Gas Combined Cycle

Gas Turbine Design

In gas turbine design the firing temperature, compression ratio, mass flow, and centrifugal stresses are the factors limiting both unit size and efficiency. For example, each 55C (100F) increase in firing temperature gives a 10 - 13 percent output increase and a 2 - 4 percent efficiency increase. The most critical areas in the gas turbine determining the engine efficiency and life are the hot gas path, i.e., the combustion chambers and the turbine first stage stationary nozzles and rotating buckets. The components in these areas represent only 2 percent of the total cost of the gas turbine, yet they are the controlling factor in limiting gas turbine output and efficiency. The development process takes time, however, because each change of material may require years of laboratory and field tests to ensure its suitability in terms of creep strength, yield limit, fatigue strength, oxidation resistance, corrosion resistance, thermal cycling effects, etc. Manufacturers use various combustor arrangements: General Electric has several combustors mounted in a ring around the turbine; Asea Brown Boveri sometimes has a single combustor above the turbine; Siemens has two combustors, one on each side of the turbine. Gas turbines can be fueled with natural gas, diesel oil (distillate), and even residual or crude oil if appropriate customized fuel treatment facilities are installed and properly operated. Turbine nozzles and buckets are cast from nickel super alloys and are coated under vacuum with special metals (platinum-chromiumaluminide) to resist the hot corrosion that occurs ! the high temperatures encountered in the first stage of the turbine, particularly if contaminants such as sodium, vanadium and potassium are present. Only a few parts per million of these contaminants can cause hot corrosion of uncoated components at the high firing temperature encountered. With proper coating of nozzles and buckets and treatment of fuels to minimize the contaminants, manufacturers claim the hot-gas-path components should last 30,000 to 40,000 hours of operation before replacement, particularly the hot-gas-path parts, that give rise to the relatively high maintenance cost for gas turbines (typical O&M annual costs of 4 percent of the capital cost). The continuing improvements in firing temperatures and compression ratios has permitted manufacturers to increase the operating performance on the same basic gas turbine frame or housing. For example, General Electric introduced its Frame 7 series in 1970 with a

rating of 45 MW, a firing temperature of 900C (1650 F) and an air flow of 0.8 million kgs (1.8 million lbs) per hour. Through many changes and upgrades the latest Model F of the same Frame 7 series has a rating of 147 MW, a firing temperature of 1260C (2300F) and an air flow of 1.5 million kgs (3.3 million lbs) per hour. One of the major advances made was to air cool nozzles and buckets using bleed air from the compressor to increase the firing temperature while limiting the metal temperatures of the nozzles and buckets to withstand hot corrosion and creep. This limiting of the maximum temperature through air cooling while simultaneously increasing the mass flow with more air compressor capacity permits higher power output. To increase the final compressor pressure additional compressor stages are added on the compressor rotor assembly to give higher compression ratio thus providing additional turbine power output. Typical industrial gas turbine compression ratios are 16:1 and aeroderivative ratios are 30:1 with roughly 50 percent of the total turbine power of either type being required just to drive the compressor. Compressor blading is special stainless steel, possibly coated by electroplating with nickel and cadmium to resist pitting in salt and acid environments. Compressor designs have been quite effective, as evident by the 200,000-hour life of some early compressors installed in the 1950s. The gas turbine has the inherent disadvantage that reduced air density with high ambient temperature or high elevation causes a significant reduction in power output and efficiency, because the mass flow through the gas turbine is reduced. A 28C (50F) results in about a 25 percent output reduction and a 10 percent higher heat rate. Similarly, at 1000 meter (3300 ft) elevation the gas turbine output would be 15 percent lower than at sea level. Steam plants and diesels are not affected to the same degree by ambient air temperature and elevation changes.

Aeroderivitive Versus Industrial Gas Turbines

The advanced gas turbine designs available today are largely due to the huge sums that have been spent over the last 50 years to develop effective jet engines for military applications, including their adaptation as gas turbine propulsion systems for naval vessels. The commercial aviation, electric power and to a lesser extent, the sea and land transportation industries, have benefited accordingly. Given the aircraft designer's need for engine minimum weight, maximum thrust, high reliability, long life and compactness, it follows that the cuttingedge gas turbine developments in materials, metallurgy and thermodynamic designs have occurred in the aircraft engine designs, with subsequent transfer to land and sea gas turbine applications.

