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a . | . m _ = \ . . = a r _ a . a + a
The article of Imran Shahid Bhender in Jadeedadab.com is indeed
an eye opener. We are very well familiar with many other qualities
of Narang sahib but this aspect is particulary interesting.Anyway,
this is very unfortunate and plagiarism should be discouraged and
condemned at every level. To achieve this goal I think wider
publicity should be given to such cases.I am writing this letter to
request you to allow us to reproduce the article in a new quarterly
journal launched from Delhi. The journal 'Behs-o-Mubahisa' is
started by a group of teachers and writers from Delhi. Asif Azmi is
its editor and publisher. If you allow us, we would also like to have
the matter as inpage file. I hope you would do this favour. However,
if the permission is required from Imran shahid sahib, I would
request you to send his email ID.
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From this post-Saussurean perspective it is clear that the theory of
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literary form reflects the world is simply tautological. If by 'the word' we
understand the world we experience, the world differentiated by
language, then the claim that realism reflects the world means that
real i sm refl ects the worl d constructed i n l anguage. Thi s i s a
tautology................
(Belsey, Catherine. Critical Practice, London, Routledge, 2003, P,43)
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Saussure's argument depends on the different division of the chain of
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language to the next; but this is not true' (Saussure, 1974: 116). The
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worlds. Saussure gives a number of examples. For instance, where
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which we eat, and sheep.............(Belsey, 36-37).
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The last half of the nineteenth century and the last half of the twentieth
were charecterized by the fragmentation of knowledge into isolated
disciplines so formidable in their specialization as to seem beyond all
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synthesis. Even philosophy, the queen of the human sciences, came
down from her throne to play solitary word games. Both the language-
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thinkers are philosophy of retreat......(Scholes, Structurali sm in
Literature, New York, Vail-Ballou Press,1974, p,1)
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philosophers have been able to impose their various systems of thought
onl y by i gnor i ng, suppr essi ng, t he di sr upt i ve ef f ect s of
languages....................
(Norris, Christopher. Deconstruction.3rd ed, London, Routledge,2002,
P18-19)
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We have already noticed the argument of Jakobson's fellow Prague
school critic Mukarovsky with regard to foregrounding: that the aesthetic
use of language pushes into the foreground the 'act of expression' itself.
Jakobson offers the more refined proposal that the metaphoric mode
tends to be foregrounding in poetry, whereas the metonymic mode
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'equivalence' of crucial importance to poetry........(Structuralism and
semiotics, 1984, p80)
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I believe one's point of reference should not be the great model of
language and signs, but that of war and battle. The history which bears
and determines us has the form of a war rather than a language:
relations of power, not relations of meaning. (Power/Knowledge, p,114).
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The notion that literary works are ultimately about language, that their
medium is their message, is one of the most fruitful of structuralist ideas
and we have already noticed its theoretical foundations in the work of
Jakobson. It validates the post-romantic sense that form and content
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are one, because it postulates that form is content. At one level, this
permits, for instance, Todorov to argue that the ultimate subject of a
work like The Thousand and One Night is the act of story-telling, of
narration itself: that for the character involved- indeed for homo loquens
at large- narration equals life: 'the absence of narration death'...........
(Structuralism and Semiotics, p,100).
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'NARRATION EQUALS LIFE: i + { g Z z g . ] X
) ( ] , ( ] Z z g THE ABSENCE OF NARRATION DEATH' P' 92
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We have already noticed the arguments of Jakobson's fellow Prague
school critic Mukarovsky with regard to 'foregrounding': that the
aesthetic use of language pushes into the foreground 'the act of
expression' itself. Jakobson offered the most refined proposal that the
metaphoric mode tends to be foregrounded in poetry, whereas the
metonymic mode tends to be foregrounded in prose. This makes the
operation 'equivalence' of crucial importance to poetry, not only in the
area of analogy, but also in the area of 'sound' of those metrical, rythmic
and phonic devices,.......continue. (Terence Hawkes, P, 80).
