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PREFACE
Imagination is more important than knowledge Albert Einstein How to become a Researcher? is an effort to motivate young talent especially students towards R&D and harness their intellectual capabilities according to the industrial requirements. Academic institutions produce a large pool of talented manpower, but few innovations and patented products. This is because of lack of necessary technical and practical skills, lack of cultural fit and attitudes towards teamwork. Due to insufficient guidance, even faculties are unaware of latest happenings and in-turn fail to deliver research aptitude to students. The aim of this book is to provide necessary information about basics of research and the actual methodologies applied while doing research. Highlighting the details of technical writing followed by both academic and commercial research. Describing the importance of technical events and publications along with explaining the various preventive steps taken against plagiarism, infringement, counterfeits, etc. Presentation skills are also included to guide researchers to market their research ideas. The book is intended to be accessible to under-graduate and post-graduate students as well as research scholars and someone who would like to take up research either full-time / part-time or consider research as a hobby.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I take this opportunity with much pleasure to thank all the authors who have contributed their chapters to suture the content of this book. I sincerely thank Professor D. Venkat Reddy of NIT-Karnataka for his guidance, help and motivation. I would like to express my gratitude to Dr. S. D. Sivasubramaniam of Nottingham Trent University, UK for his review and many helpful suggestions. My sincere gratitude also goes to Professor K. Laxminarayana (Project Director Retd. DLRL-Hyderabad) and Dr. V. Balaram (Director Grade Scientist, NGRI) for their encouragement. Special thanks go to Suchismita Mallick for her great support in maintaining high standards of the book with her proof-read, and Pradeep Kumar Das for sharing his creative ideas that turned into the cover page of this book. I gratefully acknowledge the support from Professor Suresh Kumar, Dr. Neelima Satyam, Dinesh Pandian, Mohd Abubakr, Prakash Raju, and Nafeesa Parveen. Finally, this book How to become a Researcher? would not have been possible without the confidence, endurance and support of P. Nikhil Prakash and Raju. A
Contents
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What it takes to become a researcher? By Mohd Abubakr Awareness on Paper-presentation By Hafeez Basha. R and S. D. Sivasubramaniam Importance of Technical Programs & Publications By Raju. A Journal Publishing An inside story By Hafeez Basha. R and D. Venkat Reddy Research Methodology By Neelima Satyam Nuts and Bolts of Intellectual Property By Dinesh Pandian and P. Nikhil Prakash Presentation and Interpersonal Skills By R. Suresh Kumar
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This chapter isnt about theorems, lemmas or prepositions. This chapter is a about human phycology. To s. be precise, this chapter is about phycology of researchers and their life. We will discuss about . ab researchers, their life, the decisions they make and how a researchers can make best use of their talent. This chapter is meant for Students who want to be researchers but dont know where to start Researchers who are finding extremely difficult to determine whether they have made a right re hav decision in life by taking up research
While the primary audience is to-be researchers, however, the content presented in this chapter can be be read and enjoyed by one and all.
discoveries or inventions, a researcher must have the unquenchable thirst for knowledge, unceasing passion for discovering the truth and unending zeal to fight against failures. The greatest of ideas occur only to those who experience highest amount of failure and yet dont give up. Some say that the greatest pleasure that a human can experience is immortality. And research gives that pleasure. Successful research makes the researcher immortal. The names of researchers are echoed with respect for centuries and millennia by all civilizations. Their names become synonymous with human excellence and intellectuality. Even after 350 years since his times, the name of Newton is known to more than 3,000 million people on this planet. It speaks volumes of the fame research gives to a human being. And this is not the kind of fame that dies down with the decline of power. This is the immortal kind of fame that would remain forever. However, research is heart-breaking too. Sometimes the problems dont crack even after lifetime of effort and many researchers had lived such lives. In the rapidly changing technological fields, there is deep-throat competition on new ideas. One idea replacing another within no time is very common. Naturally, not all researchers gain the fame of the likes of Newton or Einstein. There have been numerous researchers who have produced outstanding ideas, yet they are little known outside their research circles. Though the fame depends on the kind of discovery the researcher has done, fame isnt the primary reasons why researchers do research. They do research because they want to do research. If fame follows, its not their fault! However, on many occasions, depending on the popularity of the problem, researchers know the fame it would fetch when they solve such a problem. (Ask a researcher who is trying to solve one of the Millennium problems!) The desire for such fame can be tricky. Sometimes it motivates and sometimes it distracts. Also, on many occasions, discoveries happen all of a sudden and even to the surprise of the researcher. Researcher might be solving a