-4x = -20

x = 5.

20
4
vdnt mj v 5 MF.

vLJfhL 4
xU brnfhz Knfhz bga gf jhd rJu gu kw
uL gff jhd rJuf bkhj guF rk.
:
I

bga gfid 5 br. vd

w U gffis 3 br.,4 br. vd vLJbfhf.
Kj rJu gu

= 4 x 4 = 16 r.br..

ulhtJ rJu gu = 3 x 3 = 9

_whtJ rJu gu = 5 x 5 = 25

bgagf gu kw uL gff
jhd rJuf bkhj guF rk.

II
III

16 + 9 = 25
89

5.4

fj jik myJ g

g (Precision)
fjbfnw y j jikf csd. mtW KjikahdJ
g. xU fzifnah myJ fj idnah Lgjh ilF il
r myJ jtW vnw mik. uL myhj X iliy fUF
fj liy. fj, gghdJ khztf kdgF
bgJ JizwJ. khztfl rahd kW Ta jidia
ltyjhf mikwJ.
fUa iy (Abstractness)
fUa iy fj kbwhU w jikahF. fj, mj
bjhlf iynyna fUa rhjjhf mikwJ. vfis uL myJ
IJ vW TWnghJ mjF bghU Tw KoahJ. mjid xU bghUnshL
izJ TW nghJ, mjhtJ uL ngdhf, IJ lhf, vW
TWnghJjh, mit bghUSilajhf mik. Twoness, Fiveness vgJ
jikahF. vf midJnk xU fUij FgjhF. mit cUt
mikF mghglJ. bghUfis fho sF nghJ mfUjhdJ fh
iyahwJ. fh iy, fUJ iyF MjhuhkhwJ. fh iy
mKfgLa fUJ iyF brnwh. fUJ iyF brw
fUJiynyna fzFfis tjF, brtjF tif brj ntL.
vLJfhL:

pp p
cl
2+1=?

nrJ wh vjid fhf UF?

fUa iy.

jf Kiw ((Logical Structure))

fj kbwhU wj g mj tif wHhj jf KiwahF. xU
fzid f KgL nghJ mjid eF tifgL gFjJ
bfhLfgLs tufis jf Kiw tirgLj ntL. xbthU
go fhuzfhaJl mik nghJ jtWf VglhJ. jFj Mjhuf
mik TWfis cikbad VWbfhs KoahJ.
vLJfhL
xU Ftis gh UFnghJ mJ gh u UwJ. myJ gh
fhahf csJ vW Twyh.
90

jidna fjthakhf,
vdT uLgf cs

1
2

uUwJ =

1
fhahf csJ
2

1
ia fL uUwJ = fhahf csJ
2

vd Tw KoahJ. fj TWfis jUf Kiwgo s Tw vd kdg

bgWj ntL. Jnt bjthd jidF VJthf mikwJ. mjhtJ
fj brhf MD r, FpLfshD r, f ltlkhd eilia
gagLJ w aikahjjhF.
brhyik
brhTY, fjTY brhyik braghLf ntWgLwJ.
vLJfhlhf TLf kW nrf vw brhfis vLJ bfhnth.
vLJfhL 1
3 cl 7-I TLf.
3 fSl 7 fis nrf.
vLJffhL 2
ff kW Ff vw brhfS gagho ntWgLwd.
15 - UJ 8-I ff.
15 kf bfhl xU khiy UJ 8 kfis Ff.
mthnw, tFj kW gFj Ma brhfis jFj Kiw
ifahSj ntL.
fw bra
fj TWf ga br bjhF myJ glbjhF jahj
fj ghl wjikia, mj Egij mj gaghL
jikia itnj mJ bfhsyh. fjghl fWbfhtj _y, vj
xU braiy wgl mJ bfhSj, mjid J bfhL gagLJj
gFjj, bjhFjj, kLj, nghwtiw wl bra aY.
fUid bg# q kW, Mlr FGdU tW
Tsd. Mlr uikj fw goiyfis fhngh.

5 . 5 . Mlr mrh fw uikj goiyf

csa nkij bg# S (Benjamin Bloom) 1950- bjhlf fhy Kj
1970- W fhy tiu fw fG tfisg M brJ
91

tifgLdh. fw _W iyf fG vW ssh.

mitfshtd.
1. mrh fw (Congnitive learning)
2. grh fw (Affective Learning)
3. cl af rh fw (Psychomotor learning)
mrh fw MW goiyf, fG vW Tdh. bgr S
mtf Muhia bjhlJ mtUila khzt Mlr(Anderson)
mrh fw goiyfis ikgLdh.

bgr S

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

mrh fw
(Cognitive Learing)

Mlr
sa goiyf

mj (Knowledge)

1. idF bfhzj (Remember)

j (Comprehension)

2. J bfhSj (Understand)

Ms(Application)

3. gagLJj (Apply)

gFj (Analysis)

4. gFjhj (Analyze)

bjhFj (Synthesis)

5. ghj (Evaluate)

kLj (Evaluation)

6. gilj (Create)

bgr q, m(Knowledge) tiffis

1.

cikf ga m (Factual Knowledge)

2.

fUJ bjhlghd m (Conceptul Knowledge)

3.

braKiw ga m (Procedural Knowledge)

vD _W gFfshf J fhosh. _W fUa iyia

bgWtjfhd fw ff tsiy gofshF. Jnt bra tfwYF

mogilahf mikwJ vgJ bj.
92

Mlr mj tiffis ehF iyf ssh. bgr

q m t f T a _ W i y f S l e h f h t j h f m J b f h s
m j ( M e t a C o g nition) vbwhU gkhzij ssh. nH cs
mltiz mrh fw tiffis, mj tKiwfSfhd
braghLfis, Fnfhfis bjthf fhLwJ.
1.

J bfhs njitahd cikfis mj(Factual Knowledge)

gF mogil cikf, brhTWf (Terms), xU thF
bjJ

bfhs

ntoa

gFf

tuf

nghw

gkhzfis bfhlJ.
2. fUJ bjhlghd mw (Conceptual Knowledge)
tifgLJj, bfhiff, bghJikgLJj, khf(Model)
Matiw cslaJ.
3. bragLJ Kiwf ga m (Procedural Knowledge)
xU Kiw Fl y TWfisg bjJ bfhs cjtJ
kW g h l b g h U g o j g F f g m a c j t J
nghwitfSl, n k Y M r h u i z ( E nquiry) monfh
Kiwf (Algorithms), Egf (Techniques), Kiwf (Method)
Ma midij cslaJ.
4. mJ bfhs ma cj m (Meta Cognition)
mjiy

mj

(learning

gjidFgl m,

to

learn)

vgJ

NH

kW

jidjhnd mj, Matiw

csla fiy f Toa m rhj braiy FwJ.

nkY Maj iy cs mid ugF vW
jid Twyh. fgjF bjJ bfhsntL myth?
Meta Cognition vgJ mJ bfhs mj vgnj MF. J cz
tkhdJ. nkY, J gilghw f KiwF (Active Learning Method)
mogilahf

mikJsJ.

mjhtJ,

fWbfhtjF

gW

tKiwfis cslsJ. jid glkhf btgLJtj _y (fh

iy) Egf, fngh NH, gjidFgl mw
Matiw bjJ bfhs KowJ. fnghU fw ghij jlf
brtjF, tfhLj bgWtjF VJthwJ.
93

mrh fw tKiwf Cognitive Process Dimension

mw
gFf
Kowledge Dimensions

idF
j
bfhL
Understanding
tUj
Remembering

ga
gLJj
Applying

J bfhs
njitahd
cikf
Factual Knowledge

fUjhf /
bghJik gLJj
Conceptual Knowledge

Kiwf ga m
Procedural Knowledge

mJ bfhs
mj
Meta Cognition

94

gFj
Analyzing

ghj
Evaluating

gilj
Creating

95

bghU sf
jUj
Interpreting

J bfhShj
Understanding

idF
tutiHj
Recalling

fLzj
Recognizing

idF bfhL
tUj
Remembering

mrh fwYfhd
tf tiff
Catagories and Congnitive
Process

l fhy idgFUJ njitahd mwid s bfhzj.

Retrieve relevent Knowledge from the long - term memory.

sff
Explanations

bkh bgaj
Translating

uahf
bragLj
Representing

bghiu brj
Parapharasing

bjthFj
Clarifying

sbgWj
Retrieving

xUKiw bjfglij kbwhU KiwF khWj.

(v.L) vKiw bjfgl fUij vGJto khWj.

thtahfnth, vGJ tahfnth, nkY gltahfnth brhygl

brfSF xU bghUis (mj) mikj.

l fhy idgFUJ njitahd mwid sbgWj.

milahs fhz l fhy idgFUJ jnghija brfSF bjhlila

mgFia flj
Identifying

khW bgaf
Alternative Names

96

II. 7. Jiuj

II. 6. xLj
Comparing

II. 5. mDkhj
Inferring

II. 3. tifgLJj
Classifing
II. 4. brRUf
Summarizing

II. 2. vLJfhLfis
cUthjUj
Examplifying

sF Kiw
Illustrating
fhyEg
Instantiating
tifd fhQj
Categorising
RUf brj
Abstracting
bghJikgLJj
Generalizing
MuhJ Ko flj
Concluding
wbrUf
Extrapolation
ilbrUf
Intrapolation
tUtJ ciuj
Predicting
ntWgLfhLj
Contrasting
bjhl gLJj
mapping
xUj
matching
flikj
Constructing
fhuz fhafSF Kkhia mikj

uL bghUfSF, vzfSF, ilnas

bjhlfis flj.

bfhLfgl brfUJ jf ahd Kofis tutiHj

bghJfUJfSF RUf brj

tifdF njitgL y brfis cW brj

xU Fl vLJfhil fLoj

97

IV-3. aghd Fz
Attributing

IV-2. xGFgLJj
Organizing

IV-1. ntWgL fhz

Differentiating

IV. EQ Muh br
Analyze

III-1. tj
Executing
III-2.gagLJj
Implementing

III. Ms
Apply

Deconstructing

mik
Structuring

Passing

viynfhL
Outlining

Intergraing

irilajhUj
Coherence

bjbjL ggj
Selecting
njo fLoj
Finding

xKf/ Fika
Focusing

ntWgL fhQj
Distinguishing

ntWghLfis flj
Discriminating

mj Niy xU braKiwid gagLJj.

gagLJj
Using

xU jiygr, k, cis nghwitf bfhLfgl brf j

nfhz flJ mjid cW brj.

xU Fl mikUJ mj cTWf vthW

bghUsJ myJ bragLwJ vgij cWgLJj.

bjhls kW bjhl yhj gFfis bfhLfgl brf jj,

kW Kakhd, Kayh TWfis jj.

xU br Ka TWfis J mitf xnwhL xW vthW cw

gLjgLwJ vgjid kW mj xL bkhj mikig mj.

eF mj g xU braKiwid bragLJj.

bragLJj
Carrying out

bfhLfgLs Niy xU Fl Kiwid bragLJj myJ

gagLJj.

98
jfhf bghJ sf
Hypothesising
ntiyghL
Designing
izJ cUthFj
constructing

V1-3..is
Producing

kL brj
Judging

a bghUis cUthFj.

y gfis brtjfhd bralfis cUthFj

khWKiw bghJ sfij flj.

cWfis xW nrJ irila KG braKiwia cUthFj. mj cWfis

a cUid cUthf KaYj

cw btw bfhif khwhikia flj. vj tKiw bragLtjh

ilF vgij flj.

mj cTWf cs gaDW jik mj cbfhif khwhik itfis flj.

ffhj
Monitering
nj
Testing

xU bra brw t myJ mj gy cs

bfhif, khwhik, jtwhd eiffis fLoj

brf juij mogilfis Mjhukhf bfhL kL brj

fLoj
Detecting

xUjugLj
Coordinating

Generating
V1- 2.lLj
Planning

VI- 1. wj

VI. cUthFj
Create

V- 2. wdh brj
Critising

V. kL /
fzL/ f
Evaluate
V-1. rghj
Checking

5.6

Mlr fUJiuf

fj U bgU fis bfhlJ

1.

Mjhufj (m) mogilfj (Pure/Basic Mathematics)

2.

gaghLfj (Applied Mathematics)

mrh njitfSF Mjhufj gagLwJ.

ed fj gy Kndwfis fL, wl fwJ. fj
tsgofis ndh ghjh bgU kiyghfnt njhWwJ.
aif fisbayh csla jf ahd, kjdh cUthfgl
X ma, fj MF. fj bghahd TWfnsh, fUJfnsh
ilahJ. fj bghgJ iy. jtwhd jftfis jUtJ iy.
vLJfhlhf jft ia g ghngh. ahdJ jf ahd
jJtfis Kiwfshf bfhlJ.
a vf fz a, b, c _W btntW vfis vLJ
bfhnth. a MdJ b-I l bgaJ, kW b MdJ c I l bgaJ vW
itJbfhnth. U TWfY UJ a MdJ c I l bgaJ vW
TWtJ jf MF. totfj gagL gy %gzf mrh
njit mogilnyna mikJsJ. nghJ, Mlr vw csayhs
sa mrh fw gkhzfis fhngh.
a b 6b 3
=
=
5 . 7 Mlr mrh fwa +tiff
b 8b 4
I.

nekiw %gz (Direct Proof)

Vbfdnt fwj monfh myJ njwUJ bjhl, gogoahf

(Syllogism) jf adhd bjhlf _y njitgL myJ U Koid
bgWtjhF.
x cikahd T (P) bjhl, gogoahf, jf ahf thJ
njitahd TW(Q) cik vw KoF tUj. j _y P bkbawh Q
bk vgJ %fgL. vLJfhlhf,
a
= 7 v
b

ab 3
=
vd fhLf.
a+b 4

a = 7b .................... bfhLfgl cik

a b 7b b b(7 1) 6b
=
=
=
a + b 7b + b b(7 + 1) 8b
................. uL k fhQj
99

II.

kiwKf %gz (Indirect Proof)

VnjD xU TW (A) _y kbwhU Tiw (B) czJwJ vW %f

ntL vd itJ bfhnth.
TW (A) TW (B) I czjiy vd fUJf cUth bfhL,
jf ahf thJ fUJnfh jtW vw KoF tUj. mjW TW
(A) MdJ TW (B) I czJwJ vgij %j.
vLJfhL

2 xU jKwh v vd %f
jid neuoahf %f ayhJ.
jid kiwKf %gz Kiw %ngh

2 xU jKwh v iy vd vLJbfhnth
mjhtJ
2=

2 xU KW v vngh.

p
(p, q akw KG vf, 1 kLnk fhu)
q

(fUJnfh)

p = 2q

p2 = 2q2

p2 X uil v
p X uil v.
p = 2m vdyh ( m xU KGv)
p 2 = 4m2
UJ 4m2 = 2q2
q2 X uil v
q X uil vzhF.
tUJ p, q F 2 xU bghJfhuahf mikJsJ vd bjwJ.
J fUJnfhSF jtwhd KothF.
vgJ jKW v vgJ jtW.

2 xU jKwh vzhF.
100

III. vkiw %gz ((Contrapositive proof))

TW (A) TW (B) vd uL TWfis vLJbfhnth. TW (A)
bkba TW (B) bk vd %gjF gyhf TW (B) bkiy v TW
(A) bkiy vW UF Kiwia vkiw %ghz vnwh.
vLJfhL
xU js mikj uL nfhLf xiwbahW btobfhS nghJ
Fbj nfhzf rk.
jid Uf, Fbj nfhzf rk iy vw fUJnfhis
cUth bfhL, gogoahf jf Kiwgo jtW vW %j.
jdogil Fbj nfhzf rk vW %fgLwJ.
IV. v vLJfhogo jtbwW %j ( Disprove by Counter Example))
xU TW jtwhdJ vd %f xU vLJfhL jUj
vLJfhL
xU v tf, mbtiz l vnghJ bgaJ.
TW, vnghJ cikahdJ vW brhtjiy. y rkaf jtwhf
UF vgjF xU vLJfhL jUnth. vLJbfhS v xiw
(1) lFiwthdh mj tf D Fiwthdjhf UF.
p=

1
2

p2 =

1
4

p2 k P kig l Fiw vgij fhf.

fw bra v vLJfho _y jtW vd %j
Kiwfhd goiyfis xU vLJfhLl vGJj.
tot a _y %gz
(a+b)2 = a2+2ab+b2 vgjid rghf.

V.

a
a

a2

ab

ab

b2

a2

ab

ab

fw bra : (a-b)2 = a2-2ab+b2 -I tot a Kiw %j.

101

b2

VI. mik Kiw %gz ((Construction))

TW : Urkgf Knfhz rkgffSF v cs nfhzf rk.
C

AB = AC
ABC = ABC

rkkw gf vKid tna tiuagL brFJF

uL rt rkKnfhzfis cUthF. thW mikfis cUth
%fyh.
fw bra :mikKiw %gz Kiw fw goiyf
X vLJfhLl vGj.

5 . 8 fj fj rthf
fzF F vw Tid czu brtjF fw fj tFgiw
ff vbfhS rthfSfhd fhuzfis NCF - 2005gJiuf
mogil Muhjnth.
khztfis ikakhf bfhl fw ffis cUth
eilKiwgLJj.
jhnd fw Kiwia gWj.
thif eilKiwgLj Toa ghlbghUshf khWj.
tha KiwfY, gaY bghUSila ebdfis fw
btghlhf VgLJj.
tiw

vyh

vbfhL

tFgiw

fw

ffis

nkbfhtjfhd wf ytiw ghngh

1.

Maf fF w
gf cs Maf fj fUJfis fF tYefshf

UfntL. g rKjha NH, bgnwhf bghUshjhu NH,

khztf kdiy itfis MJ mNHYF Vg fF w
102

ftfshf Uf ntL. jid fF w (Teaching Competency) vW

TWnth. jnghJs Niy, fjij fF nghJ mjfhd
vLJfhLf, JizfUf, fF Kiwf, kL, tYLj,
midJ bghWjkhf mikj ntL.
2.

Ma fUjhw
Mj jid ftuhf Ma fH ntL. fj fUJf

Mj yik bgwtuhf Uf ntL. Niy cs brf

bjhFig fUjhf kh, izahd bjhU Niy gagLJ
wid bgwtuhf Uf ntL. jid fj fUa w
( C o n t e x t u a l competency) vW TWnth.
3.

ghlbghU ga m w
MaUF fj ghl, fUJfis fw nghJ, mjFa

ghlbghUis eF czJ, khztf kdiyaJ, fUJfis

vikah fF w ftuhf Uf ntL. jid fUJ w
(Content Competency) vngh.
4.

tFgiw khztfSF fUJfis gilF w

fF fUJf khztfis KGikahf brwila ntL.

fUJij Vglhk mil iy Uj ntL. ifahS bkh,

khztf Niynfg mikj ntL. jid fUJ gkhw
(Transactional competency) vW TWnth.
5.

JizfUf ga mw
fj xU fUJghl. fUJfis vikahf kh khztfSF

ffntL. fj fw, xU ey wj JizfU UFkhdh

nkY vikahF. y jUzf JizfUf thFtjhfnth myJ
jhnk brtjhfnth Tl mikayh. khztfns Tl totikfyh.
itfSfhd lLj mw bgwtuhf UfntL. jid
fUia ifahS w (Competency related to Teaching Learning Material TLM) vngh.
JizfUf jukhdjhf (Stanadarized) vikahf (Simple) iy
Fiwthf (Low cost), myJ iy yhjjhf (No cost) mikjh wghf
UF.
103

6.

thfw (Competency Related to Management)

tFgiw nkyhikw, g nkyhikw bgwtuhf Uf

ntL. tFgiw khztf fisW UF neu fj ghlij

ff TlhJ. vdnt fhiy Kj uL ntisfnyh myJ ka
uL, _whtJ ntisfnyh ffyh. khztf Vw
mJ jahgLJ w fj fwiy fUghF.
7.

ghl izbraf, w braf ga w

fj kw, Mtf, yf, fw Kiw itfis aF w

bgwtuhf Uf ntL. Jga jidF _j fj Maiunah

myJ jiyik Maiunah mQ bjJ bfhs ntL.
8.

bgnwhfSl cwiy
ey fzfha jdJ khztf bgnwhfis khj xUKiwnah

myJ xU gUtF xU Kiwnah rJ khztf fj Mwiy

g bjfntL. J bgnwh, Ma cwiyia tYgLJ.
9.

rKjhaJl cw iy
gia xoa rKjhaJl ey cw bfhgtuhf UfntL. J

g nkghoF f cWJizahf mik.

Ma btW w ftuhf kL Ujh nghjhJ; khztfSF
fj fUJfis fF kdghik cstuhf Uf ntL.
mg kdghik ftuhf UfntL. khztfSF j g J
RafLghlhsuhf (Accountability) Uf ntL. jdJ gF, thfF,
fiylF mg cstuhf Uf ntL. jgl U,
btW braglntL. jid mg (Performing Area) vW Twyhkh?
itfis vyh jho, xU Ma bra w ftuhf UfntL.
tFgiw vyhj fj fis filoJ khztf mil
iy (Achievement) mf bgw ghLglntL. jdF bfhLfgl ntiyia
rahf, Kiwahf brj ntL.
10.

kL br w (Competency Related to Evaluation)

khztf jhf nrhfgLnwh vw kd mGjij bgwhk

UF tif kLf mikj ntL. kL fwiy CFgjhf

104

Uf ntLnk ju Fiw fhQ braghLfshf Uj TlhJ. kLj

U btW braglntL. kLjYF eF ll ntL.
midJ kLj Kiwfis MJ fwtuhf Uf ntL.

