So Tay Vat Ly 12

Nguyn Quang ng.
H Thi Nguyn Mobile: 0974974888

1

Nguyn Quang ng

S tay
vt l 12
dnh cho hc sinh
n thi tt nghip THPT v luyn thi i hc

thI nguyn - 2010
Nguyn Quang ng. H Thi Nguyn Mobile: 0974974888

2

Mc lc

Trang
CU TRC THI TNTHPT V TSH 2010 3
HNG DN CHUN BI THI V THI TRAC
NGHIM MN VT L
5
CHNG I: DAO NG CO 7
CHNG II: SNG CO HOC V SNG M 17
CHNG III: DNG IN XOAY CHIU 21
CHNG IV: DAO NG V SNG IN T 28
CHNG V: SNG NH SNG 31
CHNG VI: LONG TU NH SNG 35
CHNG VII: VT L HAT NHN 39
CHNG VIII: T VI M N V M 44

Mong nhn c kin ng gp ti liu c hon chnh hn
Email: nguyenquangdongtn@gmail.com. Mobile: 0974974888

3

CU TRC THI TS H, C
MN VT L NM 2010
I. PHN CHUNG CHO TT C TH SINH [40 cu]
Ch Ni dung kin thc S cu
Dao
ng
c
Dao ng iu ho
Con lc l xo
Con lc n
Nng lng ca con lc l xo v con lc n
Dao ng tt dn, dao ng duy tr, dao ng
cng bc
Hin tng cng hng
Tng hp hai dao ng iu ho cng phng,
cng tn s. Phng php gin Fre-nen
Thc hnh: Chu k dao ng ca con lc n
7
Sng
c

i cng v sng, s truyn sng
Sng m
Giao thoa sng
Phn x sng. Sng dng
4
Dng
in
xoay
chiu
i cng v dng in xoay chiu
on mch in xoay chiu ch c R, L, C v R,
C mc ni tip. Cng hng in
Cng sut dng in xoay chiu. H s cng
sut.
My bin p.Truyn ti in nng
My pht in xoay chiu
ng c khng ng b ba pha
Thc hnh: Kho st on mch RLC ni tip
9
Dao
ng
v
sng i
t
Dao ng in t Mch dao ng LC
in t trng
Sng in t
Truyn thng (thng tin lin lc) bng sng in t
4
Sng
nh
sng
Tn sc nh sng
Nhiu x nh sng. Giao thoa nh sng
Bc sng v mu sc nh sng
Cc loi quang ph
Tia hng ngoi, tia t ngoi, tia X
Thang sng in t
Thc hnh: Xc nh bc sng nh sng
5
Lng
t
nh
sng

Hin tng quang in ngoi. nh lut v
gii hn quang in
Thuyt lng t nh sng. Lng tnh sng
ht ca nh sng
Hin tng quang in trong
Quang in tr. Pin quang in
Hin tng quang pht quang
S lc v laze
Mu nguyn t Bo v quang ph vch ca
nguyn t hir

5
Ch Ni dung kin thc S cu

Ht
nhn
nguyn
t

Cu to ht nhn nguyn t. Khi lng ht
nhn. ht khi. Lc ht nhn
Nng lng lin kt, nng lng lin kt ring
H thc gia khi lng v nng lng
Phng x
Phn ng ht nhn
Phn ng phn hch
Phn ng nhit hch
T vi
m
n
v m
Cc ht s cp
H Mt Tri. Cc sao v thin h
6
Tng 40
II. PHN RING [10 cu]
Th sinh ch c lm mt trong hai phn (phn A hoc B)
A. Theo chng trnh Chun [10 cu]
Ch S cu
Dao ng c
Sng c v sng m
Dng in xoay chiu
Dao ng v sng in t
6
Sng nh sng
Lng t nh sng
Ht nhn nguyn t
T vi m n v m
4
Tng 10
B. Theo chng trnh Nng cao [10 cu]
Ch S cu
ng lc hc vt rn 4
Dao ng c
Sng c
Dao ng v sng in t
Dng in xoay chiu
Sng nh sng
Lng t nh sng
S lc v thuyt tng i hp
Ht nhn nguyn t
T vi m n v m
6
Tng 10

4

CU TRC THI TN THPT
MN VT L NM 2010
I. PHN CHUNG CHO TT C TH SINH [32 cu]
Ch Ni dung kin thc
S
cu
Dao
ng
c
Dao ng iu ho
Con lc l xo
Con lc n
Nng lng ca con lc l xo v con lc n
Dao ng tt dn, dao ng duy tr, dao
ng cng bc
Hin tng cng hng
Tng hp hai dao ng iu ho cng
phng, cng tn s. Phng php gin
Fre-nen
Thc hnh: Chu k dao ng ca con
lc n
6
Sng
c
Sng c. S truyn sng. Phng trnh sng
Sng m
Giao thoa sng
Phn x sng. Sng dng
4
Dng
in
xoay
chiu
i cng v dng in xoay chiu
on mch in xoay chiu ch c R, L, C
v c R, L, C mc ni tip. Cng hng in
Cng sut dng in xoay chiu. H s cng
sut
My bin p. Truyn ti in nng
My pht in xoay chiu
ng c khng ng b ba pha
Thc hnh: Kho st on mch RLC ni tip
7
Dao
ng
v
sng
in t
Dao ng in t. Mch dao ng LC
in t trng
Sng in t
Truyn thng (thng tin lin lc) bng sng in
t
2
Sng
nh
sng
Tn sc nh sng
Nhiu x nh sng. Giao thoa nh sng
Bc sng v mu sc nh sng
Cc loi quang ph
Tia hng ngoi, tia t ngoi, tia X
Thang sng in t
Thc hnh: Xc nh bc sng nh sng

5
Lng
t
nh
sng
Hin tng quang in ngoi. nh lut v
gii hn quang in
Thuyt lng t nh sng. Lng tnh sng h
ca nh sng
Hin tng quang in trong
Quang in tr. Pin quang in
Hin tng quang pht quang
S lc v laze
Mu nguyn t Bo v quang ph vch
ca nguyn t hir

3
Ch Ni dung kin thc
S
cu
Ht
nhn
nguyn
t
Cu to ht nhn nguyn t. Khi lng h
nhn. ht khi. Lc ht nhn.
Nng lng lin kt, nng lng lin kt ring
H thc gia khi lng v nng lng

Phng x
Phn ng ht nhn
Phn ng phn hch
Phn ng nhit hch
T vi
m
n
v m
Cc ht s cp
H Mt Tri. Cc sao v thin h
5
Tng 32
II. PHN RING [8 cu]:
Th sinh hc chng trnh no th ch c lm phn dnh
ring cho chng trnh
A. Theo chng trnh Chun [8 cu]

Ch S cu
Dao ng c
Sng c v sng m
Dng in xoay chiu
Dao ng v sng in t
4
Sng nh sng
Lng t nh sng
Ht nhn nguyn t
T vi m n v m
4
Tng 8
B. Theo chng trnh Nng cao [8 cu]
Ch S cu
ng lc hc vt rn
4
Dao ng c
Sng c
Dao ng v sng in t
Dng in xoay chiu
Sng nh sng
Lng t nh sng
S lc v thuyt tng i hp
Ht nhn nguyn t
T vi m n v m
4
Tng 8

5

Hng dn chun b thi v thi trc nghim mn vt l

I. Chun b kin thc l quan trng nht
C th ni i vi hnh thc thi trc nghim khch quan, phn chun b kin thc l quan trng nht, c
th ni l khu quyt nh: C kin thc l c tt c, cn vic lm quen vi hnh thc trc nghim l ht sc
n gin. Hc sinh nn dng 99% thi gian cho chun b kin thc v ch cn 1% lm quen vi hnh thc thi
trc nghim.
1. Cu trc nghim c s dng l loi cu trc nghim nhiu la chn, y l loi cu trc nghim gm 2
phn:
Phn m u (cu dn): Nu ni dung vn v cu hi phi tr li.
Phn thng tin: Nu cc cu tr li gii quyt vn . Trong cc phng n ny, ch c duy nht mt
phng n ng, hc sinh phi ch ra c phng n ng .
Trong nhng nm gn y s s dng loi cu trc nghim c 4 la chn: A, B, C v D v c duy nht mt
phng n ng. Cc phng n khc c a vo c tc dng gy nhiu i vi th sinh.
2. Ni dung cu trc nghim c th l l thuyt hoc bi ton.
3. thi gm nhiu cu, ri khp chng trnh Vt l lp 12, khng c trng tm, do cn hc ton b ni
dung ca chng trnh mn hc (Theo hng dn n tp ca B gio dc v o to), khng c b qua mt
ni dung no, trnh on t, hc t. Tuy nhin khng phi l hc thuc lng ton b cc bi l thuyt,
thuc tng cu tng ch nh trong vic thi t lun trc y. Hc thi trc nghim phi hiu k ni dung cc
kin thc c bn, ghi nh nhng nh lut, nh ngha, nguyn l, cng thc, tnh cht, ng dng c bn ... Phi
nm vng k nng gii cc dng bi tp trong sch gio khoa v sch bi tp.
4. Mt s loi cu trc nghim mn vt l thng gp:
a. Cu l thuyt ch yu cu nhn bit.
y l nhng cu trc nghim ch yu cu th sinh nhn ra mt cng thc, mt nh ngha, mt nh
lut, mt tnh cht, mt ng dng ... hc.
V d ( TSH 2009): Bc sng l khong cch gia hai im
A. trn cng mt phng truyn sng m dao ng ti hai im ngc pha.
B. gn nhau nht trn cng mt phng truyn sng m dao ng ti hai im cng pha.
C. gn nhau nht m dao ng ti hai im cng pha.
D. trn cng mt phng truyn sng m dao ng ti hai im cng pha.
PP: i vi nhng cu trc nghim loi ny, sau khi c xong phn dn th sinh cn c ngay tt c cc phng
n trong phn la chn nhn ra phng n ng.
T v d ny cho thy chun b thi trc nghim vn phi hc thuc v nh kin thc c bn ch khng
phi ch n thun hiu l nh mt s ngi vn lm tng.
b. Cu l thuyt yu cu phi hiu v vn dng c kin thc vo nhng tnh hung mi:
y l nhng cu trc nghim i hi th sinh khng ch nh kin thc m phi hiu v vn dng c
kin thc vo nhng tnh hung c th.
V d ( TSH 2009): Mt mch dao ng in t LC l tng gm cun cm thun t cm L v t
in c in dung thay i c t C1 n C2. Mch dao ng ny c chu k dao ng ring thay i
c.
A. t
1
4 LC n
2
4 LC . B. t
1
2 LC n
2
2 LC
C. t
1
2 LC n
2
2 LC D. t
1
4 LC n
2
4 LC
Khi tm li gii, nu ch nh cng thc tnh chu k dao ng ca con lc l xo T = 2 LC th cha , phi
hiu c mi quan h nh lng gia cc i lng c mt trong cng thc th mi tm c phng n ng.
PP: Vi loi cu ny, nu c yu cu tnh ton n gin nh v d trn th sau khi c xong phn dn, khng
nn c ngay phn la chn m nn thc hin cc php tnh tm phng n tr li, sau mi so snh
phng n ca mnh vi cc phng n trong phn la chn ca cu trc nghim quyt nh phng n cn
chn.
c. Bi ton:
Khc vi cc bi ton trong t lun, trong cu trc nghim thng l nhng bi ton ch cn t dng
1 n 2 hoc 3 php tnh, cng thc l c th tm ra p s.
V d ( TSH 2009): Mt con lc l xo gm l xo nh v vt nh dao ng iu ha theo phng
ngang vi tn s gc 10 rad/s. Bit rng khi ng nng v th nng (mc v tr cn bng ca vt)
bng nhau th vn tc ca vt c ln bng 0,6 m/s. Bin dao ng ca con lc l
A. 6 cm B. 6 2 cm C. 12 cm D. 12 2 cm

6

PP: Vi loi cu trc nghim ny sau khi c xong phn dn, nu c ngay phn la chn th rt c th c mt
p s sai hp dn th sinh, lm nh hng n cch gii cng nh cch tnh ton ca th sinh v s dn n
lm sai cu trc nghim. Do vy nn tin hnh theo quy trnh sau:
- c u bi ton trong phn dn.
- Gii bi ton tm p s.
- So snh p s tm c vi cc p s c trong phn la chn.
- Chn phng n ng.
II. Hng dn lm bi kim tra, thi bng phng php trc nghim
O y ch nu mt s im c bn v cch lm bi trc nghim mn vt l:
1. Cn chun b bt ch, bt mc (bi), gt bt ch, ty, my tnh v ng h theo di gi lm bi. Nn dng
loi bt ch mm (2B n 6B), khng nn gt u bt ch qu nhn, u bt ch nn dt, phng c th
nhanh chng t en tr li. Khi t en chn, cn cm bt ch thng ng t c nhanh. Nn c vi
bt ch gt sn d tr khi lm bi.
2. ng bao gi ngh n vic mang ti liu vo phng thi hoc trng ch vo s gip ca th sinh khc
trong phng thi, v cc c hnh thc khc nhau v rt di, mi cu ch c hn mt pht tr li nn phi tn
dng ton b thi gian mi lm kp.
3. Khi nhn , cn kim tra xem: thi c s cu trc nghim nh ghi trong khng, ni dung c
c in r rng khng(C t no thiu ch, mt nt khng ...). Tt c cc trang c cng mt m khng.
4. Khi lm tng cu trc nghim, th sinh cn c k ni dung ca cu trc nghim, phi c ht trn vn mi
cu trc nghim, c phn dn v 4 la chn A, B, C, D la chn mt phng n ng v dng bt ch t kn
tng ng vi cc ch ci A hoc B, C, D trong phiu tr li trc nghim.
5. Lm c cu trc nghim no th sinh nn dng bt ch t ngay tr li trn phiu tr li trc nghim, tng
ng vi cu trc nghim . Trnh lm ton b cc cu ca trn giy nhp hoc trn thi ri mi t vo
phiu tr li, v d b thiu thi gian, t vi vng dn n nhm ln! Trnh vic t 2 tr ln cho mt cu trc
ngim v trong trng hp ny s cu khng c chm v s khng c im.
6. Thi gian l mt th thch khi lm bi trc nghim. Th sinh phi ht sc khn trng, tit kim thi gian,
phi tp trung cao, vn dng kin thc, k nng nhanh chng quyt nh cu tr li ng.
7. Nn phiu tr li trc nghim pha tay cm bt (thng l bn phi), thi trc nghim pha kia (bn tri),
tay tri gi v tr cu trc nghim ang lm, tay phi d tm s cu tr li tng ng trn phiu tr li trc
nghim v khi c phng n ng th t ngay vo tr li c la chn (trnh t nhm sang dng ca cu
khc).
8. Nn bt u lm bi t cu trc nghim s mt. Ln lt lt qua kh nhanh, quyt nh lm nhng cu
cm thy d v chc chn, ng thi nh du trong thi nhng cu cha lm c. Ln lt thc hin n
cu trc nghim cui cng trong . Sau quay tr li gii quyt nhng cu tm thi b qua. Khi thc hin
vng hai ny cng ht sc khn trng: nn lm nhng cu tng i d hn, mt ln na b qua nhng cu kh
gii quyt trong t th ba, nu cn thi gian. Khng nn dnh qu nhiu thi gian cho mt cu no , nu
cha gii quyt c ngay th nn chuyn sang cu khc, trnh xy ra tnh trng mc mt cu m b qua
c hi ginh im nhng cu hi khc trong kh nng ca mnh pha sau.
9. Khi lm mt cu trc nghim, phi nh gi loi b ngay nhng phng n sai v tp trung cn nhc cc
phng n cn li phng n no ng. Thng thng trong 3 phng n nhiu s c mt phng n rt d
nhm vi phng n ng l kh phn bit nht. Do vy cn loi ngay hai phng n sai d nhn thy, khi
nu phi la chn trong hai phng n th xc sut s cao hn (tng t 25% ln 50%). Cn ch c trong cc
cu hi phn bi tp, c nhng cu khng nht thit phi tnh ton vn c th ch ra c phng n ng nu
tnh to loi i cc phng n sai.
10. C gng tr li tt c cc cu trc ngim ca thi c c hi ginh im cao nht; khng nn trng
mt cu no khng tr li.
11. trnh s sut khi lm bi mn Vt l, khng sa vo by ca cc phng n nhiu v chn c ng
cu cn chn, cn lu :
- c tht k, khng b st mt t no ca phn dn c th nm tht chc ni dung m thi yu cu tr
li.
- Khi c phn dn cn c bit ch cc t ph nh nh khng, khng ng, sai ...
- c c 4 phng n la chn, khng b mt phng n no. Ht sc trnh tnh trng va c xong mt
phng n th sinh cm thy ng v dng ngay khng c tip cc phng n cn li.