much lesser known problem but somehow an idea leads to discovery of much higher magnitude. Bottom line is that, researcher dont do research for fame. And those researchers who do research for fame seldom succeed. The common misconception among people is that research only relates to fields of science and technology. This is not true. Research is fundamental to all fields of knowledge, whether be it arts, sports or sciences. So what is research? Depending on your sensibility, the answer to this question can be simple or complicated. Curiosity for knowledge is natural to human beings. It is that curiosity that pushes the human being to acquire knowledge in their field of his/her interest. However, the level of curiosity and curiosity in which field of knowledge varies from person to person. Music, arts, dance, sports, science, politics, etc. are all fields of knowledge. Depending on your curiosity in that field, you choose to acquire more knowledge in that field. In any field that you choose, to be the best among that field, you need to be a researcher. The best musician invents new sounds and produces new music, the best sportsman presents new skills, the best scientist invents new machines or discovers new theories, and best politician finds new ways to fool people and so on. To be the best in any field, you need to research on the new ideas, implement them and put it on display. In this chapter, we shall be taking exclusive of scientific research. However, you can take these ideas and apply it elsewhere. Most of them are valid for non-scientific fields too. 2|Page
2 Qualities of a Researcher
In previous section, we briefly discussed about the life of researchers and how research applies to all fields. In this section, we will further probe the lives of researchers and talk about the qualities they own. Almost all researchers possess some distinct qualities compared to ordinary people. It is these qualities that help them do research even in the most hostile conditions. The qualities of researchers include guts to think and question, guts to challenge existing ideas, guts to propose new ideas, guts to accept new ideas and courage to overcome defeat. Though there isnt any rule that one must possess these qualities to be a researcher but given the fact that almost all researchers have these qualities, these qualities can be used to judge whether a person (ex: student) can be a researcher or not. Also, if you aspire to be a researcher, make sure that you have these qualities. Researchers not just exhibit these qualities while doing research but also in their day-to-day life. We shall now discuss briefly about each of these qualities and why such qualities are essential to doing pathbreaking research.
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Science needs to be improved and refined every day. The science of today is more advanced and better than science of yesterday. Similarly, if the science of future has to be better than that of todays, it needs to be improved. Improvement cannot happen if one doesnt challenge existing ideas. Sometimes the existing ideas might be wrong and such ideas needs to be replaced. An idea cannot be proved wrong until its challenged. Merely opposing an existing idea isnt challenging the idea. Keep the following guidelines in mind when you challenge existing ideas: The challenge has to happen in the mind of the researcher not necessarily in public. That is, when you understand something and say you disagree, dont instantly express your disagreement in public. Think of a solution to the problem and then challenge. Getting into unnecessary debates with your friends or teachers on existing ideas will only waste your time. Unless you are very lucky, you wont find supporters. If you have an idea, publish it. If it is scientifically correct, your friends and teachers have no other option but to accept it. Remember that, until you have something more worthy than the existing idea, people will not pay attention to your challenge. Anyone Tom, Dick and Harry can challenge. What really happens is, do you have a solution to the problem. Challenge only if you have a better solution.
Be scientific but not over confident. Dont disrespect other researchers and scientists. Let your research speak for you. Be honest about your ideas. You can fool the people but it isnt people the one who decide whether your idea is valid or not. If people had the power, politicians would have been scientists too!
to successfully invent light bulb. Let each failure serve as fuel for producing profound results. Analyze your failure and dont repeat mistakes. If you want to improve science then you need to improve every day. The greatness of the hero lies not in his skills but the villains he defeated. As a researcher, you would face many villains. Those villains will not accept your ideas; instead, they would try to suppress you and your ideas. Keep faith in your ideas. If your ideas are indeed true, they will emerge as a winner. Failure forces us to make compromises. Avoid making compromises in life as much as possible. When you face failure, people will start showing their true colors. Dont feel concerned that you are losing people. All lesser mortals die and their identity will disappear from this world. Remind yourself that you arent one among them and move on in life. Lack of funding is an excuse given by untalented or misguided people who claim to be researchers. True researchers always figure out a way to overcome lack of funding instead of using as an excuse for not producing outstanding research. Majority of great experiments were performed by researchers who had no funding. Instead they invented new devices to conduct their experiments. Also, once a researcher produces outstanding theoretical results, he/she is bound to get invited to participate in the renowned experiments.