5 . 9 gaghL fj
fj yhj lnk iy. X cyf uhkkhf khwntL vd kh
bkYf (1970) Tdh. mJ W mjkhf iwnt kjfis izF
ghykhfs jft bjhl, beLrhiyahf khUgjF fj
liy v iwa bjhEg ts fUfhJ. fj m
CWf. mbfdhjgo vF iwUF gaghLfj g
goaL ghgjFjh Kokh?
cyfbghJf g UNESCO- nly f F TWtjhtJ:
f 4 f wJ mit
i)

bjJ bfhtjF fw (Learning to know)

ii)

fhafis brtjfhd brayhw bgWtjF fw (Learning to do)

iii)

zfkhf thtjF fw (Learning to live together)

iv)

, ahf UgjF fw (Learning to be)

rKjha khw f bgW tfis bgUsJ. Ma kLnk

fia mgiy. rKjha khwK, f bjh EgK f
bgWtjF gyt rhiyfis mikJ bfhoUwd. braghL
fKiw Ma brawDFa njliy mff brwJ. vwh
ifahfhjnwh!
(v-L) uridfis KWj
235 + 367 = 602 vwh 234 + 360 = ?
jfhd ilia vgo fhzyh?
5384 vw v VnjD xU yfij khaikjh
vif TLkh? Fiwkh? vts?
glsf
3 x 5 = 5 x 3 vgJ V?
105

_W, IJf

IJ _Wf

fF fj fUJf thif vF, vgo gagLjntL vgij

czJ bfhs ntL. j thif fzFwid jh rKjha
khztfl vghwJ. jid eF lL bragLJtjF
wikahd mg kdghiks brawid gaghL fj _y
tsJbfhsyh.

fwit

fj FpLf

fj bkh

fj jik

Mlr fw goiyf

mrh fj (m) Mjhu fj

fj fj rthf

gaghLfj

fw bra

fj TWf ga br bjhF myJ glbjhF jahj

v vLJfho _y jtW vd %j Kiwfhd goiyfis

xU vLJfhLl vGJj.

(a

mikKiw %gz Kiw fw goiyf X vLJfhLl

vGj.

- b)

= a2 - 2ab + b2 -I tot a Kiw %j.

106

myF 6

th Kiw
(Problem Solving Method)

6.1

mKf
iwa fu th Kiw vgJ fjmidJ

iyfY Ka nehf thjjhf fUjgLwJ. vf mik

Kiw g mogilahf J bfhS wf, fj th Kiw
cs wf kW Egf isfSF bjhlfg fhynyny
MugkhLwJ. mtf j Mug fhy iy v mit tsJ
bfhL vfis ifahSwd. bjhlfg fj gntW
tifahd Tl, fj, bgUf, tFj nghw braf _y fz
mogil bfhiffis fWbfhwd.
3,4 kW 5M tF khztf eilKiw th cs fzFfis
fgjdh mtf jfSila fj wfis, Egfis bknkY
bkUnf bfhs KowJ. eLiy g gY khztf fj
wfis Egfis L, g kW r_f wikahf ifahs
Ko vw iy bgWj ntL vgnj fj fw Ka
nehfkhF.
onyna fzFf brtjF fW bfhtjh vfis ga
nghJkhd mnthL FHijf bjhlf g EiHwhf. mjhtJ,
Kiwahd vz vGj bgUjh fjij ifahS Kiwfis
jhfshfnt fLoJ bfhthf. vdnt, mtf vthW vfis
gyjkhf bjhlgLJtij vf mikig kW Ka gif
aghf mfwd. y rkaf vjj Nuijnah myJ
Fpilnah gagLjhkny Fl bghUf vifianah
myJ vilianah khztfsh ff KowJ. v mit eF tsJ
bfhl khztf fzif g vjj jilnah, jlfnyh yhk
kahf jfis <LgLbfhwd. Mfnt vf ga mit
khztfilna tsgJ xU Ma jiyaha flikahF.
107

fF m bgw midJ khztfshY fzif goJ ghJ

bfhL kL fzFf vthW nghLtJ vgij mJ bfhs KoahJ.
ghljf cs fzFfis eilKiw th cs fzF
fis fWbfhstJ mta MwJ.
mjhtJ, Ma tfhLj njitgLwJ. jUz th
Kiw ffyh. th Kiw vgJ bjjtUJ MuJ
gogoahf jUf Kiw il fhgij mogilahf bfhLsJ.
fzFfis vikahf brtjF th Kiw bghJthf 4 goiyf
gwgLwd.
1.

fzif thj (Read the Problem)

2.

vd brantL vW KobtLj (Decide what to do)

fzLj (Compute)

4.

ilia rghj (Check your answer)

fzif Kj thJ mij eF J bfhs ntL. J

bfhSj vgJ vf, brh kW fz cs FpLfSfhd rh
(Function) kW bjhlig Fgjfhd wdhF. j rhng vthW fhz
ntL vw Ko vLgjF mogilahf mikwJ.
bjhlfg gY _wh tF khztfSF nghJkhd
mogil vGj yhjjh tha fzFfis JbfhtjF f
ukgLwhf. bjhlf g goF w bfhl khztf fzFfis
th br jF cilauhf fUjgLwhf.
vLJfhLf

btl 15 lhf csd. mt eg n# btl nkY

6 lhf bfhLjh. btl bkhjkhf vjid lhf
csd?

Rghl

14 gJf csd. ghkhl 5 gJf csd.

ghkhitl Rghl vjid gJf TLjyhf csd?

tU 4 goiyfis ifahlh fzFfis th brtJ
vikahf UF.
108

6.2

th Kiw vgJ vd?

fz bfhLfgl fUJfis bfhL w njitahd

JizfUJfis fLoJ bfhLfgl fzF fhgjF

nkbfhS fj Kiw th Kiw vdgL
fj th Kiw f Egkhd mw kW gntW
braghLfnshL bjhlilajhF. th Kiw 2 cTWfis bfhlJ.
1.

bjhlgLJj.

2.

fhz.

fhgjF Kj fzYs fUJfis bjhlgLjhk

bt fhz ayhJ. fzFfhd it bfhLfgLs fUJfnshL
bjhlgLUjhny khztDF mfzFfhd UwJ vd
mJ bfhs Ko. mJnt mtDF fhd llYF tfhL.
fzFfis rahf bjhl gLJtjF bjahj khztf fhgY
ukgLthf.

6.3

xGfhd tiugl Ff (Schematic Representions)

fhgjF bfhLfgl fz fUJfis bjhlgLJj

_y glsfkhf bfhLf ntL. bjhlgLa jh

fhgjfhd ll vgJ glij kL tiuJ fhLtJ Kaky.
tiuj cUt fUJfis bjhlgL fhLtnj KakhF. mjhtJ
kdf fgid brJ fUJfis bjhlgLJ Kiwia cUtfgL
fUJfSl bjhlgL KGikahf ghf ntL. thW xGfhd
tiugl Ff (Schematic Representions) rahf J bfhsiy v
it tiuglfshf kLnk bj; fUJfis myJ jftfis
bjhlgL ghf ayhJ.
(v-L)

jhl 15 gir xof csd. mt njh nk nkY 6 gir xofis

jhF bfhLjh. jhl bkhj vjid gir xof csd.?

cc
jh

wwwwwwww
wwwwwww

nk
109

ww
ww
ww

6.4

th nehff

fzYs jftfis KiwgLJtjF tU nehffis

mogilahf bfhL th Kiw mikwJ. th Kiwia
gagLJtjF Maj iyfis cUth bfhsntL. Maj
iyahtd :

thj

W gFfshf j

fUJfis myJ jftfis cUtfgLJj

f wikahf fzif ifahtjF (Manipulatives to be developed)

fzYs TWfis bjhlgLj ntL. thW FpLf _y
fzif bjhlgL fj TWfshf vGJtj _y il fhg
f VglhJ ; fw jil fG. jid tYL tif njuh
xGfhd lf rh tfhLj cf vw Kiw mikJsJ.

6 . 5 xGfhd lf rh tfhLj cf (Schema based

strategy Instruction)
j cia njuh (2005) totikJ bjhlfiy fzF
fF Kiwf gagLtjF cfj cahf bfhLJsh. mj_y
bjhlfg FHijf fzFfSF fhQ Kiwia ssh.
J ehF gofis bfhl tKiwahF (4 step process) 1.

fzF vj tif vd fLoj (Find the problem type)

2.

fz cs jftiy xU gl _y KiwgLJj.
(Organise the information in the problem, using the diagram)

3.

fzFfhd it lLj (Plan to solve the problem)

fzFF fhz (Solve the problem)

xbthU fzFF xU tiugl kW jhdhf KiwgLa bra

mltiz bfhLf ntL.
vLJfhL
ghitF gl tiuJ tz Lt Ug mf. mt Jtiu 8
glfSF tz olh. mt nkY 3 glfSF tz odh v,
bkhj vjid mtl UF?
go 1 : vd fLof ntL vgij mj
go 2 : fzYs Ka jftiy nfhoLj kw
vfis tlLj
110

F 3, 8 Matiw tlLj.
nkY vw brhiy monfhoLj.
go 3 :

fj TWfis vGJj. Kj tz oa glf

vif = 8
nkY
tz
oa
glf
vif vjid vdmj.

go 4 :

Tl ntLkh ? ff ntLkh? vd
khj.

OOO

bkhj vw brhiy bfhL Tl

ntL vd khj.
Tl bra brj, To il vGJj.
xbthU fzF fhz nkfl
ehF go iyfis khztf gagLj
Maf g mj.

OOOO
OOOO

khztf vjhf jdiflD kW MtJlD fhz

KidnghL bragLt.

6.6

fhz iHj kW iuj

xU fzF vgJ mj it fhgjfhd brayhF. mjhtJ

6.7

fzif ifahgt mjfhd it fhz Kidl

bragLj -thj.

mt fhgjF jah iy yhk Ujiy

czJ mjfhd tKiwfis njLj.

it fhgjfhf jdh aw Ka brj.

fhQ ehF t iyf

th c bjhlfiyasyhd thif fzFfis eF

J bfhL MtJl fhgjF kW khztfilna th
ga kdghif tsgjF bgJ gagL. J ehF gofis
bfhlJ. mit
1.

fzif J bfhSj (Understand the Problem)

2. cfis lLj (Plan the Strategies)

3. Ka brj (Try it)
4. Ug ghj (Look back)
111

1.

fzif JbfhSj
fzF fhgjF K mfzif Kj J bfhSj

mta. bfhLfgLs vyhjftfis fLof kW vd

nffgLsJ vgij ma xW myJ uL Kiw thf ntL.
Jnt fzif J bfhSj MF. mjhtJ
fzif xW myJ uL Kiw thJ vd jftf
bfhLfgLsd?
vd jftf nffgLsd?
fzif gjfhd gjid ahJ ? vd J bfhsntL.
2.

cfis lLj
fzif J bfhl wF khztf J khahd fzif

gjfhd jfsJ Kija mDgtij id TJ mj fzif

gjfhd cfis fhQjny lLj vdyh.

3.

Ka brj

nkflthW lll, fzfhd ilia mila Ka

nkbfhSj ntL. mjhtJ, fz fhz j goiy rjhdh vd
ewhf ghf ntL. kW j goiy rjh vd %f Ka
nkbfhs ntL.
4.

Ug ghj (Look back)

fzF fll, fz goiyfis xbthwhf L

ghf ntL. mthW ghF bghGJ eh VjhtJ xU go iyia jtwhf
ifahoUjh mij r bra Ko. nkY mj fz it fhz
rahf llyh.mjhtJ tU dhf goaiy (Check list)
gagL Ug ghfyh.
(i)

ilia eh rghnjdh ?

(ii)

tufis eh rghnjdh ?

(iii)

ilia fhz VjhtJ ntW Kiwia eh cUth cnsdh ?

(iv)

fz xbthU go iyia xU KiwnaD nkghit

brnjdh ?

nkfl ehF goiyfis bfhL bjhlff msyhd

fzFfis brayh vd Mf TWwd.
112

th cia tha fzFf (Word Problem) gagLJ

Kiwf
th c Twgl ehF iyfis gagL tha
fzFfis brtjF gagLJ Kiwfis fhngh.
(a)

goaiy cUthFj (Make a table)

(b)

KiwgLjgl tiria cUthFj (Make an organized list)

(c)

mikig fLoJ cUthFj (Look for a pattern)

(d)

Cj kW rghj (Guess & check)

(e)

glf myJ tiuglf tiuj (Draw a picture or graph)

(f)

ndh brj (Work backwards)

nkfl Kiwfis xU Ma gagLJ nghJ khztf fj

th Kiwia vjhf kW tYthf J bfhs Ko. F
xbthU KiwfSF vLJfhLf bfhLfgLsd.
(a) goaiy cUthFj ((Make a table)
vLJfhL
k, k xU jfij jjna thf Xnu eh Mujd.
k xU ehisF 8 gff jK k 5 gff j thjh, k 56
gff thUF bghGJ, k vjid gff thUgh?
il
bjhlf iy khztfSF Vw tif flthW goaiy
jahfyh. J fzif J bfhtjF gagLwJ. j goa,
fz jftfis bfhlJ. vdnt j fz ehF goiyfis
gagL fhngh.
go -1
fzif JbfhSj
vjid gff k xbthU ehS thjh ? (8)
vjid gff k xbthU ehS thjh ?

(5)

UtU xnu eh jh thf Mujduh ?

nkfl dhfSF khztf rahf gyjh mtf fzif

J bfhld vdyh.
113

go -2
cfis lLj
Kj eh Ko k vjid gff thjh ?

(8)

Kj eh Ko k vjid gff thjh ?

(5)

k 16 gff thJ KoF nghJ, k

vjid gff thgh?

(10)

Kj IJ ehf k vjid gff

thUgh? (8,16,24,32,40)
go -3
Ka brj ( Try it )
eh

k thj gff

k thj gff

16

10

24

15

32

20

40

25

48

30

56

35

Mfnt k 56 gff thF nghJ , k

thUgh.

35 gffns

go -4
Ug ghj ((Look back)
il = 35 gff
rgh goaiy gagL ghit brj
(b) KiwgLjgl tiria cUthFj ( Make an organized list)
vLJfhL
u uL fhrilf itJsh . mt xW fW kbwhW
gir. mJl ehF rilfS itUjh: mit xU btis ril, xU
tril, xU kr kW xU nfhL nghl ril v vjid btntW
tiff mt ril, fhrilfis maKo?
114

go -1
fzif J bfhSj

vjid fhril ul csd. ?

(2)

vjid rilf ul csd ?

(4)

go -2
cfis lLj
u fW fhril mjh vj ril ma thsJ ?
(btis, t, kr, myJ nfhL nghl ril)
u gir fhril mjh, mt midJ tif rilfis
ma Kokh ? M.
go -3
Ka brj
KiwgLjgl tiria cUthFj
fh ril

ril

fW

btis

fW

fW

kr

fW

nfhL nghl ril

gir

btis

gir

gir

kr

gir

nfhL nghl ril

Mfnt u 8 btntW tiff ril, fh ril ma Ko.

go -4
Ug ghj ((Look back)
rgh goaiy gagL ghit brj.
115

(c) mikig fLoJ cUthFj (Look for a pattern)

vLJfhL
_W gof bfhl xU gofil fLtjF 6 bgofis tst
gagLdh vwh 6 gof bfhl gofil fLtjF mtUF vjid
bgof njitgL?

go -1
fzif JbfhSj
tst foa gofLf vif vjid?
gagLa bgof vjid?
flntoa gofLf vjid?
njitahd bgof vjid?
go -2
cfis lLj
Kj gofilfLtjF vjid bgof
gagLjgLsd?

(1)

ulhtJ gofo vjid bgof

gagLjgLsd ? (2)
_whtJ gofo vjid bgof
gagLjgLsd ? (3)
bkhj vjid bgof gagLjgLsd ? (6)
116

go -3
Ka brj
gofo cs
bgof

a gofis fl njitgL
bgof

bkhj bgof
njit

1-tJ

2-tJ

1 + 2 =3

3-tJ

1+2+3 =6

4-tJ

1 + 2 + 3 + 4 = 10

5-tJ

1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 = 15

6-tJ

1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 = 21

go - 4
Ug ghj
21 bgofis bfhL 6- gofSl gofil tiuJ sfyh.
Mfnt 6- go bfhl gofil (Stair Case) fl 21 bgof ntL.
(d)

Cj kW rghj ((Guess & cheek)

vLJfhL
eh 5 milf 5 btntW vf vGnd. mj vf
TLbjhif 15 MF. v mj 5 milf eh vbjj vfis
vGnd?
go -1
fzif JbfhSj
vjid vf eh vGnd - (5)
mj vf TLbjhif vd - (15)
xbthU milY vjid vf csd - (1)
VnjD uL vfshtJ rkkhd vfshf UFkh ? (iy)
mit btntW vfshf UF?
117

go -2
cfis lLj
mil VjhtJ xU v 15 Mf UFkh ? (iy.
Vbdwh jKs midJ vfS 0 Mf UF)
5 vfis Todh 15 Mf tU vfis nj brf.
go -3
Ka brj
Ka (1)
Ka (2)

0,1 , 2, 3, 4
1, 2, 3, 4, 5

0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 = 10
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 = 15

(15 my )
(r)

go -4
Ug ghj

(Look back)

Mfnt mj vf 1, 2, 3, 4, kW 5 MF.
(e) glf myJ tiuglf tiuj ((Draw a picture or graph)
vLJfhL
nfh - Xlgjafhf (Sack race) MugnfhL tiutjfhf
yh, kh xU fiw vLJbfhld. mj fwhdJ 10 l s
cilaJ. f xbthU 2 l Ko xU fg Wdh vjid fgf
mtf gagLdhf.
go -1
fzif J bfhSj
fW vts s csJ ?

(10 l)

vts u ilbt fg WtglJ ?

(2 l)

go-2
cfis lLj
fgijf Ko kL Wdh
vjid fgf UF ?

(2)

mtf 3 fgfis xbthU 2 l

ilbt Wdh f s vts ?

(4 l)

118

 4 fgfis vLJ bfhL xU glij

tiuJ f s vts vdghf
2

(6 l)

go- 3
Ka brj
glij tiuf
2

go -4
Ug ghj
il = 6 fgf
vdnt, yh kW kh bkhj 6 fgfis gagLd.
(f) ndh brj
tst, bra kW ka xU bgo jf ehzaf
itUjd. mt xU rgh jf ehzafis k ijjd.
jKs xU rghia mtfSF gL bfhld. bra 2000
ehzaf bgWbfhlh vwh bgo vts jf ehzaf
UUF.
go -1
fzif J bfhSj
bgo vjid jf ehzaf Ujd
vd bjkh?

(bjahJ)

vjid jf ehzafis k
ijfgld vd bjkh?

(bjahJ)

vjid jf ehzaf xbthUtU

gL bfhld?

(2000)

_W egUF vjid ehzaf

tHfgoUF?

(6000)

119

go -2
cfis lLj
rkkhf gL bragLsJ,
bkhj _t
xUt (bra) bgwJ = %.2000
kw Ut bgwJ = %. 2000 + 2000
go -3
Ka brj myJ ilia fhgjfhd brafis cUthFj
2000 ehzafSl Muf.
_wh bgUf (3 egf)

3 x 200 = 6000

ulh bgUf (gh ehzaf ijfglJ)

2 x 6000 = 12000
Mfnt 12000 jfehzaf bgo UUF
go -4
Ug ghj Look back)
il rghj - brJ ghUfns!
nkfl th cfis gagL fzFfSF fhgJ
khztfSF vikahf kW fj nk khztfSF ey
kdghikia tsF.

6.8 fj fj cs fiy

F tiyf

1. sfkhf fj myJ bjthf fj (Explicit Instruction)

sf fj vgJ mrh tiy fj Kiwfshd
idL brhf, khf, thbkh, nrhjid (xif) kW
}lfis

cslajhF.

ghlf

midij

cathd

xGfikf kW totikfis bfhl fw kW gahdJ,

mrh tKiwf kW tiyfSl, bghUjkhd idL brhf
kW vzlfis tsJ bfhs cjt ntL. xbthU khzt
brifF rahd kW ne}lf cldoahf mfgl ntL.
fw, njfw, kW jhkhfnt Kgl Mad tQFKiw
yFf MF.
120

j fj KiwahdJ khztfis fw kW g fj
fiy F Kiwf RWRWghf braglitwJ. jifa
mQFKiw thyhf Maf kW khztfSF ilna ey cwKiw
VgLwJ.
vLJfhL
xUt %.1250 bfhLJ 10 jffis thFwh v mt 42
jff thf ntLbk vts bfhLfntL?
idL brhf
vj xU fzif goJ ghjl vd bfhLfgLsJ kW
vd nffgLsJ vgij ma ntL.
10 jff iy = % 1250 (bfhLfgLsJ)
42 jff iy = ? (nffgLsJ)
thW khztf J vGjho mtfSF ne }lfis
Ma cldoahf mJ a itf ntL.
vzl
fzif goJ J bfhlJ bfhLfglUJ xU bghU
iyia fzl ntL vw vz vHntL.
mjhtJ,
10 jff iy = %.1250
gy jff iyUJ 1 jfiy fLof
tFj braiy nkbfhsntL vw jid cUthf ntL.
1 jf iy = 1250 10
= %.125
xU jf iyUJ gy jff iyia fhgjF
bgUf ntL vw vzij tsJ bfhsntL.
Mfnt 42 jf iy = 42 x 125 %gh
121

thW khztfSF g mFnghJ jid w tswJ.

idthw lgLwJ. J nghW jidia L gy brafis
sf fj Kiw fhzyh.
2. tirgLJj kW TWgLJj (Sequencing and segmenting)
tirgLJj kW TWgLJj vgj bghU sf, bragl
ntoa ntiyia JizgFf cTWfshf j, Fiwj braw
mj kW gFfis KGtJkhf bjhFj vgjhF.
mrh braKiw kW Ra xGF iyfis bjhlahf brh
bfhLJ mtiw eilKiwgLj ntL. Mug iy fzif thf
brJ d mLjgoahf mfzF fhgjF ttFf ntL.
khztfSF fzif thf fW jj d mtf mfzif
gogoahf vgo brtJ vgjfhd tKiwfis aitf ntL. Ma,
khztfl ghl fF nghJ vj ms J bfhlhf vgij ma
mtfis nrhjidLtjhjh gntW tKiwfis fWju aY. it
khztfSF idL brhf kW vzlfis bfhl
mrfshf btgL. khztf fzif thF nghnj mtf vd bra
ntL vW mjid vgo Ug brhy ntL vgij fW bfhs
ntL. nkY mtf gntW thijfSF mj J bfhL goF
nghJ TLjyhd ms fw bjhltjF thsJ.
vLJfhL
7 br., 6 br. kW 5 br. cs xU mrkgf Knfhzij tiuf.
go 1
7 br. cs nfhLJL tiuf. AB vW bgaLf.