7

CHNG I: DAO ng c
I. cc loi dao ng
1. Dao ng: l chuyn ng lp i lp li quanh v tr cn bng (Thng l v tr ca vt khi ng
yn).
2. Dao ng tun hon: Dao ng ca vt gi l tun hon nu sau nhng khong thi gian bng
nhau (Gi l chu k) vt tr li v tr c theo hng c.
3. Dao ng iu ho:
a. nh ngha: Dao ng diu ho l dao ng trong li ca vt l mt hm cos (hoc sin) ca
thi gian.
- Phng trnh: x = Acos(t + ) (1)
+ x : Li dao ng, l khong cch t gc to (VTCB) n v tr ca vt ti thi im t ang xt
(cm). Gi tr: . A x A
+ A: Bin dao ng, l li cc i, l hng s dng. Bin cng ln nng lng dao ng cng
ln. Nng lng ca vt dao ng iu ho t l vi bnh phng ca bin . Bin A ph thuc
kch thch ban u.
+ : Tn s gc ca d (rad/s), l hng s dng. c trng cho s bin thin nhanh chm ca cc
trng thi ca dao ng iu ho. Tn s gc ca dao ng cng ln th cc trng thi ca dao ng
bin i cng nhanh. ph thuc c tnh ca h dao ng. Bit ta tnh c chu k T v tn s f:
- Chu k T: L khong thi gian ngn nht vt tr li v tr c theo hng c, n cng l thi
gian vt thc hin c 1 dao ng ton phn.
T =
2
=
t
n
(trong n l s dao ng ton phn vt thc hin trong thi gian t)
n v ca chu k l giy (s).
- Tn s f: L s dao ng ton phn thc hin c trong 1 giy. n v l Hc (Hz).

f =
2

+ (t + ) : Pha ca dao ng ti thi im t ang xt. Pha ca dao ng l c th dng, m hoc
bng 0. N cho php xc nh trng thi dao ng ti mt thi im t no .
+ : Pha ban u ca dao ng (rad). l hng s c th dng, m hoc bng 0. Dng xc nh
trng thi ban u ca d. ph thuc vic chn mc thi gian.
Ch : Dao ng iu ho l trng hp ring ca dao ng tun hon, dao ng tun hon c th
khng iu ho.
b. Vn tc ca vt dao ng iu ho:
v = x = -Asin(t + ) = Acos(t + +/2) (2)
=> |v|
max
= A VTCB. |v|
min
= 0 v tr bin.
=> So snh (1) v (2) thy v cng bin i iu ho vi tn s gc nhng lun nhanh pha
2
so vi x v
rt ra h thc c lp thi gian:

2 2 2 2 2
A = x + v
Ch : lun cng chiu vi chiu chuyn ng, vt chuyn ng theo chiu dng th v > 0, theo
chiu m th v < 0.
v
c. Gia tc ca vt dao ng iu ho:

a = v = x = -
2
Acos(t + ) =
2
Acos(t + + ) = -
2
x (3)

8

=> |a|
max
=
2
A v tr bin, |a|
min
= 0 VTCB
=> lun hng v v tr cn bng a
=> So snh (1) v (2) v (3) thy a lun nhanh pha so vi x (tc l ngc pha x), a lun nhanh pha
2
so
vi v. T (2) v (3) c h thc c lp thi gian:
2
2 2 2
2
A = + v
a

d. C nng (nng lng) ca vt dao ng iu ho:
2 2
1
W W W
2
t
m A = + = = (W
)
max
= (W
t
)
max

= const
Vi
2 2 2 2 2
1 1
W sin ( ) Wsin ( )
2 2
mv m A t t = = + = +

2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1
W ( ) W
2 2
t
m x m A cos t co t s ( ) = = + = +
Ch : Dao ng iu ho c tn s gc l , tn s f, chu k T th ng nng v th nng bin thin
vi tn s gc 2, tn s 2f, chu k T/2. Nu ch gc th nng VTCB th c nng bng ng nng
cc i ( VTCB) hoc bng th nng cc i ( v tr bin).
- Khong thi gian gia hai ln lin tip ng nng bng th nng l T/4.
- ng nng v th nng trung bnh trong thi gian nT/2 ( nN
*
, T l chu k dao ng) l:
2 2
W 1
2 4
m A =
e. Tng hp dao ng iu ho:
* lch pha gia hai dao ng cng tn s:
x
1
= A
1
sin(t +
1
) v x
2
= A
2
sin(t +
2
)
+ lch pha gia dao ng x
1
so vi x
2
: =
1
-
2
Nu > 0
1
>
2
th x
1
nhanh pha hn x
2
.
Nu < 0
1
<
2
th x
1
chm pha hn x
2
.
+ Cc gi tr c bit ca lch pha:
= 2k vi k Z : hai dao ng cng pha
= (2k+1) vi k Z : hai dao ng ngc pha
= (2k + 1)
2
vi k Z : hai dao ng vung pha

* Tng hp hai dao ng iu ho cng phng cng tn s:
x
1
= A
1
cos(t +
1
) v x
2
= A
2
cos(t +
2
)
c mt dao ng iu ho cng phng cng tn s x = Acos(t + ).
Trong :
2 2 2
1 2 1 2 2 1
2 os( A A A A A c ) = + +

1 1 2
1 1 2
sin sin
tan
os os
A A
Ac A c
2
2

+
=
+
vi vi
1

2
( nu
1

2
)
* Nu = 2k (x
1
, x
2
cng pha) A
Max
= A
1
+ A
2
`
* Nu = (2k+1) (x
1
, x
2
ngc pha) A
Min
= |A
1
- A
2
|
|A
1
- A
2
| A A
1
+ A
2
Ch : Khi vit c phng trnh x = Acos(t + ) th vic xc nh vn tc, gia tc ca vt ging
nh vi mt dao ng iu ho bnh thng.
* Trng hp tng hp nhiu dao ng iu ho cng phng cng tn s x
1
; x
2
;; x
n
x = x
1
+ x
2
+ + x
n
= Acos( t + )
Tm bin A : chiu xung trc ox: A
x
=
1 1 2 2
...
n n
Acos A cos A cos + + +
Chiu xung trc oy: A
y
=
1 1 2 2
sin sin ... sin
n n
A A A + + +

9

=> Bin dao ng tng hp:
2 2
x y
A A A = +
Pha ban u ca dao ng tng hp:
y
A
tg
Ax
=
Ch : Tng hp hai dao ng iu ho cng phng, cng tn s cng c th p dng trng hp
tng qut trn.
- Ngoi phng php trn, nu A
1
= A
2
= A c th cng lng gic s tm c phng trnh dao ng
tng hp:
( ) ( )
1 2 1 1 2 2
s s x x Aco t A co t + = + + + =
1 2 1 2
2 cos s
2 2
A co t

+
+

- C th trc tip v gin vc t thu c kt qu.
Mt s dng bi tp v dao ng iu ho:
Dng 1: Tnh thi gian vt chuyn ng t v tr x
1
n x
2
:
B
1
: V ng trn tm O, bn knh A. v trc Ox nm ngang hng sang phi v trc vung gc
vi Ox ti O.
B
2
: Xc nh v tr tng ng ca vt chuyn ng trn u: Khi vt dao ng iu ha x
1
th vt
chuyn ng trn u M trn ng trn. Khi vt dao ng iu ha x
2
th vt chuyn ng trn
u N trn ng trn.
B
3
: Xc nh gc qut
Gc qut l = (theo chiu ngc kim ng h) MON
S dng cc kin thc hnh hc tm gi tr ca (rad)
B
4
: Xc nh thi gian chuyn ng
t

=
vi l tn s gc ca dao ng iu ha (rad/s)
Dng 2: Qung ng vt i c t thi im t1 n t2.
Xc nh:
1 1 2 2
1 1 2
Acos( ) Acos( )
sin( ) sin( )
x t x t
v
v A t v A t

2

= + = +

= + = +

(v
1
v v
2
ch cn xc nh du)
Phn tch: t
2
t
1
= nT + t (n N; 0 < t < T)
Qung ng i c trong thi gian nT l S
1
= 4nA, trong thi gian t l S
2
.
Qung ng tng cng l S = S
1
+ S
2
Ch : + Nu t = T/2 th S
2
= 2A
+ Tnh S
2
bng cch nh v tr x
1
, x
2
v chiu chuyn ng ca vt trn trc Ox
+ Trong mt s trng hp c th gii bi ton bng cch s dng mi lin h gia dao ng
iu ho v chuyn ng trn u s n gin hn.
+ Tc trung bnh ca vt i t thi im t
1
n t
2
:
2 1
tb
S
v
t t
=
vi S l qung ng tnh nh
trn.
+ Qung ng i trong 1 chu k lun l 4A; trong 1/2 chu k lun l 2A
Qung ng i trong l/4 chu k l A khi vt i t VTCB n v tr bin hoc ngc li.
Thi gian i t x =0 n x= A/2 v ngc li lun l T/12
Thi gian i t x = A/2 n x= A v ngc li lun l T/6.

Dng 3: Bi ton tnh qung ng ln nht v nh nht vt i c trong khong thi gian 0 <
t < T/2.
- Vt c vn tc ln nht khi qua VTCB, nh nht khi qua v tr bin nn trong cng mt khong
thi gian qung ng i c cng ln khi vt cng gn VTCB v cng nh khi cng gn v tr bin.

10

- S dng mi lin h gia dao ng iu ho
v chuyn ng trn u.
A
M
M
1
2
O
P
x x O
2
1
M
M
-
A
A
P
2 1
P
2

2

P
- Gc qut = t.
- Qung ng ln nht khi vt i t M
1
n
M
2
i xng qua trc sin (hnh 1)
-
A

ax
2Asin
2
M
S

=
- Qung ng nh nht khi vt i t M
1
n
M
2
i xng qua trc cos (hnh 2)
Hnh 1 Hnh 2
2 (1 os )
2
Min
S A c

=
Ch :: + Trong trng hp t > T/2
Tch '
2
T
t n t = +
trong
*
; 0 '
2
T
n N t < <
Trong thi gian
2
T
n qung ng lun l 2nA
Trong thi gian t th qung ng ln nht, nh nht tnh nh trn.
+ Tc trung bnh ln nht v nh nht ca trong khong thi gian t:
ax
ax
M
tbM
S
v
t
=
v
Min
tbMin
S
v
t
=
vi S
Max
; S
Min
tnh nh trn.

Dng 4: Vit phng trnh dao ng iu ho
+ Bc 1: Vit phng trnh dng tng qut: x = Acos(t + )
+ Bc 2: Xc nh A, ,
* Tnh :
ax ax ax
max
2
2
A A v
m m m
v a a
f
T
= = = = =
* Tnh A:
2
2 ax ax ax min
2
2 chieu dai quy dao
2 2
m m m
v a l l v E
A x
k

= + = = = = =

* Tnh da vo iu kin u: lc t = t
0
(thng t
0
= 0)
0
0
Acos( )
sin( )
x t
v A t

= +
= +

Ch : + Vt chuyn ng theo chiu dng th v > 0, ngc li v < 0
+ Trc khi tnh cn xc nh r thuc gc phn t th my ca ng trn lng gic
(thng ly - < )
* Chuyn dng sin => cos v ngc li:
+ i thnh cos: - cos = cos( + )
sin = cos( /2)
+ i thnh sin: cos = sin( /2)
- sin = sin( + )
Dng 5: Tnh thi im vt i qua v tr bit x (hoc v, a, Wt, W, F) ln th n
* Gii phng trnh lng gic ly cc nghim ca t (Vi t > 0 phm vi gi tr ca k )
* Lit k n nghim u tin (thng n nh)
* Thi im th n chnh l gi tr ln th n
Ch :+ ra thng cho gi tr n nh, cn nu n ln th tm quy lut suy ra nghim th n

11

+ C th gii bi ton bng cch s dng mi lin h gia dao ng iu ho v chuyn ng
trn u
Dng 6: Tm s ln vt i qua v tr bit x (hoc v, a, W
t
, W
, F) t thi im t
1
n t
2
.
* Gii phng trnh lng gic c cc nghim
* T t
1
< t < t
2
Phm vi gi tr ca (Vi k Z)
* Tng s gi tr ca k chnh l s ln vt i qua v tr .
Ch : + C th gii bi ton bng cch s dng mi lin h gia dao ng iu ho v chuyn ng
trn u.
+ Trong mi chu k (mi dao ng) vt qua mi v tr bin 1 ln cn cc v tr khc 2 ln.
Dng 7: Tm li , vn tc dao ng sau (trc) thi im t mt khong thi gian t. Bit ti thi
im t vt c li x = x
0
.

PP:
* T phng trnh dao ng iu ho: x = Acos(t + ) cho x = x
0
Ly nghim t + = vi 0 ng vi x ang gim (vt chuyn ng theo chiu m
v v < 0)
hoc t + = - ng vi x ang tng (vt chuyn ng theo chiu dng)
* Li v vn tc dao ng sau (trc) thi im t giy l

x Acos( )
Asin( )
t
v t

= +
= +
hoc
x Acos( )
Asin( )
t
v t

=

Dng 8: Dao ng c phng trnh c bit:
* x = a Acos(t + ) vi a = const
Bin l A, tn s gc l , pha ban u
x l to , x
0
= Acos(t + ) l li .
To v tr cn bng x = a, to v tr bin x = a A
Vn tc v = x = x
0
, gia tc a = v = x = x
0

H thc c lp: a = -
2
x
0

2 2
0
( )
v
A x
2
= +
* x = a Acos
2
(t + ) (H bc v bin i)
Bin A/2; tn s gc 2, pha ban u 2.
4. Dao ng tt dn:
- nh ngha: l dao ng c bin gim dn theo thi gian.
- Nguyn nhn: Nguyn nhn l do ma st ca mi trng lm tiu hao c nng ca con lc, lm c
nng chuyn dn thnh nhit nng. Ma st cng ln, dao ng s tt dn cng nhanh.
- ng dng: Trong gim xc, cc thit b ng ca t ng ...
5. Dao ng duy tr:
- nh ngha: l dao ng c duy tr bng cch gi cho bin khng i m khng lm thay i
chu k dao ng ring.
- Nguyn tc duy tr dao ng: Cung cp nng lng ng bng phn nng lng tiu hao sau mi
na chu k.
6. Dao ng cng bc, cng hng.
- nh ngha: Dao ng cng bc l dao ng chu tc dng ca 1 lc cng bc tun hon. Biu
thc lc cng bc c dng: F = F
0
cos(t + ).
- c im:
+ Bin : Dao ng cng bc c bin khng i.
+ Tn s: Dao ng cng bc c tn s bng tn s ca lc cng bc.

