The 2004 Brimacombe Memorial Lecture Published with Permission of AIST

Research on Sustainable Steelmaking

R.J. FRUEHAN

The international steel community is faced with the challenge of developing processes that will make steel production more sustainable in the future. Specically, processes that produce less CO2 and less net waste materials and emissions and that consume less energy are required. This article outlines where energy consumption and CO2 emissions are high and can be reduced. Reductions can be achieved by incremental improvements to existing processes or by a break-through innovative process; both strategies are examined. Since most of the energy consumption and CO2 generation occur in ironmaking, research in this area is emphasized. Research on controlling the cohesive zone in the blast furnace, improving the nal stages of reduction in direct reduction processes, the use of biomass, and other innovative processes for ironmaking are reviewed. In oxygen steelmaking, improved postcombustion (PC) to allow for more scrap melting is examined. Postcombustion and slag foaming in the electric arc furnace (EAF) in order to reduce energy is reviewed. DOI: 10.1007/s11663-008-9223-x The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society and ASM International 2009

R.J. FRUEHAN, U.S. Steel University Professor and Co-Director, is with the Center for Iron and Steelmaking Research, Materials Science and Engineering Department, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh PA 15213. Contact email: fruehan@cmu.edu R.J. Fruehan is currently the U. S. Steel University Professor at Carnegie Mellon University. He received his B.S. and Ph.D. degrees from the University of Pennsylvania and was an NSF Scholar at Imperial College, University of London. Dr. Fruehan organized the Center for Iron and Steelmaking Research, and is currently the Co-Director. He was Director of the Sloan Steel Industry Study, which examines the critical issues impacting a companys competitiveness and involves numerous faculty at several universities from 1992 to 2002. Dr. Fruehan has authored over 250 papers, two books on steelmaking technologies, co-authored a book on managing for competitiveness, and is the holder of six patents. He has received several awards, including the 1970 and 1982 Hunt Medal (AIME), the 1982 and 1991 John Chipman Medal (AIME), 1989 Mathewson Gold Medal (TMSAIME), the 1993 Albert Sauveur Award (ASM International), the 1976 Gilcrist Medal (Medals Society UK), the 1996 Howe Memorial Lecture (ISS of AIME), the 1999 Benjamin Fairless Award (ISS of AIME), the Brimacombe Prize (ISS, TMS, CSM) (2000), the 2004 Bessemer Gold Medal (Institute of Materials, Minerals & Mining (UK); an IR100 Award for the invention of the oxygen sensor and the TMS Science Award (2008). He is a Distinguished Member of the Iron and Steel Society, an Honorary Member of the Iron and Steel
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Institute of Japan and served as President of the Iron and Steel Society of AIME from 1990 to 1991. He was elected a Member of the National Academy of Engineers in 1999.

I.

INTRODUCTION

IT is not only a great honor to give the Brimacombe Lecture but also a large responsibility. It is a responsibility to be sure that the Lecture is on a signicant subject, makes our community sensitive to long-term critical issues, and is consistent with Professor Brimacombes vision of what our industry should be doing in the future. With this goal, I have chosen to discuss sustainable steelmaking and examples of research aimed at this goal.
A. Current Status Before discussing specic research projects, the overall goal of sustainability will be reviewed. Sustainable
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Development has been dened as development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs. Specically, for sustainable steelmaking, the goals include (1) conserving resources such as ore, coal, etc.; (2) reducing the amount of CO2 emitted; (3) reducing other gaseous emissions such as SO2 and Nox; (4) reduce materials to landlls; and (5) reduce the amount of hazardous wastes. Steel production remains high and continues to grow. Steel production occurs in virtually every major country with about 50 pct produced in ve countries. Much of the future increases will be in developing countries such as China, India, and those in Eastern Europe. Energy consumption is about 18 to 20 GJ per tonne. The steel industry in the United States consumes about 18 to 20 GJ/t or about 2 to 3 pct of the total energy used in the United States. In order to determine where technical resources should be targeted, it is useful to examine the energy used in the individual processes and what the practical and theoretical limits are. Normally, CO2 emissions are related to the energy used in a process. As seen in Tables I and II, hot metal, or ironmaking, is by far the largest energy consumer and CO2 emitter. Therefore, ironmaking has the greatest potential for improvement. The electric arc furnace (EAF) steelmaking has improved signicantly and is close to its practical minimum. In steelmaking, the major recoverable energy is the energy in the o-gas (CO). For hot rolling, starting with section sizes such as thin slab or strip reduces