3.1 Read
First and foremost thing as a researcher you must do is read as much as possible. Reading helps you gain knowledge and get a command over subject. Identify the textbooks in the area of your interest and start reading them. For any particular topic, if you find explanation is missing, try finding info about that topic on World Wide Web. Common misconception among students is that WWW has everything and text books are redundant. Even though a lot of information is available on WWW, in most cases it is not available at one single website. This is where the standard textbooks scores over WWW. Once, you have gone through at least two standard books in your area of interest, start reading the journals in that subject. Initially, understanding research papers can be very difficult as they are written very formally.
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Keep the following guidelines in mind when reading textbooks or journals: Start from the basics. Unless you are strong in the foundations of the subject, you wont be able to challenge existing ideas or produce new ideas. Dont hesitate to refer even to your school textbooks to get an understanding of the subject. Getting a strong hold on school mathematics is critical to do research in any branch of science. Refer to Khan Academy Online for excellent lectures on elementary topics. If you get distracted by another subject, do not hesitate to read further about it. Scientific distractions are good. You are getting distracted by something, because unknowingly you are finding it interesting. Make advantage of that. Do not set time goals on reading. Setting goals such as will finish reading a particular book in n days will not help your research. Assume that, you have all the time in the world to read the book. Maintain running notes while reading. Note down important points and questions that comes across your mind. If you come across any formula, spend time deriving that formula. The real pleasure of understanding the formula comes when you know how to derive it.
3.2 Understand
Reading a subject without understanding is of no use. A rule of thumb: if you are reading a subject and you arent being tempted to understand it then you arent interested in that subject. If thats happening with you, then choose another subject. There is no point in reading a subject when you arent interested in it. Also, to do research, you need to have a high level of understanding in that subject. There is a difference between just understanding and high level of understanding. Keep these points in mind for better understanding Every time you read an existing idea, try understanding in what conditions that idea is valid and what assumptions the author is making. Make an attempt to understand why that idea is important to the subject. Carefully note down the advantages and limitations of the idea. While doing so, you might find something that would actually improve the idea. Never disrespect or ignore an existing idea. When you disrespect or ignore an idea, you are losing valuable information. If an idea is wrong, then try replacing it with a better idea. Sometimes, for lack of better ideas, we adopt ideas which are only approximate. This doesnt mean there arent better ideas, it just that, as of now it is the best we have. Spend time understanding equations and you would start loving them.
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3.3 Question
Once you have read and understood a particular subject, you will land on any of the two paths, both taking you to different destinations. If you land on the first path, you would be completely satisfied with what you have read and understood and you would have no questions. You would be convinced whatever you have read is completely true. Or at least, you find no discrepancy in what you have read. Generally, people who take up teaching profession have landed on the first path. The second path is rather crazy. Even after reading and understanding, you wont be satisfied. You would have hundreds of questions in mind and you find that subject is incomplete. Generally, researchers land on the second path. If such researcher takes up teaching profession, instead of teaching the students about whats in the subject, such researcher would tend to focus on whats incomplete in the subject. Thats why often great researchers dont make good teachers. Richard Feynman is an exception! After reading and understanding a particular subject, if you still have lot of unanswered questions, then its the time for you to start doing research. Generally, a good idea here would be meeting an expert in the field who can answer some of your questions. However, finding an expert who can help is very difficult, at least in Indian context. In such cases, participate in discussions on online forums. Post your questions and have a constructive debate. Also, keep in mind that, on online forums, even the non-knowledgeable people pose as knowledgeable. Dont accept any answer blindly. Following are some good practices on asking questions: Before posing a question to a professor or in an online forum, give them the context on why such question is important to the subject. If you believe your question is advanced then drop an email to professors of various universities. Explain in detail on why you think such question is important. Some professors do reply. (My personal experience with Indian professors has been very bad. I wonder if majority of Indian Professors even check their emails!) Always pose the question politely. The answers that you get often depend on how you pose the question. Note that, science is not owned by anyone. If someone is defending an idea which you think is wrong, then you dont have to argue with that person. Science is not democracy. The opinion of majority doesnt matter in Science. In science, only the truth matters. So, even if majority of the people disagree with you, dont get disheartened. When nobody has answers, its an indication that, you have to find the answer through your research.