12

+ Bin : Dao ng cng bc c bin ph thuc vo bin ca lc cng bc, ma st v
chnh lch gia tn s ca lc cng bc v tn s ring ca h dao ng. Khi tn s ca lc cng
bc cng gn tn s ring th bin dao ng cng bc cng ln.
- Hin tng cng hng: l hin tng bin ca dao ng cng bc tng n gi tr cc i khi
tn s (f) ca lc cng bc bng tn s dao ng ring (f
0
) ca h.
=> Hin tng cng hng xy ra khi: f = f
0
hay =
0
hay T = T
0
Vi f, , T v f
0
,
0
, T
0
l tn s, tn s gc, chu k ca lc cng bc v ca h dao ng.

II. CON lc l xo:
* Cu to: Vt nng m gn vo mt l xo c cng k 3 t th:
- Nm ngang:
k m k m

- Thng ng:

m
k
m
k
m

- Theo mt phng nghing:

* iu kin xt: B qua ma st, lc cn, b qua khi lng ca l xo (Coi l xo rt nh), xt trong gii
hn n hi ca l xo. Thng vt nng coi l cht im.
Cu hi 1: Tnh ton lin quan n v tr cn bng:
Gi: l bin dng ca l xo khi treo vt v tr cn bng l
l
0
l chiu di t nhin ca l xo
l
CB
l chiu di ca l xo khi treo vt v tr cn bng
O v tr cn bng:
+ Con lc l xo nm ngang: L xo cha bin dng. l = 0, l
CB
= l
0

+ Con lc l xo thng ng: O VTCB l xo bin dng mt on l
C: P = F
h
=> mg = k. l
l
CB
= l
0
+ l
+ Con lc l xo treo vo mt phng nghing gc :
O VTCB l xo bin dng mt on l
C: P. sin = F
h
=> mgsin = k. l
l
CB
= l
0
+ l
Cu hi 2: Con lc l xo dao ng iu ho. Tnh:
- Tn s gc:
k
m
= ;

13

- Chu k: 2
m
T
k
= ; Con lc l xo thng ng: 2
l
T
g

= ; Treo vo mt phng nghing:
2
sin
l
T
g
=
Ch : Gi T
1
v T
2
l chu k ca con lc khi ln lt treo vt m
1
v m
2
vo l xo c cng k
Chu k con lc khi treo c m
1
v m
2
: m = m
1
+ m
2
l T
2
= + , vo vt khi lng m = m
2
1
T
2
2
T
1
m
2

(m
1
> m
2
) c chu k T
2
= - ,
2
1
T
2
2
T
- Tn s:
1 1
2 2
k
f
T m

= = =
Cu hi 3: Tm chiu di l xo khi dao ng
+ Chiu di v tr cn bng: l
CB
= l
0
+ l
+ Chiu di cc i l xo khi dao ng: l
max
= l
cb
+ A
+ Chiu di cc tiu khi l xo dao ng: l
min
= l
cb
A
l
CB
= (l
min
+ l
max
)/2; A= (l
max
- l
min
)/2
+ O v tr c li x , chiu di l xo l: l = l
CB
x
Ch : Trong mt dao ng (mt chu k) l xo nn 2 ln
v gin 2 ln
l
gin
O
x
A
-A
nn
l

O
x
A
-A
Hnh a (A < l)
Hnh b (A > l)
Khi A< l : Thi gian l xo gin 1 ln l thi gian ngn nht
vt i t v t x
1
= -(l A) n x
2
= A.
Khi A >l (Vi Ox hng xung) nh hnh
- Thi gian l xo nn 1 ln l thi gian ngn nht vt i
t v t x
1
= -l n x
2
= -A.
- Thi gian l xo gin 1 ln l thi gian ngn nht vt i
t v tr x
1
= -l n x
2
= A

Cu hi 4: Tnh ng nng, th nng, c nng.
- Th nng: E
t
=
1
2
kx
2
- ng nng: E
=
1
2
mv
2
- C nng ca con lc l xo: E = E
t
+ E
= E
t max
= E
max
=
1
2
kA
2
=
1
2
m
2
A
2
= const .
Ch : ng nng v th nng bin thin iu ha cng chu k T =
T
2
, cng tn s f = 2f hoc tn s
gc =2
Cu hi 5: Tnh lc tng hp tc dng ln vt (Lc ko v hay lc hi phc):
Cng thc: F
kv
= ma = -kx = -m
2
x
ln:
kv
F = m. a = k. x m: kg, a: m/s
2
, k: N/m, x: m
v tr bin
2
kvmax
F = m. .A= k. A
0 VTCB
kvmin
F =
c im: * L lc gy dao ng cho vt.
* Lun hng v VTCB
* Bin thin iu ho cng tn s vi li

14

Cu hi 6: Tnh lc n hi (l lc a vt v v tr l xo khng bin dng), cng l lc m l xo
tc dng ln gi , im treo, ln vt.
Tng qut: F
h
= k. bin dng
* Vi con lc l xo nm ngang th lc ko v v lc n hi l mt (v ti VTCB l xo khng bin
dng)
* Vi con lc l xo thng ng hoc t trn mt phng nghing (Vt pha di)
+ ln lc n hi c biu thc:
* F
h
= k|l + x| vi chiu dng hng xung
* F
h
= k|l - x| vi chiu dng hng ln
+ Lc n hi cc i (lc ko): F
Max
= k(l + A) (lc vt v tr thp nht)
+ Lc n hi cc tiu:
* Nu A < l F
Min
= k(l - A)
* Nu A l F
Min
= 0 (lc vt i qua v tr l xo khng bin dng)
Cu hi 7: Mt l xo c cng k, chiu di l c ct thnh cc l xo c cng k
1
, k
2
, v chiu
di tng ng l l
1
, l
2
, Tnh k
1
, k
2
, ...
Ta c: l = l
1
+ l
2
+ ...
kl = k
1
l
1
= k
2
l
2
=
Cu hi 8: Ghp l xo:
* Ni tip:
1 2
1 1 1
...
k k k
= + + cng treo mt vt khi lng nh nhau th: T
2
= T
1
2
+ T
2
2
* Song song: k = k
1
+ k
2
+ cng treo mt vt khi lng nh nhau th:
2 2 2
1 2
1 1 1
...
T T T
= + +
III. CON lc n:
* Cu to: Vt nng m gn vo mt si dy c chiu di l.
* iu kin xt: B qua ma st, lc cn, dy khng gin v rt nh, vt coi l cht im.

1. Tn s gc:
g
l
= ; chu k:
2
2
l
T
g
= = ; tn s:
1 1
2 2
g
f
T l

= = =
Ch : Ti mt ni, chu k dao ng iu ha ca con lc n khi thay i chiu di:
Gi T
1
v T
2
l chu k ca con lc c chiu di l
1
v l
2

+ Con lc c chiu di l l = l
1
+ l
2
th chu k dao ng l: T
2
= + .
2
1
T
2
2
T

+ Con lc c chiu di l l = l
1
l
2
th chu k dao ng l: T
2
= - T .
2
1
T
2
2
2. Lc ko v (hi phc):

2
sin
s
F mg mg mg m
l
s = = = =
3. Phng trnh dao ng:
s = S
0
cos(t + ) hoc =
0
cos(t + ) vi s = l, S
0
=
0
l
v = s = -S
0
sin(t + ) = -l
0
sin(t + )
a = v = -
2
S
0
cos(t + ) = -
2
l
0
cos(t + ) = -
2
s = -
2
l
Lu : S
0
ng vai tr nh A cn s ng vai tr nh x
4. H thc c lp:
* a = -
2
s = -
2
l
*
2 2
0
( )
v
S s
2
= +
*
2
2 2
0
v
gl
= +

15

5. C nng:
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
0 0 0
1 1 1 1
W
2 2 2 2
0
= = = =
mg
m S S mgl m l
l

- C nng: W = W
t
+ W

+ Th nng: W
t
= mgh = mgl(1 - cos) ( mg l
2
2
, nu nh)
+ ng nng : W
=
mv
2
2

- O v tr bin : W = W
tmax
= mgh
0
vi h
0
= (1 - cos l
0
)
- O VTCB : W = W
max
=
mv
0
2
2
vi v
0
l vn tc cc i.
- O v tr bt k : W = mgl(1 - cos) +
mv
2
2

- Vn tc ca con lc khi qua VTCB : v
0
= 2g (1 - cos
0
) l
- Vn tc ca con lc khi qua v tr c gc lch : v = 2g (cos - cos
0
) l
- Lc cng dy : T = mg(3cos 2cos
0
)
Ch : Khi con lc n dao ng vi
0
bt k. C nng, vn tc v lc cng ca si dy con lc n:
W = mgl(1-cos
0
); v
2
= 2gl(cos cos
0
) v T = mg(3cos 2cos
0
)
6. Tnh thi gian ng h chy nhanh (chm) trong mt ngy m:
* Xc nh xem ng h chy nhanh hay chm:
- Vit cng thc tnh chu k T khi ng h chy ng.
- Vit cng thc tnh chu k T khi ng h chy sai.
- Lp t s
T'
T

Nu
T'
T
> 1 th ng h chy chm (ng h m giy s dng con lc n)
Nu
T'
T
< 1 th ng h chy nhanh
* Tnh thi gian ng h chy nhanh (chm) trong mt ngy m (24h = 86400s):

'
86400 1 ( )
T
s
T
=
Ch : - O cao h:
2
0
' .
R
g g
R h

=

+

- O su d:
0
' .
R d
g g
R

=

- Chiu di ph thuc vo nhit : l = l
0
(1 + t) l
0
: Chiu di 0
0
C
7. Khi con lc n chu thm tc dng ca lc ph khng i:
* Lc ph khng i thng l:
a - Lc qun tnh: F m =

, ln F = ma ( F a

)
Ch : + Chuyn ng nhanh dn u a v

v (
c hng chuyn ng)

+ Chuyn ng chm dn u a v

- Lc in trng: , ln F = |q|E (Nu q > 0 F qE =

F E

; cn nu q < 0
F E

)

16

- Lc y csimt: F = DgV ( lung thng ng hng ln) F
Trong : D l khi lng ring ca cht lng hay cht kh.

g l gia tc ri t do.
V l th tch ca phn vt chm trong cht lng hay cht kh .
Khi : gi l trng lc hiu dng hay trong lc biu kin (c vai tr nh trng lc ' P P F = +

P
)
'
F
g g
m
= +

gi l gia tc trng trng hiu dng hay gia tc trng trng biu kin.
Chu k dao ng ca con lc n khi : ' 2
'
l
T
g
=
* Cc trng hp thng gp:
* F c phng ngang:
+ Ti VTCB dy treo lch vi phng thng ng mt gc c: tan
F
P
=
+
2 2
' (
F
g g
m
= + )
* F c phng thng ng: Ti VTCB dy treo vn c phng thng ng.
+ Nu hng xung th F
'
F
g g
m
= +
+ Nu hng ln th F
'
F
g g
m
=


17

CHNG II: sng c v sng m
I. sng c
1. nh ngha: L dao ng lan truyn trong mt mi trng.
Ch : - Sng c khng truyn c trong chn khng.
- Mt c im quan trng ca sng l khi sng truyn trong mt mi trng th cc phn t
ca mi trng ch dao ng quanh v tr cn bng ca chng m khng chuyn di theo sng. Ch c
pha dao ng ca chng c truyn i.
2. Cc loi sng:
- Sng ngang: Phng dao ng ca cc phn t ca mi trng vung gc vi phng truyn
sng. VD: Sng truyn trn mt nc.
Ch : Sng ngang ch truyn c trong cht rn v trn b mt cht lng.
- Sng dc: Phng dao ng ca cc phn t ca mi trng trng vi phng truyn sng. VD:
Sng m.
Ch : Sng dc truyn c c trong cht rn, cht lng v cht kh.
3. Cc i lng c trng cho sng:
* Chu k T, tn s f, bin A ca sng: l chu k, tn s, bin dao ng chung ca cc phn t
vt cht khi c sng truyn qua v bng chu k, tn s, bin ca ngun sng.
* Tc truyn sng: L tc truyn pha dao ng (khc vi tc dao ng ca cc phn t vt
cht).
* Bc sng: l khong cch gia hai im gn nht trn cng mt phng truyn sng dao ng
cng pha. Bc sng cng l qung ng m sng truyn c trong mt chu k.
Cng thc: = vT = v/f
Trong : : Bc sng;
T (s): Chu k ca sng;
f (Hz): Tn s ca sng
x
N
x
M
O
v: Tc truyn sng (c n v tng ng vi n v ca )
Ch : Gia n nh (ngn) sng c (n 1) bc sng.
4. Phng trnh sng
x
Ti im O: u
O
= Acos(t)
Ti im M cch O mt on x trn phng truyn sng.
* Sng truyn theo chiu dng ca trc Ox th
u
M
= A
M
cos(t -
x
v
) = A
M
cos(t - 2
x
) =A
M
cos2 (
t
T
-
x
)
* Sng truyn theo chiu m ca trc Ox th
u
N
= A
M
cos(t +
x
v
) = A
M
cos(t + 2
x
) = A
M
cos2 (
t
T
+
x
)
5. lch pha gia hai im M, N cch ngun O mt khong x
1
= OM, x
2
= ON

1 2 1 2
2
x x x
v

= =
x

Nu 2 im nm trn mt phng truyn sng v MN = x th:
2
x x
v

= =
Ch : n v ca x, x
1
, x
2
, v v phi tng ng vi nhau
II. sng m
1. nh ngha: Sng m l nhng sng c truyn trong cc mi trng rn, lng, kh. Ngun m l
cc vt dao ng pht ra m.
- Sng m truyn c trong cc mi trng rn lng v kh, khng truyn c trong chn khng.
2. Phn loi:
- m nghe c (gy ra cm gic m trong tai con ngi) l sng c hc c tn s trong khong t 16
Hz n 20000 Hz. f< 16 Hz: sng h m, f> 20000 Hz: sng siu m.