However, there are weight and size limitations to aircraft engine designs, whereas the stationary power gas turbine designers are seeking ever larger unit sizes and higher efficiency. To emphasize this difference in approach, today the largest aeroderivative power gas turbine is probably General Electric's 40 MW LM6000 engine with a 40 percent simple-cycle efficiency and a weight of only 6 tons. This engine is adapted from the CF6-80C2 engine that is used on the CF6 military transport aircraft. By comparison, General Electric's largest industrial gas turbine, the Frame 9 Model F has an output of about 200 MW, an open-cycle efficiency of 34 percent, but is huge compared to the LM6000 and weights 400 tons. The aeroderivative is a light weight, close clearance, high efficiency power gas turbine suited to smaller systems. The industrial or frame type gas turbine tends to be a larger, more rugged, slightly less efficient power source, better suited to base-load operation, particularly if arranged in a combined-cycle block on large systems. There is no significant difference in availability of two types of gas turbines for power use, based on the August 1990 Generation Availability Report of the North American Electric Reliability Council. For the period 1985-1989 the average availability of 347 jet engines (1587 unit years) was 92 percent and that for 575 industrial gas turbines (2658 unit years) was 91 percent.

Combined Cycle Sizes/Costs

Gas turbines of about 150 MW size are already in operation manufactured by at least four separate groups-General Electric and its licensees, Asea Brown Boveri, Siemens, and Westinghouse/Mitsubishi. These groups are also developing, testing and/or marketing gas turbine sizes of about 200 MW. Combined-cycle units are made up of one or more such gas turbines, each with a waste heat steam generator arranged to supply steam to a single steam turbine, thus formatting a combined-cycle unit or block. Typical combined-cycle block sizes offered by three major manufacturers (Asea Brown Boveri, General Electric and Siemens) are roughly in the range of 50 MW to 500 MW and costs are about $600/kW.

Combined Cycle Efficiencies

Combined-cycle efficiencies are already over 50 percent and research aimed at 1370C (2500F) turbine inlet temperature may make 60 percent efficiency possible by the turn of the century, according to some gas turbine manufacturers.

Low-Grade Fuel for Turbines

Gas turbines burn mainly natural gas and light oil. Crude oil, residual, and some distillates contain corrosive components and as such require fuel treatment equipment. In addition, ash deposits from these fuels result in gas turbine deratings of up to 15 percent They may still be economically attractive fuels however, particularly in combined-cycle plants. Sodium and potassium are removed from residual, crude and heavy distillates by a water washing procedure. A simpler and less expensive purification system will do the same job for light crude and light distillates. A magnesium additive system may also be needed to reduce the corrosive effects if vanadium is present. Fuels requiring such treatment must have a separate fuel-treatment plant and a system of accurate fuel monitoring to assure reliable, lowmaintenance operation of gas turbines.

Alternative Combined Cycle Designs

Gas dampers are often provided so the gas turbine exhaust can bypass the heat recovery boiler allowing the gas turbine to operate if the steam unit is down for maintenance. In earlier designs supplementary oil or gas firing was also included to permit steam unit operation with the gas turbine down. This is not normally provided on recent combined-cycle designs, because it adds to the capital cost, complicates the control system, and reduced efficiency. Sometimes as many as four gas turbines with individual boilers may be associated with a single steam turbine. The gas turbine, steam turbine, and generator may be arranged as a single-shaft design, or a multishaft arrangement may be used with each gas turbine driving a generator and exhausting into its heat recovery boiler with all boilers supplying a separate steam turbine and generator. Combined-Cycle Shaft Arrangements

Combined Cycle Modular Installations

One significant advantage of combined-cycle units is that the capacity can be installed in stages with short lead time gas turbines being installed initially (1 to 2 years) followed later by heat recovery boilers with the steam turbines (3 years total). In this way each combinedcycle unit (i.e. block) can be installed in three (or more) roughly equal capacity segments. The modular arrangement of combined-cycle units also facilitates generation dispatching because each gas turbine can be operated independently (with or without the steam turbine) if part of the combined-cycle unit is down for maintenance or if less than the combined-cycle unit total capacity is required. This may give a higher efficiency for small loading than if the total capacity was operated. Furthermore, since combined-cycle units are available in sizes of roughly 50 MW to almost 500 MW (and 600 MW are expected to be available soon with 200 MW gas turbines), there are many selection possibilities for most sizes of power system. Another point favoring staging a combined-cycle unit is that the gas turbine (or combined-cycle) per kilowatt cost does not seem to increase significantly for smaller units, as is the case for steam units due partly to the high cost of the substantial civil works necessary for steam plants regardless of steam unit size. Finally, combined-cycle units can be installed in 3 years while a steam unit typically requires 5 years, and once committed there is no power output from a steam unit until the complete unit is available.