energy and CO2. However, substantial savings with conventional slab are possible by direct charging, since reheating is the major energy consuming part of the process. In fact, 75 pct of the potential savings of thin or even strip casting can be achieved with conventional slabs if they are directly charged. There has been a dramatic reduction in energy consumption in the past 30 years, from about 35.8 to 18.0 GJ/tonne of shipped steel in the United States. This has been accomplished primarily due to the implementation of continuous casting, other yield improvements, a shift to scrap-based EAF production, and a decrease in the blast furnace fuel rate. Future reduction will be much more dicult, since most of the low hanging fruit has been picked. B. Strategy for Research on Sustainability Since CO2 abatement and energy reduction are closely related and the major challenge, I will concentrate on this issue. Other emissions such as SO2 and possible particulate matter will also be generally reduced if energy consumption is reduced. There are at least four possible alternatives for lowering the amount of CO2; reducing the amount of CO2 emitted in the processes, using renewable energy sources such as wood charcoal, using hydrogen, and sequestering or capturing the CO2. Hydrogen will not be available in large quantities at a reasonable price. The available hydrogen will be primarily used for other technologies such as fuel cells and transportation. Sequestering the CO2 is a reasonable partial solution for many industries including power generation. The steel industry should not use its meager resources on this solution but rely on development from other industries. However, the industry should examine processes, which are consistent with sequestering technologies. For example, sequestering CO2 for steelmaking may be simply accomplished by injecting CO2 into deep wells. This requires, as well as other sequestering techniques, a relatively pure CO2 stream. Research on an oxygen blast furnace with a hydrogen shift reactor and gas circulation can produce a nearly pure CO2 o-gas. Circofer (Lurgi, Germany), which uses coal and ore in a uid bedtype process, can accomplish the same goal. The resulting gas is nearly pure CO2, which is more easily sequestered. Research in these areas should be considered. In the iron and steelmaking processes, one strategy is continuous incremental improvements with modest gains, but with the total being signicant (10 to 15 pct). Most likely this new technology will be ironmaking, because 75 pct of the energy is consumed in making iron. The new process should eliminate cokemaking and use ne ores, and in special circumstances, a renewable energy source. Which strategy should be adopted? Both. We need to use the capital invested in our existing technologies while reducing energy in these processes in the short term, 3 to 5 years. However, for the longer term, 10 to 20 years, a new technology, or technologies, may be necessary.
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Table I. Actual, Practical Minimum, and Theoretical Minimum Energy Consumed in Various Processes, Energy (GJ/t Product) Process Hot metal Steelmaking (BOF) Steelmaking (EAF) Hot rolling Cold rolling Actual 13 to 14 0 2.1 to 2.4 2.0 to 2.4 1.0 to 1.4 Practical Minimum 10.4 (0.5) 1.6 0.09 0.2 Theoretical Minimum 9.8 (1.0) 1.3 0.03 0.02

( ) Indicate energy available.

Table II.

CO2 Emissions for Various Steelmaking Processes CO2 Emissions (kg/t) Typical 1500 200 380 320 Practical Minimum 1160 144 280 60 Theoretical Minimum 1090 144 225 10

Process Hot metal Steelmaking (BOF) Steelmaking (EAF) Rolling

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II.