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Poet i c l anguage i s del i beratel y sel f-consci ous, sel f-aware. It
emphasises itself as a medium over and above the 'message' it
contains: it characteristically draws attention to itself and systematically
intensifies its own linguistic qualities. As a result, words in poetry have
the status not simply of vehicles for thought, but of objects in their own
right, autonomous concrete entities, In Sausure's terms, then, they
cease to be 'signifiers' and become 'signifieds', ...(P, 63-64).
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can never be fully seperated from the words themselves because no
word has 'simple' one meaning. The 'meaning of A is not simply A1 or
A2 or A3, for A has a larger capacity to mean which derives from its
particular context or use. No word is ever really a mere proxy for a
denoted object. Infact the transaction of 'meaning' has a coplexity of
dimensions which the 'poetic' use of language further complicates.
Poetry, in short, does not seperate a word from its meaning, so much as
multiply - bewildering - the range of meanings available to it... (P, 64).
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There is another stand in poststructuralist thought which believes that
the world is more than a galaxy of text, and that some theories of
textuality ignore the fact that the discourse is involved in power. They
reduce political and economic forces, and ideological and social control,
to aspects of signifying processes. When a Hitler or a Stalin seems to
dictate to an entire nation by wielding the power of discourse, it is
absurd to treat the effect as simply occurring within discourse. It is
evident that real power is exercised through discourse, and that this
power has real effects....... The father of this line of thought is the
German philosopher Nietzsche, who said that people first decide what
they want and then fit the facts to their aim: 'Ultimately man finds in
things nothing but what he himself has imported into them.' All
knowledge is an expression of the 'will to power'.This means that we
can not speak of any absolute truths or of objective knowledge....
Foucault regards discourse as a central human activity, but not as a
universal, 'general text', a vast sea of signification. He is interested in
the historical dimention of discursive change. What it is possible to say
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will change from one era to another. In science a theory is not
recognised in its own period if it deos not conform to the power
consensus of the institutions and official organs of science. Mendel's
genetic theories fell on deaf ears in the 1860s; they were promulgated in
a 'void' and had to wait until the twentieth century for acceptance. It is
not enough to speak the truth; one must be 'in the truth'.
( Sel den, Raman. Cont empor ar y Li t er ar y Theor y, 3r d ed,
Britain,1993,P158-159)
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'IT IS NOT ENOUGH TO SPEAK THE TRUTH, ONE MUST BE IN THE
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Jonathan Culler (see also chapter 5) has argued that a theory of
reading has to uncover the interpretative operations used by
readers. We all know that different readers produce different
interpretations. While this has led some theorists to despair of
developing a theory of reading at all, Culler argues in The Pursuit
of Signs (1981) that it is this variety of interpretation which theory
has to explain. While readers may differ about meaning, they may
well follow the same set of interpretative conventions.... (Selden,
P62).
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The word 'revolution' in Kristeva's title is not simply metaphoric. The
possibility of radical social change is, in her view, bound up with the
disruption of authoritarian discourses. Poetic language introduces the
subversive openness of the semiotic 'across' society's 'closed' symbolic
order: 'What the theory of the unconscious seeks, poetic language
practices, within and against the social order.' Sometimes she considers
that the modernist poetry actually prefigures a social revolution which in
the distant future will come about when society has evolved a more
conplex form. However, at other times she fears that bourgeois ideology
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will simply recuperate this poetic revolution by treating it as a safety
valve for the repressed impulses it denies in society. Kristeva's view of
the revolutionary potential of women writers in society is just as
ambivalent.... (Selden, P142).
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[ n X u Z k [ ~ * John Sturrock Z ] 7 G . g z {
. + z V _, p } $ H X T * y * g - # u H z { u Z C , {
X u ; . p H Z z g x p } Z y V * x ` H X * g - # z u ~
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u
Existentialism, on the contrary, preaches the total freedom of the
individual constantly to change..... Barthes, like Sartre, pits therefore the
fluidity, the anarchy, even, of existence against the rigor mortis of
essentialism; not least because, again following Sartre, he sees
essentialism as the ideology which sustains that tradional bugbear of all
French intellectuals, the bourgeoisie... he writes at the conclusion of his
most feroriously anti-bourgeois book, the devastating Mythologies
(1957.........