Fuels for Combined Cycles

Using present technology the combined-cycle unit can be fueled with natural gas, distillate, and even crude or residual oil with appropriate fuel treatment. Fueling with crude or residual oil, however, definitely results in extra capital costs for fuel treatment equipment. Operations suffer due to additional operating costs for additives to counteract contaminants such as vanadium, lower availability due to additional maintenance and water cleaning shutdowns to remove blade deposits, and reduced life because there is a greater tendency for hot gas path corrosion due to blade deposits and corrosion. The daily (or even more frequent) testing of the residual or crude oil for contaminants with appropriate adjustments of fuel treatment is critical to prevent damage to the gas turbine. Even with good operation there will be a reduction in efficiency with crude or residual oil fueling to reduce firing temperatures, as recommended by most manufacturers for this mode of operation, and due to the blade deposits which build up between water-washing intervals. The gas turbine has to be shut down periodically for cleaning and allowed to cool before washing can be done by injecting water while rotating the unit using the starting motor.

Operational Considerations of Combined Cycles

This gas turbine is the main component that requires maintenance on combined-cycle units. All manufacturers recommend specific intervals for hot-gas-path inspections and for major overhauls, which usually involve hot-gas-path part changes. During overhauls the condition of aeroderivatives may require that the complete engine or at least major components be sent to overhaul centers, while the industrial gas turbines usually will require only part changes on site. The type of fuel and mode of operation are critical in determining both the maintenance intervals and the amount of maintenance work required. It is estimated by one manufacturer that burning residual or crude oil will increase maintenance costs by a factor of 3, assuming a base of 1 for natural gas, and by a factor of 1.5 for distillate fueling. Similarly, maintenance costs will be three times higher for the same number of fired hours if the unit is started, i.e. cycled, once every fired hour, instead of starting once very 1000 .fired hours. Peaking at 110 percent of rating will increase maintenance costs by a factor of 3 relative to base-load operation at rated capacity, for the same number of fired hours.

The control system on combined-cycle units is largely automatic so, after a start is initiated by an operator, the unit accelerates, synchronizes and loads with automatic monitoring and adjustment of unit conditions in accordance with present programs. The number of operators required in a combined-cycle plant therefore is lower than in a steam plant.

Developed Country Combined Cycle Installations

The following key topics provide examples of developed country combined-cycle installations. Electricity Supply Board of Ireland Oil-to-Gas Conversion The electricity Supply Board of Ireland converted two old oil-fired steam plants to gas-fired combined cycle units in the late 1970s. Originally, there units were used for baseloaded operation, but recently change to intermediate load. Refer To: World Bank IEN Working Paper #35: "Prospects for Gas-Fueled Combined-Cycle Power Generation in the Developing Countries", May 1991. Midland Nuclear Plant Conversion, U.S.A. Twelve Asea Brown Boveri 85 MW gas turbines and heat recovery boilers were installed to supply two 350 MW steam units originally installed for the Midland nuclear plant. This combined-cycle cogeneration plant will supply 1380 MW to Consumer Power Co. and process steam plus 60 MW of power to Dow Chemical Co. Refer To: World Bank IEN Working Paper #35: "Prospects for Gas-Fueled Combined-Cycle Power Generation in the Developing Countries", May 1991. LNG-Fired Combined-Cycle by Tokyo Electric The world's largest regasified LNG-fueled combined-cycle plant is in operation near Tokyo in Japan. Fourteen 165 MW single-shaft combined-cycle units serve as mixed base-load and mid-range generation on the 41,000 MW Tokyo Electric Power Co. system. The plant capacity is 2,310 MW at 15C ambient decreasing to 2,000 MW at 32C. A unique feature is the low NOx emission level of 10 ppm due to the use of selective catalytic reduction equipment.

Refer To: World Bank, IEN Working Paper #35: "Prospects for Gas-Fueled Combined-Cycle Power Generation in the Developing Countries", May 1991.

Developing Country Combined Cycle Installations

The following list provides examples of Combined Cycle projects in developing countries. These examples are discussed in greater detail in the associated Key Topics. 5 x 300 MW in India 3 x 300 MW Gas Turbines in Malaysia 2 x 300 MW in Pakistan 5 Combined-Cycle plants in Mexico 300 MW in Egypt 772 MW in Thailand Combined-Cycle in Bangladesh The dollar per kilowatt capacity costs vary from $592/kW for a new 1,080 MW combined-cycle plant in Egypt to $875/kW for a steam addition to convert four gas turbines at Multan in Pakistan to a combined-cycle plant. Although the operating performance of combined-cycle units in North America is reported to be satisfactory with availability factors of about 85 percent, the developing country experience is less favorable, and in some countries the performance has been poor.