RESEARCH IN EXISTING PROCESSES

In this section and Section III, research being conducted at the Center for Iron and Steelmaking Research (CISR) at Carnegie Mellon University aimed at reducing energy and CO2 emissions is discussed. There is extensive excellent research being done worldwide including Europe, Japan, and other institutions in North America. I am concentrating on the CISR research program, because I have more personal knowledge of that program. Ironmaking: Two recent research programs in ironmaking designed to make incremental improvements in the processes are controlling the cohesive zone in the blast furnace and understanding the nal stages of reduction by gases. The cohesive zone begins when the ferrous materials begin to soften and ends with nal meltdown. The cohesive zone impedes proper gas ow through the furnace and decreases indirect reduction by CO and H2. The cohesive zone should be deep in the furnace and as short as possible. The cohesive zone can be improved by custom designing the ferrous burden and the charging pattern. Pellets, sinter, and ore are often subjected to an arbitrary softening and melting test, which gives some guidance as to how they behave in the blast furnace but does not reect the fundamental behavior that is the objective of the present research. The recent work[1] included detailed characterization of the ferrous materials, melting on-set experiments using a laser confocal microscope, softening and melting with X-ray observations, quenched samples, and

thermochemical modeling of phase diagrams to predict liquid slag formation. As seen in Figure 1, it is possible to see slag formation in this acid pellet. However, the initial amount of liquid may be small and due to a minor constituent such as Na2O. More importantly is the temperature when large amounts of liquid form and the viscosity of the liquid. This will be discussed later in detail. The lower its viscosity, the greater the impact the liquid slag has on the behavior of the pellets. Experiments were run in which six prereduced pellets were heated under load with the displacement measured along with the temperature (Figure 2). Typical displacement vs temperature curves are shown in Figure 3. In addition, X-ray pictures of the pellets were taken; examples are show in Figure 4. As can be seen, the acid pellet at 1201 C has deformed signicantly with a displacement of about 63 pct. The basic pellet reached 1310 C for a similar displacement, and the meltdown temperature range was only about 40 C. In separate experiments, the samples were quenched and the phases present determined. Calculations using FactSage (Ecole Polytechnique, Montreal, CA) were conducted to determine the phases present. For example, the phases for 60 prereduction of a basic pellet are shown in Figure 5. A small amount of liquid forms at about 1230 C and a signicant amount of liquid forms at 1300 C, in correspondence with the observations. Another interesting observation is that, with the acid pellets, slag exuded from the pellet interacting with adjacent pellets; this did not occur with basic pellets. It was concluded that this is because the viscosity of the slag in

Fig. 1SEM pictures from quenched samples from a laser confocal microscope.
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the acid pellets was much lower than that in the basic pellets. The reason the viscosity was much lower is the higher FeO content of the slag, about 60 pct vs less than 30 pct.

The fundamental behavior determined in this study will aid in pellet composition design and the charging pattern when using mixed burdens. Details of this work can be found in a series of recent publications by Nogueira and Fruehan.[1] The other major method of producing iron is solidstate gaseous reduction or direct reduction. This iron is primarily used in an EAF. Therefore, a high degree of reduction or metallization is desirable since the reduction of the remaining FeO by carbon is endothermic, resulting in higher electrical energy consumption and

Fig. 2Experimental setup for displacement vs temperature measurements on X-ray picture.

Fig. 3Displacement vs temperature curves for acid and basic pellets.

Time (s) T (oC) D (%)

0 279 0

23098 1141 45.3

24357 1201 63.4

25237 1236 75.3

25479 1254 80.1

30837 1502 100

Time (s) T (oC) D (%)

0 276 0

22526 1162 20.9

25666 1310 60.3

26328 1341 69.3

26792 1358 82.7

27374 1392 100

Fig. 4X-ray pictures of acid and basic pellets during displacement vs heating experiments.
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Fig. 7SEM picture of HSC partially reduced showing dense iron layer around wustite grains.

Fig. 5Calculation of phases present as a function of temperature for a 60 pct reduced basic pellet.

H2
Fe O

H 2 2H
2H + O H 2O

FeO

H2
Fe

FeO

H 2 2H

Fig. 6Rate of reduction of MNC and hematite single crystals at 973 K in 60 pct H2-40 pct N2.