7 br.

go 2.
ftuha gagL A vw UJ 6 br. ms xU
tiua. nj nghW B vw UJ 5 br. mss kbwhU
tiua. uL fS btL ia C vd Fl.
122

C
6 br.
A

5 br.
7 br.

go 3 :
AC kW BC I izf. bghGJ ABC vw Knfhz ilF.
thW khztf fzif thjl mij JbfhL Ra
xGFKiwfis cUth bfhsntL. khztf mtiw
gogoahf g il fLof ntL. jidna tir gLJj kW
TWgLJj mQFKiw vnwh.
3.

UgTW g kW iHUJ g
(Drill - Repetion and Practice - Review)
fzif F nghJ VgL Kndwij rghf nj w

msL, iHUjij tirgLJj, Ug Ug g bfhLj,

iHUjij gjj, g xnu khahd fzFfis
gagLJj kW ne }l Ma TWfis Kiw cslaJ. j
_y J bfhSj, nf nfl, rghj nghw wf fw
btghlhf khztfl VgL.
J bfhSj
khztf jhkhfnt gntW tifahd brhfis eilKiwgLj fW
bfhtjF, mtifahd brhfis thJ J bfhsntL.
Kakhd jftfis monfhol ntL. fzif brhj eil
mikj ntL.
nfnfl
eh Kakhd jftfis monfhol brUnwdh? vd
nffgLsJ? eh vij vghnw? nghw dhf _y fw
ilbtfis r brJ bfhs ntL.
rghj
khztf jhkhfnt fzif bra Toa wid bgW tiu
mtfSF g mj ntL. Ra kL brJ rghF
gia mf ntL
123

4. tfho neil dhf kW Jyff (Directed Questioning and

Responses)
brat fj kW fw mrh Kiw fjiy
gagL gnfF cfis KiygLj tfhl mta. tfhl
Kiw gntW jkhf mikayh.

fj fiy f khztfis Mugiynyna thj

gnff brj,

Ma cjl jah brif yFf kW fYF ey it

cUthFj,

Ma khztfl braKiw bjhl f kW bghU bjhlghd

dhfis nflj,

nkY Ma khztfl neuo Kiwyhd dhfis nfl,

vbghGJ kW vgo cj nff ntL vgij g khztfSF

fW jUj.

vLJfhlhf
4 br. s kW 3 br. mfyK bfhl brtf gugsit fhf.
(braKiw bjhlghd dhf)
j fz fhgjfhd neil dhf
1. vd nffgLsJ?
2. vd guf njitgLwd?
3. j fzif f vd tuf bfhLfgLsd?
4. j fzF il fhz vthW bjhlf ntL?
5. j fzF il fhz c Kija mit vthW gagLJth?
bghU bjhlghd dhf
1.

brtf vwh vd?

2.

brtf gu fhQ Nu vd?

3.

mj Nu ul
bfhLfgLsdth?

njitahd

cWf

kf

Jnghw neil dhf khztf jidia o Kija mit

id TJ Jyf brwJ.
124

5. fod iy fLghL (Control Difficulty)

brafis vikUJ fodiyF bry vw nfhgho
mogil fw brafis mikF nghJ fod iy gogoahf
mffntL. mjhtJ
(i)

vikUJ fod iy mikj

(ii)

va Kiw W myFfshf brJ fhLj.

(iii)

njitahd cjf, bghUjkhd idL brhf,

v z lf kW fyJiuahlYF tfhLj
Mait fod jikUJ fUa iyia cUthFwJ.

khztf fj fYF fhz sf goiy khwf

brJ fgj isthf, fzif FnghJ Koit mahj iyF
brW Lwhf. gogl fj fiy fhz W W myFfshf
J bfhL goiyfis mfJ L, L ifahS nghJ m
tYef Mwhf. thW brtjh bjhlf iy mahk Uj
fUbghUf gogoahf tjF MuJLwJ.
vLJfhL
15 br. s kW 10 br. mfy bfhl xU brtfij s kW
mfyij tisRwsthf bfhL uL cUisf br nghJ vj
cUis fdms mfkhf UF?
fzif brJ fhl Kiw ffyh,
sij tisRwsthf bfhL xU cUisia brJ m kziy
nghL u mj kziy jahf itJ bfhsyh. mfyij
tisRwsthf bfhL kbwhU cUisia brJ m kziy u mj
kziy jahf itJ, vj cUis ua kz mfkhf UwJ vgij
khztfns czJ bfhwd. brJghJ il vGJwd.
thW vik gLjgLwJ. fod iy fLghL vgjF J xU wj
vLJfhlhF.
6. bjh Eg (Technology)
fgh (calculator) kW fbghahdJ (Computer) Fl
viyF mgh gLjgL gaghoYsJ. f bjhEgij
ifahtjF Vg ghlgFfis, tiuglfis totikJ bfhL
fh brKiwg gagLjyh. nkY fj fiy f,
khztfSF fzL fUia vgo gagLj ntL vgjid
fWju ntL. Tl, fj nghwtiw ewhf J bfhl wF
125

fgh fUia ifahS Kiwia fW jJ m mtfis tYduhf

sf itfyh. fodkhf czu Toa fj ghlbghUis nghija
bjh Eg cjl Maf ff Kida ntL. Mfnt, Maf
jft bjhl bjh Eg mit wid tsJ bfhs f
mta MwJ.
csa

nfhghogo

khztf

83

rjj

ghgdh

(Seeing)fWbfhwhf. vdnt fjij tsJtU bjhEg cjl

fFbghGJ khztf wghf fWbfhs th VgL. tU
mltizia kd bfhL ghlbghUfis (e-Content) jahfyh.
thwhd ghlbghU fzF thF khztfilna Mtij
kW ehlij eF tsF.
fjghlbghU
Content

fhf
Visuals

is
Effect

xU fj ghl

xbthU bghUSF

thW bghUSF

bghUis khztfSF

jFj fhf(Visuals)

jFj fhf

Ma vthW

myJ mnkr nf

bfhL fF

gy cfis gagL
fghnuh, mit

fhlntL.
(izajs

isfis
nf Fl

midij nf

nrffyh)

ntL.

bfhLfglntL
thwhd - bghUis eh izajs ghfyh.
7. FG fj ((Group Instruction)
W FG fj (5-8 khztf) thyhf Maf khztf
cwiy nkgLwJ. NH fwiy kilajhFwJ. Maf
kW khztf cw iyF mrh tiy fj x mojskhf
mikJsJ. Fl gF FG fj _y mrh tiy
fjiy ugLjyh.
toa

nghw

fjghlfis

bjhlfgas ffyh.
126

FGfw

_ykhf

vLJfhL
rhrJu, rJu, brtf kW izfu nghw toa cUtf
xWik kW ntWikfis FGfw _y ffyh.
8. xj tad <LghL, MaUfhd cj (Peer Involvement and
supplements to Teacher)
vGJj goj wf bgw khztf L ghlfis id
itf, gntW tifahd fzF fhQ Kiwf kW Ra
begLJ tKiwfis idL brhf thyhf nkgLjyh.
vLJfhL
njuh FGd fzif begLjYF khaikF Kiwfshf
TWtd;

khztf Kj fzif flj,

fzif thj,

Ug Tw

mtfshfnt it khwToa fzFjhdh vd jhfshfnt

nfLbfhs.

fzFfis jhnd KiwgL rghF goanyhL xL brj.

tiw gagL fj thijfis vgo thf ntL vgo

UgTw ntL vg tYe Md mLj mikF(goF)
Lbry ntL. Kiwahf fW bfhlh mtiw mwhl th
gagL xbthU goiyfis btfukhf mikJ bfhs Ko.
WFG fj (m) Lghl brJ Koj wF khztf midtU
bghJf fj fF fhz fWbfhlitfis tF
gagLj brj ntL. bghJf Maf fj zl
Uf ntL. vthbw tflUJ khztf bgW sfiu
bghJfj tF khztfSF cjahf Uj ntL. ij
brtjF bghJ kW wghl fF Maf khztfis g,
ghl fj Kiwg foghf mtfSF btgLj ntL.
nkY Maf khztfilna cwit tsgjF bghJ kW w ghl
tF vd eljgLsJ vgij mtf ma ntL. khztfsJ
KndwF myJ tsF bghJ kW wf mgJ f
127

mtakhdjhF. MaflUJ khztf vd fwhf? mjid

vKiw bragLJwhf kW mtf bgw wid vthW gogoahf
tsJ bfhwhf vgij ffhf ntL.
9. wgl ifahS cf

(Strategy cues)

bjhlf iy khztfSF idL milfis bfhLJ tFgiw

kW o gagL mtfSF vz liy, idthw
liy VgLJj xU fj cahF. tFgiw cs Rt
khztfis ftU tif fbga tiugl mil, fzFglf,
rghF goa Mait F wid tYgLJ rhjdfshf
ifahStJ

knwhU tifahd cahF. fyJiuahl nghw

cia nkbfhsyh. nk tF tHfgL fj KiwfSF

mogilahf sFtJ mrh tiy fj MF. tD
thbkh xif, brKiw fj, fhf, gkh bragLj,
bra }l, gia gjj kW nj mif Ma
braf mlsd.
(i)

thbkh xif (Verbal Rehearsal)

khztf fzif KGtJkhf brJ KogjF Kghfnt mtf

mjFa gofis kdghl brJ thbkhahf xJ xif brJ

ghJ bfhs ntL. J xU jkhd kdghl br tKiwahF. j
tKiwahdJ

khztf mtfsJ fhz ntoa fz

goiyfis jhdhfnt idF bfhL tUtjF cj. thbkh

xif cia gagL tha fzFfis fhz khnlF (2003)
kW njuh(2005) Mnah TW go iyf tUkhW:
(i)

xj Tw (Say),

(i)

nfnfl (Ask),

(i)

rghj (Check) nghwit MF.

it tha fzFfSF fhgjF tfhLj brwd. nkY

RUFt(Acranyms) gagL Nufis mofo idgLJtJ
thbkh xif MF.
128

vLJfhL
njuh fzF fhQ Kiw RUfkhf (FOPS) vgJ
cUthfgLsJ. mjhtJ,
F - fz tifia flj

(Find)

0 = tiugl _y mj fz tuis xUizj (Organise)

P = mj fzif fhz ll

(Plan)

S= fhQj (Solve)
milw

Fiwthf

cs

khztfSF

fhf

_y

vzL tif gl kW vGJf csla Kiwia gagL

kdghl bra lyh. vbghGJ khztf fz fhz Toa
gofis kdghl brJ KoJ Lwhfnsh, mnghnj mtiw idgLJ
brhfis bfhLJ vikahf ff cjt ntL.
(ii)

brKiw fj (Process Modeling)

brKiw fj vgJ xU Koit neha brayhF. xU fz

jftfis sFnghJ mj fz goiyg MHkhf F iy

cUthwJ. fzFfSF fhQ nghJ, fhgij sF nghJ
khztf kd njhWgtiw TWtjhF. mjhtJ kd xU tiugl
cUthwJ vdyh.

Kj Kiwahf fzF khztf fhQ

tiyfis Ma fFnghJ, fzF mij fhgt nghynt

brhju ntL. khztfSF mij fhjh nff, ftf
fhz vgo vgij J bfhS thig J VgLJ. mjhtJ rahd
uidfSF rahd kW jtwhd fhQ mQFKiwfS fWju
glntL. rahd braf khztfsJ fzF rahd il fhz
cjgtf gagLj Toa tiyfis kL tfhLj br.
ryhj braf khztfSF Rakhf mtf gagLJ tKiwf
cs jtWfis fLoJ mitfis r brJ bfhs cj. khztf
bjhlahf fF nghJ mtf clgY xj (Peer)khztfSF xU
K khahf fHKo. Mugfl khztfSF njitahd
vzlf kW tYlf mf ms njitgL. ehsil
mtf kw milbgw khztfis nghy, fzFfSF wikahf
fhz, jhdhfnt ilia fLof brt. Mug thL
Nufis, gofis TW khztf gogoahf mij kdFnsna
129

TbfhS iy VgL W xU fzif ghjl kdF gofis

cUth mjFa it kL btbfhzu mtf wDilatuhf
khLt.

fzF fhQ bra fl _W goiyf

jidia tsJbfhs ntL mit :

1. fzif thjl mfzfhd fhQ braiy lL
tsj
2. fzif brJ bfhoUF bghGJ mfzfhd fhQ
braiy lL guhkj.
3. fzif brJ Kojl, nj khahd kw fzFfSF nj
Kiwia gagLj Kokh vw braiy lL kl
xU fzF fhgjfhd vzfis rghgJ f mta.
vLJfhlhf xU fzif thjl fl tKiwfis xU khzt
jid jhnd nfL rghf ntL.

eh j fzif thjl KjKj vd bra ntL?

j fzid fhz v Kija m gagLkh?

j fzif rahf J bfhnldh?

jfhd vj nfhz Uf ntL?

nghJkhd neu fzif Kof Kokh?

mj fzif xU khzt fL bfhoUF bghGJ fl

tKiwfis jlnk nfL rghf ntL.

bfhLfgl tKiwfis gWnwdh?

mj fzF il fhz vj br Ka?

rahd il ilfiy v khWt vd?

j fzF il fhz ntW tKiwf csdth?

fz fodnfg ntfij r bra ntLkh?

xU fzF fll xU khzt fl tKiwfis

gwntL.
130

eh bfhLfgl fzF fhz midJ tKiwfis

gnddh?

VnjD a mQFKiwfis gagLnddh?

j mQFKiwfis ntW fzF gagLj Kokh?

thW vzfis khztfSF tsFbghGJ khztf

fzif gjfhd wikfis kW jdifia tsJ bfhs
Ko.
(iii)

fhgLJj (Visualisation)
fhgLJj vgJ Tikahd (Ta) fiy btgLJ

tKiwahF. Kiw khztf fzifg xU njhwij ( m )

cUtij xU fhjnyh (m) kdnyh tiutjhF. bjhFgl fz
Ka TWghLf vitvd fLof mtiw Fl lto
nkgLj, khztfSF Kiw g mfgLwJ. ij bra
Maf gntW tKiwfis, ifahSj Kiwfis fWjUtJ
mta. Ugkhz kW Kgkhz to fUJfis cUtfgLj
ntL. milw xbthU khztfSilna ntWgL.
ehsil khztf wik cilatfshf kh mtfns glf,
goaf(Tables )

tiuglf(Graphs )

vd

gy

tiff

fhia

btgLJt. Mugfl khztfSF fhj, bg tiw

bfhL vthW gagLJtJ, vgo bkhbgagJ, Kofis vthW
btgLJtJ vgit vyh fW bfhLfntL. dh
khztfSF wdil Vgll kdnyna mtf cUtkhia tiuJ
Lt. Mra (m) a vdbt bfhLfgl fzF
Jikahfnth (m) rthfjhfnth U mtf mofo gagLJ
tiyfis bfhL mtiw wikahd tif fhg.
(iv)

gkh bragLj (Role Reversal)

gkh bragLj vgJ xU Kakhd fj braghlhF.

Kiw khztfis Rakhf bragl itF. khztf fzF

fhQ Kiw mDgt bgwbgw Ma UF lij khztnd vLJ
Ma gia khztnd Maiungh bragL Kiw JthF.
Kiw
Mauhf
khs
khzt
jiyFnk
g
ia(Overhead Project) gagLjyh myJ vjbthU a Kiwia
131

vJ khztfSF wj cjahf UF vd vQwhndh mKiwia

gagL fjiy eilKiwgLjyh. kw khztfis jid neh
nff, rnjff nff tnu vzij Lth. Kiw tF
MaU, kw khztfis nghy nff rnjffis nfL Mauhf
eoJ bfhoUF khztiu fj wjtuhf khw cjth.
(v)

braw }l (Performance Feedback)

xU f btF cWJizahf UgJ braw

}l MF. mJ ghl fFnghJ khztf tsia
ffhJ mtfis telJj.

Maf kW bgnwhf khztfsJ tsF cjj

khztf wikia cUtfgLfhLj Mad MF.

khztfis f gygL fhl, g neu Maf

khztf brawid TJ nehf kW mtfis ewhf
ffhf ntL. xbthU khztfSF cldoahf rahd
}lf juglntL. UgUg mjid brtjh khztf m
wikftfsh Lthf. khztf Fl gHftHffis
mUf ntL. mtf vjfhf ghuhlglhfnsh mjdh mtf
wgl brtjF Rygkhf UF. ghuhLj cikahf Uf ntL.
khztfSF flha, it fWjugl ntL. vgo bfhLgJ kW
tYLtJ vgjid mtf fWbfhs ntL. khztfSF ngha
ms thf juglntoaJ mta. khztfSF eF fWjJ
mtf jhfshfnt xU fzif f tytuhf gygL bfhs
brjny Ma Fnfhshf Uj ntL.
(vi)

g g (Distributed Practice)
fzFfis br gf gfj kW gnfw _ykhf

khztf vd fW bjUwhf vgij ma KowJ. fzFfis

fhQ wid bgw mjid bragLj bjUf ntL. Ko
mtf fzFfSF fhQ wik kW braw ts bgwtuhf
Uf ntL. khztf brJ fwYF iwa thf bfhLfgl
ntL. mtf ntiywid jf itJbfhs, lhk bjhlJ g
bfhLJ bfhnl Uf ntL.
132

uK ifgHf
brjG ehgHf

vD

TWf gKiw gia tWJwd.

(vii)

nj mif
bt btia bfhLF vgjh nj wid bgW khztf

nknkY Cf bgW KndWwd. vdnt, f mLj iy

mtfSF fJ tUwJ.

mjhtJ nj iy vgJ khztfis

cafF myJ bjhlgoF tfhLj brtjhfnt mikj ntL.

xU fzif rahf il fLoj khzt mLj fzF
nghLtjF jah iy Uwh.
fwit

th - tiuaiw

th cf, goaiy cUthFj, KiwgLjgl

tiria cUthFj, mikfis fLoJ cUthFj,
j kW rghj, glf myJ tiuglf tiuj
ndh r ghj

fhz iHj kW iuj

tirgLJj kW TWgLJj

Ug TW g kW iH UJ g

tfho neil dhf kW Jyff

fod iy fLghL

bjh Eg

FG fj

thbkh xif

brKiw fj

fhgLJj

gkh bragLj
133

braw ndhl

g g

(FOPS)

fhQ tKiwf - fzif J bfhSj, cfis

lLj, ilfhz braf cUthFj kW s ghj.

tiuaWj

fw bra

fj ghlF xU xGfhd tiuglF

tiuf.

xGfhd lf rh tfhLj cf
mogil fj ghlF xU tiuglK
goiyfis jUf.

ghljf xU fzif nj brJ brKiw

fj (Process Modeling) mogil ff
goiyfis goaL.

ghljf xU fzif nj
fhgLJj (Visualisation) mikf

fw ik
134

brJ

myF 7

tiufiy mikf
(Graphic Organizer)
7 . 1 mKf
tha fzFfSF (Word Problems) fhgjFa ika
fUJf, ghlbghU bjhl, kW rahd EQffis ifahSj
nghwit mogilahf czugLwJ. fzFfis fhgjfhd
mogil tKiwfis (khztf) gagLJ Mw ja iy
fhzgLwJ. fhuz fj jUf mogilY FpLf iwJ
csjh fahsf Mgo, tiufiy mikfnshL fzFfis
F nghJ thwhd fodij Fiwf Ko vW eggLwJ.
bAgh bg[ fl fj d tiufiy mikid
F fhngh.
(1)

bjjtUJ bjahjtF nghj (Known to Unknown)

(2)

vikUJ fYF nghj (Simple to Complex)

(3)

FltUJ bghJikgLJj. (Particular to General)

(4)

fhbghU _ykhf fUJbghU mj. (Concrete to abstract)

7 . 2 tiufiy mik ((Graphics Organizers))

njuh (2002) vgt TWgo, tiufiy mikf vgJ xU
ghlbghUis tiufiyKiwia gagL KiwgLjgL khztf
vjhf fWbfhs cj KiwahF. fzif gjF njitahd
fUJf kW brhbwhlfis ghlbghUnshL izJ khztf
mfzif bghUnshL eF Jbfhs tiufiy mikf f
gagLwd. fjghl bghUis beLehf khztf id
itJbfhs tiufiy mikf bgJ gagLwd. Jtfg
kW eLiyg khztfilna tiufiy mik gaghL FJ
nkbfhl Mfgo tiufiy mikf fj ghl ff fwjJ
vW flagLsJ. Fghf y fzFfSF f bghUjkhd
135

kW ja khztfSF gagL tiufiy mikf gy

fLofgLsd.
khztf jidia (Thinking ) l,

fzif J

bfhs njitahd ghlbghUf bjhlf, xWikf kW

ntWikfis J bfhs tiufiy mikf xU fwj fUahf
gagLwJ.
vLJfhL 1
xU gRbghU gid xU Fl HhF K JtfglJ.
mnj thu mj gRbghU gid iy 20%

FiwJlJ.

iy mj bghU %. 60F fglJ. thW wnghY, mJ

tha iyia fhoY 25% yhgij <odh HhF Kdjhf mj
gRbghU gid iy vd?
nkfl fzif khztf J bfhL mtiw kd
KiwgLJtij fodkhf fUJwhf. fl tiufiy mik (Graphic
Organiser) mtfSF j fzif eF vikahf Jbfhs,
mtfSila vzfis KiwgLj gagLwJ.

go -1
F iy = 80% x Fj iy = % 60
go -2

go - 3

Fj iy = %. 60 x

100
80

yhg = 25% x tha iy

go - 3
bfhKj iy

= F iy - yhg

nkfl tiufiy mikghdJ khztfSF fz fhgJ

vw jidia l f gagL.
136

vLJfhL 2
a+a=?

a xa=?

a-a=?

a a=?

vgdtiw sF tiufiy mik

(=0)

x
a2

2a

nkfl vLJfhL 2- a = 5 -fhd tiufiy mik

10

x
25

137

7.3

tiufiy mik tiff

tiufiy mikfis gy tiff eh Flyh. bjhlf iy

fjij wghf ff ff tik bgJ gagLwJ. mtiw

xbthwhf F fhngh.
1. tiufiy tir mikf (Hierarchial Graphic Organizers)
xUghlbghUis mj Kj tifUJ mLjLj tiff tiu
izf tifahd tiufiy tir mik f bghUjkhf
UF. KjghlbghU kW mj cg isfUJfis izf
mFf, nfhLJLf, wf, vf kW brhbwhlfis
gagLjyh.
v-L 1
xyf vf

<yf vf

0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9, 10,11,12.......99

_yf vf
100,101,102,203.....999

v-L 2
X yf vf
Tl
5+
7

uL yf vf _W yf vf
Tl
Tl
15 +

237 +

12

173

---

----

-----

---

----

-----

2. tiufiy r mik ((ChainGraphic Organizers))

xU ika ghlbghUis rhj kw ghlbghUfis r nghw
mikfnshL jf glf _y tgnj tiufiy r
mikghF
mikghF. tif mikig gagLJ nghJ khztfsh xU
fjghlbghUis Rs xj fUJfis nrJghF bghGJ
KGikahd tufis ma KowJ.
138

vf
avf

1,2,3...............