18

3. cc c trng vt l ca m:
- m c y cc c trng ca mt sng c hc
- Vn tc truyn m: ph thuc vo tnh n hi, mt v nhit ca mi trng: v
rn
> v
lng
> v
kh
.
Ch : Khi sng m truyn t mi trng ny sang mi trng khc th vn tc v bc sng thay
i. Nhng tn s v do chu k ca sng khng i.
- Cng m:
W P
I= =
tS S

Trong : W (J), P (W) l nng lng, cng sut pht m ca ngun
S (m
2
) l din tch mt vung gc vi phng truyn m (vi sng cu th S l din tch
mt cu S=4 r
2
)
Ch : Nu nng lng c bo ton:
2
1 2 2
1 1 2 2
2 1 1
. .
I S r
W I S I S
I S r

= = => = =

- Mc cng m:

0
( ) lg
I
L B
I
= Hoc
0
( ) 10.lg
I
L dB
I
=
Vi I
0
= 10
-12
W/m
2
f = 1000Hz: cng m chun (Cng m chun thay i theo tn s).
Ch : T cng thc
10
0
0
10lg .10
L
I
L I I
I
= => =

2
2 1
1
10lg
I
L L L
I
= =
- th dao ng m (Ph ca m):
Mt nhc c khi pht ra mt m c tn s f (Gi l m c bn hay ho m th nht) th ng thi
cng pht ra cc ho m c tn s 2f, 3f, 4f, ... (Gi l cc ho m th hai, th ba, th t ...). Bin
cc ho m cng khc nhau. Tng hp th dao ng ca tt c cc ho m ca mt nhc m ta c
th dao ng ca nhc m . th khng cn l ng sin iu ho m l mt ng phc tp c
chu k.
4. cc c trng sinh l ca m:
- cao: gn lin vi tn s. m c f cng ln th cng cao, f cnh nh th cng trm.
- to: gn lin vi mc cng m
- m sc: gn lin vi th dao ng ca m
* Vi x l khong cch t M n u bng sng th bin :
III. GIAO THOA SNG
1. nh ngha: L s tng hp ca hai sng kt hp trong khng gian, trong c nhng ch bin d
sng tng hp c tng cng hay b gim bt.
* Sng kt hp: Do hai ngun kt hp pht ra. Hai ngun kt hp l 2 ngun dao ng cng phng,
cng chu k (Tn s) v c hiu s pha khng i theo thi gian.
2. Giao thoa ca hai sng pht ra t hai ngun sng kt hp S
1
, S
2
cch nhau mt khong l:
Xt im M cch hai ngun ln lt d
1
, d
2
Phng trnh sng ti 2 ngun
1 1
Acos(2 ) u ft = + v
2 2
Acos(2 ) u ft = +
Phng trnh sng ti M do hai sng t hai ngun truyn ti:
1
1 1
Acos(2 2 )
M
d
u ft
= + v
2
2 2
Acos(2 2 )
M
d
u ft
= +
Phng trnh giao thoa sng ti M: u
M
= u
1M
+ u
2M
1 2 1 2 1 2
2 os os 2
2 2
M
d d d d
u Ac c ft

+
= + +

+


19

Bin dao ng ti M:
1 2
2 os
2
M
d d
A A c

= +

vi
1 2
=
Ch : * S cc i: (k Z)
2 2
l l
k

+ < < + +
* S cc tiu:
1 1
(k Z)
2 2 2 2
l l
k

+ < < + +
1. Hai ngun dao ng cng pha (hai ngun ng b) (
1 2
0 = = )
* im dao ng cc i: d
1
d
2
= k (kZ) (Tp hp l cc ng hypebol v ng trung trc
ni 2ngun). A
C
= 2A.
S ng hoc s im (khng tnh hai ngun):
l l
k

< <
* im dao ng cc tiu (khng dao ng): d
1
d
2
= (2k+1)
2
(kZ). (Tp hp l cc ng
hypebol). A
CT
= 0.
1 1
2 2
l l
k

< <
2. Hai ngun dao ng ngc pha:(
1 2
= = )
* im dao ng cc i: d
1
d
2
= (2k+1)
2
(kZ)
1 1
2 2
l l
k

< <
* im dao ng cc tiu (khng dao ng): d
1
d
2
= k (kZ)
l l
k

< <
Ch : Vi bi ton tm s ng dao ng cc i v khng dao ng gia hai im M, N cch hai
ngun ln lt l d
1M
, d
2M
, d
1N
, d
2N
.
t d
M
= d
1M
- d
2M
; d
N
= d
1N
- d
2N
v gi s d
M
< d
N
.
+ Hai ngun dao ng cng pha:
- Cc i: d
M
< k < d
N
- Cc tiu: d
M
< (k+0,5) < d
N
+ Hai ngun dao ng ngc pha:
- Cc i:d
M
< (k+0,5) < d
N
- Cc tiu: d
M
< k < d
N
S gi tr nguyn ca k tho mn cc biu thc trn l s ng cn tm.
IV. sng dng
1. nh ngha: l sng c cc nt v bng c nh trong khng gian.
* Nguyn nhn: Sng dng l kt qu ca s giao thoa gia sng ti v sng phn x, khi sng ti v
sng phn x truyn theo cng mt phng. Khi sng ti v sng phn x l sng kt hp v giao
thoa to sng dng.
Ch :
- u c nh hoc u dao ng nh l nt sng.
- u t do l bng sng
- Hai im i xng vi nhau qua nt sng lun dao ng ngc pha.
- Hai im i xng vi nhau qua bng sng lun dao ng cng pha.
- Cc im trn dy u dao ng vi bin khng i nng lng khng truyn i
- Khong thi gian gia hai ln si dy cng ngang (cc phn t i qua VTCB) l na chu k.
- B rng 1 bng l 4A. A l bin sng ti hoc sng phn x.
2. iu kin c sng dng trn si dy di l:
2

A
P
N N N N N
B B B B
4

* Hai u l nt sng:
*
( )
2
l k k N
=

20

S bng sng = s b sng = k
S nt sng = k + 1
A
Bng
Nt * Mt u l nt sng cn mt u l bng sng: (2 1) ( )
4
l k k N
= +
S b sng nguyn = k
P
S bng sng = s nt sng = k + 1

3. Phng trnh sng dng trn si dy AB (vi u A c nh hoc dao ng nh l nt sng)
* u B c nh (nt sng):
Phng trnh sng ti v sng phn x ti B: os2
B
u Ac ft = v ' os2 os(2
B
u Ac ft Ac ft ) = =
Phng trnh sng ti v sng phn x ti M cch B mt khong d l:
os(2 2 )
M
d
u Ac ft
= + v ' os(2 2
M
d
u Ac ft )
=
Phng trnh sng dng ti M: '
M M M
u u u = +
2 os(2 ) os(2 ) 2 sin(2 ) os(2 )
2 2
M
d d
u Ac c ft A c ft
2

= + =
Bin dao ng ca phn t ti M: 2 os(2 ) 2 sin(2 )
2
M
d d
A A c A

= + =
* u B t do (bng sng):
Phng trnh sng ti v sng phn x ti B: u u ' os2
B B
Ac ft = =
Phng trnh sng ti v sng phn x ti M cch B mt khong d l:
os(2 2 )
M
d
u Ac ft
= + v ' os(2 2
M
d
u Ac ft )
=
Phng trnh sng dng ti M: '
M M M
u u u = +
2 os(2 ) os(2
M
d
u Ac c f ) t
=
Bin dao ng ca phn t ti M: 2 cos(2 )
M
d
A A
=
Ch : Vi x l khong cch t M n u nt sng th bin : 2 sin(2 )
M
x
A A
=

21

CHNG III: dng in xoay chiu

1. Cch to ra dng in xoay chiu:
+ Nguyn tc: Da trn hin tng cm ng in t (L hin tng khi c s bin thin ca t thng
qua mt khung dy kn th trong khung xut hin mt sut in ng cm ng sinh ra mt d cm
ng)
+ Cch to: Cho khung dy dn din tch S, c N vng dy, quay u vi tn s gc trong t trng
u B
( B
trc quay) . Th trong mch c dng in bin thin iu ha vi tn s gc gi l

dng in xoay chiu (dxc).
T thng gi qua khung dy ca my pht in = NBScos(t +) =

0
cos(t + )
Vi
0
= NBS l t thng cc i, N l s vng dy, B l cm ng t ca t trng, S l din tch ca
vng dy, = 2f
Sut in ng trong khung dy: e = NSBcos(t + -
2
) = E
0
cos(t + -
2
)
Vi E
0
= NSB l sut in ng cc i.

Ch : Khi khung dy quay mt vng (mt chu k) th dng in chy trong khung i chiu 2 ln.
+ Biu thc in p tc thi v dng in tc thi:
u = U
0
cos(t +
u
) v i = I
0
cos(t +
i
)
Trong : i l gi tr cng d ti thi im t; I
0
> 0 l gi tr cc i ca i; > 0 l tn s gc; (t
+
i
) l pha ca i ti thi im t;
i
l pha ban u ca d.
u l gi tr in p ti thi im t; U
0
> 0 l gi tr cc i ca u; > 0 l tn s gc; (t +
u
)
l pha ca u ti thi im t;
u
l pha ban u ca in p.
Vi =
u

i
l lch pha ca u so vi i, c
2 2

- Cc gi tr hiu dng:
+ Cng hiu dng ca dxc l i lng c gi tr bng cng ca mt d khng i, sao cho
khi i qua cng mt in tr R, trong cng mt khong thi gian th cng sut tiu th ca R bi d
khng i y bng cng sut tiu th trung bnh ca R bi dxc ni trn.
+ in p hiu dng cng c nh ngha tng t.
+ Gi tr hiu dng bng gi tr cc i ca i lng chia cho 2 .
0 0
; ;
2 2
U I
U I E = = =
0
2
E

2. Dng in xoay chiu i = I
0
cos(2ft +
i
)
* Mi giy i chiu 2f ln
* Nu pha ban u
i
= 0 hoc
i
= th ch giy u tin
i chiu 2f-1 ln.
3. Cng thc tnh thi gian n hunh quang sng trong mt chu k
Khi t in p u = U
0
cos(t +
u
) vo hai u bng n, bit n ch sng ln khi u U
1
.

22

4
t

= Vi
1
0
os
U
c
U
= , (0 < < /2)
4. Dng in xoay chiu trong on mch R, L, C ni tip.
* on mch ch c in tr thun R: u
R
cng pha vi i, ( =
u

i
= 0)

U
I
R
= v
0
0
U
I
R
=
Ch : in tr R cho dng in khng i i qua v c
U
I
R
=
* on mch ch c cun thun cm L: u
L
nhanh pha hn i l /2, ( =
u

i
= /2)

L
U
I
Z
= v
0
0
L
U
I
Z
= vi Z
L
= L l cm khng
Ch : Cun thun cm L cho dng in khng i i qua hon ton (khng cn tr).
* on mch ch c t in C: u
C
chm pha hn i l /2, ( =
u

i
= -/2)

C
U
I
Z
= v
0
0
C
U
I
Z
= vi
1
C
Z
C
= l dung khng
Ch : T in C khng cho dng in khng i i qua (cn tr hon ton).
* on mch RLC khng phn nhnh

2 2 2 2 2
0 0 0 0
( ) ( ) (
L C R L C R L C
Z R Z Z U U U U U U U U = + = + = +
2
)
tan ;sin ; os
L C L C
Z Z Z Z R
c
R Z Z

= = = vi
2 2

+ Khi Z
L
> Z
C
hay
1
LC
> > 0 th u nhanh pha hn i
+ Khi Z
L
< Z
C
hay
1
LC
< < 0 th u chm pha hn i
+ Khi Z
L
= Z
C
hay
1
LC
= = 0 th u cng pha vi i.
Lc
Max
U
I =
R
gi l hin tng cng hng dng in
Ch : - Nu mch gm nhiu in tr:
+ Mc ni tip:
1 2
... R R R = + +
+ Mc song song:
1 2
1 1 1
...
R R R
= + +
1 2
1 1 1
...
C C C
= + +
- Nu mch gm nhiu t in:
+ Mc song song:
1 2
... C C C = + +
+ Mc ni tip:
1 2
1 1 1
...
C C C
= + +

5. Cng sut to nhit trn on mch RLC:
P = UIcos = I
2
R.
6. H s cng sut:
cos =
P
UI
=
R
Z
=
U
R
U

- Cng sut tiu th ca on mch ph phuc vo gi tr ca cos, nn s dng c hiu qu in
nng tiu th th phi tng h s cng sut (ngha l nh). Bng cch mc thm v mch nhng t
in c in dung ln. Qui nh trong cc c s s dng in cos 0,85.

23

Ch : + Vi mch LC th cos = 0 , mch khng tiu th in! P = 0
7. Nhit lng to ra trn mch (in nng tiu th) trong thi gian t:
Q = A = P.t vi A tnh bng J, P tnh bng W, t tnh bng s.
8. Cng hng in:
I = I
max

2
1 1
L C
Z Z L
C LC

= = =
Ch : Khi c cng hng in th:
- d t cc i I
max
=
U
R
v cng sut tiu th t cc i P
max
=
U
2
R

- u cng pha vi i: = 0,
u
=
i
- U = U
R
; U
L
= U
C
- cos =
R
Z
= 1 => R = Z.

9. on mch RLC c L thay i:
a. Z
min
, I
max
, U
Rmax
, U
Cmax
, U
Rcmax
, P
max
, cos cc i, u
R
cng pha u
AB
: Z
L
= Z
C
=>
2
1
L
C
=
b.
2 2
ax
C
LM
U R Z
U
R
+
= khi
2 2
C
L
C
R Z
Z
Z
+
=
c. Vi L = L
1
hoc L = L
2
th U
L
c cng gi tr th U
Lmax
khi
1 2
1 2
1 2
2 1 1 1 1
( )
2
L L L
L L
L
Z Z Z L L
= + =
+

d. Khi
2 2
4
2
C C
L
Z R Z
Z
+ +
= th
ax
2 2
2 R
4
RLM
C C
U
U
R Z Z
=
+
Ch : R v L mc lin tip nhau
10. on mch RLC c C thay i:
* Khi
2
1
C
L
= th I
Max
U
Rmax
; P
Max

* Khi
2 2
L
C
L
R Z
Z
Z
+
= th
2 2
ax
L
CM
U R Z
U
R
+
=
* Khi C = C
1
hoc C = C
2
th U
C
c cng gi tr th U
Cmax
khi
1 2
1 2
1 1 1 1
( )
2 2
C C C
C C
C
Z Z Z
+
= + =

* Khi
2 2
4
2
L L
C
Z R Z
Z
+ +
= th
ax
2 2
2 R
4
RCM
L L
U
U
R Z Z
=
+
Ch : R v C mc lin tip nhau
11. Mch RLC c thay i:
* Khi
1
LC
= th I
Max
U
Rmax
; P
Max
cn U
LCMin
Ch : L v C mc lin tip nhau
* Khi
2
1 1
2
C
L R
C
=
th
ax
2 2
2 .
4
LM
U L
U
R LC R C
=


24

* Khi
2
1
2
L R
L C
= th
ax
2 2
2 .
4
CM
U L
U
R LC R C
=

* Vi =
1
hoc =
2
th I hoc P hoc U
R
c cng mt gi tr th I
Max
hoc P
Max
hoc U
RMax

khi

1 2
= tn s
1 2
f f f =
12. Cc bi tp v cng sut:
a. Nu R, U = hng s. Thay i C, L hoc
2
2 2
.
( )
L C
R U
P
R Z Z
=
+

P
max
=
2
U
R
khi Z
L
= Z
C
b. Nu U, C, L, = hng s. Thay i R.
p dng bt ng thc Cauchy cho: P
max
=
2
2
U
R
khi R=
L c
Z Z
c. Mch R, L, C khi R bin i c hai gi tr R
1
, R
2
u cho cng sut P < P
max
:
2
2 2 2
2 2
.
. .(
( )
L C
L C
R U
P P R U R P Z
R Z Z
) 0 Z = => + =
+

Theo nh l Viet:
2
1 2 1 2
; .
L C
U
R R R R Z
P
+ = = Z
* Ch trng hp: Hai on mch R1L1C1 v R2L2C2 cng u hoc cng i c pha lch nhau :
Vi
1
1
1
tan
L C
1
Z Z
R

= v
2
2
2
tan
L C
2
Z Z
R

= (gi s
1
>
2
)
C
1

2
=
1 2
1 2
tan tan
tan
1 tan tan

=
+

Trng hp c bit = /2 (vung pha nhau) th tan
1.
tan
2
= -1.

13. My pht in xoay chiu mt pha:
- Hot ng da trn hin tng cm ng in t, bin c nng thnh in nng.
- Cu to gm 3 b phn :
+ B phn to ra t trng gi l phn cm : L 1 vnh trn trn gn cc nam chm mc xen k ni
tip nhau.
+ B phn to ra dng in gi l phn ng: L khung dy
+ B phn a d ra ngoi gi l b gp: Gm 2 vnh khuyn v 2 chi qut
- Trong cc my pht in: Rto l phn cm ; Stato l phn ng.
- Trong my pht in cng sut nh:
Rto (b phn chuyn ng) l phn ng ;
Stato (b phn ng yn) l phn cm.