H 2 + FeO H 2O + Fe PH 2 + PH 2O > 1
Fig. 8Schematic diagram showing rate mechanism for solid-state diusion through an iron shell.

lower productivity in the EAF. In the direct reduction processes, in particular uid bed processes such as Finmet or Circored, it is often dicult to obtain high degrees of reduction, greater than about 92 pct. This phenomenon depends on the ore type and processin Figure 6, the reduction of Mount Newman concentrate (MNC) and a hematite single crystal (HSC). The MNC reaches a fairly high degree of reduction, where HSC levels o at about 75 pct reduction.[2] This phenomena depends on the ore type and on the overall reduction process. The ore particles were examined by SEM analysis, and it was found that the rate slowed when a dense layer of iron formed around the unreacted FeO, as shown in Figure 7. When this occurs, gaseous diusion is not possible and the only mechanism for further reduction is atomic diusion of oxygen through the iron layer. This process is exceptionally slow because the oxygen solubility in solid iron is only a few parts per million, and hence, the driving force for diusion is low. The reason why the dense iron formed in some cases is not completely known. One signicant observation was
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that the rate of reduction slowed signicantly, and the wustite grains were relatively large, 1 to 2 lm vs 3 to 5 lm, when the rate slowed. The rate mechanism is shown schematically in Figure 8. If there is no iron layer, or it is very thin, the rate or ux or oxygen removal of removal is given by   1 JO WFeO Sk PH2 PHe 2 where JO = ux of oxygen, WFeO = weight of FeO, k = chemical rate constant, and PH2 ; PHe = hydrogen pressure and equilibrium pressure. 2 When the iron layer becomes suciently thick, the rate becomes controlled by diusion of oxygen through the solid iron. If spherical FeO grains are assumed for
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simplicity, the diusive ux through the iron layer is given by JO 1 where DO = diusivity of oxygen in Fe, r = radius of reaction front, and r0 = initial radius of the particle. The rate of reduction is controlled by the slower of the two mechanisms or the one whose rate equation gives the slowest rate. Whereas not all of the parameters required in Eqs. [1] and [2] are known, some comparisons can be made. Using published values for the parameters indicates that solid-state diusion becomes important at about 1 to 2 lm. Obviously, the grain size alone is an oversimplication for the slowing of the rate for some ores and not others. However, the inuence of grain size can be illustrated by the following example. Consider two ores, A and B, for which the rates of gaseous reduction are similar, i.e., they have similar values for the rate constant k. For ore A, the wustite grain size is about 2 lm and the rate slows at about 60 pct reduction from wustite to iron (74 pct from hematite). The value of r at this point, where solid-state diusion governs the rate, is 1.2 lm. If for ore B the average grain size is 1 lm, the value of r at which the critical rate is achieved is 0.15 lm, which represents over 99 pct reduction before the rate slows. Observations indicate there is a distribution of grain sizes and not all grains have a dense iron layer. Nevertheless, this simple example illustrates the importance of the wustite grain size on when the rate mechanism changes from chemical to diusion control and the critical degree of reduction that can be expected. Another interesting nding is that, when the equilibrium pressure of (H2 + H2O) at the Fe-FeO interface exceeds one atmosphere, the iron shell can fracture allowing for gaseous diusion. In this case, hydrogen DO 1 r r0 2