3.4 Solve
You read the subject, understood it and still you have lot of questions. What does it mean? It means that, a lot of ideas in that subject can be either improved or replaced. Its the time for you start thinking and producing answers to your questions. This is the most exciting phase of time for
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the researcher. This is the phase when the researcher is giving birth to new ideas. This is the phase when the researcher is adding his name to field of science. If there exists a question and its answer hasnt been found yet, such question is referred as problem in academic circles. To successfully complete a PhD, one must solve a problem of important nature. A famous quote is that, a researcher doesnt choose a problem to solve, the problem choses the researcher. The meaning of the quotation is not that, a researcher will be assigned to solve a problem but rather it means, unknowing the researcher will be led to solving such problem. To produce outstanding research, you have to choose a problem that you find interesting. Unless you find pleasure in working on that problem, you wont be able to dedicate your uninterrupted attention towards it. Following are some good practices on solving the problems: As a researcher, you should find abundant open problems in this universe. Pick the problem that gives you immense pleasure in solving. o Note for PhD students: Dont choose the problem because your guide wants it to solve. Choose the problem that you would find pleasure in solving. Believe in yourself that you are going to solve the problem no matter what. People would try to bring down your confidence, dont give up. For every solution you arrive, note down carefully all conditions and assumptions you are making. Frequently discuss about the problem with someone who has no knowledge about the problem. Explain the problem to such person and tell them why its important. Often such discussion leads to a solution. Take criticism constructively. Whenever someone critics your approach or solution, take some time out to think, why you are being criticized. All great researchers face criticism, so dont be disappointed or frustrated at criticizers remarks. Dont reduce the scope of the problem by making unnecessary assumptions. Dont pressurize yourself by setting time-limits for solving the problem. Sometimes, solving the problem can be frustrating. You might find it far more complex than you actually expected it to be. Naturally, you would get angry because of it, which might affect your personal life. If you are in a relationship, it might affect it too. If your partner doesnt understand your situation, then you might have to choose between your partner and the problem. (Remember that, you can get a partner after you solve the problem, but once you lose the problem, you cant get it!) Remember that, solution requires just one idea and such idea can arrive at any time. Make sure that, you note down every idea you get. Many times, new ideas arrive at odd times and we tend to forget them. Its really difficult to recollect them again. When you are trying to solve a problem, it is always a good idea to start writing a book in that subject. If you end-up solving the problem, the book will serve as a reference in that field. 9|Page
3.5 Publish
The most difficult phase in the life of the researcher is publish phase. After a researcher solves a problem, he/she has to publish the solution in a standard journal or a conference. Keep the following guidelines in mind while publishing papers: After you complete your paper, think about which journal suits your paper. Top journals accept only those papers which present solutions to important problems. Dont be over ambitious. Know the type of problem you have solved. Depending on the value of the problem you have solved, select an appropriate journal. Make sure that you are submitting the paper to a journal of considerable repute. Read the papers published by that journal before submitting your paper to it. Now-a-days, a lot of journals are advertising themselves using a term called impactfactor. Dont let such advertisements make you fooled. Impact-factor can be inflated and is not a testimonial for the quality of the journal. Most of the journals have Editorial committees for namesake. Dont make a decision of submitting your paper to that journal just because it has so and so member in its editorial committee. Rate the journal based on its readership than based on impact-factor. Publishing your paper in a journal of high impact factor doesnt guarantee citations for your paper. Your paper gets citations only when it makes significant contribution to that subject. A good paper published in a journal that has sufficient readership is bound to attract large audience. If your paper gets rejected, it doesnt necessarily mean your solution is wrong. It could be because you havent been able to express yourself properly. Polish your words and try to be as clear as possible. Take feedback about your writing style from a nontechnical person. Simplicity of writing is a hallmark of all great researchers.
Approach only those professors who are actively pursuing research in the field of your interest. Someone who has done PhD several years ago and hasnt kept himself/herself updated with current research wont be able to guide you on research. Approaching such professors will be waste of your time.