In one way, Barthes goes beyond Sartre i n hi s abhorrence of
essentialism. Sartre, as so far as one can see, allows the human person
a certain integrity or unity; but Barthes professes a philosophy of
disintegration, whereby the presumed unity of any individual is dissolved
into a plurality or discontinuous. This biography is especially offensive to
him as a literary form because it represents a counterfeit integration of
its individual. It is a false memorial to a living person.......
(Sturrock, John. Structuralism and Since. London, Oxford University
Press,1979, P 53)
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his arch enemy is the doxa, the prevailing view of things, which very
often prevails to the extent that people are unaware it is only one of
several possible alternative views. Barthes may not be able to destroy
the doxa but he can lesson its authority by localizing it, by subjugating it
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to a paradox of his own......
Barthes is only fully to be appreciated, then, as some one who set out to
disrupt as profoundly as he could the orthodox views of literature he
found in France...........The grievances against contemporary criticism
with which Barthes began were deeply influential on what he came to
write later. There were four main ones. First, he objected that literary
criticism was predominantly ahistorical, working as it did on the
assumption that the moral and the formal values of the texts it studied
were timeless.....Barthes was never a member of the Communist party -
let us say neo-Marxist objection. He dismissed existing histories of
French literature as meaningless choronicles of names and dates...
(Sturrock, P, 54-55)
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Barthes's second complaints against academic criticism was that it was
psychologically naive and deterministic....when critics chose to explain
textual data by biographical ones, or the work by the life....The elements
of a literary work - and this is an absolutely central point in literary
structuralism - must be understood i n the first i nstance in thei r
relationship to other elements of that work..... (Sturrock, P,56)
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u * g B j Z W _, Z Z Z n u Z p ~ - V :
They coul d see only one meaning i n the texts they concerned
themselves with, and that one meaning was usually a very literal one.
This they subsequently held the meaning of the text, and that to search
further for supplementary or alternative meanings was futile. They were
men of narrow and autocratic temper who fancied they were being
scientific when they were merely being culpably dogmatic. Their minds
were closed to the ambiguities of language, to the co-existence of
various meaning within a single form of words,....... (Sturrock, P 57-58)
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From this post-Saussurean perspective it is clear that the theory of
literature as expressive realism is no longer tenable. The claim that a
literary form reflects the world is simply tautological. If by 'the word' we
understand the world we experience, the world differentiated by
language, then the claim that realism reflects the world means that
real i sm refl ects the worl d constructed i n l anguage. Thi s i s a
tautology................
(Belsey, Catherine. Critical Practice, London, Routledge, 2003, P,43)
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Saussure's argument depends on the different division of the chain of
meaning in different languages. ' If words stood for pre-existing
concepts' they would all have exact equivalents in meaning from one
language to the next; but this is not true' (Saussure, 1974: 116). The
truth is that different languages divide or articulate the world in different
worlds. Saussure gives a number of examples. For instance, where
French has the single mouton, English differentiates between mutton,
which we eat, and sheep.............(Belsey, 36-37).
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Attempting to distinguish between constant and variable elements in a
collection of a hundered Russian fairytales, Propp arrives at the
principle that though the personage of a tale are variable, their functions
in the tales are constant and limited. Describing function as "an act of a
character, defined from the point of view of its significance for the
course of the action," Propp developed inductively four laws which put
the study of folk literature and of fiction itself on a new footing. I their
baldness and universality, laws 3 and 4 have the shocking effect of
certain scientific discoveries:
1. Functions of characters serve as stable, constant elements in a tale,
independent of how and by whom they are fulfilled. They constitute the
fundamental components of a tale.
2. The number of function known to the fairy-tale is limited.
3. The sequence of functions is always identical.
4. All fairy tales are of one type in regard to their structure.
(Morphology of the Folktale, pp. 21,22,23)
In comparing the functions of tale after tale, Propp discovered that his
total numbers of functions never surpassed thirty-one, and that however
many of the thirty-one functions a tale had (none has every one) those
that it had always appeared in the same order.... After the initial
situation, in which the members of a family are enemerated or the future
hero is introduced, a tale begins, consisting of some selection of the
following functions in the following order:
1. One of the members of a family absents himself from home.
2. An interdiction is addressed to the hero.
3. The interdiction is voilated.
4. The villain makes an attempt at reconnaissance.
5. The villain recieves information about his victim.
6. The villain attempts to deceive his victim in order to take possession
of him or of his belongings.