KG vf

0,1,2,3............

KGf

......-3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3,........

bk vf

jKW vf

-0c.....,-2

-1, 0,1,2,...0c.

jKwh vf (

p / p0) is not a Square Number)

3. tiufiy mmik (Matrix GraphicOrganizer)

m vgJ iuf kW uf mik UF cWf
bjhlig FgjhF. mf iuf kW uf mik nghW
tiufiy m

mik ghlbghUis mikJ bfhs ntL.

totf thghLf
msf

tl

gugs

r2 r.m

gf x gf r.m s x mfy r.m. 1/2 x mogf x

FJau r.m

Rws

2 r myF

4xgf myF

rJu

brtf

(2 (s)

Knfhz

a+b+c myF

+ 2 mfy) myF

4 tiufiy tiy mik (Spider Graphic Organizer)

ghlbghU KjikfUJfis ikakhf bfhL w cg
fUJfis ma cj mikig tiufiy tiy mik vdTwyh.

139

df
df
Tl
df
fj
df
bgUf
df
tFj
bgU bgh.t.
W bgh.k.

140

5 . tiufiy bro mik (Tree Graphic Organizer)

30
10

6
5
5
2
4

12

xU ghlbghU mik
tsia Fl tiufiy bro
mik gagLwJ.

24
6 . tiufiy btgl mik (Venn Diagram Graphic Organizer)
btntW fjghl fUJfis xWik kW ntWikfis
Fl tifahd tiufiy mikig gagLjyh. btglfis
gagLJtj _y

fj ghl fUJfis gUbghUshf fWzu

Ko.
vLJfhL
gfh vfS uil vfS.

445444

gfh vf

uil vf
17

103

11

4
2

23

18
6
600

tiufiy btgl mik gfh vf kW uil vf xWik,

ntWikfis sFwJ.
141

7.4

tiufiy mik KaJt

gilghw kW egfjiks tiufiy mikfis bjhlf

iynyna gagLJtJ rhy wjjhF.

thW bjhlJ khztf

tiufiy mikfis gagLdh fj ghlbghUis KiwgLj

kd gaitf KowJ. tiufiy mikfis fjghl fiyl
nrfgoUgJ fhy flF f bghUjkhd xwhF.

7.5 tiufiy mik cTWf

tiufiy mik gy cTWfis bfhlJ. mt ytiw F
fhngh.
1. bjhlahd tiufiy
v-L
1. xU fzif gjF njitahd bjhl brafis Ff xU
tir glij flthW gagLjyh.
f : 3x + 5 = 29

3x + 5 = 29

UgfK 5-I
ff

UgfK 3M

3x 3 = 24 3

tFf

3x = 24

3 x
=
3

24
3

3x + 5 -5
= 29-5

x=8

2. nfhitahd tiufiy
xU nfhitahd tiufiy mikig cUthf, jugLs ghlbghU
fUJfis f bjthf mgJ KakhdjhF. mbrf bjhllD
jw yhkY Uj mtakhF.
xU nfhitahd tiufiy mik U gofis bfhLsJ.
142

a.

bjthd ikafUJ (Main Idea) Jiz jftfS(Supporting

detail) bfhl mikig vGJj

b.

uL

myJ

mjF

nkgl

bjhlahd

fUJfis

izJfhl vfisnah, mFfisnah myJ nfhLfisnah

gagLJj.
fjghl cs ika kW fz F cfj fUJfis
fj khztfSF ukkhf UF iy Maf nfhitahd
tiufiy mikig cUthf neuo nghjdh Kiwia ifahSj ntL.
neuo nghjdh Kiw (Direct Instruction) vgJ fl Ka cTWfis
cslajhF.
(i) ghit (Review)
(ii) rkj (Presentation)
(iii) tfhL g (Guided Practice)
(iv) Ujf kW }l kL (Corrections and feedback)
(v) jirahf g bgWj (Independent Practice)
(vi) thu kW khj ghit ((Weekly and Monthly Revision)
3 . xUfikfgl tiufiy
xUfikfgl tiufiy

mikfis Maf Jikahd

mQFKiw _y fgjh khztfl fw Mt VgLwJ.

tiufiy mikfis gagLJtjfhd g Ma neil
mQFKiw (Teacher Directed) kW khzt neil (Students Directed)
mQFKiwfis

bfhljhF.

bjhlf

iy

muL

mQFKiwfS ga csjhf UF. eh nghJ mj U mQF

Kiwfis fhngh.
1 . Ma neil mQFKiw (Teacher Direct approach)
xU fj fUij fgjfhf cUthfgl braghLf Lgl
lfis brtjfhd Ffis bfhLJ mtiw KGikaila
143

br mQFKiw Ma neil mQFKiw vdgL. mjhtJ

KGikailah mikfis brj vgnj j mogilahF. F
Ma X VJthsuhf (facilitator) bragLth.
vLJfhL
nH bfhLfgLs tiufiy mikig vthW brayh.

2
gof
bfhLfgl jftfis thf brj.
Ma y Fl jftfis neilahf khztfSF mJ
tfhLj.
khztf mj tiufiy mikig brj.
brj tiufiy mikig rghj.
KGikailah tiufiy mikid KGik mila br wid
kl.
2 . khzt - neil mQFKiw (Student - Direct Approch)
khztfSF bfhLfgl tiufiy mikig brt
khztf gF kW bghWig LtJ khzt- neil mQFKiw
nehfkhF. F Ma nkghit khztfns KG bghWl
bragLwd. bfhLfgoUF tiufiy mik tfhLjYfhd
(Clues) jftf VJ UfhJ. vdnt khztf jdJ KGikahd
jJtij btgLJtjfhd thf mfkhf csd.
144

vLJfhL
(a+b)2 = a2+2ab+b2 vw Nuij tiufiy mik _y czj, Ma
KGikailah tiufiy mikfis jjahf bfhLJ khztfis
bghWl gnff itJ mij braLtjhF.

a+b

a+b
a+b
b
a+b
a
a

b
a
b

+ ...................................+

nkfl KGikailah tiufiy mikig khztf Nunfg

brj ntL. thwhd khzt - neil braf nghJ Ma
ffhgsuhf tfhoahf (Guide) VJthsuhf (Facilitator) Uj
ntL.
khztf mw kW njitfSF Vg fj nehfTWfis
mila tiufiy mik VjhtJ xU mQFKiwia gagLj Mafns
khfyh.

Ma

neil

mQFKiwia

gagLJnghJ,

fltiw kd bfhsyh.
1.

fj ntfij fLgLj.

2.

fj nghJ mjfhd d jftfis nrfj.

3.

ghlbghUSF VwthW KGthjij CFj.

khzt neil mQFKiw ftf ntoait

1.

xbthU khztDF jftd brYJj

145

2.

ghlbghUis J bfhs njitahd brfis myJ jftfis

khztf fLof y bghUjkhd Ffis (Clues) mj.

tiufiy mik ts
Ahl kW yh (1994) tiufiy mik tsF ehF
goiyfis gJiu brwd.
goiy 1
fodgFia flj
khztf fodkhf czU ghlbghUSF cfj tiufiy mikfis
cUth fj.
goiy 2
myFfshf j
mthW nj brj
myFfshf j.

ghlbghUis WW ghlbghU bfhl

goiy 3
ghlbghUis cUthFj
vj jft khztfis brwila ntLnkh, mjid yfhf mila
njitahd Ka fUJfis ghlbghUis cUthFj.
goiy 4
tiufiy mikig bj brj
ghlbghUis myJ ghlfUij wghf khztfSF ff
mghlfUF bghUjkhd tiufiy mik xiw bj brj.

7.6 tiufiy mik ts f gF

tiufiy mik ts f gF kfjhdJ. f tr
cila gf tiufiy mikfis f cjl khztfSF
wghf ff aYwJ. Maf tiufiy mikig KiwgLjgl gy
cTWfshf bfhL, mnk (Animation) _y tiufiy xbthU
cTwhf khztfSF sf Ko. Ma d sf ciu
146

(Background voice) kW fhf (Visual) cjl f _y j tiufiy

mikig fj ff gagLj Ko. ijna eh tiufiy mik
(e-Graphic Organizer) vd TWnwh. izajs cjl jid eh
nkbfhsyh.
vLJfhL : #hth Mby (Java Applets) nghw izajs KftF
brW fjghlbghUis (bjhlfiy kW eLiy) f wghf ff
Ko. nkY www.inspiration.com vw KftY j tiufiy mik
FJ mayh. thwhd -tiu fiy mik _y fjij
fF nghJ, khztf MtK ehlK tswJ. Mafsha eh
iwa bjhEg u f bjhEgfis gagLjhk ff
KatJ mahikahF.

7.7

fhiy - khiy - fUa iy mQFKiw

(Concrete - Representational - Abstract Approach)- CRA mQFKiw
fj fwiy KGikgLJtjF fhiy - kh iy - fUa

iy mQFKiw (CRA) gagLwJ. Kiw _W TWf csd. mit

fh iy (Concrete) kh iy (Representation) kW fUa iy (Abstract) MF.
_W TWfS fw nkyhik wid tswJ. xbthU
TW idthw kW mrhjtiw nkgLJwJ.
fh iy : fUJ bghUis fh bghUf _y sFnghJ
mJ fh iyahwJ. mjhtJ, fj fUJfis fgjF khd
myJ Ja bghUfis gagLJj aikahjhF.
vLJfhL : uL jff, IJ ngdhf, tl jL, f JL ,
fd rJu
kh iy : ifahs Koahj k bghUfis khahf totikJ
mgnj kh iyahwJ.
vLJfhL : cyf cUil, tiugl
fUa iy : xU fUij (Concept) gUbghU sf Koahj
iy fUa iyahF.
vLJfhL : vfis bghUf JiznahL fj.
147

7.8

CRA _y dij fj

vLJfhL
3
8

I CRA goiyf fj

fhiy
8 gFfis bfhl d til vLJbfhf. 3 JLf
FF d vo _W MF. jid fh iy tU gl
_y mayh.

kh iy
8 gFfis bfhl d tLf glfis bfhl milf
vLJbfhf. m vo _iw FF dij tzl brJ
mayh.

148

fUa iy
bkhjgFfshd vL ghff _W ghffis kL Fgij
3
8

vW FLnwh. 3 vgJ bjhF, 8 vgJ gFahF. d

tU eLnfhL bjhFia, gFia J fhLwJ. mjhtJ,

3
-I
8

_ vL vW goj ntL. Jnt, jfhdij fWbfhtjF

mogilahd fUjhF. vo _W vgij _ vL vd JbfhL
gagLJtij fUa iy vnwh. fUa iy bjhl fwiy
VgL fj kdghikia tswJ. (Mathematising)
fwit

tiufiy mik

tiufiy mik tiff

fodgFia flj

CRA mQFKiw

fw bra
tiufiy mikf (Graphic Organizer)

v bgUfYfhd tiufiy mik jUf.

(a b)2 = a2 - 2ab + b2 -vw Nuij khztfSF

sf xU tiufiy mik jah brf.

149

myF 8

xghFG fj
(Peer Tutoring)
8.1

mKf
fj ghl fUJ br iwj ghl. ghl fW bfhs

khztf ftF w, J bfhS w, gagLJ w _W

f Ka.

fjghlij Ma fF nghJ xU behobghGJ

ftdjw VglhY mj fUJ ahk nghf thsJ. vdnt

xbthU khztDF Ma j ftdJl fj njitgLwJ.
fj vgJ fwYF Jiz nghF xU brayhF. fw gy tf
eilbgW. mtiw _W fshf tifgLjyh. mit
(i)

Ma - khzt Kiw (Teacher Vs Pupil Approach)

(ii)

JizbghUf - khzt Kiw (Material Vs Pupil Approach)

(iii)

khzt - khzt Kiw (Pupil Vs Pupil Approach)

nkY, khztf FGf FGfshf ewl bragLtij eh fTlhf

ghnwh. thwhd af mogiljh xghFG fj
mQFKiw mikJsJ.

8.2

xghFG fj - bghUshf
khztf jfSF FG mikJ fwYF cj br c

xghFG fj mQFKiw vdgLwJ. xghFG vgJ xj taJ myJ

xj iy khztfis FwJ.
Mo bg vgt KjKj Kiwahd xghFG fj Kiwia
mKfgLdh.

yh uhQt ffhghsuhf t

gahdhh. mF ngh jijia Hj khztfSF xU g

MufglJ. FHijf kz tiutij ghjh. kia vGJ bghUshf
j g mKfgLdh.
1791-92 bg mj g tFf Kiwia kh mikjh. fw
milit msthf itJ khztfis FGfshf jh. eF goF
khztfis w khztfSF fWju gagLdh. mt j
150

tFgiw gh khztf w khztfSF fWjU iy Ujd.

Maf, khztf fwYF Jizgtuhf, fF khztf
ffhgtuhf Ujhf.
nynfl (Lancaster - 1801) vgt bg Kiw W khw
bfhLtjh.

jDl gY khztfSF fgtUF fw

bghUfis, mtiw gagLJ Kiw mla Fig bfhLjh.

Fngo cs dhfSfhd ilia FoUjh.
a ~bgs (William Fowl) vgtU xghFG fjYF
gfJsh.

mt khztf bgatfl fgij l xghFG

fj mf milit bgWwd vd Tdh.

8.3

xghFG fj mQFKiw ga Kndhl

nlk kW bgg (Damm and Phelps - 1989) vgtf w f

khztf bfhl FG fj Kiwia xghFG fj vwd.

mjhtJ, xghFG fj xj taJs khztfilna eilbgW fj
braiy FF vd TWwd.
fhl(Gausted) (1993) TW go xghFG fw y neuf
fF khzt fF khztid l ta bgatdhf Uwh vW
TWtJL; tU braghLfis goaL mJ bfhsyh.
nlk kW bgg Mnah xghFG fjiy gntW khztfis
bfhl FGf VgL fjiy FwJ vW TWwd. Vbd
y neuf fngh fgtiu l uL myJ _W taJ bgatuhf
Ug.
xghFG fjY gntW taJ khzt fjY xnwhblhW
bjhlsikah jid xghFG f (Peer Education) gnf fw
(Partner Learning) xghFG fw (Peer Learning) khzt - fj khzt (Child - Teach -Child) fj _y fw (Learning through teaching)
vd gyjkhf Ffyh vW , o[h kW bkf (Britz, Dixon,
McLaughlin) (1989) Mnah TWwd. xghFG fjiy izJ fw
(Cooperative Learning)vd ntd (Wagner) (1982) FLwh.

8.4

xghFG fj Kiw - fUjhf

KiwahdJ yh mKfkh 300 MLfshf eilKiw

csJ. fngh mogil FG fj _W tifgL. mit

151

(i)

xghFG (Peer Group)

(ii)

xthFG (Reciprocal Peer Group)

(iii)

g tad FG (Cross age Group)

khzt ika f Kiw vgjh FGfSnfwthW fj

mQFKiw mikJsJ.
8.4.1 xghFG fj mQFKiw
xj tadiu (m) xnu tFdiu bfhl FG xghFG vdgL.
csa mogil ghF nghJ FG jhkhfnt cUthwJ. FGd
jfSFs bghWig jhkhfnt vLJbfhL bragLt. (Role of Responsibility) midtUila gnf gf zfkhd Kiw Ugij
fhzyh. NH fw fj braghLfSF VilajhF. nkY
fwYfhd Maj iyia F fhzyh. mtf nghnyna fw
braghLfis mikJ bfhlh fw Rik UfhJ; khwhf Ritsjhf
mik. bratfw tFgiwf khahd FGfis ghfyh.
jid e FG (Friends Group) vW TWt. khztf UgnjhL
bragLtjh fw k VgLwJ. F Ma gf fFiwj
ms UF. khztf jfSF fUJgkhw brJ bfhL
fwd.
(v-L) (i) vfis tirahf vGJj - tir jta vfis clDFl rf
egf r brwd.
(ii) thghLf TWj
(iii) tha fzFfis brj
8.4.2 xthFG fj mQFKiw
Ma khztfis FGfshf F nghJ xthFG mikwJ. .
FGF xU jiyt Ugh. MaUF cj fufshf FGjiyt
bragLth. bjhlgfhf bfhLfgoUF xgilfis rghj
nghw gf FGjiytnu Ma nkghit bragLth. jiyik
g aghf cs khztfSF FGf jiyik bghW bfhLgjh
mtfsJ jbdLf (Self - assertion) Ug jf tif kilkhw
bragLwJ. nkY bkJthf fnghUF tfhLj ilwJ. w
khztf gKiw g bgWwd. vdnt, midJ khztfSnk fw
bra <LgLwd vdyh.
(v-L) l rhuh msitf
152

8.4.3 g tad FG fj mQFKiw

1 Kj 5 tF tiu gy tF khztfis bfhl FGfshf
J bfhL fF KiwF gtFd FG fj vW bga.
bjhlfiy ghl mik tl RU mik csjh bghJthd
wfSfhd ghlgFf csd. FGf xj wfSfhd ghl
gFf ffgLwd. bra t fw Kiw jifa FG fj
eilbgWwJ.
v-L bgUf bra
xU FG Xyf vzh Xyf viz bgUFj vw w
MuJ Iyf vtiu gagLJ fzFf ffgLwd. Ma
Jizl fw khztf FGfshf braghLf <LgL fzL
w g bgWwd. F fw bjhlJ eilbgWwJ. fw jil
VgL bghGJ rf khztf fwYF cj brwd. F Ma
braghL Xusjh njitgLwJ.

8.5

xghFG fj mQFKiw brayhf

Kiwia

eilKiwgLJtj

Ka

nehf

midJ

khztflK fw mil VglntL vgnj MF. j mQFKiw

mogil f ytiw F fhngh.
w f khztfSF Kiwahf Ma gWf ntL.
FGfis mikg j ftd brYjntL.
xghFG khztf fF nghJ bghUjkhf fj
bghUfis ifahs ntL.
Ma fW bfhLj ghlijna xgFG khztf fWjJ
milit nrhf ntL.
Ma tfhLj ngjh fjiy Jtf ntL.
FG fw, fj wghf eilbgWwjh vd Ma
ffhJ kL bra ntL.
FGf khztf ff cj br Ff
fW bfhLgt fgtUF cj njitgL bghGJ kL cj
brjh nghJ.
153

 fF khzt neuoahf ilia Twhk mij fLoF

tia Ffshf (Clues) tHf ntL.
fUij Tw gagLJ sf U mfiyba ntW
sfkfyh.
FG cs khztf xUt kwtUF sfkF nghJ
fUij aitf Ta sf mtUF brwiljjh vd
cWgLjntL.
(v-L) xghFG fj c _wh tF d vw fUij
vthW fWbfhwhf vd ghngh.
djhis bfhL Ma d, gF, bjhF nghw fUJfis fW
bfhLj khztf 3 ng bfhl FGfshf J bfhwd.
gl -1

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ii)

i)

gl (1) FF dij vGJf.

_tU thJ

1
vd vGJwd.
4

2
-I fhL ghfij HL fhLf.
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3
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il

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12345678901
123456789012
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jf FngLf khztf FJ bfhwd. jtwhf brgtUF

mF tfhLjY eilbgWwJ.
5
7
bjhF- 5, gF -7 vd vGjhj khztUF rf khztf Mal
nfL tfhLthf.
iv)
dfis mikJ fhLf :-

gF, bjhF vGJf :

iii)

1
,
3

3
7

5
,

,
154

v)

bfhLfgLs dfSF gl tiuJ fhLf.