25

- Tn s dng in do my pht pht ra :
f =
np
60
. Vi p l s cp cc, n l s vng quay ca rto/pht.
= np . Vi p l s cp cc, n l s vng quay ca rto/giy.
- T thng gi qua khung dy ca my pht in = NBScos(t +) =
0
cos(t + )
Vi
0
= NBS l t thng cc i, N l s vng dy, B l cm ng t ca t trng, S l din tch
ca vng dy, = 2f
- Sut in ng trong khung dy: e = NSBcos(t + -
2
) = E
0
cos(t + -
2
)
Vi E
0
= NSB l sut in ng cc i.
13. My pht in xoay chiu ba pha:
- My pht in xc ba pha l my to ra ba s xc hnh sin cng tn s, cng bin v lch nhau mt
gc
2
3
(v thi gian l T/3)
- Cu to:
+ Phn ng l ba cun dy ging nhau gn c nh trn mt ng trn tm 0 ti ba v tr i xng, t
lch nhau 1 gc 120
0
.
1 B
2 B
3 B
(1)
(2)
+ Phn cm l mt nc c th quay quanh trc 0 vi tc gc khng i.
- Hot ng da trn hin tng cm ng in t, bin c nng thnh in
nng. Khi nam chm quay t thng qua mi cun dy l ba hm s sin ca
thi gian, cng tn s gc , cng bin v lch nhau 120
0
. Kt qu trong
ba cun dy xut hin ba s xc cm ng cng bin , cng tn s v lch
pha nhau gc 120
0
.
N
S

- Dng in xoay chiu ba pha l h thng ba dng in xoay chiu, gy bi ba sut in ng xoay
chiu cng tn s, cng bin nhng lch pha tng i mt l
2
3

trong trng hp ti i xng th :
1 0
2 0
3 0
os( )
2
os( )
3
2
os( )
3
i I c t
i I c t
i I c t
=
=
= +

* Cc cch mc:
+ Mc hnh sao
- Gm 4 dy trong c ba dy pha v mt dy trung
ha.
- Ti tiu th khng cn i xng.
- 3.
d p
U U = ;

26

- I
d
= I
p

- I
0
= 0
A
2
B
2
B
3
A
1
A
3
A B
1 2 + Mc hnh tam gic

B
1
A
3
A
1
- H thng gm ba dy
- Ti tiu th phi tht i xng
- 3.
d p
I I =
- U
d
= U
p

+u im dng xoay chiu ba pha
- Tit kim dy dn
- Dng in xoay chiu ba pha i xng cho hiu sut cao hn so vi dng in xoay chiu
mt pha.
- To ra t trng quay dng trong ng c khng ng b ba pha d dng.
14. ng c khng ng b ba pha:
- Hot ng : Da trn hin tng cm ng in t v t trng quay.
- Cu to: Gm hai b phn chnh l:
- Rto (phn cm): L khung dy c th quay di tc dng ca t trng quay.
- Stato (phn ng): Gn 3 cun dy ging ht nhau t ti 3 v tr nm trn 1 vng trn sao cho 3
trc ca 3 cun dy y ng qui ti tm 0 ca vng trn v hp nhau nhng gc 120
0
.
- Khi cho dxc 3 pha vo 3 cun dy y th t trng tng hp do 3 cun dy to ra ti tm 0 l t
trng quay. B = 1,5B
0
vi B l t trng tng hp ti tm 0, B
0
l t trng do 1 cun dy to ra. T
trng quay ny s tc dng vo khung dy l khung quay vi tc nh hn tc quay ca t
trng. Chuyn ng quay ca rto (khung dy) c s dng lm quay cc my khc.
15. My bin p (bin th):
- Hot ng: Da trn hin tng cm ng in t.
- Cu to: + Li bin p: L cc l st non pha silic ghp li ( gim dng Phuc). Tc dng dn t.
+ Hai cun dy qun:
- Cun dy s cp c hai u ni vi ngun in c N
1
vng.
- Cun dy th cp c hai u ni vi ti tiu th c N
2
vng.
- Tc dng ca hai cun dy l dn in.
- Tc dng: bin i in p (v cng dng in) ca dng in xoay chiu m vn gi nguyn
tn s. My bin p khng c tc dng bin i nng lng (cng).
- Cng thc my bin p:
1 1 2 1
2 2 1 2
U E I N
k
U E I N
= = = =
+ Nu k > 1: N
1
> N
2
<==> U
1
> U
2
: MBA h p.
+ Nu k < 1: N
1
< N
2
<==> U
1
< U
2
: MBA tng p.
- Hiu sut my bin p: H =
P
2
P
1
=
U
2
I
2
cos
2
U
1
I
1
cos
1

- ng dng ca my bin p: Trong truyn ti v s dng in nng.

27

15. Cng sut hao ph trong qu trnh truyn ti in nng:
2
2
d d 2
P
P R I R
(Ucos )
= =

Trong :
P: cng sut truyn i ni cung cp;
U: in p ni cung cp;
cos: h s cng sut ca dy ti in (thng thng cos = 1);
d
l
R
S
= l in tr tng cng ca dy ti in (lu : dn in bng 2 dy)
=> Ch cn tng in p u ng dy ti in ln k ln th c th gim hao ph i k
2
ln.
- gim in p trn ng dy ti in: U = R
d
I
- Hiu sut ti in:
P - P
H = (100%)
P


28

CHNG IV: dao ng v sng in t
1. Mch dao ng:
* Mch dao ng l 1 mch in gm 1 cun cm c t cm L mc ni tip vi 1 t in c in
dung C thnh 1 mch in kn.
+ Nu in tr ca mch rt nh, coi nh bng khng, th mch l 1 mch dao ng l tng.
- T in c nhim v tch in cho mch, sau n phng in qua li trong mch nhiu ln to ra
mt dxc trong mch. Ban u mch hot ng phi tch cho t in tch Q
0
.
* Khi mch hot ng, c q, u, i bin thin cng tn s :
- in tch tc thi q = q
0
cos(t + )
- Hiu in th (in p) tc thi
0
0
os( ) os( )
q q
u c t U c t
C C
= = + = +
- Dng in tc thi i = q = -q
0
sin(t + ) = I
0
cos(t + +
2
)
Trong :
1
LC
= l tn s gc ring 2 T = LC l chu k ring

1
2
f
LC
= l tn s ring
0
0 0
q
I q
LC
= =

0 0
0 0
q I L
U LI
C C C
= = = =
0
I
* Nng lng ca mch dao ng:
- Nng lng in trng:
2
2
1 1
W
2 2 2
q
Cu qu
C
= = =
2
2 0
os ( )
2
q
c t
C
= +
- Nng lng t trng:
2
2 2 0
1
W sin (
2 2
t
q
Li t
C
) = = +
- Nng lng in t: <==>
W=W W
t
+
2
2 2 0
0 0 0
1 1 1
W
2 2 2 2
q
CU q U LI
C
= = = =
0

Ch : + Mch dao ng c tn s gc , tn s f v chu k T th W
v W
t
bin thin vi tn s gc
2, tn s 2f v chu k T/2
+ Mch dao ng c in tr thun R 0 th dao ng s tt dn. duy tr dao ng cn cung
cp cho mch mt nng lng c cng sut:
2 2 2 2
2 0 0
C U U RC
P I R R
2 2
= = =
L

+ Khi t phng in th q v u gim v ngc li
+ Quy c: q > 0 ng vi bn t ta xt tch in dng th i > 0 ng vi dng in chy n bn
t m ta xt.


29

- S tng t gia dao ng in v dao ng c
i lng c i lng in Dao ng c Dao ng in
x Q x +
2
x = 0 q +
2
q = 0
v I
k
m
=
1
LC
=
m L x = Acos(t + ) q = q
0
cos(t + )
k
1
C
v = x = -Asin(t + ) i = q = -q
0
sin(t + )
F U
2 2
( )
v
A x
2
= +
2 2
0
( )
i
q q
2
= +

R F = -kx = -m
2
x
2
q
u L
C
q = =
W
W
t
(W
C
) W
=
1
2
mv
2
W
t
=
1
2
Li
2
W
t
W
(W
L
) W
t
=
1
2
kx
2
W
=
2
2
q
C

3. Sng in t
* Khi 1 t trng bin thin theo thi gian th n sinh ra 1 in trng xoy (l 1 in trng m cc
ng sc bao quanh cc ng cm ng t). Ngc li khi mt in trng bin thin theo thi gian
n sinh ra 1 t trng xoy (l 1 t trng m cc ng cm ng t bao quanh cc ng sc ca
in trng).
- Dng in qua cun dy v dy dn l d dn, d qua t in l d dch (l s bin thin ca in
trng gia 2 bn t)
- in trng v t trng l 2 mt th hin khc nhau ca 1 loi trng duy nht l in t trng.
* Sng in t: l s lan truyn trong khng gian ca in t trng bin thin .
+ c im:
- Vn tc lan truyn trong chn khng c = 3.10
8
m/s. Trong in mi v < c.
- Sng in t l sng ngang. , E B

vung gc vi nhau v vung gc vi phng truyn sng. Cng
dao ng cng tn s v cng pha.
- Sng in t mang nng lng. Nng lng ca sng t l vi bnh phng ca bin , vi lu tha
bc 4 ca tn s. Nn sng cng ngn (tn s cng cao, do =
c
f
) th nng lng sng cng ln.
- Sng in t cng c cc tnh cht phn x, khc x, giao thoa nh nh sng.
- Bc sng ca sng in t
c
c2 LC
f
= =
Vi: c: vn tc as trong chn khng; C: in dung ca t in (F); L: t cm ca cun
dy (H).
+ Phn loa:
+ Sng di : dng thng tin di nc.

30

+ Sng trung: dng thng tin mt t, vo ban m thng tin tt hn ban ngy.
+ Sng ngn: dng thng tin mt t, k c ngy hay m. Do t b khng kh hp th,
mt khc sng ngn phn x tt trn mt t v trn tng in li, nn c th truyn i xa.
+ Sng cc ngn: dng thng tin v tr.

Loi sng Bc sng Tn s
Sng di
Sng trung
Sng ngn
Sng cc ngn
1km-10km
100m-1.000m (1km)
10m-100m
0,3 mm-10m
30kHz 300kHz
0,3 MHz -3 MHz
3 MHz -30 MHz
30 MHz -10
6
MHz

* Nguyn tc pht, thu sng in t: My pht hoc my thu sng in t s dng mch dao ng
LC th tn s sng in t pht hoc thu c bng tn s ring ca mch.
Ch : Mch dao ng c L bin i t L
Min
L
Max
v C bin i t C
Min
C
Max
th bc sng ca
sng in t pht (hoc thu)
Min
tng ng vi L
Min
v C
Min
Max
tng ng vi L
Max
v C
Max
.
4. S khi ca my pht v thu thanh v tuyn n gin:
- S khi ca my pht thanh v tuyn n gin:
Micr (1) to ra dao ng in c tn s m; Mch pht sng in t cao tn
(2) pht ra sng in t c tn s cao (c MHz) ; Mch bin iu (3) trn
dao ng in t cao tn vi dao ng in t m tn ; Mch khuch i (4) khuch i dao ng in
t cao tn bin iu ; anten (5) to ra in t trng cao tn lan truyn
trong khng gian.
5 4
1
3
2
- S khi ca my thu thanh v tuyn n gin:
Anten (1) thu sng in t cao tn bin iu ; Mch khuch i dao ng
in t cao tn (2) khuch i dao ng in t cao tn t anten gi ti ;
Mch tch sng (3) tch dao ng in t m tn ra khi dao ng in t cao tn ; Mch khuch i
(4) khuch i dao ng in t m tn t mch tch sng gi n ; Loa (5) bin dao ng in thnh
dao ng m.
4 3 2 1
5
- ng dng ca sng in t: Sng v tuyn in c s dng trong thng tin lin lc. i pht
thanh, dao ng m tn c dng bin iu (bin hc tn s) dao ng cao tn. Dao ng cao
tn c bin iu s c pht x t ng ten di dng sng in t. mt thu thanh, nh c ng
ten thu, s thu c dao ng cao tn c bin iu, v sau dao ng m tn li c tch ra
khi dao ng cao tn bin iu nh qu trnh tch sng, ri a ra loa.
- Nguyn tc chung ca thng tin lin lc bng sng v tuyn:
- Phi dng cc sng in t cao tn lm sng mang.
- Phi bin iu sng mang.
- O ni thu phi tch sng m tn ra khi sng cao tn (sng mang).
- Khi tn hiu thu nh phi khuych i chng bng mch khuych i.


31

CHNG V: sng nh sng
1. Hin tng tn sc nh sng.
* /n: L hin tng chm sng phc tp b tch thnh nhiu mu khc nhau khi i qua mt phn cch
ca hai mi trng trong sut.
* nh sng n sc l nh sng khng b tn sc
nh sng n sc c tn s xc nh, ch c mt mu.
Bc sng ca nh sng n sc
v
f
= , truyn trong chn khng
0
c
f
=
0 0
c
v n

= =
* Chit sut ca mi trng trong sut ph thuc vo mu sc nh sng. i vi nh sng mu l
nh nht, mu tm l ln nht.
* nh sng trng l tp hp ca v s nh sng n sc c mu bin thin lin tc t n tm.
Bc sng ca nh sng trng: 0,4 m 0,76 m.
2. Hin tng nhiu x nh sng.
Hin tng nh sng b lch phng truyn thng gp vt cn gi l hin tng nhiu x nh sng.
3. Hin tng giao thoa nh sng (ch xt giao thoa nh sng trong th nghim Yng).
* /n: L s tng hp ca hai hay nhiu sng nh sng kt hp trong khng gian trong xut hin
nhng vch sng v nhng vch ti xen k nhau.
x
M
O
I
d
2
d
1
S
2
D
S
1
Cc vch sng (vn sng) v cc vch ti (vn ti) gi l vn giao
thoa.
* Hiu ng i ca nh sng (hiu quang trnh)
a

2 1
ax
d d d
D
= =
Trong : a = S
1
S
2
l khong cch gia hai khe sng
D = OI l khong cch t mt phng cha hai khe sng
S
1
, S
2
n mn quan st
S
1
M = d
1
; S
2
M = d
2

x = OM l (to ) khong cch t vn trung tm n im M ta xt
* V tr (to ) vn sng: d = k ;
D
x k k
a
= Z
k = 0: Vn sng trung tm
k = 1: Vn sng bc (th) 1 (K t trung tm)
k = 2: Vn sng bc (th) 2
* V tr (to ) vn ti: d = (k + 0,5) ( 0, 5) ;
D
x k k
a
= + Z
k = 0, k = -1: Vn ti th (bc) nht
k = 1, k = -2: Vn ti th (bc) hai
k = 2, k = -3: Vn ti th (bc) ba
* Khong vn i: L khong cch gia hai vn sng hoc hai vn ti lin tip:
D
i
a
=
* Nu th nghim c tin hnh trong mi trng trong sut c chit sut n th bc sng v khong
vn:

n
n n
D i
i
n a

= = =
n

* Khi ngun sng S di chuyn theo phng song song vi S
1
S
2
th h vn di chuyn ngc chiu v
khong vn i vn khng i.
di ca h vn l:
0
1
D
x d
D
=
Trong : D l khong cch t 2 khe ti mn

32

D
1
l khong cch t ngun sng ti 2 khe
d l dch chuyn ca ngun sng
* Khi trn ng truyn ca nh sng t khe S
1
(hoc S
2
) c t mt bn mng dy e, chit sut n th
h vn s dch chuyn v pha S
1
(hoc S
2
) mt on:
0
( 1) n e
x
a
=
D

* Xc nh s vn sng, vn ti trong vng giao thoa (trng giao thoa) c b rng L (i xng qua
vn trung tm)
+ S vn sng (l s l): 2 1
2
S
L
N
i

= +

+ S vn ti (l s chn): 2 0,
2
t
L
N
i

= +

5
Trong [x] l phn nguyn ca x. V d: [6] = 6; [5,05] = 5; [7,99] = 7
* Xc nh s vn sng, vn ti gia hai im M, N c to x
1
, x
2
(gi s x
1
< x
2
)
+ Vn sng: x
1
< ki < x
2

+ Vn ti: x
1
< (k+0,5)i < x
2
S gi tr k Z l s vn sng (vn ti) cn tm
Ch : M v N cng pha vi vn trung tm th x
1
v x
2
cng du.
M v N khc pha vi vn trung tm th x
1
v x
2
khc du.
* Xc nh khong vn i trong khong c b rng L. Bit trong khong L c n vn sng.
+ Nu 2 u l hai vn sng th:
1
L
i
n
=

+ Nu 2 u l hai vn ti th:
L
i
n
=
+ Nu mt u l vn sng cn mt u l vn ti th:
0, 5
L
i
n
=

* S trng nhau ca cc bc x
1
,
2
... (khong vn tng ng l i
1
, i
2
...)
+ Trng nhau ca vn sng: x
s
= k
1
i
1
= k
2
i
2
= ... k
1
1
= k
2
2
= ...
+ Trng nhau ca vn ti: x
t
= (k
1
+ 0,5)i
1
= (k
2
+ 0,5)i
2
= ... (k
1
+ 0,5)
1
= (k
2
+ 0,5)
2
= ...
Lu : V tr c mu cng mu vi vn sng trung tm l v tr trng nhau ca tt c cc vn sng ca
cc bc x.
* Giao thoa nh sng trng (0,4 m 0,76 m)
- B rng quang ph bc k:
( )
t
D
x k
a
= vi
v
t
l bc sng nh sng v tm
- Xc nh s vn sng, s vn ti v cc bc x tng ng ti mt v tr xc nh ( bit x)
+ Vn sng:
ax
, k Z
D
x k
a kD
= =
Vi 0,4 m 0,76 m cc gi tr ca k
+ Vn ti:
ax
( 0, 5) , k
( 0, 5)
D
x k
a k D
= + =
+
Z
Vi 0,4 m 0,76 m cc gi tr ca k
- Khong cch di nht v ngn nht gia vn sng v vn ti cng bc k:

[k ( 0, 5) ]
Min t
D
x k
a
=
ax
[k ( 0, 5) ]
M t
D
x k
a
= + Khi vn sng v vn ti nm khc pha i vi vn trung tm.
ax
[k ( 0, 5) ]
M t
D
x k
a
= Khi vn sng v vn ti nm cng pha i vi vn trung tm.
Ch : + Hin tng cu vng l do hin tng tn sc nh sng.