7. The victim submits to deception and thereby unwittingly helps his
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enemy.
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Scholes, Robert, Structuralism in Literature, New York, Vail-Ballou
Press,1974 P, 62-70.
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X W Z _, ~ ~ g Z , ^ r . Z k Z k _, g , :
The last half of the nineteenth century and the last half of the twentieth
were charecterized by the fragmentation of knowledge into isolated
disciplines so formidable in their specialization as to seem beyond all
synthesis. Even philosophy, the queen of the human sciences, came
down from her throne to play solitary word games. Both the language
-philosophy of Wittgenstein and the existentialism of the Continental
thinkers are philosophy of retreat......
Scholes, Structuralism in Literature, New York, Vail-Ballou Press,1974,
p,1) (
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Derrida's professional training was as a student of philosophy (at the
Ecol Normale Superieure in Paris, where he taught until recently), and
his writings demand of the reader a considerable knowledge of the
subject. Yet Derrida's texts are like nothing else in modern philosophy,
and i ndeed represent a chal l enge to the whol e tradi ti on and
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self-understanding of that discipline.
Norris, Christopher. Deconstruction.3rd ed, London, Routledge,2002,
P18-19)
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Derrida refuses to grant philosophy the kind of privileged status it has
always claimed as the sovereign dispenser of reason. Derrida confronts
this pre-emptive claim on its own chosen grounds. He argues that
philosophers have been able to impose their various systems of thought
only by ignoring, suppressing, the disruptive effects of languages. His
aim is always to draw out these effects by a critical reading which
fastens on, and skilfully unpicks, the elements of metaphor and other
figural devices at work in the texts of philosophy. Deconstruction in this,
its most rigorous form acts as a constant reminder of the ways in which
language deflects or complicates the philosophers project. Above all
deconstruction works to undo the idea-according to Derrida, the ruling
illusion of Western metaphysics- that reason can somehow dispense
with language and achieve a knowledge ideally unaffected by such
mere linguistic foibles. Norris, P18-19). (
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In this sense Derria's writings seem more akin to literary criticism than
philosophy. They rest on the assumption that modes of rhetorical
analysis, hitherto applied mainly to literary texts, are infact indispensable
for reading any kind of discourse, philosophy included. Literature is no
longer seen as a kind of poor relation to philosophy, contenting itself
with mere fictive or illusory appearances and forgoing any claim to
philosophic dignity and truth. This attitude has, of course, a long
prehistory in Western tradition. It was plato who expelled the poets from
his ideal republic, who set up reason as a guard against the false
beguilements of rhetoric, and who called forth a series of critical
'defences' and 'apologise' which runs right through from Sir Philip
Sydney to I. A. Richards and the Americans new critics. The lines of
defence have been variously drawn up, according to whether the critic
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sees himself as contesting philosophy on its own argumentative ground,
or as operating outside its reach on a different - though equally
privileged - ground. (Norris,P19)
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The counter-arguments to deconstruction have therefore been situated
mostly on commonsense, or 'ordinary-language' ground. There is
support from the philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889-1951) for the
view that such sceptical philosophies of language rest on a false
epitemology, one that seeks (and inevitably fails) to discover some
logical correspondence between language and the world. Wittgenstein
himself started out from such a position, but came round to believing
that language had many uses and legitimating 'grammars', non of them
reducible to a clear-cut logic of explanatory concepts. His later
philosophy repudiates the notion that meaning must entail some
one-to-one link or 'picturing' relationship between propositions and
factual status of affairs. Languages now conceived of as a repertoire of
'games' or enabling conventions, as diverse in nature as the jobs they
are require to do (Wittgenstein 1953). The nagging problems of
philosophy most often resulted, Wittgenstein thought, from the failure to
recognise multiplicity of language games. Philosophers looked for
logical solutions to problems which were only created in the first place
by a false conception of language, logic and truth. Scepticism he
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argued, was the upshot of a deluded quest for certainty in areas of
meaning and interpretation that resist any such strictly regimented
logical account. (Norris, P127-128).