Generally, the research-oriented professors are the ones who regularly visit journals section of your university library. Good teachers might not be good researchers. Therefore, dont approach a professor just because he/she is teaching a particular subject very well. That professor might just be doing a teaching job but not research. Generally, good teachers tend to defend the stuff written in books rather than critically pointing the problematic areas where further research is needed.
Search the name of the concerned professor on internet. If he/she has published quality research papers, then you should be able to find several links pointing to the papers. Read about the research done by your professor. You would be able to get some idea on the knowledge of the professor.
Read at least two papers written by the professor before approaching. If you arent able download/obtain the papers written by him/her, then approach the professor for those papers. Note that, if the papers are readily available for download and yet you have approached the professor for a copy of those papers, he/she would consider you dumb and incapable to do research. In this modern era, a student who cant search and find content on internet, cant do research. If a student cant find the content thats already available, how can you expect such student to discover new content?
While reading the papers written by the professor, make sure you take down some notes. When you approach the professor, those notes would be highly useful during the conversation with the professor.
Before you approach the professor for a conversation, take an appointment. Before you start the conversation, ask the professor whether he is busy with some other work. When you approach the professor for guidance, dont directly start the conversation by stating what you need. Good professors will guide you only when they find the intellectual spark in the conversation. Discuss the latest paper you have read and the related research ideas you have. Agreeing to every idea proposed by the professor is not the trait of a researcher. Ask questions and dont be afraid to debate on an idea. Good professors love intellectual debates.
During the first conversation itself, if the professor tilts the discussion towards research funding or bureaucratic work, then he/she isnt capable of guiding you for research. A good professor always discusses ideas during first conversation.
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He is currently working at Microsoft India as performance engineer. Though settled in Hyderabad, Abubakr is an avid traveller and has travelled to four different continents. When at Hyderabad, he lives with his telescope, an SLR camera and a motorbike.
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Every year above 5, 00,000 engineers are passing out from the 1500 technical colleges as per the details from the formal technical education board of India. Populace has started misinterpreting that engineering and technical courses have just turned into a simple graduation degree leading to fall in quality education. Getting into an engineering college has become so simple that it is now difficult by a fresher to crack corporate entry with good job profile and salary. Top policy makers are worried that post graduate studies in engineering are abysmally low and only about 5% of the engineering graduates continue to complete M-Tech and, of these only 3% go on to do a doctorate. This not only causes a severe shortage of qualified faculty, it also blunts the edge in research and innovation. Here comes the need of academic research and investigation in various areas of science and engineering that can add value to the technical education. Creating research interests among the young talents can ignite great innovations. This chapter inculcates such interests among students which will guide them with basic information and awareness on paper presentation. The four major queries that students generally ask about paper presentation are:
What is a Paper? How to write Research Papers? Where to submit Papers? Benefits of Paper Presentation / Publication
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2.2b General Steps for preparing an academic research paper: 2.2b.1 Title
This is an opening and important part of a paper because this would bring the readers to be interested in your article. The authors should always try choosing a catchy title and use good punctuation and grammar. Therefore this should be as attractive as possible. However it should truly reflect your scientific work; in other words what you have achieved by doing this work. Avoid giving general titles. For example, The effects of serotonin in placental vascular reactivity is a better heading than placental vascular reactivity because the former one is specific to the work carried out and the data obtained.
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How to become a Researcher? Sometimes scientists start working with the belief that they would obtain positive results (or a positive co-relation); however the data and the statistical analysis may have given a negative interpretation. In this case there is no harm in giving a negative heading (e.g. Substance P does not produce vascular relaxation in placental vessels). This is perfectly acceptable as it truly reflects the data obtained.
Name and Details of authors mentioning the department, name of organization, postal and digital address
2.2b.3 Abstract
An abstract is a brief summary of a research article that summarises the major aspects of the entire paper. It usually has the limit of 250 to 500 words. Therefore it should be brief with the following prescribed sequence; The research question(s) and the purpose (from Introduction) - State the purpose very clearly in the first or second sentence. Information about the experimental design and methods used, (from Methods) - Clearly express the basic design of the study (without giving excessive details). The major findings including key quantitative results, or trends (from Results) - Report the data that give answers to the research questions A brief summary of the interpretations and conclusions. (from Discussion) - Clearly state the implications of the data should be clearly stated.