Developing Country Combined Cycle Installatons

5 x 300 MW Installation in India As of 1991, only limited operational performance data are available on the 5 x 300 MW combined-cycle units in India which were commissioned in 1990. During the commissioning runs some blades failed on one gas turbine reportedly due to poor alignment; the manufacturer (Mitsubishi) made repairs and no further trouble has been reported. These five combined-cycle blocks are operating on gas and the National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC) reportedly is satis&ied with their performance and plans installing additional combined-cycle units. However, full operation of the combined-cycle plants has not been possible due to power contract disputes. The gas price has not been finalized, so the NTPC selling price to the State Electricity Boards

has not been resolved, giving some uncertainty concerning the load dispatching of the combined-cycle units. 3 x 300 MW Gas Turbine Installation in Malaysia The Paka 900 MW (3 x 300 MW Alsthom-Hitachi blocks) gas-fueled combined-cycle plant in Malaysia has had serious problems due to gas bypass damper jamming and gas turbine start-up train torque converter bearing faults. Availability reportedly has been only 55 to 60 percent in the past, but corrections have been made and higher availability is expected. Some of the problems have been attributed to split contracts for the gas turbine, boiler and steam unit components with interface difficulties, particularly on control systems. The country is still planning to install a large amount of combined-cycle capacity in the 1990s (3,840 MW by 1999) expecting that "teething troubles" with the technology will be overcome. However, some gas-fueled steam capacity will also be installed, so that future power supply is not dependent on only one technology. 2 x 300 MW Installation in Pakistan 2 x 300 MW blocks of gas-fired combined cycle gas turbines were installed at Guddu, Pakistan. According to USAID's consultant, RCG/Hagler Bailley, Inc. the availability of the plant has been good in the 80-85 percent range but efficiency has been lower then expected. No clear explanation of the reasons for the shortfall is provided. Refer To: Annex 8 of the World Bank, IEN Working Paper #35: "Prospects for Gas-Fueled Combined-Cycle Power Generation in the Developing Countries", May 1991

Five Combined Cycle Plants in Mexico Mexico has the largest amount of combined-cycle capacity in any developing country totaling almost 1,900 MW at five plants. The units were installed in 1975-1986 and are typically dual-fueled, natural gas and distillate. The operating performance has not been good; unit availability factors range from 38 percent to 83 percent; efficiencies vary from 20 percent for units installed in 1975 to 39 percent for later units. Comision Federal de Electricidad does not plan to install any additional combined-cycle units, partly because of their poor operating record and also because there is surplus residual oil which can be used in steam plants. 300 MW Installation in Egypt A 100 MW steam addition to 8 x 25 MW General Electric gas turbines. This plant is a 300 MW Talkha gas/distillate-fueled combined-cycle in Egypt. USAID's consultant, RCG/Hagler, Bailley, Inc. has reviewed the operational performance of this plant and concluded that the availability of the plants has been quite reasonable -- in the 80-85 percent range -- but efficiency has been lower than expected without a clear explanation of the reasons for the shortfall. Gas turbine component failures are the cause of most of the forced outages on these two combined-cycle plants. Refer To: Annex 8 of the World Bank, IEN Working Paper #35: "Prospects for Gas-Fueled Combined-Cycle Power Generation in the Developing Countries", May 1991 772 MW Installation in Thailand The early operation of the gas-fueled, Bang Pakong 772 MW combinedcycle addition reportedly was troubled by low gas turbine start-up reliability, difficulties in fuel changeover, vibration, gas damper distortion, gas supply problems, and the lower system inertia of the combined-cycle units. The plant availability is understood to be only about 70 percent at present. Nevertheless, the Electricity Generating Authority of Thailand is planning to install more gas-fueled combinedcycled units to almost triple this type of capacity on its system by the end of the 1990s. Combined Cycle Installation in Bangladesh There are substantial gas reserved in the eastern half of Bangladesh, so combined-cycle technology should be a logical generation candidate

for this country. Unfortunately, the operating experience has been poor on a small, UK-fi.anced GEC combined-cycle unit installed at Ashuganj in the early 1980s. Based on this experience, the Bangladesh Power Development Board (BPDB) prefers to install gas-fired steam units. This situation is reflected in a recent article by a consultant on system planning activities in Bangladesh: "The BPDB have rather limited and somewhat unsatisfactory experience of their one CC unit, and their FORs for the smaller gas turbines which they have operated for a much longer period of time seem to be higher than average by a factor of at least two, and possibly more than three. Faced with these facts a cautious approach to planning was adopted using base-load regime but with high FORs for CC plant. With this approach, selection of CC plant by the program is limited and gas-fired steam plant claims most of the gas allocation available."