atoms can diuse through the fractured iron layer and react with the FeO. If the total pressure is less than one atmosphere, the gas cannot escape and the reaction does not proceed. As shown in Figure 9, with a hydrogen pressure of 0.6 atm, reduction virtually stopped at 70 pct. When the hydrogen pressure was increased to 1.0 atm, the equilibrium pressure at the Fe-FeO interface exceeded 1 atm and presumably cracked the iron shell and allowed reduction to proceed. Also, holding or annealing of the samples at the magnetite (Fe3O4) for a period of time reduction was lowered for some ores, as shown in Figure 10. Presumably, this may cause the grains to coarsen, resulting in larger more dicult to reduce wustite grains. The results of this research have led to improved processing to achieve higher degrees of reduction. A. Oxygen Steelmaking Research has been conducted on the recycling of waste oxides and postcombustion (PC), which will be discussed in this lecture. Postcombustion is the combustion of the CO produced by decarburization to CO2 above the liquid metal bath, releasing energy. In the basic oxygen furnace (BOF), the energy can be used to melt more scrap, by about 10 pct of the charge, or to melt skulls. However, if PC is not done properly, the CO2 can react with the Fe-C melt (depostcombustion) or the heat may be released too high in the furnace and not transferred to the bath, just heating the gas or refractories. Computational uid dynamics (CFD) modeling was conducted to optimize the process.[3] The model included an accurate combustion reaction, all relevant forms of heat transfer, and depostcombustion reactions. The BOF lance had 16 PC nozzles. The problem could be simplied since there are axial systems, so the model was a 3-D model of 1/16 of the furnace. Examples of the calculated results are shown in Figures 11 and 12, which show the CO2 concentration in the gas and the temper3 ature, respectively. This was for 750Nm of O2 with 18 pct s

Fig. 9Experimental results indicating the eect of increasing hydrogen pressure on the rate of reduction of HSC at 973 C.
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Fig. 10The eect of holding reduction at Fe3O4 for 120 min (degree of reaction is from Fe3O4).
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B. Electrical Furnace Steelmaking The steel industry can reduce energy consumption and CO2 generation by expanding EAF production to highquality steels replacing integrated production. This will be limited due to the limited quantities of high-quality scrap. Processes are being developed and improved to produce scrap substitutes such as DRI, HBI, and pig iron. However, these processes consume as much energy as the blast furnace. For the existing EAF process, two examples of research aimed at reducing energy consumption are improved, slag foaming and PC. Slag foaming is widely used in the production of carbon steels and extensive research on the fundamentals has been conducted. Slag foaming allows for long arc operation during at bath operating conditions by using the foam to shield the sidewall refractories from the electrical arc. However, for stainless steels, slag foaming is much more dicult to achieve. This could be due to one of two reasons: the slag has poor foaming characteristics or sucient gas is not generated to create the foam. The ability of a slag to foam is given by the foam index which is only a function of the slag properties and dened by Eq. [3]. XQ 3 Hf A Hf = foam height, Q = gas ow rate, A = area of foam region, and R = foam index. The foam index in laboratory experiments was found to be similar to that for carbon steelmaking slags as long as there was not an excessive amount of solid undissolved slag particles. Typical results are shown in Figure 13 in which the foam height is plotted vs the supercial gas velocity or (Q/A); the slope is the foam index (R). The foam index for stainless steelmaking slags is similar to that for carbon steels. Therefore, the foamability or foam index is not the reason for poor foaming. Another possibility for the poor foaming is the lack of gas generation. For foamy slag practices, CO gas is normally generated by injection of carbon into the slag producing CO by the reaction FeO C Fe CO 4

Fig. 11CO2 concentration with PC in a BOF.

Fig. 12Temperature prole in a BOF with PC.

of the oxygen used in 10 nozzles 1.5 m above the bath. This study demonstrated that CFD could be a useful tool in optimizing PC and using the energy associated with the CO eectively. Dierent cases with respect to oxygen distribution between the primary and PC nozzles and height of the PC nozzles were investigated to nd the optimum condition.
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However, for stainless steelmaking slag, there is little FeO and the most reducible oxide is chromic oxide (CrO). The rate of reaction of carbon with slags containing FeO and CrO, in which the amount of CO was generated, was measured in laboratory experiments. Typical results for FeO containing slags are shown in Figure 14. For CrO containing slags, the rate was extremely slow, less than 10 pct of the rate for similar amounts of FeO. It therefore can be concluded that the lack of foaming in stainless steelmaking is due to poor gas generation.
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Fig. 13Determination of the foam index for stainless steelmaking slags by plotting the foam height vs the supercial gas velocity.