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Abstracts are widely and readily available to the scientific community via internet, and therefore it should be concise and make an impact on to the readers. Avoid lengthy background information or references to other literature, abbreviations or terms that may be confusing to readers, and any sort of illustration, figure, or table.
2.2b.4 Introduction
The function of the introduction is to establish the context of the work being reported. It should discuss the relevant primary research literature (with citations) and a summary of current understanding of the problem which is being investigated. It should describe what has been carried out in this field and highlight the importance of current investigation. State the purpose of the work in the form of the hypothesis, question, or problem you have investigated. Briefly explain the rationale, the approach and the possible outcome that this study can reveal. Relevant information from original research articles should be used to build-up the introduction. Most importantly give credit to the original authors by citing them (and giving details of the whole article in the reference section).
2.2b.5 Methodology
This is the easiest section to write in a paper. Methods have been carried out by the authors in their investigation and therefore they should remember it. However make it a pint to describe the protocol in sufficient detail that other scientists could repeat this work to verify the findings. This section should also include details of hypotheses tested, controls, treatments, variables measured, how many replicates, what was measured, what form the data, and how the data was analysed (statistical analysis). Always identify treatments by the variable or treatment name, NOT by an ambiguous, generic name or number. If the paper includes more than one experiment, use subheadings to help the presentation. 18 | P a g e
2.2b.6 Results
This section should contain the key (but not all) results without any form of interpretation. It should be presented in a logical sequence using illustrative materials (Tables and Figures) to support the text. Summaries of the statistical analyses may appear either in the text (usually parenthetically) or in the relevant tables or figures (in the legend or as footnotes to the table or figures). The text of the results section follows the sequence of tables, graphs and figures to highlight the answers to the questions investigated. Important negative results should be reported, too. Write the text of the Results section concisely and objectively in passive voice. Always use the past tense, as the results have already been obtained. Avoid repetitive paragraph structures. Do not interpret the data here.
2.2b.7 Discussion
This is the major and the most difficult section to write. This is the place where the results should be interpreted and critically analyzed in relation to published data. Try to explain how the results have improved the understandings of the subject or problem. The discussion should always connect to the introduction by way of the question(s) or hypotheses in the literature cited. Note this is not a simple repeat or rearrangement of the Introduction. Instead, it tells how this study has moved the scientific community forward. Following questions may help to structure the discussion Do these results provide answers to the testable hypotheses? If so, how it can be interpreted? Do these findings agree with what others have shown? If not, is there any alternative explanation for this finding; or are there any un-foreseen design flaws in the current experiment? What would be the next step in this study (e.g., what experiments can be carried out next? This is important as it tells the reader that the authors intend to continue this investigation in future.
2.2b.7 Conclusion
Finally try to explain what conclusions can be drawn from this study. Always remember most of the investigations do not give any clear conclusions (if so, then there is no future for this investigation!). Therefore avoid sentences like from these results it can be concluded instead use the data from this study suggest. Now days it is extremely difficult to conclusively and flawlessly prove anything in science.
2.2b.8 Acknowledgements
If, in your experiment, you received any significant help in designing, or carrying out the work, or received materials from someone who did you a favour by supplying them, you must acknowledge their assistance and the service or material provided.