5
8

2
5

8.6

xghFG fj gaf

Ma fFnghJ cs <Lghil l xghFG khztf fF

nghJ khztfilna <LghL mfkhf csJ.

fF khztfSF jdif tswJ. ghlbghU ey

bj ilwJ.

vdnt J fgt, fgt UtUF

gadF tif csJ.

xbthU khztUF jftd brYj Koahj iy Kiw

MafSF gaDsjhf csJ.

bkJthf fF khztf jftd brYjgLwd.

Maiu l xghFG fgtUF fF khztf mfkhf

gywd.

khztfilna ew tswJ.

fUJ bj ilJ bkJthf fngh gyF nghJ

mtfSF jdif wgnjhL fw Mt VgLwJ.

khztf

iy

jUnghJ

mt f

gY

iyF

khztfSF
fUij

fW

vikgL

fwd.
nkTa gafis cW nehFfh, Kiw fjghl fjYF
f cfjbjhU Kiw vd mayh.
155

8.7

idL fj c

tiuaiw
xU JfUij fFnghJ khztf id wid nkgLj
cj cna idL fj cahF. Vfdnt bjj brl
J jftiy fh kW x izwJ. j cahdJ w khztf,
ruhr iy cs khztf, Xus FiwghL cs khztf Ma
midtlK vghF fw isit fw VgLJwJ vd
%fgLsJ. brhf kW ghlgFia id Tw Koahj
khztfSF j c f gaDsJ. idLfj cia
_W mogil fshf fyh.
1.

Ka thij c (Key Word Strategy)

2.

xj Xir c (Pegword Strategy)

3.

tha (m) vGJ c (Letter Strategy)

8.7.1 idL fj cia eilKiwgLJj

khztfSF vj fUJfis Kakhf id bfhs ntL
vW TWtnjhL vthW id itJbfhsyh vW ff
ntL.

id Ffis jhnk cUthf ntL.

idL fj c tKiwfis bjJbfhs

ntL.

midJ gofis gagLj mJ fW bfhS tiu

bjhlJ g mf ntL.

fw fUij L rahf idgLJtjF Kowjh vd

Ma cWgLj ntL.

8.7.2

Ka thij c (Key Word Stratregy)

xU a thijia fF nghJ xj Xir cila thijia

izJ fJ id Tw itjiy Ka thij c vg. Ka

thij c bghJthf vLJfhLl ifahsgLwJ. Ma gl
myJ tiugl cUth izJ fJ khztfis id Tw itf
ntzL.
156

(v-L) bjhF, gF vgdtiw J bfht f tuhkUf

bjhFYs bjh - F bjh vw brhiy izJ bfhL bjh
nkny UF vd id bfhwd.
(v-L) My khjf ehfis ifufis kl _LfYs
gs nkL bfhL mj
8.7.3 xj Xir c (Peg word Strategy)
vfis mKfgLj mj viz FF xj Xirila
thijia gagL id Tw itj xj Xir c vdgL.
vQl izj bria bjJ bfhs myJ tirgLj
cjwJ.
vLJfhL
i)

xW ahtF jiy xW ............................

ii) One, two, three,four, five

Once, I caught a fish alive
..........................................
...........................................
iii) One two
Buckle my shoe
.........................................
..........................................
nghw vghlfis gagLjyh.
8.7.4 tha myJ vGJ c (Letter Strategy)
xU thij xbthU vGJ xU thij Kj vGjhf mik.
vLJfhL 1
STAR vw thij tha fzF kW rkghLfis ff
cjwJ.
157

S
T
A
R

Search the word problem

Translate the words into an equation in a picture form
Answer the problem
Reivew the solution

vLJfhL 2
BODMAS gagL xWF nkgl fj brafis bfhl
fzFfis brtjF Ko. jid,
m j t s b ga T l f zjh vW T mogil braf
tiria fzLtjF gagLJwd.

8.8

Mf tkhd mQFKiw ( constructivistic Approach)

Mftkhd mQFKiw gnfW fF iy Kjik

gLjgLwJ. fw NH midtU gf brtjF thf csd.
J FGfw Kiwia mogilahf bfhL nkgLjgl KiwahF.
8.8.1 gnfW fw Kiw ( Active Learning Strategy)
j mQFKiw fgt, fngh Mnah jah iyF
cgLjgL Maj iy csd. nkY F khzt gnf mf
ms UwJ. Ma braghL njitahd l fw VgL
ilbtfis rbrtjhfnt mikwJ.
Ma jh ff ntoa ghlij K Tona khztfl T
mtfis jahJ tu bra ntL. mLj eh tF mghl
cfis Ma Tw, khztf jh c tha fUJfis T fF
nghJ khztfSF mj ghlij ga fUJ KGikahf brwil.
Kiw Ma ghlbghU rhj mit nkgLjh tFgiw
Kiwia wghf bragLj ntL. midJ khztfis fj
<Lgl itf ntL. Kiw khzt fj bra <LgLnghJ
jDila gy, gydij mJ jid nkgL bfhs Ko. gnfW
fF mQFKiw xghFG fj Rafw KiwF ttFwJ.
8.8.2 Mf tkhd fw Kiw (Constructivism - Learning Theory)
ahn#, fw vgJ mit cthF bra vW,
Vfdnt
fw
mDgtfis
itJ
eilKiw
cs
mDgtfUJ J mit cUth bfhwd vW Tdh.
njh vgJ fw Kjgo vW ssh. Mf t Kiw
fw vthW fwJ vW mjid vthW gagLJtJ vW
Tsh. Kiw khztf fj fUij jhnk cUth
bfhwd.
158

8 . 8 . 3 fj _y fw (Learning by Teaching)
ngh kho (Jean-Pol Martin) (1987)- MuF nkgl
Maf fj _y fF g <Lglij flh. 2001 Kj j
Kiw b#k xU uia VgLaJ.
kho vgt fj _y fw KiwahdJ Mufh khnyh
vgt mogil njit goiyfSl bjhlilaJ. Mufh khnyh
vgt KGikahd fw, jahj kW fj Ma braf
kho fUJF xUjd. RjuJl bragL wikf
tsfgld.
8.8.4 fngh a
r_f neh Mft KiwahdJ fngh midtUF njitahd
xnw vW fngh gnehF jid cilat vW TWwJ. fUJ
gkhw _ykhf fw nkgLwJ. FHijf jdJ F wid w
FHijf bgatfSl ciuahLtj _y tsJ bfhwd.
khztf jh fW bfhltiw fzho uggij ngh mgona
Twhk J Mftkhf bragLwd.
8.8.5 fgt gF
Ma VJthsuhf braglntL

vd ngs bg (1995)

(Ballersfeld) Tsh. giHa fj Kiw khzt Ma fgij

mgona VW bfhgtuhf Ujd. mjhtJ, Ma ika fna
gwglJ. Mdh NH fngh ikaf gwgLwJ.
NH khzt jdhtJl fgtuhf csd. fw NHiy Ma
cUthf ntL. khztf FG fW bfhtij ffhf
ntL.
8.8.6 bragLJ goiyf
khztf ghlfis ff, ff bghWstuhwhf. a
ghlgFahdJ W myfhf fgL _W khztf bfhl xbthU
FGF gjfgLwJ. khztf ffgagLJ bghUf
eilKiwgLJtjF VJthf Uj mta. goiyf tUkhW
bfhLfgLsd.
159

goiyf
o ja

ghl elJ
nghJ cs
fyjh

mKf
a fUij
g jft
nrfj

Kj MH
fj
tFgiw
jft
nrfj

a ghl
bghUis
tFgiw
mKfgLJj

ulhtJ
MHfw
gKiwg
_whtJ
MHfw
Lghl

Ma
elijf

khzt
elijf

w KiwUJ
khWgLj

tFgiw khzt
fj ju
mtfsJ jahig
bghWJsJ.

Ma mj fU a ghl el Kof
neu Fl
fUjhH ftuhf
njitiy.
Ujh jh khzt
LghlkhdJ
ela
fF nghJ VgL
ghlid
FJ
iHfis t
caiy fUij;
bra Ko
g thgjhf
Uf ntL.

khztf tlkhf
cfhJ kwt
fgij TJ
ftJ nff
nfl

tFgiw mf rj
xU khzt tF
vHhkY, khztf elJ nghJ kwtf
TJ ftwhfsh mikahf ftgjh
vd ffhj.
(Ma cgl)
fw fj
tYbgWwJ.

kj tsij
Ma
Vfdnt khztl
gagL jahj
khztfilna a
cs mthdJ
a fUfhd
fUij g jftiy
nkgLwJ.
jftiy xU khzt gkh bfhwhfsh?
gof kwt a
vd mj
fUij g
thj
j tF cs
Ma khztfl
khztfl
khztf a
Vfdnt cs
nf nfL fUij
jiyig
mthdJ fUJ
bj gLJj
cfishf
gkhw
jfSF J
_y nkgL a
nf nfL ghl
fUJ bgwgLwJ,
bj bgWj
fF khztf
mKfgLJ ghl
bghUis FGF
W jiyifshf
J elJj

Ma khzt
fgij,
thgij cW
neh ghl bghU
bj bgWtij cW
brj
a fzFfis
cUthf Ma
cjj

gogoahf a
ghlbghUis fW
bfhs

Ma aFeuhf
fjghl bghU
bragLj
gKiw gia
midJ khztU
brj
midJ khztfS Ma L ghlij Mugiy fa
L ghl brJ
UJj
jah ghl elJ
g bgWj
nghnj Tl
eilbgWwJ. Mdh
ca iy mf
L ghl,
fyjhF mfneu
ilf ttFwJ.

160

 Kiw gaf
khztf braghL CfgLjgLwJ.
khztf wik ftuhf, RWRWghdtuhf bragLwd.
Ma

fgt,

khzt

mikahf

fgt

vw

iy

khwgLsJ.
khztf wgl ff kW ff thsJ.
khztf ghl mnthL FG ntiy, lL w, f wik,
jdif Matiw bgWwd.
Fiwf
ghl mKfF mf neu njitgL.
Ma ffh rahf iyba ghlbghU bjthf
brwilahJ.

8 . 9 brat fw xghFG fj
jnghJ jeho cs midJ muR gfY bra tfw
eilKiw gLjgLsJ. fw fj braghLf MW FGf
mikwd.
FG -1 - btw braghL
FG- 2 - Ma KG cjl fw
FG -3 - xus Ma cjl fw
FG - 4 kW FG 5 Mat xghFG fj eilbgWwJ.
FG - 4 Ma KG cjl fwY, FG - 5 Ma Xus cjl
fwY eilbgWwJ. FG 6- jhnd fw eilbgWwJ. bra t fw
xghFG vw thij rfkhzt FG vd gagLjgLwJ.
bra tfw c fjghl vthW tYlgLwJ
vgjF, khWgl taJs fw FG myJ n#ho xUt
wftuhf kbwhUt bkJthf fnghuhf Ujh tYl
vthW fG vgjF x vLJfhil fhngh.
161

vLJfhL
xU jo cs 15 yLfis 5 egUF rkkhf jh xbthUtUF
ilF yLf vjid? vd iljhis Ma fF khztfSF
bfhLJ bjhl fj Kiw tFjiy bra brhwh.
ekjh

000

Kiy

000

ed

000

mHf

000

guj

0 0 0

khzt 1 : z bkhj vjidyLf csd?

bkhj yLf

O O O O O
O O O O O
O O O O O
khzt 2 : 15
khzt 1 : ekjhF _W yLf bfhL
khzt 2 : 3 yLf bfhLj
khzt 1 : z vjid yLf csd?
khzt 2 : (15-3= ?)
15
-3
---------------12
---------------

O O O O O
O O O O O
O O O O O

khzt 1 : 12 yo KiyF 3 yL bfhLjh vjid yLf

UF?
ilia vGJf.
khzt 2 :
12
-3
---------------9
---------------

O O O O O
O O O O O
O O O O O
162

khzt : 1 nj ngh 9 yoUJ guj, ed, mHf Ma _tUF _W

yLf j bfhLjh xbthU Kiw vjid yLf UF vgij
vGJf.
khzt: 2
9
-3
---------6
---------9-3=6

6
-3
---------3
---------6-3=3

3
-3
---------0
---------3-3= 0

O O O O O
O O O O O
O O O O O
gujDF bfhLjJ nghf yLf

O O O O O
O O O O O
O O O O O

O O O O O
O O O O O
O O O O O

edDF bfhLjJ nghf yLf

mHfDF bfhLjJ nghf yLf

khzt 1 : 3 vw viz 15 vw vUJ 5 Kiw ff 0

15 3=5 vd vGjyh. Kiw bjhlfj Kiw tFj vdgL.
F
khzt (2) vF jtW brjhY jtiw U rahf bra
itfntoaJ khzt (1) bghW. jid Ma nkghitl ntL.
j _y khzt (1) j fU wik ftuhf khWtJl cj
br kdghikia bgWwh.
163

Mugg fjij ff gntW cf ifahsglhY

xghFG fj vgJ tFgiw NH gntW gafis cslajhf
csJ.
fwit

xghFG fj

xthFG fj

g tadFG fj

idL fj c

Ka thij c

xj Xir c

tha myJ vGJ c

gnfWfw mQFKiw

fj _y fw

fw bra

Kjyh tF khztUF fjghl ff xghFG

fj cia gagL X ciuahl jah brj.

xj Xirs brhfis jah brj.

eFG
164

myF 9

brat fw _y fj fj
(Activity Based Learning Approach - ABL)
9.1

mKf
xbthU kjUFS ijUF Mwiy, MSik wid

bt bfhztnj fahF. khztf kl ff, fw fj

fUgh l, xU g NH rhj njLj bjhlJ bfhnl
UwJ.
tFgiwf khztf gJikfshf m xL lfhk
mtfSF msga Rjuij tH jf brhj ntfY,
UgY, be JnthL fj gY thsbjhU f
Kiwia gf bragLl ntL vw mogil cUthfgl
Kiwna bra tfw (Activity Based Learning Approach) KiwahF.
fjij Ma thifnahL bjhlgLj jta fhuzdh
jh y khztfSF fj fflhf yhJ frJ nghdjhf Mf
TWwd. fj FpLf, fj TWf kW fj braghLf
midJ kjDila mwhl th v bfhS ur idfis
gjfhd mUkUJ MF.

9 . 2 bra tfw
bra tfw vgJ braghLf mogilyhd xU fw
KiwahF.
wfis, lL cUthfgl braghLf _y khztf
milbgw itgnj j Kjikahd nehfkhF.
khzt fwiy braghLf _y fwh mt ff ntoa fUij
KGtJkhf, MHkhf J bfhwh vgJ d gHbkh.
aZgh fFG, bjhlf iy f Kndwij,
vGia, jfRikia Fiwf ntLbkW gJiu brjJ.
165

njafiyl -2005, ghlfis J bfhshk kdghl

br Kiwid wj, midJ khztf gilghwiy tsF,
jdifia bgUF bra mogilyhd fna iwa njit
vW tWsJ.
nrhjid Kiw brid khefuh midJ gfY Kiw
ulhLf nrhjid mogil bragLjgL, d mLj
iy, khy cs midJ Cuh xafY eilKiwgL
btailjJ. jid bjhlJ jeho midJ MuggfY
xW Kj ehF tFfSF Kiw bragLjgL tUwJ.
midtUF f aff vw jJiw, murh VgLjgL
Kiwia ffhf, begLj, tgLJ brwJ.

9 . 3 fj bratfw mQFKiw
fw fj Kiw wng mj mQFKiwf jh vgij eh
mnth. brJghJ mDgtahf fw, fwij rfkhztfnshL
gj, mjid L L brJ bgw wid tYl, xbthU
FHij mDgtK jglJ vw caj nfhghLf jhfnk
Kiw fl mQFKiwfshF.

eilKiw ghll khwik

eilKiw cs w gFf kW wfis W TWfshf

J fw gofshf fUJj.

fw gofis braghLfshf cUthFj

midJ fw gofis, ghlthahf fw Vgofshf

mikj.

xbthU fw goY csla braf

1.

mKf braf

2.

fw braf

3.

tYl braf

4.

kL braf

5.

FiwF braf

6.

ts bgUF braf
166

9.4

xbthU wDF cfj fw milf

gtF fj Kiw mogil FG milf.

kLfhf wdil goa

Mnuha rfu

fhyiy mltiz

khzt tUifg

wdil goa

bratfw wgrf

ghlRikUJ khztfSF Ljiy.

Ma fj ntfF
khztfSF ghJfh.

khztf nj ga mw kdiy.

khztf wdil VwjhfSF .

khztf Ra fwYfhf jhiy fUgyif.

khztf gilghwiy tsf f gj.

Mt_Lw ftahd tz fw bra milf.

gofis v kdbfhs bra milf mlgl

jjkhd cUtf.

ilbt FiwJ Ma khzt njhHik cz.

goF ntfF Vg jdifl Knd bry th.

rfkhzt cjl tYthd fw NH.

khzt xbthU mil iyY mfgL mfhu

_y nkY nkY ffL Mt.

jh ff ntoaij jhnd njbjLJ bfhs ca Rju.

be jikila Lghl braf.

gF tu ayhj ehf gWfgl ghl Fj

khztf mrik.

ja khztfis v Maf flJ TLj mfiw

nkbfhS th.

jiyikgfis tsF rf khztf braghL.

167

izahf

ff

Koahj

9.5

fj ghl bra tfwYfhd tFgiw NH

bratfwYfhd tFgiw mik rhjhuz tFgiwfUJ

ahrkhf

mikUF.

tFgiw

khztf

Rjukhf,

FGfshf J bragl VJthf ghf guggL rhykhf UF.

tFgiw Rtf cs jhiy fUgyif xbthU
khztDF l xJfgoUgJ tFgiw wghF.
bka ffsh gj mikJ khztf gilfis tFgiw
bjhfoUgJ xU wj fhahF.
fw milfis mt dfSF Vg jj jLf
itfgL jLf Kf mdf xlgoUF.
xU mil vj tFFaJ vgij mj cs tzij
itJ v khztfsh milahs fhz Ko.
tF

tz

1.

fUt

2.

gir

3.

4.

kr

tFf khztf MW FGfshf J FG mil

FfgoUF braiy brthf. xbthU FGF jjahf FG
v kW dfSl Toa FG milf tHfgoUF.
FG v

braf

1.

Ma KG cjl fw

2.

Ma KG cjl fw

3.

Ma W cjl fw

4.

rf khzt KG cjl fw

5.

rf khzt W cjl fw

6.

jhnd fw kW kL braf.
168

brat fw tFgiw FGf

Ma KG cjl fw

Ma W
cjl fw

rfkhzt KG
cjl fw

rfkhzt W
cjl fw

jhnd fw
169

Kj FG cs braghLfis iw brj khzt Vgo

mikgo xbthU goiyY cs dfSFa brafis
tirgo brl ntL.
Mug iy milfis njbjLgJ, mjFa rahd FGF
brtJ nghwt VgL ff fhyngh rah L.
rahd bra milfis nj brtJ braf iww d
mtfhd rahd lf L itgY khztfSF g
mJ Ma ffhj ntL.
y gof mikUF FGisahL, j isahL nghw
ffis midJ khztfis nrJ bragLjyh.
khztfSfhd Kndw mif mil xbthU goiy
milF Vg flthW tzf FpL brj ntL.
FpL tz

milfhd fhybfL

gir

Fj fhyJF K Kogt

Fj fhybfLF Kogt

Fj fhyJF Kogt

9 . 6 bratfwY, fj braghLfS
fjfhd fw mil bgo Kj ehF tFfSfhd
fl vif fw gofS, fw milfS UF.
tF

fw gof

fw milf

15

164

11

153

19

192

16

199

170

bghJthd milf
173

42

df
fj ghl milf nkw
lJgf gwitf dK, tyJ
w
mil
vfS
bfhLfgoUF. fw milf
cs y df bghJthdjhd, y
df Fl tFfSF kL
cajhf

UF.

bra

milfSfhd jiyfis brhf

mikfhk

cUtf

_y

mUgKaJtij czj
ntL.

braf
Tl, fj nghw g
braghLf

bfhl

ilfSfhd
jugoUF.

milf
fhlf

xnu

milia

gy

khztf gy Kiw vG gagLJtJ

vgo vw nf vHyh. jfhd
FJ

fzFfis
xJfgl

mta.
khztfSF

fUgyif

nehLjf

brJ

myJ
g

nkbfhlh nghJkhdjhF.

kL
vyh brafis khztfns nj brJ, khztfns br bghGJ
mtf bgw mil kLFaitahF. fhf, thJ kW fGF
cUtfis bfhl milf koFadthF. fhf mil
eilKiw cs myF njF xghdjhF. thJ mil gUt njF,
fGF mil ML njF gagLjgLwd.
171

tilfis
braghLf

br

bfhL
khztf

Ma ghit jjahf
Uf

ntL

vW

mWjgLwd. jid iw
brj

khztf

goiyia

btfukhf Kojikfhf l
mJ

bfhtJl,

mtf

mFG cs kw khztfSF
cj bra jF bgwtfshf
fUjgLwhf.

bratfw _y eilbgW y
fw,

fj

braghLfSFa

vLJfhLfis F fngh.
vLJfhL 1

tF I

w : {a mj
khzt : w 1-tJ tFfhd
fw
iy

Vgo

7-tJ

csjh

mgo

iy cs Kj bra
milahd bgF- 8- I
bra milf bgo UJ vLJ tUj.
Ma : bgF -8 btw braghLFa mil Mjyh, mjid
Mal khzt bfhLj. mkhztnuhL kw khztf
yiu miHJbfhL Ma tFF btna brW
mil Flgo {aij fgjfhf MajgLJj.
khzt : mLj bra mil k 12-I vLJ tJ Mal jUj.
Ma : bra, Ma KG cjl bragl ntoajhF. F
Fgyif, FfL nghw JizfUf cjl
{aij fj.
172

khzt : mLj bra mil FU -10I vLJ tJ Mal jUj.