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But it is true that in Marx, as in Engels and Lenin, the putting into
question of the self-certainty of consciousness is not "based on
Differance".(Position,P62)
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Eagleton, like Althusser, argues that criticism must break with its
'ideological prehistory' and become a 'science'. The central problem is to
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define the relationship between literature and ideology, because in his
view texts do not reflect historical reality but rather work upon ideology
to produce an effect of the 'real'. The text may appear to be free in its
relation to reality (it can invent characters and situations at will), but it is
not free in its use of ideology. 'Ideology' here refers not to formulated
doctrines but to all those systems of representations (aesthetic,
religious, judicial and others) which shapes the individuals mental
pictures of lived experience. The meanings and perceptions produced in
the text are a reworking of ideologie's on working of reality. This means
that the text works on reality at two removes. Eagleton goes on to
deepen the theory by examining the complex layering of ideology from
its most general pre-textual forms to the ideology of the text itself. He
rejects Althusser's view that literature can distance itself from ideology;
it is a complex reworking of already existing ideological discourses.
However, the literary result is not merely a reflection of other ideological
discourses but a special production of ideology. For this reason criticism
is concerned not with just the laws of literary form or the theory of
ideology but rather with 'the laws of the production of ideological
discourses as literature'.
Eagleton surveys a sequence of novels from George Eliot to D.H
Lawrence in order to demonstrate the interrelations between ideology
and literary form.... Eagleton examines each writer's ideological
situations and analyses the contradictions which develope in their
thinking and the attempted resolutions of the contradictions in their
writing. After the destruction of liberal humanism in the first world war
Lawrence developed a dualistic pattern of 'female' and 'male' principles.
This antithesis is developed and reshuffled in the various stages of his
work, and finally resolves in the characterisation of mellors (Lady
Chatterley's Lover) who combines impersonal 'male' power and 'female'
tenderness. This contradictory combination, which takes various forms
in the novels, can be related to a 'deep-seated ideological crises' within
contemporary society.
The impact of poststructuralist thought produced a radical change in
Eagleton's work in the late 1970s. His attention shifted from the
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'scientific' attitude of Althusser towards the revolutionary thought of
Brecht and Benjamine. This shift had the effect of throwing Eagleton
back towards the classic Marxist revolutionary theory of the Thesis on
Feuerbach (1845): 'The question whether objective truth can be
attributed to human thinking is not a question of theory but is a practical
question...The philosophers have only interpreted the world in various
ways; the point is to change it'. Eagleton believes that 'deconstructive'
theories, as developed by Derrida, Paul de Man and others can be used
to undermi ne al l cert ai nt i es, al l fi xed and absol ut e f orms of
knowledge..............
Raman Seldon, Contemporary Literary Theory, 3rd ed, Britain, 1993,P,
92-93.
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' ' THE QUESTI ON WHETHER OBJECTI VE TRUTH CAN BE
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PHILOSOPHERS HAVE ONLY INTERPRETED THE WORLD IN
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In America, where the labour movement has been partially corrupted
and totally excluded from political power, the appearance of a major
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Marxist theorist is an important event. Jameson believes that in the
post-industrial world of monoply capitalism the only kind of Marxism
which has any purchase on the situation which explores the 'great
themes of Hegel's philosophy - the relationship of part to whole, the
opposition between concrete and the abstract, the concept of totality,
the dialectic of appearance and essence, the interaction between
subject and object'. For dialectical thought there are no fixed and
unchanging 'objects'; an 'object' is inextricably bound up with a larger
whole, and is also related to a thinking mind which is itself part of a
historical situation. Dialectical criticism does not isolate individual literary
works for analysis; an individual is always a part of a larger structure (a
tradition or a movement) or part of a historical situation. The dialectical
critic has no pre-set categories to apply to literature and will always be
aware that his or her chosen categories (style, character, image, etc.)
must be understood ultimately as an aspect of the critics on historical
situation........ A Marxist dialectical criticism will always recognise the
historical origins of its own concepts and will never allow the concepts to
ossify and become insensitive to the pressure of reality. We can never
get outside our subjective existence in time, but we can try to break
through t he hardeni ng shel l of our i deas ' i nt o a more vi ved
apprehension of reality itself'.