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2.3.2 Conferences
In most cases a conference is considered as a meeting for exchange of information with a formal agenda. An academic conference is such a program for researchers to present and discuss their work. Conferences provide an important channel for exchange of information between researchers with the participation of professionals from research centres, government organizations, corporate agencies, and people from industrial sector apart from academicians and students. Further details of Conferences can be found in 3.2 page-26
2.3.3 Publications
If an author desires to make his/her content available to the public, the research work may have to be submitted to organizations involved in publications. However the author of a work remains the initial owner who in turn can transfer its ownership to others. In academic publishing the research work is generally submitted in the form a manuscript for possible publication in a scientific journal or a technical magazine. Further details of Journals can be found in 3.6 page-31
2.3.4 Patents
Apart from academic research the authors should also be aware of how to commercialize his/her research. Since every innovation involves years of research, huge resources, energy, and time of a researcher it is important to focus on the outcome of the work. A patent is an exclusive right given by law to inventors to make use of, and exploit, their inventions for a limited period of time. By granting the inventor a temporary monopoly in exchange for a full description of how to perform the invention, patents play a key role in developing industry around the world. Further details of Patents can be found in 6.2 page-55
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How to become a Researcher? The following are some of the benefits that a researcher can avail: Distinguished Student / Engineer Increases employment potential Enhances your career Appreciation from College / University Well respected by Academicians Considered for technical committees Will stand unique among fellow students Remembered by Mentors / Guides Awards & Recognition
Other benefits of paper presentation and publishing include: Promoting creativity and critical thinking skills Encouraging collaborative learning Refining communication skills Developing enthusiasm for scholarly pursuits Feelings of competence and familiarity with the entire research process Obtaining feedback from independent reviewers
2.5 Plagiarism
Plagiarism has long been a problem in education which is further aggravated by the advent of the internet and the worldwide. Therefore, Higher Education institutions in the developed countries are following certain rules in academic writing. A working knowledge of these rules is critically important for undergraduates (and postgraduates) to avoid plagiarism. The concept of undergraduate plagiarism is well focused and researched. However, the information on plagiarism at school level is limited. One recent study on avoiding plagiarism at secondary school level has concluded that attempts should be made to engage the students to evade plagiarism (McGregor and Williamson, 2005). Therefore, when an undergraduate enters the university he/she may be unaware of good academic practice and methods needed to avoid plagiarism. The universities in developing countries may not be so insistent on documenting sources or the concept of plagiarism. These institutions, as Yamada (2003) puts, may also take into consideration of (a) students inability to understand the new concepts which are mainly written in English - a language other than their mother tongue and (b) their cultural beliefs. Most of the universities are incorporating lectures, seminars and student workshops to enhance the ability of all students (both home and especially international) to understand plagiarism and most importantly how to avoid it. This is carried out via implementation of institutions policies without evidence that these formative lectures/seminars are actually improving the students academic writing skills. 22 | P a g e
How to become a Researcher? Since learning and writing in a second language is a continuous process, it is not clear whether these one day seminars can help the students to improve their academic writing skills. This study aims to investigate whether formative lectures alone would (a) enhance the students understanding of plagiarism and (b) improve their academic writing and avoidance of plagiarism.
References:
[1] Notes on "Gathering information for essays which require research" from State University of New York Empire State College http://www.esc.edu [2] Robert A. Day and Barbara Gastel - How to write and publish a scientific paper? Sixth Edition, Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org/9780521671675 [3] Stephen Bailey - Academic Writing: A Handbook for International Students (Routledge Study Guides) [Paperback]. [4] John Swales , Christine B. Feak - Academic Writing for Graduate Students: Essential Tasks and Skills (Michigan Series in English for Academic & Professional Purposes) [Paperback]. [5] James Hartley - Academic Writing and Publishing: A Practical Handbook [Paperback] [6] Beasley, JD (2004) The impact of technology on plagiarism prevention and detection: research process automation a new approach for prevention Proceedings on Plagiarism: prevention, Practice & Policy (eds) Smith AP and Duggan F (Plagiarism Advisory Service) 23-30. [7] Brogan KM and Brogan JD (1983) Yet another ethical problem in technical writing. [8] ERIC, Reviewed in Pecorari (2003) [9] Currie, P (1998) Staying out of trouble: Apparent plagiarism and academic survival. Journal of Second Language Writing, 7(1) 1-18. [10]Deckert, GD (1993) Perspectives on plagiarism from ESL students in Hong Kong Journal of Second Language Writing, 2(2), 131-148 [11]Howard, RM (1995) Plagiarism, authorships, and the academic death penalty College English 57, 788-806 [12]Sivasubramaniam, SD (2004) Plagiarism amongst biomedical science undergraduates concerned academics versus ignorant students. Proceedings on Plagiarism: prevention, Practice & Policy (eds) Smith AP and Duggan F (Plagiarism Advisory Service) 205-224.
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Hafeez Basha. R
He served as Advisory / Technical member in various expert committees and even organized International Conferences and Technical Symposiums. He is also Managing Editor for International Journals published by CafetInnova Technical Society an international non-profit organization helping the scientific community.
Dr. Shiva Das Sivasubramaniam is module leader and research supervisor for M.Sc and Ph. D projects, course developer for pharmacology and physiology and International student recruitment officer at School of Science & Technology, Nottingham Trent University, UK. His research interests include Pre-eclampsia and pre-natal medicine. He is serving as Vice-President of Cafet-Innova Technical Society and Editor-inChief for International Journal of Biological Sciences and Engineering. He is also an Advisor for plagiarism prevention, assisting students to avoid plagiarism at Nottingham Trent University, UK.