Ma : bra Ma KG cjl bragl ntoajhF.
F bra mil, kz jh, bghUJj gl nghwt
cjl {a cUtij mKf brj.
khzt : mLj bra mil gl 5 -I vLJ tUj.
Ma : bra

Ma

cjl

bragLtjhF. F Ma {aij
vGj g mj.
khzt : mLj bra mil md - 4 I vLJ tJ
rfkhztf

cjl

FGfw

<LgLj. F mil cs bghUfis

v, vG {a fU tYbgWj.
Ma : khztf FGbrafis Ma
ffhj.
khzt : mLj bra mil nfh FR - 1 I vLJ tUj.
Ma : J nfh isahL Kiw mikj FG braghL milahF.
Ma W cjl J eilbgWtjhF. vf vGjgl
mil Wkf myJ iyfis bfhL rahf
bghUJ Kj eg ghuhL bgWwh. kwtf brJ KoF
nghJ ghuhL bgWwd. J {a fUJ tYbgWtjfhd
gahF.
khzt : mLj bra mil bfh 2-I khzt vLJ tUj. Jjhnd
fwYFa milahF. rf khzt Jizl ML Ml
vw isaho _y {a fUij f MHkhf, ntfkhf,
vikahf khztf J bfhwhf.
Ma : braghLfis Ma nkghit brJ bfhnl, Ma KG
cj njitgL FG mf ftd brYJj. bra mil
braghLfis rahf br khztf {a Fj wid bgW
ljhf fUjgLwhf.
173

vLJfhL 2

tF : II

w : ehzafis mj wDfhf fw, fj tFgiw

braghLfis, mbraghLf Ma khzt gF vd vgJ g
F ghngh.
khzt : w 2-tJ tFfhd fw
Vgo

8-tJ

go

iy

csJ. mgo iy Kj bra

milahd k -18-I khzt
vLJ tUj.
Ma : J

Ma

KG

cjl

braglntojhF.

Ma

khztlUJ
bgW

mtilia

MajgLJ

Kfkhf

bjhF cs ehzaf kW
%gh nehLfis d fhQ
tif braghLf mikj.
khzt : mLj milfshd wh-2, wh -3
Matiw vLJ tUj.
Ma : J Ma W cjl Toa
brayhF.
jugLs

bra
%gh,

milf
ehzaf

bkhj kfis xw xwhf

flJ

ifnao

vG

Mal xj bgWj.

ehzaf kfis TL
wid tsF braghLfshF.
khzt : mLj mil nfhFR - 1 I vLJ tUj.
Ma : J nfh isahL Kiw mikj milahF. FG
isaho, mil cs flf jugLs %gh,
ehzaf glfSFbfnu Ma dhfSF Vg rahf
174

u Kj khztiu ghuhLj. mLJ rahf br khztfS

nfh, nfh vd T ghuhL bgWj. J isahL Kiw
wid tYgLJtjhF.
khzt : mLj bra milf wh - 4, wh -5 Matiw khzt vLJ
tUj.
Ma : J Ma W cjl eilbgWtjhF. braghL
thif fzFfSF mogilahf mikjjhF. mil
jugLs bghUf iynfg mj vnu bghUjkhd
ehzafis vLJ itj.
mil cs fzFf nfhugLs bghUf iy, bkhj
iy Matiw flj.
it go iy cs fil bra milahF.
jid brafis br khzt ehzafis mJ
bfhs, mtbwhL bjhlila vikahd fzFfis F
wid bgwjhf fUjgLwh.
vLJfhL 3

tF : III

w : fd cUtf, jsf mKf

khzt : w 3- tFfhd fw
Vgo

11-tJ

goiy

csJ. miy Kj bra

milahd k -20 I bra
milf bgo UJ khzt
vLJ tUj.
Ma : J

Ma

KG

cjl

bragLtjhF. fjbgo
cs fd cUt bghUfSF
bghUjkhd, RWNH cs
bghUfis

khztfsh

milahsfhz brj.
175

cUtf bgafis mKf brj. mwhl cgnahF

bghUf cUtfis Tw itj.
braghLf midJ khztfis MajgLJ tif
mikJsd.
khzt : bfhF 1, bfhF -2 Ma mLJtU bra milfis khzt
vLJ tUj.
Ma : gF, fUJfis J bfhs cjtJl Ma W
cjl bragLtjhF. Kj mil fd cUt bghUf
glfS, mtWbfnu mltiz jugLsJ.
ulh mil rkjs, tisjs bghUfS, mtWbfnu
mltiz jugLsJ.
khztf rahd cUtf kW jsfis flJ Fngo
vGJj.
khzt : mLj milahd k -21I vLJ tUj.
Ma : J rJu, brtf, Knfhz, tl Ma cUtf FJ
gYtjfhd Maj iyahF.
J Ma KG cjl bragL iyahF. rJu, brtf,
Knfhz, tl Ma cUtf f tahf tiuJ
gHFj. nkfl cUtf gfis sFj, vLJfhlhf.
fhj ko _ykhf rJu ehF gffS rk vgij
sFj.
khzt : mLj milahd bfhF -3 I khzt
vLJ tUj.
Ma : J Ma W cjl eilbgW
brayhF. ehza, bgo, gfil, Knfhz
cUt f tahf cUtfis
Fngo tiua itj.
khzt : mLJ kubfh -4 milia vLJ
tUj. J khzt Rafw milahF.
176

F mltiz jugLs cUtfis, bghUfis

bghUJ bra l bgWwJ. TLjyhf cUtfS, mt
gfS jugL bghUJgoahd tYL braf l
bgWwd.
Ma : nkfl brafis nkghit brj.
khzt : fhf -10 bra milia vLJtUj. J kofhd myF
njthF. J rf khztf kW Ma cj bragL
brayhF.
Fl cUtfis tiuj, bghUJj, rahd ilia
njbjLj, nfhol lij uj nghw dhf _y
khztf kL bragLwhf.
Ma : til cs braghLfis rahf brj khztf
nkfl wid bgwjhf fUjgLwhf.
vLJfhL 4
w :

tF : IV

df mKf
wDfhd fw fj braghLfis nf fhngh.

khzt : w 4- tFfhd fw Vgo 11 -tJ go iy csJ.

goiy Kj bra milahd k -34 -I vLJtJ
Mal jUj.
Ma : til braghLf Ma KG cjl eilbgWtjhF.
Ma, jFdij mKf br
Kfkhf gFia, bjhFia id
Tj. 10 ghffis bfhl d tL, 20
ghffis

bfhl

fljh

nghwtiw

gagL

jFd

mKf bragLj.
khzt : mLj milahd fzhFU - 2 -I
vLJ tUj.
177

J Ma W cjl eilbgW brayhF. Hl ghf

FF jFdij vGJj, brtfflf jFdij Fj
nghw brafis khzt brj.
Ma : khzt IafSF Ma gyj.

khzt : fzhFU - 3 milia khzt vLJ tJ braghLf

<LgLj. njitgo Ma cj br iy JthF.
F dfSFa bghUf vifia vG khztf
g bgWwhf.
vLJfhL d 1/3 FF flf vif vd?
Ma : brafis nkghit brjY, tfhLjY.
khzt : k -35 bra milia vLJ tJ Mal mj.
Ma : J Ma KG cjl eilbgWtjhF. dtLf, ff,
fhj kof nghw JizfUf _y rkhd dij Ma
mKf brj.
khzt : fzh FU - 4 bra milia vLJ tJ brafis brj.
Hl gFf, dtLf kW
bghUf

vifia

mogilahf itJ rkhd dfis

vGJj.
khzt : k -36 bra milia vLJ tJ
Mal mj.
Ma : J MaUfhd milahF. F
dtLf kW fljhfis
gagL

jFdij

VWtirY, wF tirY
mikf fW bfhLj.
178

khzt : k -37 bra milia vLJ tJ Mal mj.

Ma : dtL, fljh, bghfhj mgs nghwtiw gagL
fyd kW gkhw bra g mj
khzt : fzhFU - 5,6 milfis xw xwhf vLJ tJ
njitgo Ma W cjl brafis brj. mil
jugLs jFdfis xL VWtirY, wFtirY
vGJj. jfhd, fy dfis glf fLj. jfh
dij fydhkhf, fy dij jfhdkhf
kh g brj.
khzt : goiy W bra milahd kL mil fhf - 10I vLJ
tJ jhnd brj. til, w gF khzt brj
midJ tif braghLf mogilyhd nffSF
ilaj.
Ma : iy khzt braghLfis kL brJ, rahf
brU mLj go iyF khztiu mD itj. kL
mil braghLf Ufukhf yhj iy, go iy
Kj milUJ L bjhlu khztUF th bfhLj.
jidF y dhf
gwitf, Uff, thfdf vW gntW cUtfis, mit
FL brafis khztfsh v milahs fhz Kowjh?
tFgiw mkjgLs MW FGfis jbahU Mauh
wgl nkghit bra Kowjh? jid Ma, gRik vd
fUJwhuh?
jf

isf

ghljfis

_ilahffo

njh

Rkfiyna, fodkhd L fzFfis braiyna vW

bgnwhf fUJwduh?
xW

Kj

ehF

tF

tiuyhd

khztfis

mtfsJ

miliy mogil mtfSFa FG mkJtij Mauh

uk rahf bra Kowjh? jtWf ne, khztf rF
uidf vd?
179

ehfh tF jnghJ goJ bfhoUF xU khztid, mtdJ

mil iygo xwhtJ iy mkJ nghJ, mkhztdh myJ
bgnwhuh mjid VWbfhs Kowjh?
xbthU go iy WY bragL kL KGikahdJjhdh?
VgL jtWf khztid vd ghwJ?
fj vyh gFfis bratfw _y wgl ff, ff
Kowjh? vj gFfis ff,ff fodkhf csd?
Kiw, gtF fjiy ikakhf bfhlJ vgij eh mnth.
tFthahf ngha khztf cs xU g gtF fj myhj
rhjhuz Kiw bra tfwiy eilKiwgLj aYkh?
jhnd fwiy mogilahf bfhl Kiw khztf Rakhf vj
msF fwhf? j Rafw ff khztf vbfhS
jilfS, fS ahit?

9.7

tha fzFf
tha fzF vgJ fj mogil brafis, thif

mwhl gaglToa ffis csla Fl gof

fhgjFa fzF MF.
vLJfhL 5
5-I, 3 -I Todh vjid tU vgJ xU tha fzfh?
myJ, v filF brw nghJ 5 MuR gHfis, 3 khgHfis
th tjh, mt thtj bkhj gHf vjid vgJ xU tha
fzfhf mikkh?
uL fzFfS xnu fUid czJtjhf UD tiuaiw
mogil ghF nghJ ulh fzid eh tha fzF vW
TWnwh.
_Wtif tha fzFrh wf
tha fzFis rahf bra Jiz _W tif wf
flagLsd.
180

mit
1.

tif khWj (Decipher)

2.

bghU gLJj (Interpret)

3.

gyj (Respond)
_W wfis milahj khztf tha fzFfis

rahf brtiy. _ VnjD x ja iyUD

mkhztdh rahd id fla ayhJ.
vLJfhL 6
xU fil 30 tifahd nrhf csd. mfilF nrh thf
tjtl 10 %gh Ujh, xU nrh iy vd?
y khztf fzif bra KgLtJl, brJ KoJ VnjD xU
ilia T Lwd. fz it fla ayhJ myJ J
xU bghUns yhj fzF myJ J eilKiwF xthj fzF vW
vjid khztfsh Tw aYwJ?
fzid,
z

tif khw bra ayhJ

bghU gLj ayhJ.

gyj ayhJ.

vLJfhL 7
jugLs xU ehlh UtUF rkkhf J bfhLfgLwJ. m
xUt jdFa g _ uL ghfij gagLa 1 l mss
ehlh ahf ilwJ v, jugl bkhj ehlh s vd?
fzif g jtW br bgUghyhd khztf fz
jugLs tufis tif khW wid (Decipher) milahjtfshf
Uwhf. jid t bra Ma gw ntoait.
z

fzid gy gofshf J czJj

fzid gy Kiw ftdkhf goJ a itj

Jiz fUfis gagLJj

va iyUJ fod iy tiuyhd gy tha fzFfis

gogoahf mJ f itj.
181

vLJfhL 8
_W egf btFehfSF rj nghJ _W ngU
xUtUbfhUt khkh gR bghUfis gkh bfhwhf v mF
gkhwgl gR bghUf vif vjid?
fzif g jtW br bgUghyhd khztf, fzid
J bfhlhY bghUgLj (Interpret) ayhjtfshf Uwhf.
jid bra Ma gw ntoait.
z

gl sf _y sFj.

braghLf mogil neuo mDgtij mj (eoJ fhlRole play).

vLJfhL 9
xU gia nrj 380 khztf fRWyh bry lLwhf.
xUngU 60 khztf kLnk bry Kobk midJ khztfS bry
vjid ngUJfis VghL bra ntL?
jfhd rahd il 7 vgij Kj vjidng xJ bfhthf?
fzif bghWj tiu, bgUghyhd khztfsh fUid
tif khw bra aYwJ. bghU gLj aYwJ. Mdh gyj
jtW brwhf. khztfl UJ bgwgl gy ahrkhd ilfis
F fhngh. mit,
z

6 ngUJfS, 20 khztfS

midJ khztfS ngU bry ayhJ

20 khztfSF RWyh bry thiy

6 ngUJf. s 20 khztfS 6 ngUJfYkhf 4, 4, 3, 3, 3, 3

vW gL bragL gaz brayh.

jid t bra Ma gw ntoait. fz cs
vfY, mogil brafY kLnk ika bfhoUF khztf
ftdij cikahd eilKiw NHYF bfhL tUj.
182

Mug iyUnj fj braghLfis thif ffnshL

bjhlgLJj.
xbthU thafzif F nghJ, jid mNH X
mfkh, mnjhL x, jdnfgl xU fF jhnk fhgJ nghw
xU kd iyia khztl cUthFj.

9 . 8 tha fzFf jik

fzFf jik kW fod iy mogil mtiw _W
tiffshf fyh vW fjayhsf TWwd.
1. khw neU fzFf (Change questions)
2. iz fzFf (combine questions)
3. xL fzFf (Comparing questions)
1.

khw neU fzF (Change questions)

xUtl Uw xU bghU k xU fdh khw neLkh,

mjifa fzFf khw neU fzFf vW miHfgLwJ.

vLJfhL 10
khiyl 5 nfhf Ujd. tur khiyF L 2 nfhfis
mjh, khiyl jnghJ UF nfhf vjid?

khiyl Uj nfhf vif turl UJ bgw

nfhf tudh nel khwij fzF czJwJ.
183

2.

iz fzFf (combine questions)

uL myJ mjF nkgl btntW iy cs bjhlila myJ

bjhlgw bghUfis xU f _y izJ abjhU kig fo

fzFf iz fzF vdgLwJ.
vLJfhL 11
khiyl 5 nfhfS, turl 2 nfhfS U mtf
UtlK UF bkhj nfhf vjid?

khiyl Uj nfhfS turl Uj nfhfS izJ a

xU k cUthdij fzF czJwJ.
3.

xL br fzFf (comparing questions)

U bghUfis xLtJl mt ahrij xU f _y

TwgLsjh J xL fzFf vW miHfgLwJ.

vLJfhL 12
khiyl 5 nfhf csd. turl csij l TLjyhf 2
nfhf khiyl U, turl cs nfhf vjid?

184

turl cs nfhfis khiyl cs nfhfnshL xL

abjhU k cUthtij fz _y mnwh.

9 . 9 tha fzF xU fodgFah?

tha fzFfis f bjahj khztf fj
jatfshf fUjgLwd. mtf flt VnjD xiwnah
myJ xWF nkgltiwnah fodkhf fUJwhf.
fzif thj
fz bkhia J bfhSj
brhbwhlf bghUis J bfhSj
jugLs bkhj jftfUJ njitawij fisj
mjftfUJ njitahd kW Kakhdtiw jj
fzif gjfhd xU lij jahj
mlij bragLJj
bfhLfgoUF jftfis ftJ thafshf khWj
gntW go iyf fzif brj
rahd cfis ifahSj
rahd fzLfis mUj

9 . 1 0 tha fzFfis fg Ma gF
tha fzFfis fg Ma gF kfjhdJ. Mug
iynyna khztfSF tha fzFfis gjfhd mojsij
mikJ bfhLgJ X Ma jiyaha flikahF.
btW vfis bfhnl fj tFgiw braghLfis bra
KaY xUt fj Manu my.
Mug iynyna thafzFfis mKf brahJ gl
fhyfl ff KaY Ma njhia jGwh.
185

 mfzFfis fodkhf czU khztf v bfhS

uidfis t bra Ma ukgLwh.
tha fzFfis fg xU fj Ma gF vd
vgij fhngh.
tha fzFf mogilahd fj mogil braf
khztf wid cW brj
tha

fzFfis

gjfhd

wfis

bgwhj

khztfSF FWF t Kiwfis brh bfhLJ nj

bgw itF nehid jj
fyhd brhbwhlfis, mikig cila fzFfis
vikah fhz t tFj
xbthU

fj

braghil,

thif

ffnshL

bjhlgLJj
tha fzFfis khztf gyKiw gof, MHkhf
goiyfis FJ f ca thfis, fhy
mtfhrij tHFj.
fzFf goiy FJ lLtjF t brj
thafzFf tU vfnyna ikabfhoUF
khztf vz Xlij ajhj iyF bfhL tUj
tha fzFf goiyf khztfSF VgL
jilfis t bra njitahd cfis fljY,
gagLJjY
tha fzFf goiyf tU braghLfSFa
mogil

braf

vit

vgij

khztf

czJ

bragLjYFa NHiy Ma cUthFj

tha fzFfis F w, khzt #thif
v bfhS uidfis f mo nfhYwJ vgij
khztf czu itj
186

 f j th i f na hL iz j ma vgij kh zt f
czU tif mwhl tFgiw brafis lL mikj

tFf

tha

fzFfis

wgl

khztfns, ca tF fj xU tif wJ
sFw cikia khztfSF czJj

9.11 bratfwY, tha fzFfS

tha
nkgLJwJ.
fzFfis

fzFfis

wid

bratfw

fw Kiw Kj tF Unj tha

khztf

gjF

VJthd

braghLf

totikfgLsd.
vLJfhlhf, Mij cUt bfhl fw milfis fUJf.
Ut

gfgl

fw

milf

tha

fzFf

nkghofhf jftdnjhL cUthfglitahF.

fw milf xU w glfS, kW w glF
bjhlghd dhfS jugLsd.
Ma nfF dhfSF FHijf mil cs glfis
ghJ, tFgiwF cns btna bgw mtf mDgt
mogilY ilaF tif bra milf cUthfgLsd.
5 gof tha fzFfSF fhQw cf fw
fj ifahsgLsd.
Ma tfhLj khztfsh thafzFfis gJ
ma bra vw nfhghil id bfhL tif bra milf
nkw Ma if cUt mlgoUF.
Ut, tif bra milfis bfhL braghLf eilbgW
nghJ Ma jftdfhd milahskhF.

187

188

KfKo
nfhkh

eoj, Fu kh ngRj

eoJ fhLj

cUbth tiuj

gl tiuj

ghL, fij, , Lfij TWj

braghL

bgF
k
FU
fhwho
gl
ghuhN
md
nrt
bfhF

10

11

12

13

14

15

totf rgjkhd g braghLf

Tl rgjkhd g braghLf

vf rgjkhf g braghLf

Tl, fj, fzF brj

v cU vGJ Kiw

vzilf mLFj

ug v _y v cUit mKf brj

tFgiwF br braghLf

tFgiwF btna br braghLf

fw milbgo fw milfis mKf brj

jhuheh

bg

cUt bga
th

cUt

t.v

12

11

29

13

fj fw milf dfS braghLfS

19

10

30

II

11

25

36

III

31

35

IV

189

bfh

W j

beUnfh

thnfh

fzhFU
L
F

26

27

28

29

30

31

Mij

22

25

thJ

21

fGF

fhf

20

24

nfh FR

19

btsth

18

23

wh

17

cUt bga

kubfh

cUt

16

t.v

Tl fj mltizf

Lghlfhd braghLf

d rgkhd g braghLf

tFj rgjkhd g braghLf

gugs rgjkhd g braghLf

kdfzF rgkhd g braghLf

fj rgjkhd braghLf

nj rgkhd braghLf

bgUf rgkhd g braghLf

thif fzFf

UgfYfhd braghLf

myFnj

nfh isahL

fj rgkhd g braghLf

ehzaf rgjkhd g braghLf

bghUJj

braghL

17

10

15

12

13

20

12

45

16

10

II

21

17

15

III

34

16

16

IV

fwit

bra t fw bghU

bra t fw mQFKiwf

bra mil FpLf (logo)

bra FGf mikj

bra tfw braghLf

vLJfhLf

thafz bghU

tha fzFfis rahf bra

Jiz 3 tif wf

thafzFf fodgFahf fhuf

Ma jiyaha gF

fw bra
Xyf vf TLj ghlij bra tfw
_y fFnghJ VgL Ma-khzt
ciuahl jahj
totf ghlF fj goiyfis
vGJj.
ug v _y v cUit mKf brj.