Fig. 14Rate of reduction of FeO in EAF slags by carbon.

Fig. 15Rate of gas evolution from CaCO3 in slag.

Consequently, foaming should be able to be improved by making additions that generate gas. A number of additions were examined,[5] such as waste oxide briquettes, nickel oxide, calcium nitrate, and limestone (CaCO3). For example, when CaCO3 is added to steel, which promoted foaming, it dissociates at about 900 C: CaCO3 CaO CO2 5

Typical experimental results are shown in Figure 15. It was found that the rate was controlled by heat transfer to the CaCO3 particle. Based on these results, the amount and rate of CaCO3 addition were calculated to give the desired foam level. Postcombustion in the EAF was examined using a similar CFD model that was used for the BOF. The model was more complex due to the lack of symmetry and the presence of scrap. The model was used to examine a system with gas injections in the sidewall of the furnace. Typical results are shown in Figures 16 and 17 in terms of the CO-CO2-O2. As seen in Figure 16, the O2 is consumed, producing CO2 at the metal surface.
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Fig. 16Gas composition proles for PC in an EAF breakthrough technology.

CO2 re-reacts with carbon in the metal depostcombustion. In Figure 17, the gas proles and velocities are shown. In this case, CO2 is reacting with the electrodes. The model also computes the energy transferred to the
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Composite pellets

High energy off gas

Oxygen

75-80% Pre-reduced hot iron pellets

Hot metal

Fig. 18Schematic diagram of renewal energy steelmaking process using wood charcoal with a rotary hearth furnace and a smelter.

Fig. 17Gas prole and velocities for PC in an EAF.

scrap and bath and the electrical energy saved. The CFD model can be used to optimize the process with regard to the PC injectors position and angle and the O2 ow rate. The international steel industry has been searching for an alternative to the blast furnace for over 50 years. The blast furnace continues to be the dominant ironmaking process, because its eciency has continuously improved and no alternative, with the exception of the direct gaseous reduction process, in unique situations, has proven to be economically competitive. However, due to the current need for a lower capital cost process and the pressure for CO2 abatement, new processes are still required. It has become evident that no single process will t all needs, but dierent processes will be used for dierent requirements. Any new process should be in ironmaking, where 75 pct of the energy and most of the CO2 is emitted. The process should use nes and eliminate cokemaking. If possible, the process should use renewable energy. In addition, the process should require less capital and be economical on a small scale. New processes to produce liquid hot metal, which are being commercialized, include COREX, HIsmelt, and processes using ore and coal pellets or mixtures in rotary and multihearth furnaces followed by electric furnace melting. Examples of the latter processes include Iron Dynamics, Redsmelt, and Sidcomet. Whereas these processes appear attractive for several applications, they do not reduce CO2 emissions. Obviously, natural gas based processes such as Midrex, HyL, and FINMET reduce CO2, but natural gas availability is limited. Research is being carried out on two ironmaking process concepts that could reduce CO2 emissions. The rst is a renewable energy process[6] using ore-wood charcoal pellets in a rotary hearth furnace, which are reduced to about 70 to 80 pct. The prereduced mixture is then added to a coal-based smelter, such as an AISI or HIsmelt, for nal reduction and gangue separation by melting. The smelter is run at a conservative 30 pct PC with the o-gas used in place of natural gas in the rotary hearth. A schematic diagram of the process is shown in Figure 18. By using wood charcoal, the net CO2 emissions are reduced by 70 to 95 pct due to the xation of CO2 when regrowing the wood. By combining the
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RHF with the smelter, productivity can be signicantly increased (30 to 50 pct) and energy and be decreased. Extensive research has been carried out on the reduction of charcoal pellets. Reduction takes place by means of two reactions: reduction of iron oxide (FeO) by CO followed by oxidation of carbon by CO2. FeO CO Fe CO2 CO2 C 2CO 6 7