His The Political Unconscious (1981) retains the earlier dialectical
conceptio of theory but also assimilates various conflicting traditions of
thought (structuralism, poststructuralism, Freud, Althusser, Adorno) in
an impressive and still recognisably Marxist synthesis. Jameson argues
that the fragmented and alienated condition of human society implies an
original state of primitive communism in which both life and perception
were collective.............. All ideologies are 'strategies of containment'
which allow society to provide an explaination of itself which suppresses
the underlying contradiction of history; it is history itself (the brute reality
of economic Necessity) which imposes this strategy of repression.
Literary texts work in the same way: the solutions which they offer are
merely symptoms of the suppression of history. Jameson cleverly uses
A.J Greimas' structuralist theory (the 'semiotic rectangle') as an analytic
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tool for his own purposes. Textual strategies of containment present
themselves as formal patterns. Greimas' structuralist system provide a
complete inventry of possible human relations... which when applied to
a text's strategies, will allow the analyst to discover the posibilities which
are not said. This 'not said' is the represses history.
Jameson also developes a powerful argument about narrative and
interpretation. He believes that narrative is not just a literary form or
mode but an essential 'epistemological category'; reality presents itself
to the human mind only in the form of the story. Even a scientific theory
is a form of story.( Seldon, P, 95-97).
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Jauss, an important German exponant of "reception" theory, gave a
historical dimension to reader-oriented criticism. He tries to achieve a
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compromise between Russian Formalism which ignores history, and
social theories which ignores the text. Writing during a period of social
unrest at the end of the 1960, Jauss and others wanted to question the
old canon of German literature and to show that it was perfectly
reasonable to do so.... He borrows from the philosophy of science (T.S
Kuhn) the term "paradigm" which refers to the scientific framework of
concepts and assumptions operating in a particular period. "Ordinary
science" does its experimental work within the mental world of a
particular paradigm, until a new paradigm displaces the old one and
throws up new problems and establishes new assumptions. Jauss uses
the term "horizon of expectations" to describe the criteria readers use to
judge literary texts in any given period.... For example, if we consider
the English Augustan period, we might say that Popes's poetry was
judged according to criteria, naturalness, and stylistic decorum (the
words should be adjusted according to the dignity of the subject) which
were based upon values of Popes's poetry. However this does not
establish once and for all the value of Pope's poetry. During the second
half of the eighteenth century, commentators began to question whether
Pope was a poet at all and to suggest that he was a clever versifies who
put prose into ryrhyming couplets and lacked the imaginative power
required of true poetry. Leapfrogging the ninteenth century, we can say
that modern readings of Pope work within a changed horizon of
expectations: we now often value his poems for their wit, complexity,
moral insight and their renewal of literary tradition.
In Jauss's view it would be equally wrong to say that a work is
universal, that its meaning is fixed forever and open to all readers in any
period: 'A literary work is not an object which stands by itself and which
offers the same face to each reader i n each peri od. It is not a
monument which reveals its timeless essence in a monologue.' This
means, of course, that we will never be able to survey the successive
horizons which flow from the time of a work down to the present day
and then, with an Olympian detachment. to sum up the works final
value or meaning. To do so would be to ignore the historical situation.
Whose authority are we to accept? That of the readers? The combined
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opinion of readers over time?
(Raman Seldon. P,52-53).
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Formalists in regarding poetry as a special use of language. Ordinary
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language is practical and is used to refer to some sort of 'reality', while
poetic language focuses on the message as an end in itself. He takes
this formalist view from Jakobson, but in a well-known essay he attacks
Jakobson's and Levi-Strauss's interpretation of Baudelaire's 'Les Chats'.
Riffaterre shows that the linguistic features they discover in the poem
could not possibly be perceived even by an in formed reader. All
manner of grammatical and phonemic patterns are thrown up by their
structuralist approach, but not all the features they note can be part of
the poetic structure for the reader.
However, Riffaterre has some difficulty in explainig why something
perceived by Jakobson does not count as evidence of what readers
perceive in a text.