190

myF 10

fzLj ayhik
(Learning Difficulties)
10.1 mKf
khztfsh vd bra Konkh, mij mtfis bra
itf Kotnj fahF.
fzL w khztfSF khzt ntWgLwJ. xU y
fzFfSF fhQ nghJ y khztf kLnk jtW brwhf.
y fzFfSF fhQ nghJ bgUghyhd khztf jtW
brwhf. mthW fzFfSF fhQ nghJ bghJthf VglToa
iHf, iHf VgLtjfhd fhuzf, iHfis jgjFa
tKiwf Matiw F ghfyh. bjhlf iy tFf fzF
br nghJ khztfl bghJthf VgL iHfis flj, iHfis
tifgLj bjJ bfhSj, iHf Vgl fhuzf vd vW
bjJ bfhSj, iHfis FtjFa tKiwfis goaLj,
bjhlf iy tFf fzF ghl fodkhd gFfis flj,
fzF fw ayhikfhd fhuzfis mJ fwYF cjj
nghwtiw Ma mJ bfhSj mta.

10.2 khztf bghJthf br iHf

fzF ghl bjhlfg khztfl eljgl X M
nghJ {a tU Tl, fj, bgUf, tFj brafis bfhl
fzFf

khztf

mf

ms

jtW

brwhf

vd

fLofgLsJ.
5 + 0 = 0 vd

5 - 0 = 0 vd

5 x 0 = 5 vd

0 5 = 5 vd

ilf jugoUjd. vdnt a tuToa fzFfSF

fhQ nghJ khztfl jftd brY,
fLogjF

rahd il

f w b g h U f g a g L b r a g h L f is

cUthf ntL.
191

Tl, fj, fzFf khztf l kF VwthW vfis

vGjhk iHf brtJ mf ms csJ. vLJfhlhf 275 + 73+ 84+ 2
vw fzif
275 +
73
84
2
vd jtwhf vGJtjh iHf VgLtij fhzyh. J Tl Vgl
iHay, mjdh kh iHfis rbra lkgo vfis
vGJtjFjh gKiw g juntLnkayhk Tl gKiw
g jUtJ mtaky. thW iHfis tifgL mJ bfhL
rahd bghUjkhd f mj ntL.
16-7 = ? vw

fzF il vGjhkUjh fj bra

KGikahf mUfiy vgJ ydhwJ. fj fUid gU

bghU bfhL brh bfhLjh nghJkhdJ.
vLJfhL : 5-2 vgij
gKiw

gagjF

vw glsf _y vikgLjyh.
W

mogil

fj

fzFfis

gagLjyh.
16-7 vgjF 8 vd vGUjh fj bra mUwh
Mdh fzLt iH VgLwJ vd mJ bfhsyh. tifahd
iHia r brtjF fj bra gKiw g mjny
nghJkhdjhF. thW iHfis flJ rahd Uj nkbfhtnj
bghUjkhd braghlhF. W mogil fj fzF vgJ vd?
18 tius vfUJ Xyf il ilF goahf Xyf vfis
bfhL cUthF fj fzFfis, mogil fj fzFf
vnwh.
18

18

-9

-8

1
.................

-1

-0

vd W fzFf mikfyh. j W fzFfis vG ghJ

dht jahJ tiw mltizahf mikJ ghjh D
vikahf UF. nj nghW W Tl fzFfS cL. mt
mltiz nf bfhLfgoUwJ.
192

10

10

11

10

11

12

10

11

12

13

10

11

12

13

14

10

11

12

13

14

15

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

brJ ghj : 18 F tU vf <yf v ilahf ilF

fj fzFfis bfhl bjhF xW jahf.
Tl, fj Ma brafSF W mogil fUJf csd
nghW bgUf, tFj MatF fzFf mikJ ghJ
bjJ bfhf. 18F vfis xyf vfsh kLnk bgUFj
ntL. mf grkhf il 81 jh tU. tFj vgJ bgUf bra
v brajh vd mj ntL.

mogil tFj fzFf

cUthFtjF mUf ntL.

Xyf vfsh tFF fzFf.
tFjh tuTlhJ

Xf

vzh

tFF

nghJ

il

Xyf

vzhfjh Uf ntL.
j gjidfSFgL mogil tFj fUJfis cUth
goaL ghf.
bgUf thghLf ngha g yhk gy khztfS bgUf
thghLf jtW brtij fhzyh. vLJfhL 7,8,9 vfsh
bgUF fzFf mfkhf iH VgLwJ. 8 X 7 = ?

7X9=?

mogil braf fodkhd gF vd khztfsh czugLtJ

tFj brany MF. bgUf thghLf rahf bjahjnj tFj
193

fzFf VgL iHfSF fhuzkhf mikwJ. vdnt tFj

fzFf VgL iHfis jf bgUf thghLfis khztf
eF fW bfhsntL.
vLJfhL 1

515 5 =

vLJfhL 2

30 3 =

13
5) 515
5
15
15
0

1
3) 30
3
0

vd brJLwd. j fzFf VgLs iHfis thJ

Fiw eltoif g mJbfhs.
bghJthf mogil brafshd Tl, fj, bgUf, tFj
Matiw wgl br khztf Tl brafis csla
thif

fzFf

jtW

brtij

fhzyh.

bjhlfg

khztfSF eljgl xU Fiwa nrhjidnghJ ik

btglJ.
vLJfhlhf 37 + 25 = 62 vgij rahf bra Toa khzt
xU jf iy %.37, xU ngdh iy %. 25 vwh bkhj vts
bfhLf ntL vw fzFF il vGJtiy. J vjdh v
bkhTWfis fj TWfshf vGj Koaiy, j fuhz
bkhw Fiwthf Ufyh.
Mdh khztfSF fzF fW bfhLgj xU Ka
nehf mtfis vfhy thfhf xU wj Fokfdhf jah
brtjhF. vdnt 37 + 25=62 vgij mwhl thif Niy
vthW gagLJtJ vgij fW bfhLgJ f Kakhd
xwhF. J nghw thif fzFf tuToa vfis
TlntLkh, ffntLkh, bgUf ntLkh, tFf ntLkh
vgjFa g khztfSF juglntL. Ra kL brj
myJ

il

rghj

nghw

wfis

khztf

tsJbfhtjF fw braghLf _y gKiw g mf

ntL. gKiw g nghJ y fw Ffis Twyh.
vLJfhlhf, TL nghJ il mfF nghw fUJfis
TWlJ T jid ts VgLwJ.
194

Fiwa nrhjid
khztf braToa iHfis Fiwa nrhjidf elJtj
_y eF mJ bfhsyh. khjhu njf, gUt njf, fhyhL
nj, miuahL nj, KG ML nj Ma ahnk Fiwa
nrhjidf my. mit mil njf MF. j mil njf
nehf khztf Maf fW bfhLj vjid GfhL fW
njUwhf vgij fljny MF. vLJfhlhf fhyhL
nj xU khzt fzF nj 80 GfhL kbgf bgUwh
vwh Ma fW bfhL 100F 80 msF mghlgF fW
njUwh vgnj bghU. j 80 jh mtDila fw msnfhyhf
MafshY, khztdhY, bgnwhuhY fUjgLwJ. LgLs 20
GfhL kbgfis g ahU mf fU bfhtiy.
xU Fl ghlgF khztf miliy g
mJbfhtjfhf mghl gFYs vyh cTWfis csla
dhjh jahJ eljgL nrhjidia Fiwa nrhjid vnwh.
Fiwfis mJ bfhtjfhf nkbfhS nrhjid vgjh Fiwa
nrhjid vd bga fhuzJl FlgL tUwJ.
xU Fl ghlgF cs vyh cTWfis csla xU
dhjh

jahfglntL.

vLJfhlhf

ulh

tF

fzFghl Tl vw jiy cUthfgL Fiwa nrhjid

nffgL dhf tU dhfis cslajhf UfntL.
bga khw yh Tl, bga khw tU Tl, xyf vfis
TLj, <yf vfnshL Xyf vfis TLj, <yf vfnshL
<yf vfis TLj thW TlgL vf X v xwh
l a tUj, uL vfY xwh l a tUj,
uL yf vfis gagL tU thif fzFf vd gntW
tifahd fzFf Fiwa nrhjid l bgwntL.
jgl ftd brYj ntoaj mta
khzt 24+35 = 59 vd il vG csh.

Mdh Kj

gJfisTo 5 vd d xWfis To 9 vd vG 59 vd il
ilJsJ. j ilia r vd vLJ bfhtjh, jtW vd vLJ
bfhtjh vd fntL.
195

F il rahf Uj nghY Kiw jtwhf csJ. vdnt j

ilia r vd vLJ bfhlh, khzt brj Kiwia r vd eh
x bfhtjhfnt bghUshF. vdnt il kL rahf Ujh nghjhJ.
brw Kiw rahdjhf Uj ntL.
24 + 35 nghw bga khw tuhj Tlfis jh Kj fW
bfhLnwh. Jnghw Rkh 20 myJ 30 fzFf eF g bgw
wnf bga khw tU Tl fzFfis brt. bga khw tuhj
Tlfisbayh Kj gJfis To d xWfis To il
rahf tubgw khzt bga khw tuToa TlfY mnj Kiwia
g 28 + 37 = 515 vW jtwhf brwd. vdnt, il rahf
Ujhny fzF r vD vzij LL, brj Kiw rahf
csjh vW rghfntL. thwhd iHfis khztf fzF
br nghJ ftjh jh fLof Ko. ilia kL ghJL
fzF r jtW vd TwKoahJ. vdnt khztfSF fW bfhLgjF
kLky, iHfis fLof jftd brYj ntoaJ mta
MF.
iH
26
x 3
618

iH Uj
26
26
+ 26
78

10.3 iHfis tifgLJj

khztf fzF ghl br iHfis fUJiHf,
fzLj iHf, ayhik iHf vd _W jkhf fyh.
fUJ iHf : fj fUJf ahjjh VgL iHfis fUJ
iHf vnwh. 3 br.. sK, 2 br.. mfyK cs brtf gu 6
brol vd vGJwhf. gugsit FLtjF br.. 2 vw myif
gagLjntL vw fUij mtf mUfiy. khahd
iHfis fUJ iHf vnwh.
fzLj iHf : 3 br.. s, 2 br.. mfy bfhl brtf
gu 5 br.. 2 vd khzt Tdh mnf fzLj iH csij
bjJ bfhsyh.
196

ayhik iHf : vGJw, v w, id w nghwtiw

VgLj Toa ofhFah obyah vdgL ayhik iHfS
ilaFnghJ VgLwd.
obyah vgJ vGj Fiwghil ofhFah vgJ
vz Fiwghil FF. j U FiwghLf xW f
mfkhf kwJ f Fiwj msY Ufyh. myJ uLnk f
mf ms Ufyh. Mdh xW kL UJ kw FiwghL yhk
UgJ mJ. bgUghY xU Fiwghil gjfhf vLfgL
eltoif kw Fiwghil gjF xus gagL. nkY Mo[ kW
iAg Moo vgit xU jkhd _is bjhlghd uridf MF.
it ga sff gF bfhLfgLsd. ayhik
iHfSfhd vLJfhLf y.

3-I

vLJfhL 1
vd

vd vGJj

vLJfhL 2
81-I 18 vd vGJj.
vLJfhL 3
Tl, bgUf ntWghL mahik

1 0 . 3 . 1 iHf Vgl w fhuzf

khztf ftdFiw, cleyFiw, Xik Ma
fhuzfshY iHf VglTL.

13+12 vw fzif khzt ftd Fiwth 18 + 12 vd vG j

fzif rahf brUjhY mJ bfhLfgLs fzFF
thfhJ. vdnt jifa iHfis ftd Fiw iHf vnwh.
cl eyFiw fhuzkhf khzt clY csK nrhtilj
iy khzt fzFfis brnghJ KG<LghLl bra ayhJ.
rhjhuzkhf ey Kiw fzFfis br khztfSFTl cl ey
Fiw VgLnghJ <LghL Fiwtjh iHf bra TL.
197

iHfis nghF tf y
gKiwg mgj _y gy iHfis jf Ko.
vLJfhlhf tha fzFf jtW br khztfis Kj gntW
tifahd thif fzFf bfhLJ mfzFfis f gagLj
ntoa fj bra, Tlyh, fjyh, bgUfyh, tFjyh vd
fLoJ Tw brantL. tha fzYs fUJfis fj
Twhf khW w bgWj ntL. j w eF tYbgw wnf
mfzFfSF fhz brayh.
Tl,

fj

fzFf

jtW

br

khztfSfhf

abfhilf, nfhf, nrhf, kf nghwtiw gagL

Tl fzFf mikJ, bghUfis nrgj _y Tliy,
bghUfis Ftj _y fjiy s Twyh, Kj jugLs
bghUfis (nrhf, kf Kjad) gJ gjhf xU gh ig
nghL khztf fo itf brayh. d uL yf v
TlfSF Jiz fUfshf bghUfis gagLj brayh.
vLJfhlhf 34 + 27 vw fzif brtjF, khztfis _t bfhl
FGfshf J xU khzt 34-I FgjF 3 gJf, 4 xWf vw
vif 3 gJ ghbffS 4 cfS vLJ itfyh.
mLj khzt 27-I Ff 2 gJ ghbf nrhfis 7 j nrhfis
vLJ itfyh. _wh khzt j nrhfis xW nrJ bkhj
vjid vd TWt. Kj j khzt 4 j nrhfis 7 j
nrhfis xW nrJ gJ j nrhfis xU gh ghbfo nghL
xU gJ nrh ghbflhf kh xU nrhia jahf itfyh. nghJ
Vfdnt cs 3 kW 2 gJ ghbf nrhfSl jhf cUthfgl xU
gJghbf .nrh nrJ 6 gJ ghbf nrhfS kW xU j
nrh Ko UF. Mfnt il 61 vd tUtij f Tlhf
fhwhf. Kiw Kj xWfis nrJ gJf bfhl
ghbflhf khw Kowjh vW khztf Ka brwd. thnw
bghUfis Ftj _y fj fzFfis fJ iHfis fyh.
mjfhd braghoid vG ghf.
v isahL uL khztf xUt kh xUt X viz
TwntL. Mdh UtU TwToa v 999Fjh Uf ntL.
198

Kj xUt xU viz TWth. mLJ mLjt X viz

TwntL. mLjLJ thW IJ vfis vGjntL. IJ vf
bkhj vd vgij IJ vfS vGjgLtjF Kng Tlyh.
vLJfhL
IJ vfis To tU TLbjhif 2345
xUt (A)

347

kwt (B)

525

(A)

474

(B)

326

(A)

673

IJ vf TLj 2345 tUtij fhzyh.

J vthW fwJ vgij khztfSF sdh JnghW
btntW vf TLj tUkhW mtf v isahL mikJ
isahlyh.
TLbjhifahf eh Kj vGJ v 2000 UJ 2997F vj
vQ Ufyh.

TLbjhifahf vGJ v fil _W

yffSl 2 I nrJ Kj viz vGj ntL. nkfl

vLJfho 2345 vW TLbjhif vGjgoUwJ. fil _W
yff mikF vzhd 345 cl 2 I nrJ 2345 vw v
vGjntL. 347- 2 = 345 vgij bfhL 2 I nrJ vGjgLwJ.
mjd ulhtjhf TW viz 999 UJ fJ _whtJ
viz vGj ntL. thnw ehfhtjhf TW viz 999 UJ
fJ IjhtJ viz vGj ntL.
j isahil khztfSF brh bfhLjh khztfns
jfSF j v isahil L L isaho, Tl, fj
fzFf gKiw g bgWt.
fod gFfis flj
fw fjYF fodkhd fUJ (Concept ) vgjid uL
tf tifgLjyh.
1. fwYF fodkhd ghlbghU.
2. bghUjyhj fj Kiw
199

fodkhd fUJ vgj sf tUkhW

1.

J bfhtjF fUJ fodkhdjhf (hot spot) Ufyh. (myJ)

2. xU fUij ff vLJ bfhl vLJfhL Vilajhf

yhk Ufyh. (myJ)
3. g h l

bghUid

ff

gagLa

fj

Kiw

bghUj Ufyh.
xU fU, xnu khahd jtiw gy khztf brtJ (myJ)
gyKiw xnu khahd jtid xU khzt brtJ, Ma braghLf
_y fodkhd fj fUJfis flayh. nkY tFgiw
braghLf aghf yhk braifahf mik nghJ, fj fUij
g ciuahL nghJ, njf _yK, tFgiw braghLf nghJ
khztfns TW nghJ fj cs fodgFia flayh.
tU ghlgFf fodkhd ghlgFfshf flagLsd.
1.

lkhwJl tU Tlf

2.

lkhwJl tU fjf

3.

a tuToa mogil braf

4.

tFj fzFf

5.

btntW gFf bfhl dfis Tl, fj, xl

6.

btntW jrk lf bfhl jrk vfis Tl, fj.

fzF fw ayhik
ey idthwY, wj wfS bgWs y khztf,
tFYs kw khztfSl xLif Fiwj milw
bgwtfshf njhw khlhf. Mdh mtfSila cikahd
wfSnfwthW mtf mil w csjh vdghjh,
mtf milw, mtf cikahd MwYF Fiwthf
Ugij fhzyh.
khahd khztfis bjhlf iynyna flj ey.
fw ayhik cs khztfis tU braf _y mJ
bfhsyh.
200

1.

v bjhlf vfSF ilna cs xWikia flt

f.

2.

mogil fj fUJfis mf eh id itUf

ayhik.

3.

vfis g ngha fUJf cUthfhk Uj.

4.

bfhLJs jftfSF ilna cs xWikia mt f.

y ff bjhlf btglhk rWfhy flJ btglyh.

kdfzFfis f rahf br y FHijf mnj fzFfis
vG brnghJ iHf brayh. myJ vG br nghJ rahf
brJ kdfzif brnghJ iHf brayh.
fw FiwghL
y khztf ey cl jFlD, ey csghFlD UD
mtf, milwf Fiwthf UF. jifa khztfis
fw ayhik cs khztf vd TWnwh. jkhd fw
ayhik csa rhjhf Ufyh myJ _is uridia
rhjhf Ufyh.
_is uridf
1. obyah (Dyslexia)
jid xUj _is VgL urid vdyh. J fw Fiwia
VgLj Toa _is urid vwh f bghUjkhdjhF. jdh
vGJw VgLwJ. Dyslexia cstf Top vgij Pot vW Pot
vgij Top vW vGJwd. nkY X vLJfhL life vgij File vd
vGJt.

thW vGJ FHijfSF fw Fiw csJ vgij

mayh. j FHiffSF vj Fiw UfhJ. mjhtJ mw

nrhjid (IQ Test) vW itjh 130 tiu kbg vLJ (90 kbgf
aghdJ) kUJtiu, bgnwhiu agila brt.
vLJfhL 1

xU ig 36 Mf csd. mtUJ 18I

vLJlh ig vts? vW nflh 18 vd TLt. Mdh

vGJ nghJ 81 vd vGJt.
vLJfhL 2

A, B, C,......tirahf vGJ nghJ eLeLnt

vGJf yhk nghUF. 1,2,3............... vGJ nghJ vf LgL

nghUF.
201

vLJfhL 3

bga

vGJfSF

vGJfSF

ahr bjtiy. SANKAR vgij SaNkAr vd vGJt.

b,d tiw kh vGJj,

vLJfhL 5

7 I 7 vd 5 I

vLJfhL 4

vd vGJt.

obyah elijf
bga nff t jLkhw.
bjhlahf xU gf vGJtij Tl ukkhf fUJj.
.
vL :

cr mogilahd My fw Fiw VgLj.

But g
put tiw J bfhL gagLJtjF ayhik VgLwJ.