33

+ nh sng phn x trn cc vng du, m hoc bong bng x phng (c mu sc s) l
do hin tng giao thoa nh sng khi dng nh sng trng.
4. Cc loi quang ph:

Quang ph nh ngha Ngun pht c im ng dng

Lin tc
Gm nhiu di mu
t n tm, ni
lin nhau mt cch
ln tc.
Cc cht rn, cht
lng, cht kh p
sut ln khi b nung
nng s pht ra
quang ph lin tc.
- Khng ph thuc
vo bn cht ca vt
pht sng, m ch
ph thuc vo nhit
.
- Nhit ca vt
cng cao, min pht
sng cng lan dn
v pha nh sng c
bc sng ngn.
- o nhit ca
cc vt pht sng v
cc vt rt xa.
Vch pht
x
Gm cc vch mu
ring l, ngn cch
nhau bng nhng
khong ti.
Cc cht kh hay
hi p sut thp b
kch thch (t nng
hay phng in
qua.)
Quang ph vch
ca cc nguyn t
khc nhau th khc
nhau v s lng
vch, v tr, mu sc
v cng sng.
Xc nh thnh
phn cu to ca
cc nguyn t c
trong hp cht.

Vch hp
th
L h thng cc
vch ti ring r
nm trn mt nn
quang ph lin tc.
-Chiu nh sng
trng qua m kh
hay hi nng sng
p sut thp.
- Nhit m hi
phi thp hn nhit
ca ngun sng.
Chiu nh sng
trng qua m hi
nung nng thu c
vch ti trn nn
quang ph lin tc.
- Tt ngun sng,
c nhng vch mu
nm trn nn ti
trng vi cc vch
ti trn.
- nhit nht
nh, mt m kh
hay hi c kh nng
pht ra nhng nh
sng n sc no th
cng c kh nng
hp th nh sng
n sc y.

5. Tia hng ngoi, tia t ngoi v tia X:

Tia hng ngoi Tia t ngoi Tia X
nh ngha - Bc x in t khng
nhn thy, c bc sng ln
hn bc sng ca nh
sng .
- Bc x in t khng
nhn thy, c bc sng
ngn hn bc sng ca
nh sng tm.
- Sng in t c bc
sng ngn t 10
-12
10
-8

m.
Ngun
pht
Mi vt nung nng u
pht ra tia hng ngoi.
Cc vt c nhit trn
2000
0
C.
ng catt c np thm i
m cc.

- Tc dng ni bt l tc
dng nhit.
- Tc dng ln knh nh
- Tc dng mnh ln knh
nh, lm in ha cht kh.
- Kch thch pht quang
- C kh nng m xuyn
mnh. (Tnh cht ng ch
nht.)
- Tc dng mnh ln phim

34

Tnh cht,
tc dng
hng ngoi.
- C th bin iu sng
in t cao tn.
- C th gy ra hin tng
quang in cho mt s cht
bn dn.
nhiu cht.
- B nc v thu tinh hp
th mnh, nhng c th
truyn qua c thch anh.
- C tc dng sinh l: hu
dit t bo, dit khun, nm
mc
- C th gy ra hin tng
quang in.
nh, lm in ha khng kh.
- C tc dng lm pht
quang nhiu cht.
- C tc dng gy ra hin
tng quang in hu ht
kim loi.
- C tc dng sinh l mnh:
hy dit t bo, dit vi
khun

ng dng
- Sy kh, si m.
- S dng trong b iu
khin t xa.
- Chp nh hng ngoi.
- Trong qun s ng dng
lm ng nhm hng ngoi,
quay phim ban m
- Kh trng, dit khun.
- Cha bnh ci xng.
- Tm vt nt trn b mt
kim loi.
- Y hc: Chp chiu in,
cha ung th.
- Cng nghip: d tm
khuyt tt trong sn phm
c.
- Khoa hc: nghin cu cu
trc tinh th.
- Giao thng: kim tra hnh
l ca hnh khch.

6. Thang sng in t:
- Sng v tuyn: Bc sng t vi chc km n vi mm.
- Tia hng ngoi: Bc sng t vi mini mt n 0,77m.
- nh sng kh kin: Bc sng t 0,76m n 0,38m.
- Tia t ngoi: Bc sng t 3,7.10
-7
m n 10
-9
m.
- Tia X: Bc sng t 10
-8
m n 10
-11
m.
- Tia gamma: Bc sng t 10
-12
m n 10
-15
m.
Sng v tuyn, tia hng ngoi, nh sng kh kin, tia t ngoi, tia X v tia gamma u c bn cht l
sng in t nhng c bc sng khc nhau nn c tnh cht, tc dng khc nhau v ngun pht, cch
thu chng cng khc nhau.

35

CHNG VI: lng t nh sng

1. Nng lng mt lng t nh sng (ht phtn)
- Nng lng mt lng t nh sng (ht phtn):

2
hc
hf mc
= = =
Trong : h = 6,625.10
-34
Js l hng s Plng;
c = 3.10
8
m/s l vn tc nh sng trong chn khng;
f, l tn s, bc sng ca nh sng (ca bc x).
m l khi lng ca phtn
Ch : Khi nh sng truyn i cc lng t nh sng khng b thay i, khng ph thuc khong
cch ti ngun sng.
- Thuyt lng t nh sng:
+ nh ng c to thnh bi cc ht gi l phtn.
+ Vi mi as n sc c tn s f, cc phtn u ging nhau, mi phtn mang nng lng
bng hf.
+ Trong chn khng. phtn bay i vi vn tc c = 3.10
8
m/s dc theo cc tia sng.
+ Mi ln 1 nguyn t hay phn t pht x hay hp th nh sng th chng pht ra hay hp th
1 phtn.
Ch : phtn ch tn ti trng thi chuyn ng khng c phtn ng yn.
2. Hin tng quang in
- Hin tng quang in ngoi: Hin tng nh sng lm bt cc lectron ra khi mt kim loi gi l
hin tng quang in ngoi.
- Hin tng quang in trong (quang dn): Hin tng nh sng gii phng cc lectron lin kt
thnh cc lectron dn v cc l trng cng tham gia vo qu trnh dn in, gi l hin tng quang
in trong.
- nh lut v gii hn quang in: i vi mi kim loi, nh sng kch thch phi c bc sng
ngn hn hoc bng gii hn quang in
0
ca kim loi , mi gy ra c hin tng quang in.
=> Cc hin tng quang in v cc nh lut quang in chng t nh sng c tnh cht ht.
- ng dng ca cc hin tng quang in trong cc t bo quang in, trong cc dng c bin i
cc tn hiu nh sng thnh tn hiu in, trong cc quang in tr, pin quang in.
* Cng thc Anhxtanh

2
0 ax
2
M
mv hc
hf A
= = = +
Trong
0
hc
A
= l cng thot ca kim loi dng lm catt

0
l gii hn quang in ca kim loi dng lm catt
v
0Max
l vn tc ban u ca electron quang in khi thot khi catt
f, l tn s, bc sng ca nh sng kch thch

36

* dng quang in trit tiu th U
AK
U
h
(U
h
< 0), U
h
gi l hiu in th hm

2
0 ax
2
M
h
mv
eU =
Lu : Trong mt s bi ton ngi ta ly U
h
> 0 th l ln.
* Xt vt c lp v in, c in th cc i VMax v khong cch cc i d
Max
m electron chuyn
ng trong in trng cn c cng E c tnh theo cng thc:

2
ax 0 ax ax
1
2
M M
e V mv e Ed = =
M

* Vi U l hiu in th gia ant v catt, v
A
l vn tc cc i ca electron khi p vo ant, v
K
=
v
0Max
l vn tc ban u cc i ca electron khi ri catt th:

2 2
1 1
2 2
A K
e U mv mv =
* Hiu sut lng t (hiu sut quang in)

0
n
H
n
=
Vi n v n
0
l s electron quang in bt khi catt v s phtn p vo catt trong cng mt
khong thi gian t.
Cng sut ca ngun bc x:
0 0 0
n n hf n h
p
t t
= = =
c
t

Cng dng quang in bo ho:
bh
n e
q
I
t t
= =

bh bh bh
I I hf I hc
H
p e p e p
= = =
e

* Bn knh qu o ca electron khi chuyn ng vi vn tc v
trong t trng u B

m
, = ( ,B)
sin
mv
R v
e B

=
G JG

Xt electron va ri khi catt th v = v
0Max

Khi sin 1
mv
v B R
e B
= =
G JG

Lu : Hin tng quang in xy ra khi c chiu ng thi nhiu bc x th khi tnh cc i lng:
Vn tc ban u cc i v
0Max
, hiu in th hm U
h
, in th cc i V
Max
, u c tnh ng vi
bc x c
Min
(hoc f
Max
)
* i vi tia Rnghen X:
- Cng dng in trong ng Rnghen: i = Ne Vi N l s electron ti p v i catoots trong 1
giy.
- nh l ng nng: E
E
o
= eU
AK
Vi E
= mv
2
/2 l ng nng ca electron ngay trc khi p vo i catt
v E
o
= mv
o
2
/2 l ng nng ca electron ngay sau khi bt ra khi catt, thng th E
o
= 0.
- nh lut bo ton nng lng: E
= + Q = hf + Q (ng nng ca electron bin thnh nng lng

tia X v lm nng i catt). Vi l nng lng tia X v Q l nhit lng lm nng i catt.
- Bc sng nh nht ca bc x do ng Rnghen pht ra ng vi trng hp ton b ng nng ca
electron E
(ngay trc khi p vo i catt) bin thnh nng lng ca tia X:

T E
= + Q = hf + Q ==> E
hf = hc/ ==> hc/ E


37

==>
min
= hc/ E
Vi: h = 6,625.10
-34
Js l hng s Plng, c = 3.10
8
m/s l vn tc as trong chn
khng.
3. Quang tr v pin quang in:
- Quang in tr l 1 in tr lm bng cht quang dn. in tr ca n c th thay i t vi mgam
khi khng c chiu sng xung n vi chc m khi c chiu sng.
- Pin quang in (cn gi l pin mt tri) l 1 ngun in chy bng nng lng as. N bin i trc
tip quang nng thnh in nng. Pin hot ng da vo hin tng quang in trong xy ra bn cnh
1 lp chn.
4. S pht quang:
- S pht quang l mt s cht c kh nng hp th as c bc sng ny pht ra as c bc sng
khc.
- c im ca s pht quang: l n cn ko di 1 thi gian sau khi tt as kch thch.
- Hunh quang: L s pht quang ca cc cht lng v cht kh, c c im l as pht quang tt rt
nhanh sau khi tt as kch thch. nh sng hunh quang c bc sng di hn bc sng ca as kch
thch:
hq
>
kt
.
- Ln quang: L s pht quang ca cc cht rn, c c im l as pht quang c th ko di 1 khong
thi gian no sau khi tt as kch thch. ng dng: ch to cc loi sn trn cc bin bo giao thng,
tng pht sng...

5. Tin Bo - Quang ph nguyn t Hir
pht phtn
nhn phtn
hf
mn
hf
mn
E
m
* Tin Bo

mn m n
mn
hc
hf E E
= = =
E
n

* Bn knh qu o dng th n ca electron trong nguyn t hir:
E
m
> E
n
r
n
= n
2
r
0
Vi r
0
=5,3.10
-11
m l bn knh Bo ( qu o K)
* Nng lng electron trong nguyn t hir:

2
13, 6
(
n
) E eV
n
= Vi n N
*
.
n=2
n=1
Banme
Pasen
H
H

H
H

L
O
P
N
M
K
n=5
n=6
* S mc nng lng
n=4
- Dy Laiman: Nm trong vng t ngoi
ng vi e chuyn t qu o bn ngoi v
qu o K
n=3
Ch : Vch di nht
LK
khi e chuyn t L
K
Vch ngn nht
K
khi e chuyn t
K.
- Dy Banme: Mt phn nm trong vng t
ngoi, mt phn nm trong vng nh sng
nhn thy ng vi e chuyn t qu o bn
ngoi v qu o L
Vng nh sng nhn thy c 4 vch:
Vch H
ng vi e: M L
Vch lam H
ng vi e: N L
Laiman
Vch chm H
ng vi e: O L
Vch tm H
ng vi e: P L

38

Ch : Vch di nht
ML
(Vch H

)
Vch ngn nht
L
khi e chuyn t L.

- Dy Pasen: Nm trong vng hng ngoi
ng vi e chuyn t qu o bn ngoi v qu o M
Ch : Vch di nht
NM
khi e chuyn t N M.
Vch ngn nht
M
khi e chuyn t M.
Mi lin h gia cc bc sng v tn s ca cc vch quang ph ca nguyn t hir:

13 12 23
1 1 1

= + v f
13
= f
12
+f
23
(nh cng vct)
6. S lc v laze:
- Laze l phin m ca LASER, ngha l my khuych i as bng s pht x cm ng.
- Laze l 1 ngun sng pht ra 1 chm sng c cng ln da trn ng dng ca hn tng pht x
cm ng
- c im ca tia laze c tnh n sc, tnh nh hng, tnh kt hp rt cao v cng ln.
- Ty vo vt liu pht x ngi ta ch to ra laze kh, laze rn v laze bn dn.
i vi laze rn, laze rubi (hng ngc) l Al
2
O
3
c pha Cr
2
O
3
mu ca tia laze l do as ca hng
ngc do ion crm pht ra khi chuyn t trng thi kch thch v trng thi c bn
7. Lng tnh sng ht ca nh sng:
- nh sng va c tnh cht sng, va c tnh cht ht . Vy nh sng c lng tnh sng ht.
- Khi bc sng ca as cng ngn (th nng lng ca phtn cng ln), th t/c ht th hin cng m
nt: Tnh m xuyn, td quang in, td in ha, td pht quang.
Ngc li khi bc sng ca as cng di (th nng lng ca phtn cng nh), th t/c sng th hin
cng m nt: d quan st thy hin tng giao thoa, hin tng tn sc ca cc as .