The fundamental rate constants for these reactions were determined using small samples when heat and mass transfer can be neglected. Typical results are shown in Figure 19. Using these constants, and independently determined heat-transfer coecients, a reduction model for pellets was developed and veried, as shown for typical results in Figure 20. The pellet model was then incorporated into a three-stage model for the RHF. From this model, the production rate, as a function of desired reduction and pellet depth, was determined; typical results are shown in Figure 21. Finally, the RHF model was linked to an energy and materials balance model for the smelter to determine the overall performance of the process. The overall process has reasonable productivity and energy consumption and greatly reduces net CO2 emissions. Another method to reduce CO2 emissions is based on using hydrogen. However, a critical question is where to get the hydrogen. Natural gas derives about half its energy value from hydrogen, but its availability is limited. Many coals have high hydrogen or volatile contents, which normally cannot be used for cokemaking. A new process concept based on using high volatile coals, which are charred at a lower temperature, is currently being investigated. A schematic of the process is shown in Figure 22. The char is used in a HIsmelt unit and the hydrogen-rich o-gas can be used for direct reduction or other uses, such as fuel cells. Smelters work extremely well using char in that there is much higher PC and productivity. For example, HIsmelt has achieved over 70 pct PC using char. III. CONCLUDING REMARKS

The steel industry is a major consumer of energy and producer of CO2. Work must continue to incrementally
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0.08

0.06

Mass loss (g)

0.04

0.8081g sample -4 K c = 5.0x10 mol/mol.s.atm

0.02

K FeO = 4.0x10 mol/mol.s.atm Mixed reaction model Experiment

-3

0 0 100 200 300 400 500

Time (min)

(a)
0.1

Fig. 21Production rate for varying pellet layer as a function of degree of reduction.

0.08

Mass loss (g)

0.06

0.04

0.4745g sample
K c = 5.0x10 -4 mol/mol.s.atm K FeO = 4.0x10 -3 mol/mol.s.atm Mixed reaction model Experiment

0.02

0 0 100 200 300 400

Time (min)

(b)
Fig. 19(a) and (b) Determination of the rate constants for reduction of FeO by CO and oxidation of carbon by CO2 in FeOcharcoal mixtures.

Fig. 22Schematic diagram of a conceptual process to use high volatile coals to produce hydrogen and liquid iron.

1.6 1.4
Mass loss (g)

Temperature: 1280C

1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 2 4 6 Time (min) 8 10

Experiment Simulation with final radius Simulation with initial radius

to meet these goals. We need international collaboration and government assistance. Finally, there should be incentives for lowering CO2, not just penalties, such as carbon taxes.

Large Pellet Mass: 3.8599g Initial Diameter: 16.7mm Final Diameter: 12.4mm Wood charcoal/hematite: 0.1766

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author thanks the many students and researchers who conducted this research and the member companies of the Center for Iron and Steelmaking Research, the American Iron and Steel Institute, and the United States Department of Energy for their support.

Fig. 20Experimental and model results for the reduction of orewood charcoal pellets.

lower energy and CO2 in existing processes. In a parallel and equally important eort, a new breakthrough ironmaking process should be explored and process models developed. The use of renewable energy and high hydrogen containing coals should be encouraged. Steel companies alone do not have the resources
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REFERENCES
1. P. Nogueira and R.J. Fruehan: Metall. Mater. Trans. B, 2004, vol. 35B, pp. 82938. 2. R.J. Fruehan, Y. Li, L. Brabie, and E.J. Kim: Scand. J. Met., 2004, vol. 34, pp. 17.
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3. Y. Li, R. Matway, and R.J. Fruehan: DOE Report, United States Department of Energy, Washington, DC, 2004. 4. J.J. Kerr and R.J. Fruehan: Metall. Mater. Trans. B, 2004, vol. 35B, pp. 64350.

5. J.J. Kerr and R.J. Fruehan: 2000 Process Technology Conf. Proc., ISS, Warrendale, PA, pp. 104963. 6. O. Fortini and R.J. Fruehan: Metall. Mater. Trans. B, 2005, vol. 36B, pp. 86572.

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