2. ofhFah (Dyscaculia)
idthw FWa fhy H (Short term Memory Loss)
cstfSF ofhFah urid VgLwJ.
vLJfhL x F gyhf

+ vG L xU nfho FWnf kWnfhL

mts jhnd vd J bghU czu kWj.

ofhFah vw uridia _W tifahf fyh.
rhjhuzkhd mw (Pure Specific Learning Dissabilities)
bkJthf J bfhS w (Slow Learning)
iAg Moo FiwghL (Attention Difficult Hyper Acitivity Disorder)
3. iAg Moo
XU taij flj FHij eltoifia ghjh, aghf UF.
taJF a eltoiff UF. fhuz yhk cz trgL. go
gy kdghf nrjJ jh, iAg Moo FiwghL. a taJ Kj, 19
taJ tiu j gh UF. bgatfsh l yU j nfhshWl
csd. mtfis ghjh, j gh Ugtf nghy bjahJ. mtf
cztrgL Kiwia ghjh kL J bfhsyh. mij
kUJtuh jh fLof Ko.
202

cl Fl nuhOfis v fiuf KoahJ; mj nuhOf

mfkhF nghJjh, y FHijfSF j gh tUwJ.
gh cs nf vw nuhO jh, ghyhil foahf khw
gagLwJ. njhL Tl, cl cs y tif nuhOfis fiuJ, cl
v ria, _is eu kly braghLfis uhf bgobl
vw vir njit.
y

tif

czf,

vir

csJ.

vir

UgtfSF, Fl y nuhOf fiuJ nghwd. mjdh,

mtfSF iAg Mo o FiwghL VgLtiy. j ghfis
flJ jftd brY fhz ntL.
4. Mo[ ((Autism)
J _is VgL xUjkhd uridahF. j czfis
btgLJtJ, w czfis J bfhStJ tfSF ayhJ.
rKjha cwfUJ yna Ughf. ljl fLghLlD,
JaJlD y

fhafis xnu kh UgUg brthf.

rhjhuzkhf bghJ m f Fiwthf UF. Mdh vjhtJ xU ntiy

myJ xU Jiw m vW brhy Toa ms wik bgUghf.
Mdh J f mt. Mo[ cstfis kUJ bfhLnjh, mWit
ir brnjh rgLj ayhJ. wiu mona tf Uf ntL.
urid cstfis jahf eilbgW tU gfnyh myJ
jftd brYnah xus fw wid nkgLjyh.
ayhik FHijfSF cj Kiw
fw w Vgliy

vwh, FHijf vthW fW

bfhthfnsh mKiw eh fjiy kh mikJ bfhsntL.

vfSilna cs xWikia fho fj brafis brJ ffyh.
6 + 4 = 10
60 + 40 = 100
600 + 400 = 1000
vW j TlfSilna cs xWikia Rofho sfyh.
4 x 6 vgij (2 x 6) x 2 = 12 x 2 = 24
myJ
203

2 x 2 x 3 x 2 = 24 vdgFJ ffyh.
1 5 v g i j 5 1 v d k h th g J l b e L b g U f
thghLfis kdghlkhf xf ayhk nghtJ Fiwj fhy
idthwiy bfhoUgit. lty khwJl vfis vGJtJ,
mjhtJ, 5, 6, 7 vw v cUfis 5 6 7 vd vGJtJ, fzF uid
vd fUJtijl csa rhj uid vd fU bfhL,
khztfl, g, jftdK brY mtf ayhikia
yhik Mf Kaf ntL. ffis gjF Kj goahf,
bfhLfgLs fzif, mj brhyhf (tha tot), njitahd
mogil fUJf ga m ehF mogil braf ga m
FWa fhy kW l fhy idthw, tirgLJ w,
bghJikgLJ w, vGJj w, Kgkhz fUJf vW gy
gofshf J vj gF khztfSF fodjik
csJ vd flj ntL.
fwit
{aij gagLJtjh VgL iHf
l k rahf bjahlh Tl VgL iH
tFj tU iHf
iHf tiff
W Tl mltiz
fodgFf
_is uridf
fw bra
khztf bghJthf mf jtW br xU
fj gFia nj brJ mjFa it
Muhj.
tFj tU iHfisflJ rbrj
_is rgjkhd urid cs khzt
xUt tuf nrfJ bjhFj.
204

izf
dhjh flik

(Blueprint)

dhjh m, M, Ma _W fis
bfhlJ.
2 kbgf bfhl dhf mla gF, m MF.
4 kbgf bfhl dhf mla gF, M MF.
10 kbgf bfhl dhf mla gF, MF.
- m

(kbgf

40)

20 dhf nffgL
xbthU dhF kbg 2 MF.
midJ dhfSF ilaf ntL.
10 dhf, ts myF 1, 2, 3, 4 kW 1 Kj 10 tF tiuyhd
ghlfUJ nffgL.
10 dhf ts myF 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 MatUJ nffgL.
- M

(kbgf

40)

- M, U gFfis bfhlJ.
gF - I - 8 dhf ts myF 1, 2, 3, 4 kW 1 Kj 10
tiuyhd ghfUJ nffgL.

VnjD 5 dhfSF ilaf ntL.

gF - II - 8 dhf ts myF 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 MatUJ

nffgL.
VnjD 5 dhfSF ilaf ntL.
xbthU dhF kbg 4 MF.
205

kbg 2 0

U dhfSF ilaf ntL.

xbthU dh vY U dhf myJ mogil
bfhLfgoUF.
xbthU dhF kbg 10 MF.
cs 4 dhfS ts myF 6, 7, 8, 9 UJ nffgL.
bghJFf
1.

2 kbg dh, fzFfshf U mjF jFj ilid,

fzF myhj dhfshf U FiwjJ Ugoiyf (2
fUJf) bfhlitahf Uf ntL.

2.

4 kbg dh, fzFfshf U mjF jFj ilid,

fzF myhj dhfshf U FiwjJ 4 goiyf (4 fUJf)
bfhlitahf Uf ntL.

3.

10 kbgf dhfSF rW thf njitahd ms

ilaf ntL.

206

207

Content
Section -I

Methodology
Section -II

msitfS, msLjY
toa

1
20

tiufiy mikf
xghFG fj
bratfw
fzLj ayhik
bkhj dhf

8.

9.

10.

th Kiw

fj bkh

9,10 tF ghl

1-8 tF ghl

B. tF ghl

vf mik

2
2

fj tuyhW

A. ghlbghU gF

ghl myFf

t.v

kbg xJL

16

144

22

18

18

22

12

10

kbg

BLUE PRINT

TWf

M
gF II

gF I

bkhj
kbgf

mj
Knowledge

24

17

34

23

48

34

38

26

144

100

K
j
Understanding
U
Ms
Application
A
Mw
Skill
S
bkhj

20

16

mfkL - kbg gL
1.

brKiw g (Practicals)
(ghl myFfUJ)

2.

ghlbghU rhj bjhlgf

(ts yhj ghl myFfSF
bjhlila ghlbghU)

3.

nrhjidjh - myF nrhjid jahj

(dhtotik, gFgh brj)

4.

fUjuF
i) dho dh f (3)
ii) fjkw braghLf VnjD xW (2)

5.

dh t jahj
i) gghl ghlfSF
ii) ts ghl myFf VnjD xwDF
bkhj

25
208

Ma gla nj
Kjyh ML

kh dhjh - I
neu : 3 k neu

kbgf : 100
- m

midJ dhfSF ilaf.

xbthU dhF 2 kbg

20 x 2 = 40

1.

a vKiwid g WF tiuf.

2.

jKwh v vthW mik ?

3.

mwk vf kW Miy vfis ntWgL fhLf.

4.

Na fhyl kW iwa fhyl g WF tiuf.

5.

ghif - nuoa ntWgL fhLf.

6.

Ta IjhtJ ciunfh ahJ?

7.

bfhLfgl UnfhLfis mj mikig bghWJ ntWgLJf.

8.

ulokhd vzhf 57-id khWf.

9.

gf sf Kiwna 3, 4, 10 br.. cila xU Knfhzid tiua Ka

brf. Koahbj V?

10.

4 br. lKila xU cnyhfjhyhd nfhs mik bghUis cU 1 br..

MuKila nfhs mik FLfshf vjid cUthfyh?

11.

mrh fw bg# S kW Mlr sa goiyfis

tirgLJf.

12.

fj fj khztfSF VgL rthf uL TWf.

13.

tirgLJj kW TWgLJj vgjid vLJfhLl TWf.

14.

Ahl kW yho tiufiy ts goiyfis goaLf.

15.

Ma neil mQFKiw vwh vd?

16.

xghFG fjdh VgL eikfis vGJf.

17.

bratfw wgrf ahit?

209

18.

ehfh tF khztfSF dfis vthW mKfgLJ.

19.

fw VgL kW ayhik iHf g vGJf.

20. _wh tF fzFghl fod gFfshf fUjgL wfSfhd

2 fhuzfis TWf.
- M
gF - I
IJ dhfSF kL ilaf
21.

5 x 4 = 20

fjnkij $thr uhkhD# fj bfhiffis RUfkhf TW.

22. v mikf btglid tiuJ 4 btntW tif vfis

mt FLf.
23. xU, U, _W go msitfis cjhuzfSl sFf.
24. rk, rtrk, xj cUtf - sFf.
3
25. bgUf, jiy vwh vd? 4 - bgUf jiy vd? p, q xU
p
KG vzhf U q -F jiy vbghGJ ilFkh? fhuz
TWf.
26. ehfu, izfu, rhrJu, brtf, rJu Matiw ggh
izJfhLf.
27. xU j bfhfy, cUis nk T totjh Md mikghf
csJ. cUis Mu 3 , T cau 4 v bfhfy bra
njitahd jfo gu vd?
28. AB = 5 br., BC = 6 br.. , CD = 4 br., DA = 5.5 br, AC = 7 br.. sf
cila vw ehfuid tiuf.
gF - II
IJ dhfSF kL ilaf

5 x 4 = 20

29. fj bkh fj brafis Ff cj FpLfis bjhFJ vGJf.

30. fhQ tiyfis goaLf. th nehff ahit?
31.

fj fj cs ffis F tiyfis vGJf.

210

32. tFgiw tiufiy mik gaghLfis vGJf.

33. tiufiy mik ts f gF vd?
34. Mg g fjij fj Mftkhd mQFKiwfis
vGJf.
35. tha fzFfis fg Ma gid t?
36. fzLj khztf bghJthf br iHfis vthW t
brth?
-
U dhfSF ilaf

2 x 10 = 20

37. m) fj fj fiy F tKiwfis vGJ.

myJ
M) tiufiy mik tiffis t.
38. m) brat fw xghFG fj g t.
myJ
M) brat f fjghl ff tFgiw NH vthW
mikantL. vgjid sFf.

211

Ma gla nj
Kjyh ML

kh dhjh - II
neu : 3 k neu

kbgf : 100
- m

midJ dhfSF ilaf.

xbthU dhF 2 kbg
1.

20 x 2 = 40

nuhkha vQUfis gagLJtjF gwgL Kiwf

VnjD ulDF vLJfhLfSl vGJf.

2.

vw v g WF vGJf ?

3.

Kowh vzjf tif, KoW vzjf tif itfis

vLJfhLfSl ntWgL fhLf.

4.

if vf, Fiwaw vf g xL vGJf.

5.

C.G.S.Kiw, M.K.S. Kiwf s mogil myF, iw mogil

myFfis vGJf.

6.

l rhuh msitf vwh vd? _wh tF ghlUJ

vLJfhLf jUf.

7.

Hl gF gu vd ?

8.

rk totf, xj totf g vGJf.

9.

0.001 I dkhf vGJf.

10.

fdrJu, fdbrtf tiw ntWgL fhLf.

11.

fj bkh TLf, nrf vgit gagho ntWgLtij fhLf.

12.

th Kiw gwgL 4 goiyfis vGJf.

13.

fodiy fLghL (Control Difficulty) vwh vd? vLJfhL jUf.

14.

tiufiy mik vgij njuh TWgo tiuaiw brf.

15.

xUfikfgl tiufiy vgJ vd? vLJfhL jUf.

16.

xghFG, xth FG fw mQFKiwf braghLfis vGJf.

212

17.

xj Xir c, vGJ c vgdtiw gagLJ Kiwfis TWf.

18.

bratfw milf I Kj IV tFfSF xJfgLs

tzfis vGJf.

19.

tha fzFf khw neU fzFf, iz fzFf g

vLJfhLfSl vGJf.

20. fodgFfis fl uL Kiwfis TWf.

21.

ciunfh vwh vd? uL vLJfhLf jUf.

22. Ko vwh vd? s vGJf.

23. Ugo msitf vwh vd? vLJfhL jUf.
24. w ehfuf vwh vd? VnjD 4 vLJfhLf jUf.
25.

, nfhL, nfhLJL, nfhLf fUJ sf jUf.

26. X v ghl mj v I xU gif Todh 21

ilwJ. mj viz fhf.
27.

<, fhf. 505 35 br. 5

28. %f :

(1+ 2 + 3 + 4 ..............................+10)2 = 13+23+33+.....................+103

gF - II
IJ dhfSF kL ilaf
29.

5 x 4 = 20

x
= 7 v x y 3 vd nekiw Ugz _y %f.
=
y
x+ y 4

30. xGfhd tiugl Ff g vLJfhLfSl vGJf.

31.

A , B xU jfij jjna thf xnu eh Mujd. A

xU ehSF 8 gff jK, B 5 gff j thjh A 56 gff
thF nghJ B vjid gff thUgh?

32. tiufiy mikf tiffis vGJf.

33. gnfW fw mQFKiw g F tiuf.
34. bratfw vjid FGf braghLf eilbgW mit ahit?
213

35. bratfw mQFKiw fw Vgof g ikff g

F tiuf.
36. ulh tF fzF ghl fj vw wDF cUthfgL
Fiwa nrhjid lbgW VnjD ehF dhf vGJf.
-
U dhfSF ilaf
37. m)

2 x 10 = 20

i) myFrJu vwh vd?

ii) 6 x 8 br.. msbfhl brtf gugsit ff gagLJ
braghLfis vGJf.
iii) brtf gugs fhQ Nuij vthW tutiH?
myJ

37. M) i) xgh FG fw mQFKiw vwh vd ?

ii) xgh FG fw mQFKiw 3 jkhd FGfis vGJf.
38. m)

i) CRA mQFKiw vwh vd?

ii) mj _W cTWfis vLJfhLfSl sFf.
iii) CRA _y rkhd dfis vthW f?
myJ

38. M) brat fw mQFKiwia Kj tF ifahSj g fLiu

tiuf.

214

215

9
9

9
9

20

19

17

18

16

tF

I - VIII IX - X

tF

15

9
9

9
9

14

13

12

11

10

dh v

myF

dhjh - Kf ((Profile)

10

216

4
tF

tF

9
9

I - VIII IX - X

2
9

9
9

38M

38m

37M

37m

bkhj

36

9
1

35

34

33

32

31

30

29

28

27

26

25

24

23

22

21

dh v

myF

dhjh - Kf ((Profile)

10

brKiw g
tF I Kj IV tius fjwf xgil / bjhlg brj.
1.

VnjD uL wfSF fw braghLf vGj.

2.

jhndfw fUf 2 jah brJ mtiw gagLJ Kiw g

vGJj.

3.

th Kiw VnjD xU wid fF Kiw vGJj.

4.

xghFG fw Kiwia vLJfhLl vGJj.

5.

brat fw Kiw g vGJj.

6.

tiufiy mik mQFKiwia gagL ehfh tF wf

VnjD xiw fF Kiw g vGJj

7.

fjbkh g fLiu vGJj.

8.

fw VgL FiwghLf g brf / tuf nrfJ vGJj.

9.

ehfh tF khztf bghJthf br iHfS, iHUjK

(tF I Kj tF IV tiu VnjD tFfis vLJbfhsyh.) vw
jiy fLiu vGJj

10.

v ts g fLiu vGJj.

11.

fja tYef (VnjD 2) g fLiu vGJj.

12.

glbjhF (tF I Kj IV tiu) jahj.

13.

tota -glbjhF (tF I Kj IV tiu) jahj

14.

msf g vLJfSl bjhFJ vGJj.

15.

msLj g vLJfSl bjhFJ vGJj.

16.

kLj g fLiu vGJj.

17.

milnrhjidjh VnjD xUtFF VnjD xUghlgFF

jahj.

18.

brbjhF jahj.

19.

fhyl g bjhFJ vGJj.

20.

Kgkhz g fLiu vGJj.

217

fiybrhf
myF 1
Astronomer

tha z

Astronomial Observatory

thdhuh iya

Mathematical Astronomy

fj tha thd rhu

Astronomy

thda

Indeterminate

njubgwhjJ

Manuscript copy

ifbaGJu

Three dimensional Geometry

Kgkhz toa

Perfect Number

bra v

Arithmetic - Geometric Mean

TL, bgUf ruhr

Logarithmic- table

klif mltiz

Clay Tablet

fk jfL

Conics

T btof

Linear Equation

nea rkghL

Binomial Theorem

<UWnjw

Huerstic Thinking

M jid

Laws of Logic

jf f

Linguistics

bkha

Scrap Book

br bjhF

Trigonometric Function

nfhz rhf

myF -2
Algebraic Numbers

mwk vf

Arithmetic Operations

va mogil braf

Boundary

viy

218

Calculus

E fj

Circular Constant

tl kh

Complex Numbers

fybgf

Composite Numbers

gF vf

Countable

vljf

Countably finite

KoW vljf

Countably Infinite

Kowh vzljf

Counting Numbers

vQ vf

Divident

tFgL v

Divisor

tFF v (m) tFgh

Even Numbers

uil vf

Finite

vyla (KoW)

Indeterminate

njubgwhj

Infinity

Ko

Integers

KGf (KG vf)

Irrational Numbers

jKwh vf

Lower bound

viy

Natural Numbers

a vf

Non-negative Integers

Fiwaw KG vf

not permitted

mDkfglhj

Numbers Set

v fz

Odd Numbers

xiwgil vf

Order Relation

tirg

Positive Integers

if KG vf

219

Prime Numbers

gfh vf

Quotient

<

Rational Numbers

jKW vf

Real line

bkba nfhL

Real Numbers

bkbaf

Remainder

Symbol

FpL

Transcendental

Miy v

Uncountable

vljfjy

Undefined

tiuaWfglhj

Upper bound

nk viy

Venn Diagram

btgl

Whole Numbers

Fiwaw KG vf

myF -3
BCE

Before Comman Era

CE

Comman Era

Circular Measure

tl msit

Cubic Measures

Kgo msitf

Curved Surface Area (CSA)

tisgu

Curved Surface

tisjs bghUf

Degrees

ghif

Displacement

lbga

International System Of Units

gdhL myF mikKiw (IS)

Lateral Surface Area (LSA)

wgu

Light Year

x ML

Linear Measures

xUgo msitf

220

Logarithm

klif

Plane Surface

rkjs bghUf

Radian Measure

nuoa msit

Solar Calendar

Nafhyl

Square Measures

Ugo msitf

Standard Pieces

rk JLf

Total Surface Area (TSA)

bkhj wgu

Weight

vil

myF -4
Axioms

ciunfhf

Calculus

Efj

Congruent

rtrk (m) xUir

Deduction

cjWt

Function

rh

Literacy

vGj

Location

lkhd l

locus

akghij

Postulates

monfhf

Potteries

jhf

Similar

tobthj

Skew Lines

xUjs mikahnfhLf

Space

TWbt

Symmetry

rk

Three Dimensional Axes

Kgkhz mRf

Triangle inequality

Knfhz rk

Undefinied (not permited)

mDkfglhj bra

221

myF -5
Abstraction

fUa iy (Eikahf)

Affective Learning

grh fw

Analysis

gFj

Analyze

gFjhj

Application

Ms

Apply

gagLJj

Area

gu

Checking

rghj

Cognitive Learning

mrh fw

Comprehension

Conceptual Knowledge

fUjhf m

Concrete

fhiy

Co-ordinating

xUizj

Create

gilj

Designing

totikj

Detecting

fLoj

Evaluate

ghj

Evaluation

kLj

Factual Knowledge

cik mj

Generating

cUthFj

Hypothesising

mDkhj

Inequality

xik (m) rk

Integers

KGf (KG vf)

Irrational Number

jKwh v

Knowledge

mj

222

Logical Structure

jUf Kiw brhyik

Meta Cognition

mJbfhS m

Model

kh

Monitering

ffhj / tfhLj

Multiples

klFf

Precision

Procedural Knowledge

brayhf m

Producing

cUthFj

Psychomotor Learning

cl af rh fw

Rational Number

jKW v

Remember

idF bfhzj

Standardized

ju thj

Structuring

mikf

Symbolic

LFahd

Synthesis

bjhFj

Terms

cWf

Understand

J bfhSj

myF -6
4 Step Process type

ehF gofis bfhl tKiw

Abstractness

fUa (Ek)

Attitude

kdghF

Check list

rghF goa

Check

rghj

Competencies

wf

Compute

fzL

Decide what to do

vd brtbjW KobtL

223

Guess

Guidance

tfhLj

Information

jftf

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1.

Mathematics and its History (Second Edition), John Still will, Springer
International Edition

2.

Activity Based Learning - A Report on an Innovative Method in TN, SSA,

Anandalakshmi . S.

3.

Sucessful Teaching in Secondary Schools Sterling. Eurasia Publishing House

(Pvt) Ltd. New Delhi, Callahah. G.

4.

Methods of Teaching Educational Technology, Discovery Publishing, New Delhi,

Chodaverepu Jalaja Kumari and Digumarti Bhaskara Rao (2004)

5.

Learning by Doing. Etienne Benson Four Keys to undergraduate research in your

Laboratory.

6.

Evaluation, 2007, NCERT Materials

7.

Primary Science and Numeracy. Hatfield : Association for Science Education

Feasey, R. and Gallear, B.

8.

The Internet in School. London : Cassell Education, Grey, D. (1999).

9.

Multimedia in Action Vikash Publishing House Washington, James. E. Shuman

(1998)

10. Active Assessment. : David Fulton in Association with Millgate House Publishers, Naylor, S., Keogh, B. and Goldsworthy, A. London .
11. Mastery of Teaching Skills, Discovery Publishing, New Delhi, SBJR Chowdary
Nagaeswararao and D. Bhaskarea Roa, (2004)
12. Methods and Techniques of Teaching. Sonali Publications, New Delhi,
Singamanenai Nageswara Rao, Peethala Sreedhar, Diyumarti Bhaskara Rao
(2004)
13. Successful Teaching in Secondary Schools Eurasia Publishing House Pvt Limited,
New Delhi, Sterling. G. Callahan
14. 1000 Ideas for Primary Science. Lodon : Hodder & Stoughton Wood, D. (1998)
15. sfa Kjyh ML fa kL - 2006. jehL wj
iy gfiyfHf, fa g, bjhEg f tshf, o,
brid -25
227

16. fgtid njhWngh, ca bjhlfiy tFf 2007 -08 khy l

aFduf, midtUF f af, brid, jehL
17. brat fw jhnd fw - (Kj _W tFfSFait) Ma
ifnaL 2005. midtUF f af kW Maf Muh
g aff, brid-6.
18. nja fiyl totik (2005)
19. g K gUt f. gf# K. 1998.
byR nrth rf, fh uhk - 624 302
20. Intel Teach to the Future, Intel Innovation in Education Intel Corporation
www.educationinindia.net. Coral Oho. Martinez and Jane Krauss (2004).
21. Learning by Doing. A teacher role in learning by Doing Method.
http :// www.qscc.gld.edu.au.
Measurement in Science years 1 to 10 source Book Module.
22. www.primaryresources.co.uk A website that provides ideas for a range of acitivity ideas for worksheets and
ideas for assessments.
23. http://www.nea.org/bt/Lstudents/1-1-q-9. html.
Learn more about Active Learning.
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228