39

CHNG VII. Ht nhn nguyn t

1. Cu to ht nhn nguyn t, n v khi lng nguyn t:
a) Cu to ht nhn nguyn t:
- Cu to:
+ Ht nhn nguyn t c cu to t cc prtn (mang in tch nguyn t dng), v cc ntron
(trung ho in), gi chung l nucln.
+ Ht nhn ca cc nguyn t c nguyn t s Z th cha Z prton v N ntron; A = Z + N c gi l s
khi.
+ Cc nucln lin kt vi nhau bi lc ht nhn. Lc ht nhn khng c cng bn cht vi lc tnh in
hay lc hp dn; n l loi lc mi truyn tng tc gia cc nucln trong ht nhn (lc tng tc
mnh). Lc ht nhn ch pht huy tc dng trong phm vi kch thc ht nhn (c 10
-15
m).
- ng v: Cc nguyn t m ht nhn c cng s prton Z nhng khc s ntron N gi l cc ng v.
b) 1 s n v hay dng trong VLHN:
- n v khi lng nguyn t: n v u c gi tr bng
1
12
khi lng nguyn t ca ng v
12
, c
th:
6
C
1u = 1,66055.10
-27
kg ; 1u = 931,5
Mev
c
2 ==> 1uc
2
= 931,5MeV
- u xp x bng khi lng ca mt nucln, nn ht nhn c s khi A th c khi lng xp x bng
A(u).
- n v nng lng: 1 eV = 1,6.10
-19
J ==> 1 MeV = 10
6
.1,6.10
-19
J = 1,6.10
-13
J
- 1 s n v n/t thng gp: m
P
= 1,67262.10
-27
kg = 1,00728 u ;
m
n
= 1.67493.10
-27
kg = 1,00866 u ;
m
e
= 9,1.10
-31
kg = 0,0005486 u
2. H thc Anhxtanh, ht khi, nng lng lin kt:
- Ht nhn c khi lng ngh m
0
, chuyn ng vi vn tc v, c nng lng ton phn tnh theo cng
thc:E = m
0
c
2
+ K (ng nng: K= m.v
2
/2)
- Mt vt c khi lng m
0
trng thi ngh, khi chuyn ng vi vn tc v, khi lng ca vt s tng
ln thnh m vi m =
m
0
1 -
v
2
c
2

- H thc Anhxtanh: E = mc
2
. ==> K = E E
0
; Vi E
0
= m
0
c
2
l nng lng ngh ca vt.
- ht khi: Khi lng ca mt ht nhn lun nh hn tng khi lng ca cc nucln to thnh
ht nhn : m = [Z.m
p
+ (A Z).m
n
] m
x
gi l ht khi.
- S to thnh ht nhn to nng lng tng ng E
LK
= mc
2
, gi l nng lng lin kt ca ht nhn
(v mun tch ht nhn thnh cc nucln th cn tn mt nng lng bng E
LK
).
- Ht nhn c nng lng lin kt ring = E
LK
/A cng ln th cng bn vng.

3. Phn ng ht nhn

40

4
a. Phn ng ht nhn l qu trnh bin i ca cc ht nhn, Phn ng ht nhn c chia lm hai
loi:
+ Phn ng ht nhn t pht: l qu trnh t phn r ca mt ht nhn khng bn vng thnh
cc ht nhn khc. A C + D Trong A: ht nhn m; C: ht nhn con; D: tia
phng x (, , ...)
+ Phn ng ht nhn kch thch: l qu trnh cc ht nhn tng tc vi nhau thnh cc ht
nhn khc.
A + B C + D
- Phng trnh phn ng:
3 1 2 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3
A A A A
Z Z Z Z
X X X + + X
Trong s cc ht ny c th l ht s cp nh nucln, electrn, phtn ...
- Trng hp c bit l s phng x: X
1
X
2
+ X
3
; X
1
l ht nhn m, X
2
l ht nhn con, X
3
l ht
hoc
b. Cc nh lut bo ton trong phn ng ht nhn:
+ Bo ton s nucln (s khi): A
1
+ A
2
= A
3
+ A
4
+ Bo ton in tch (nguyn t s): Z
1
+ Z
2
= Z
3
+ Z
4
+ Bo ton ng lng:
1 2 3 4 1 1 2 2 4 3 4 4
m m m m p p p p hay v v v v + = + + = +
JJG JJG JJG JJG JG JG JG JG
4
X

+ Bo ton nng lng ton phn:
1 2 3
X X X
K K E K K + + = +
Trong : E l nng lng phn ng ht nhn

2
1
2
X
K m =
x x
v
X
l ng nng chuyn ng ca ht X
Ch : - Khng c nh lut bo ton khi lng.
- Mi quan h gia ng lng p
X
v ng nng K
X
ca ht X l:
2
2
X X
p m K =
- Khi tnh vn tc v hay ng nng K thng p dng quy tc hnh bnh hnh
V d:
1 2
p p p = +
JG JJG JJG
bit
n
1 2
, p p =
JJG JJG
p
JG
1
p
JJG
2
p
JJG

2 2 2
1 2 1 2
2 p p p p p cos = + +
hay ( )
2 2 2
1 1 2 2 1 2 1 2
( ) ( ) 2 mv mv m v m m v v cos = + +
hay
1 1 2 2 1 2 1 2
2 mK m K m K m m K K cos = + +
Tng t khi bit
n
1 1
, p p =
JJG JG
hoc
n
2 2
, p p =
JJG JG
2

Trng hp c bit:
1
p p
JJG JJG

2 2
1 2
2
p p p = +
Tng t khi
1
p p
JJG JG
hoc
2
p p
JJG JG

v = 0 (p = 0) p
1
= p
2

1 1 2
2 2 1
K v m A
K v m A
= =
2
1
2
X

Tng t v
1
= 0 hoc v
2
= 0.
- Nng lng phn ng ht nhn: E = (M
0
- M)c
2

Trong :
1
0 X
M m m = + l tng khi lng cc ht nhn trc phn ng.

41

X

3 4
X
M m m = + l tng khi lng cc ht nhn sau phn ng.
Ch : + Nu M
0
> M th phn ng to nng lng E di dng ng nng ca cc ht X
3
, X
4
hoc
phtn . Cc ht sinh ra c ht khi ln hn nn bn vng hn.
+ Nu M
0
< M th phn ng thu nng lng |E| di dng ng nng ca cc ht X
1
, X
2
hoc
phtn . Cc ht sinh ra c ht khi nh hn nn km bn vng.
- Trong phn ng ht nhn
3 1 2 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3
A A A A
Z Z Z Z 4
X X X + + X
Cc ht nhn X
1
, X
2
, X
3
, X
4
c: Nng lng lin kt ring tng ng l
1
,
2
,
3
,
4
.
Nng lng lin kt tng ng l E
LK1
, E
LK2
, E
LK3
, E
LK4
; ht khi tng ng l m
1
, m
2
, m
3
,
m
4

Nng lng ca phn ng ht nhn : E = A
3
3
+A
4
4
- A
1
1
- A
2
2

E = E
LK3
+ E
LK4
E
LK1
E
LK2

E = (m
3
+ m
4
- m
1
- m
2
)c
2
4. Hin tng phng x:
- nh ngha: L qu trnh phn hu t pht ca mt ht nhn khng bn vng. Qu trnh phn hu
ny km theo s to ra cc ht v c th km theo s pht ra cc bc x in t.
Ht nhn t phn hu gi l ht nhn m. Ht nhn c to thnh sau phn hu gi l ht nhn con.
- Quy tc dch chuyn ca s phng x
+ Phng x ( ):
4
2
He
4 4
2 2
A A
Z Z
X He Y
+
- So vi ht nhn m, ht nhn con li 2 trong bng tun hon v c s khi gim 4 n
v.
- L ht nhn Hli ( ), mang in tch dng (+2e) nn b lch v bn m khi bay qua
t in.
e
H
4
2
- Chuyn ng vi tc c 2.10
7
m/s, qung ng i c trong khng kh c 8cm,
trong vt rn c vi mm. => kh nng m xuyn km, c kh nng in ha cht kh
mnh.
+ Phng x
-
( ):
1
0
e
0
1 1
A A
Z Z
X e Y
+
+
- So vi ht nhn m, ht nhn con tin 1 trong bng tun hon v c cng s khi.
- Thc cht ca phng x
-
l mt ht ntrn bin thnh mt ht prtn, mt ht electrn v
mt phn ht ntrin:
n p + e +
- Bn cht ca tia phng x
-
l ht electrn ( ), mang in tch m (-1e) nn b lch v pha
bn dng ca t.
e
0
1
- Ht ntrin (v) khng mang in, khng khi lng (hoc rt nh) chuyn ng vi vn tc
ca nh sng v hu nh khng tng tc vi vt cht.
- Phng ra vi vn tc gn bng vn tc as.
- In ha cht kh yu hn tia .
- Kh nng m xuyn mnh, i c vi mt trong khng kh v vi mm trong kim loi.
+ Phng x
+
( ):
1
0
e
+ 0
1 1
A A
Z Z
X e Y
+
+
- So vi ht nhn m, ht nhn con li 1 trong bng tun hon v c cng s khi.
- Thc cht ca phng x
+
l mt ht prtn bin thnh mt ht ntrn, mt ht pzitrn v
mt ht ntrin: p n e v
+
+ +

42

- Bn cht (thc cht) ca tia phng x
+
l ht pzitrn (e
+
), mang in tch dng (+e) nn
lch v pha bn m ca t in (lch nhiu hn tia v i xng vi tia
-
).
- Phng ra vi vn tc gn bng vn tc as.
- In ha cht kh yu hn tia .
- Kh nng m xuyn mnh, i c vi mt trong khng kh v vi mm trong kim loi.
+ Phng x gamma (ht phtn)
- C bn cht l sng in t c bc sng rt ngn (< 0,01nm). L chm phtn c nng
lng cao.
- Ht nhn con sinh ra trng thi kch thch c mc nng lng cao E
1
chuyn xung mc
nng lng thp E
2
ng thi phng ra mt phtn c nng lng:
1 2
hc
hf E E = = =

- L bc x in t khng mang in nn khng b lch trong in trng v t trng.
- C cc t/c nh tia Rnghen, c kh nng m xuyn ln, i c vi mt trong b tng v vi
centimt trong ch v rt nguy him.
- Trong phng x khng c s bin i ht nhn phng x thng i km theo phng x
v .
4. nh lut phng x:
- S nguyn t (ht nhn) cht phng x cn li sau thi gian t:

0
0 0 k
t
N
t
T
N N .2 N .e
2
= = =
- S ht nguyn t b phn r bng s ht nhn con c to thnh v bng s ht ( hoc e
-
hoc e
+
)
c to thnh:
0 0
(1 )
t
N N N N e

= =
- Khi lng cht phng x cn li sau thi gian t:
0
0 0
.2 .
2
t
t
T
k
m
m m m e

= = =
Trong : + N
0
, m
0
l s nguyn t (ht nhn), khi lng cht phng x ban u.
+ T l chu k bn r
ln 2
T =
l khong thi gian mt na s ht nhn phn r.

+
ln2 0, 693
T T
= = l hng s phng x, c trng cho cht phng x ang xt.
+ v T khng ph thuc vo cc tc ng bn ngoi (nh nhit , p sut ...) m
ch ph thuc bn cht bn trong ca cht phng x.
+ k =
t
T
: s chu k bn r trong thi gian t
- Khi lng cht b phng x sau thi gian t:
0 0
(1 )
t
m m m m e

= =
- Phn trm cht phng x b phn r:
0
1
t
m
e
m

=
- Phn trm cht phng x cn li:
0
2
t
m
t
T
e
m
= =
- Khi lng cht mi c to thnh sau thi gian t:
1 0 1
1 1 0
(1 ) (1 )
t t
A A
A N A N
m A e m e
N N A

= = =

43

Trong : A, A
1
l s khi ca cht phng x ban u v ca cht mi c to thnh
N
A
= 6,022.10
-23
mol
-1
l s Avgar.
Ch : Trng hp phng x
+
,
-
th A = A
1
m
1
= m
- phng x H: L i lng c trng cho tnh phng x mnh hay yu ca mt lng cht phng
x, o bng s phn r trong 1 giy.

0
0 0
.2 .
2
t
t
T
k
H
H H H e N
= = = = Vi: H
0
= N
0
l phng x ban u.
n v: + Becren (Bq); 1Bq = 1 phn r/giy ; + Curi (Ci); 1 Ci = 3,7.10
10
Bq
Ch : Khi tnh phng x H, H
0
(Bq) th chu k phng x T phi i ra n v giy(s).
- ng dng ca cc ng v phng x: trong phng php nguyn t nh du, trong kho c nh
tui c vt da vo lng cacbon 14.
5. Phn ng phn hch, phn ng nhit hch:
a. Phn ng phn hch:
- Phn ng phn hch: mt ht nhn rt nng khi hp th mt ntron s v thnh hai ht nhn nh hn,
km theo 1 vi ntrn. Nng lng ta ra trong phn ng c 210 MeV.
S phn hch ca 1g
235
U gii phng mt nng lng bng 8,5.10
10
J tng ng vi nng
lng ca 8,5 tn than hoc 2 tn du ta ra khi chy ht.
- Phn ng dy truyn: Gi k l h s nhn ntrn, l s ntrn cn li sau 1 p. h.n n kch thch cc
h.n khc.
Khi k 1 xy ra phn ng phn hch dy chuyn:
+ Khi k < 1, phn ng phn hch dy chuyn tt nhanh.
+ Khi k = 1, phn ng phn hch dy chuyn t duy tr v nng lng pht ra khng i theo thi
gian.
+ Khi k > 1, phn ng phn hch dy chuyn t duy tr v nng lng pht ra tng nhanh v c th
gy ra bng n.
- Khi lng ti hn: l khi lng ti thiu ca cht phn hch phn ng phn hch dy chuyn
duy tr.
Vi
235
U khi lng ti hn c 15 kg, vi
239
Pu vo c 5 kg.
b. Phn ng nhit hch (p. tng hp h.n):
- Hai hay nhiu ht nhn rt nh, c th kt hp vi nhau thnh mt ht nhn nng hn. Phn ng ny
ch xy ra nhit rt cao, nn gi l phn ng nhit hch. Con ngi mi ch thc hin c phn
ng ny di dng khng kim sot c (bom H).
- iu kin p. kt hp h.n xy ra:
+ Phi a hn hp nhin liu sang trng thi plasma bng cch a nhit ln ti 10
8
.
+ Mt ht nhn trong plasma phi ln
+ Thi gian duy tr trng thi plasma nhit cao phi ln.