Riffaterre developed his theory in Semiotics of Poetry (1978), in which
he argues that competent readers go beyond surface meaning. If we
regard a poem as a string of statements, we are limiting our attention to
its 'meaning', which is merely what it can be said to represent in units of
information. If we attend only to a poem's 'meaning' we reduce it to a
(possibly nonsensical) string of unrelated bits. A true response starts by
noticing that the elements (signs) in a poem often appear to depart from
normal grammar or normal representation: the poem seemes to be
establishing significance only indirectly
and in doing so ' threatens the literary representation of realty'. It
requires only ordinary linguistic competence to understand the poem's
'meaning', but the reader requires'literary competence' to deal with the
frequent ' ungrammaticalities' encountered in reading a poem. Faced
with the stumbling-block of ungrammaticalness the reader is forced,
during the process of reading, to uncover a second (higher) level of
significance which will explain the grammatical features of the text.
What will ultimately be uncovered is a strcutural 'matrix', which can be
reduced to a single sentence or even a single word. The matrix can be
deduced only indirectly and is not actually present as a word or
statement in the poem. The poem is conected to its matrix by actual
versions of the matrix in the form of familiar statements, cliches,
quotations, or conventional associations. it is the matrix which ultimately
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gives a poem unity. this reading process can be summarised as follows:
1. Try to read it for ordinary 'meaning':
2. Highlight those elements which appear umgrammatical and which
obstruct on ordinary mimetic interpretation:
3. Discover the ' hypograms' (or commonpl aces) whi ch recei ve
expanded or unfamiliar expression in the text;
4. Derive the 'matrix' from the ' hypograms'; that is, find a single
statement or word capable of generating the ' hypograms' and the text.
(Seldon, P,60-61).
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The notion of 'structure', he argues, even in 'structuralist' theory has
always presupposed a 'centre' of meaning of some sort. This 'centre'
governs the structure but is itself not subject to structural analysis (to
find the structure of the centre would be to find another centre). People
desire a centre because it guarantees being as presence. For example,
we think of our mental and physical life as centred on an 'I'; this
personality is the principle of unity which underlies the structure of all
that goes on in this space. Freud's theories completely undermine this
metaphysical certainty by revealing a division in the self between
consci ous and unconsci ous. Western thought has devel oped
innumerable terms which operate as centring principles: being,
essence, subst ance, t r ut h, f or m, begi ni ng, end, pur pose,
consciousness, man, God, and so on. It is important to not that Derrida
does not assert the possibility of the thinking outside such term; any
attempt to undo a particular concept is to become caught up in the
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terms which the concept depends on. For example if we try to undo the
centring concept of consciousness by asserting the disruptive counter
force of the 'unconscious', we are in danger of introducing a new centre,
because we can not choose but enter the conceptual system
(conscious/unconscious) we are trying to dislodge. All we can do is to
refused to al l ow ei ther pole i n a system (body/soul , good/bad,
serious/unserious) to become the centre and guarantor of presence.
This desire for a centre is called 'Logocentrism' in Derrida's classical
work Of Grammatology. 'Logos' (Greek for 'word') is a term which in the
New Testament carries the greatest possible concentration of presence:
' In the begning was the word'......... Phonocentrism treats writing as a
contaminated form of speech. Speech seems nearer to originating
thought. When we hear speech we attribute to it a presence which we
take to be lacking in writing. The speech of the great actor, orator, or
politician is thought to posses presence; it incarnates, so to speak, the
speaker's soul. Writing seems relatively impure and obtrudes its own
system in physical marks which have a relative permanence; writing can
be repeated (printed, reprinted, and so on) and this repition invites
interpretation and reinterpretation. Even when a speech is subjected to
interpretation it is usually in written form. Writing does not need the
writer's presence, but speech always implies an immediate presence.
The sounds made by a speaker evaporate in the air and leave no trace
(unless recorded), and therefore do not appear to contaminate the
originating thought as in writing. Philosophers have often expressed
there dislike of writing; they fear that it will destroy the authority of
philosophic truth. This Truth depends upon pure thought ( logic, ideas,
propositions) which risk contamination when written. Francis bacon
............ (Seldon, 144-145).
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