44

CHNG VIII. T vi m n v m
I. Cc ht s cp:
1. Th gii vi m, v m c sp xp theo kch thc ln dn: Ht s cp, ht nhn nguyn t,
nguyn t, phn t, hnh tinh, h Mt Tri, thin h ...
2. Ht s cp: L ht c kch thc v khi lng nh hn ht nhn nguyn t.
- Cc ht s cp gm: phtn , electron e
-
, pzitron e
+
, prtn p, ntrn n, ntrin .
- Cc ht s cp c chia lm ba loi:
+ phtn
+ Cc leptn: C khi lng t 0 n200 m
e
. Bao gm: ntrin , electron e
-
, pzitron e
+
,
mzn .
+ Cc harn: C khi lng trn 200m
e
. c chia thnh ba nhm con:
Mzn , K: C khi lng trn 200m
e
nhng nh hn khi lng nucln.
Nucln p, n.
Hipron: C khi lng ln hn khi lng cc nucln.
Nhm cc nucln v hipron cn c gi l barion.
- Tt c cc harn u c cu to t cc ht nh hn, gi l quac. C 6 loi quac (k hiu l: u,
d, s, c, b, t) cng vi 6 phn quac tng ng. Cc quac c mang in phn s:
e
3
,
2e
3
.
- Phn ln cc ht s cp u to thnh cp gm ht v phn ht. Phn ht c cng khi lng ngh v
spin nh ht nhng cc c trng khc c tr s bng v ln v tri du.
- Ch :
+ Sp xp theo th t tng dn v khi lng ca cc ht s cp bit: Phtn, leptn, mzn v
barion.
+ Cc ht s cp l phton, leptn, harn.
+ Ht prton c cu to bi cc quac nn prton c th b ph v.
3. Bn loi tng tc c bn trong v tr: mnh, in t, yu, hp dn.
- Tng tc hp dn: L tng tc gia cc ht (cc vt) c khi lng khc khng. Bn knh ln v
cng, lc tng tc nh.Vd: Trng lc, lc ht ca T v mt trng...
- Tng tc in t: l tng tc gia cc ht mang in v gia phtn vi cc ht mang in. Bn
knh ln v hn, lc tng tc mnh hn tng tc hp dn c ln.
38
10
Tng tc in t l bn cht ca cc lc Culng, lc in t, lc Lo ren, lc ma st, lc lin kt
ha hc...
- Tng tc yu cc leptn: l tng tc gia cc leptn. Bn knh tc dng rt nh c ,
lc tng tc yu hn tng tc hp dn c ln. V d: cc qu trnh phn r
18
10 m
11
10

:
p n + e
+
+ v
e
; n p + e
-
+
~
e
v
- Tng tc mnh: L tng tc gia cc hadrn; khng k cc qu trnh phn r ca chng. Bn knh
tc dng rt nh c , lc tng tc yu hn tng tc hp dn c ln.
15
10 m
2
10
Mt trng hp ring ca tng tc mnh l lc ht nhn.
4. Kch thc ca nguyn t, ht nhn, prton ln lt l: 10
-10
m, 10
-14
m, 10
-15
m.
- Theo th t kch thc gim dn: Phn t > nguyn t > ht nhn > nucln > quac.


45

II. mt tri h mt tri:
1. H mt tri: Gm Mt Tri v 8 hnh tinh, cc tiu hnh tinh v cc v tinh, cc sao chi v thin
thch.
- Cc hnh tinh: Thy tinh, Kim tinh, Tri t, Ha tinh, Mc tinh, Th tinh, Thin Vng tinh, Hi
Vng tinh.
- o n v gia cc hnh tinh ngi ta dng n v thin vn: . =
6
1vtv 150.10 km
- Nm nh sng: l qung ng m as i c trong 1 nm.
12
1 nam anh sang = 9, 46.10 Km
- Cc hnh tinh u quay quanh mt tri theo chiu thun trong cng mt phng, Mt Tri v cc hnh
tinh t quay quanh n v u quay theo chiu thun tr Kim tinh.
2. Mt Tri:
- L thin th trung tm ca h mt tri. C bn knh > 109 ln bk tri t; khi lng = 333 000 ln kl
T.
- C khi lng ln, lc hp dn ca Mt Tri c vai tr quyt nh s hnh thnh, pht trin v chuyn
ng ca h.
- L mt qu cu kh nng sng, khong 75% l hir v 23% l heli. Nhit b mt 6000K, trong
lng n hng chc triu . Trong lng mt tri lun xy ra p. nht hch l p. tng hp ht nhn
hir thnh hn heli.
- Cng sut pht x Mt Tri l . =
26
P 3, 9.10 W
Lu : Cng sut bc x ca mt tri P = 3,9.10
26
W, M P =
A
t
=
E
t
==> E = P.t
==> Khi Lng mt tri gim i l : m = E/c
2
= Pt/c
2
.
3. Tri t:
- Cu to: Tri t c dng hnh phng cu, bn knh xch o bng , bn knh hai cc bng
, khi lng ring trung bnh .
6378km
6357km
3
5515kg/m
+ Li Tri t: bn knh ; ch yu l st, niken; nhit khong . 3000km
0
3000 - 4000 C
+ V Tri t: dy khong 35 ; ch yu l granit; khi lng ring . km
3
3300kg/m
- 1 vi s liu v T: KL = 5,98.10
24
kg, BK qu o quanh mt tri 150.10
6
km. Chu k quay quanh
trc 23
h
56
ph
004
giy
. Chu k quay quanh mt tri 365,2422 ngy. Gc nghing 23
0
27
3. Hnh tinh chuyn ng xung quanh Mt Tri theo mt qu o xc nh.
- Cc hnh tinh: Thy tinh, Kim tinh, Tri t, Ha tinh, Mc tinh, Th tinh, Thin Vng tinh, Hi
Vng tinh.
- Cc hnh tinh c kch thc nh c vi trm km hoc nh hn gi l cc tiu hnh tinh.
- V tinh chuyn ng quanh hnh tinh.
- Nhng hnh tinh thuc nhm Tri t l: Thu tinh, Kim tinh, Tri t v Ho tinh. l cc hnh
tinh nh, rn, c khi lng ring tng i ln. Nhit b mt tng i cao.
- Nhng hnh tinh thuc nhm Mc tinh l: Mc tinh, Th tinh, Hi vng tinh v Thin vng tinh.
Chng l cc hnh tinh ln, c th l khi kh hoc nhn rn v xung quanh l cht lng. Nhit b
mt tng i thp.


46

- Cc c trng c bn ca cc hnh tinh
Thin th
Khong cch n Mt
Tri (vtv)
Bn knh
(km)
Khi lng (so vi
Tri t)
Khi lng ring
(10
3
kg/m
3
)
Chu k t
quay
Chu k chuyn ng
quanh Mt Tri
S v tinh
bit
Thy tinh 0,39 2440 0,052 5,4 59 ngy 87,0 ngy 0
Kim tinh 0,72 6056 0,82 5,3 243 ngy 224,7 ngy 0
Tri t 1 6375 1 5,5 23g56ph 365,25 ngy (1 nm) 1
Ha tinh 1,52 3395 0,11 3,9 24g37ph 1,88 nm 2
Mc tinh 5,2 71,490 318 1,3 9g50ph 11,86 nm > 30
Th tinh 9,54 60,270 95 0,7 14g14ph 29,46 nm 19
Thin
Vng tinh
19,19 25,760 15 1,2 17g14ph 84,00 nm 15
Hi Vng
tinh
30,07 25,270 17 1,7 16g11ph 164,80 nm > 8
4. Sao chi v thin thch:
- Sao chi: L nhng khi kh ng bng ln vi , c ng knh vi km, chuyn ng quanh Mt
Tri theo qu o elp rt dt m mt tri l 1 tiu im. Khi sao chi c trn qu o gn mt tri vt
cht trong sao b nng sng v bay hi thnh m kh v bi quanh sao. m kh v bi bao quanh sao
b p sut do as mt tri gy ra y dt v pha i din vi mt tri to thnh ci ui sao chi. ng
trn Tri t ta nhn thy c u v ui sao chi: u sao chi gn mt tri, ui sao chi xa Mt
Tri hn.
- Thin thch: L nhng tng chuyn ng quanh mt tri. Trng hp thin thch bay v bu kh
quyn ca tri t th n b ma st mnh nu nng sng v bc chy, li mt vt di m ta gi l
sao bng.
III. cc sao v thin h:
1. Cc sao:
- Sao l mt thin th nng sng ging nh Mt Tri. Cc sao rt xa, hin nay bit ngi sao gn
nht cch chng ta n hng chc t km (trn 4 nm as); cn ngi sao xa nht cch xa n 14 t nm
nh sng ( ).
12
1 9, 46.10 nam anh sang Km =
- sng cc sao: sng m ta nhn thy ca mt ngi sao thc cht l ri sng ln con ngi
ca mt ta, n ph thuc vo khong cch v sng thc ca mi sao. sng thc ca mi sao li
ph thuc vo cng sut bc x ca n. sng ca cc sao rt khc nhau. Chng hn Sao Thin Lang
c cng sut bc x ln hn ca Mt Tri trn 25 ln; sao km sng nht c cng sut bc x nh hn
ca Mt Tri hng vn ln.
- Cc loi sao c bit: a s cc sao tn ti trong trng thi n nh; c kch thc, nhit ,
khng i trong mt thi gian di.
- Ngoi ra; ngi ta pht hin thy c mt s sao c bit nh sao bin quang, sao mi, sao ntron,

+ Sao bin quang c sng thay i, c hai loi:
- Sao bin quang do che khut l mt h sao i (gm sao chnh v sao v tinh), sng tng hp
m ta thu c s bin thin c chu k.
- Sao bin quang do nn dn c sng thay i thc s theo mt chu k xc nh.
+ Sao mi c sng tng t ngt ln hng ngn, hng vn ln ri sau t t gim. L thuyt cho
rng sao mi l mt pha t bin trong qu tr#nh bin ha ca mt h sao.
+ Punxa, sao ntron ngoi s bc x nng lng cn c phn bc x nng lng thnh xung sng v
tuyn.

47

- Sao ntron c cu to bi cc ht ntron vi mt cc k ln .
14 3
10 g/cm
- Punxa (pulsar) l li sao ntron vi bn knh 10 t quay vi tc gc 640 v pht ra
sng v tuyn. Bc x thu c trn Tri t c dng tng xung sng ging nh ng sng ngn hi
ng m tu bin nhn c.
km vong/s
2. Thin h: - Thin h l mt h thng gm nhiu sao v cc tinh vn.
- Thin h ca chng ta c dng xon c.
- Cc sao tn ti trong V tr thnh nhng h tng i c lp vi nhau. Mi h thng nh vy gm
hng trm t sao gi l thin h.
a. Cc loi thin h:
- Thin h xon c c hnh dng dt nh cc a, c nhng cnh tay xon c, cha nhiu kh.
- Thin h elip c hnh elip, cha t kh v c khi lng tri ra trn mt di rng. C mt loi thin
h elip l ngun pht sng v tuyn in rt mnh.
- Thin h khng nh hnh trng nh nhng m my (thin h Ma gien-lng).
b. Thin H ca chng ta:
- Thin H ca chng ta l thin h xon c, c ng knh khong 90 nghn nm nh sng v c
khi lng bng khong 150 t khi lng Mt Tri. N l h phng ging nh mt ci a dy khong
330 nm nh sng, cha vi trm t ngi sao.
- H Mt Tri nm trong mt cnh tay xon ra Thin H, cch trung tm khong 30 nghn nm nh
sng. Gia cc sao c bi v kh.
- Phn trung tm Thin H c dng hnh cu dt gi l vng li trung tm c to bi cc sao gi, kh
v bi.
- Ngay trung tm Thin H c mt ngun pht x hng ngoi v cng l ngun pht sng v tuyn
in (tng ng vi sng chng 20 triu ngi sao nh Mt Tri v phng ra mt lung gi
mnh).
- T Tri t, chng ta ch nhn c hnh chiu ca thin h trn vm tri gi l di Ngn H nm
theo hng ng Bc Ty Nam trn nn tri sao.
c. Nhm thin h. Siu nhm thin h:
- V tr c hng trm t thin h, cc thin h thng cch nhau khong mi ln kch thc Thin H
ca chng ta. Cc thin h c xu hng hp li vi nhau thnh tng nhm t vi chc n vi nghn
thin h.
- Thin H ca chng ta v cc thin h ln ln thuc v Nhm thin h a phng, gm khong 20
thnh vin, chim mt th tch khng gian c ng knh gn mt triu nm nh sng. Nhm ny b
chi phi ch yu bi ba thin h xon c ln: Tinh vn Tin N (thin h Tin N M31 hay NGC224);
Thin H ca chng ta; Thin h Tam gic, cc thnh vin cn li l Nhm cc thin h elip v cc
thin h khng nh hnh t hon.
- khong cch c khong 50 triu nm nh sng l Nhm Trinh N cha hng nghn thin h tri
rng trn bu tri trong chm sao Trinh N.
- Cc nhm thin h tp hp li thnh Siu nhm thin h hay i thin h. Siu nhm thin h a
phng c tm nm trong Nhm Trinh N v cha tt c cc nhm bao quanh n, trong c nhm
thin h a phng ca chng ta.
IV. thuyt v n ln (BIG BANG)
1. nh lut Hp-bn: Tc li ra xa ca thin h t l vi khong cch gia thin h v chng ta:
;
2
1, 7.10 m/s.nam anh sang
v Hd
H

=
=
12
1 nam anh sang 9, 46.10 Km


48

s

2. Thuyt v n ln (Big Bang):
- Theo thuyt v n ln, v tr bt u dn n t mt im k d. tnh tui v bn knh v tr, ta
chn im k d lm mc (gi l im zr Big Bang).
- Ti thi im ny cc nh lut vt l bit v thuyt tng i rng khng p dng c. Vt l hc
hin i da vo vt l ht s cp d on cc hin tng xy ra bt u t thi im sau
V n ln gi l thi im Planck.
43
10
p
t s
=
- O thi im Planck, kch thc v tr l , nhit l v mt l . Cc tr
s cc ln cc nh ny gi l tr s Planck. T thi im ny V tr dn n rt nhanh, nhit ca V
tr gim dn. Ti thi im Planck, V tr b trn ngp bi cc ht c nng lng cao nh electron,
notrino v quark, nng lng t nht bng .
35
10 m
32
10 K
91 3
10 kg/cm
15
10 GeV
- Ti thi im , chuyn ng cc quark v phn quark chm cc lc tng tc mnh
gom chng li v gn kt chng li thnh cc prtn v ntrn, nng lng trung bnh ca cc ht
trong v tr lc ny 1 .
6
10 t

=
GeV
- Ti thi im , cc ht nhn Heli c to thnh. Trc , prtn v ntrn kt hp
vi nhau to thnh ht nhn teri
3 t phut =
2
1
H . Khi , xut hin cc ht nhn teri
2
1
H , triti
3
1
H , heli
4
2
He bn. Cc ht nhn hir v hli chim 98% khi lng cc sao v cc thin h, khi lng cc
ht nhn nng hn ch chim . mi thin th, c 2%
1
4
khi lng l hli v c
3
4
khi lng l
hir. iu chng t, mi thin th, mi thin h c cng chung ngun gc.
- Ti thi im , cc loi ht nhn khc c to thnh, tng tc ch yu chi phi
v tr l tng tc in t. Cc lc in t gn cc electron vi cc ht nhn, to thnh cc nguyn t
H v He.
300000 t nam =
- Ti thi im , cc nguyn t c to thnh, tng tc ch yu chi phi v tr l
tng tc hp dn. Cc lc hp dn thu gom cc nguyn t li, to thnh cc thin h v ngn cn cc
thin h tip tc n ra. Trong cc thin h, lc hp dn nn cc m nguyn t li to thnh cc sao.
Ch c khong cch gia cc thin h tip tc tng ln.
9
10 t nam =
- Ti thi im , v tr trng thi nh hin nay vi nhit trung bnh
9
14.10 t = nam 2, 7 T K = .
=============================================================

Bng quy i theo lu tha 10

Tha s Tn tin t K hiu Tha s Tn tin t K hiu
10
12
Tera T 10
-1
dexi d
10
9
Giga G 10
-2
centi c
10
6
Mega M 10
-3
mili m
10
3
Kilo K 10
-6
micro

10
2
Hecto H 10
-9
nano n
10
1
Deca D 10
-12
pico p


49

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Nguyn Quang ng.

H Thi Nguyn Mobile: 0974974888

c. Gia tc ca vt dao ng iu ho:

vi k Z : hai dao ng vung pha

c hng chuyn ng)

Trong : D l khi lng ring ca cht lng hay cht kh.

trc quay) . Th trong mch c dng in bin thin iu ha vi tn s gc gi l

T thng gi qua khung dy ca my pht in = NBScos(t +) =

= l cng thot ca kim loi dng lm catt

= + Q = hf + Q (ng nng ca electron bin thnh nng lng

(ngay trc khi p vo i catt) bin thnh nng lng ca tia X:

hf = hc/ ==> hc/ E

l khong thi gian mt na s ht nhn phn r.

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