S. D. Sivasubramaniam
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Participation in technical programs and presenting research papers is very essential for students, researchers, scientists, academicians and professors. This chapter gives an insight on the importance of such technical programs with clarity on each type of program and its significance. Technical symposiums, conferences, workshops, seminars and guest lectures are some of the most common technical programs. The main reason to have a separate chapter on importance of technical programs and publications is to give lucidity in identifying a particular program and distinguishing it with other programs. There are situations where the event is organized as a workshop but it turns out to be a symposium or a seminar. This chapter shall help the organizers in correctly taking up the technical program and conduct the event accordingly.
How to become a Researcher? The invitation for the participants may be in the form of brochures, pamphlets, posters, emails etc. Ex: International Engineering Symposium 2011(IES 2011) organized by Kumamoto University, JAPAN on 3rd - 5th March, 2011 It intends to provide a common platform for bringing together researchers from universities and research organizations in India and Japan for expanding academic collaboration. This event focuses on the current research and development activities in both countries on topics of current interest, with special emphasis on Engineering & Technology. It is expected that the emerging technologies and scientific advancements in these themes will be disseminated during the Symposium. Presentations will also feature new and innovative technologies in the relevant fields.34th International Symposium on Remote Sensing of Environment on April 10-15, 2011 at Sydney, Australia.
3.2 Conferences
An academic conference is a large gathering of students, researchers, scientists, academicians and professors along with participation from industry and corporate companies to share their ideas and research work. The conferences are generally organized by academic institutions, colleges, universities, Government bodies or non-profit scientific societies and professional bodies. Conferences provide an important channel for exchange of information between researchers together with academic or scientific journals. Conferences are mainly of three categories:
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3.2.7 Sponsors
The identity of the sponsors is an indicator of the quality of the conference. The conferences organized by commercial companies go for profit-making and the papers presented at such conferences are generally of lower quality. In most cases, conferences sponsored by professional bodies, non-profit societies, universities or groups of academics are worth participating.
3.2.8 Location
Location of the conference is an important factor for the success of the event. Major conferences held in capital cities are often easier to attend in terms of transport and accommodation. Huge participation can be expected for such conferences, unlike the one organized in remote places.
3.2.9 Theme
If the conference covers a broad area, it is likely that the audience will be bigger, with added benefits in terms of exposure and networking. At the same time, it may be hard to find participants with a serious interest in particular area of research. A smaller conference tends to be more tightly focused and is possible that you will find yourself in closer contact with the experts in your field. You will need to strike a balance in such cases. 28 | P a g e
3.2.10
Benefits:
Attending conferences is a critical part of scientific networking in these days. However, you will gain the most benefit if you present a paper as the conference papers are a means by which you can attract the attention of potential experts and influence academic debate in your field. Some other benefits of presenting a conference paper include: A higher personal profile Early dissemination of the results of your research Opportunities to receive useful criticism Experience in the process of peer-review Interact with well experienced people Lean more advanced trends in your research
How to become a Researcher? The educational institutions generally organize national workshops for their students and faculty developments. Sometimes well institutions collaborate with foreign universities and organize international workshops on advanced research areas. These brings good exposure for those organizations and participants also get enormous knowledge from those training programs and participants should have an excellent opportunity to learn highly advanced technologies in their research areas.
3.4 Seminars
Seminar is generally a large lecture by an expert in the particular area or subject. It is generally organized by academic institution or professional or commercial organization. These seminars start vfrom class room and ends at international. Seminars are generally technical and general seminars. Technical seminars are mainly covers advanced trends and applications of technical topics such as Technical Seminar on Computer Aided Design or Geographical Information System or Embedded Systems etc. A Seminar, according to Webster's dictionary, is a group of advanced students studying under a professor with each 0doing original research and all exchanging results through reports and discussions. A presentation is more like a lecture, a speech, or a sales presentation, made by one person, usually with the opportunity for the audience to ask a few questions afterwards. A seminar is more like a workshop, where the presenter offers some information in a participatory learning setting, and the participants discuss among each other and/or ask questions of the presenter. Then they move on to the next topic. Seminar and Presentation are two different things. Seminar is based on a theme whereas presentation is based on a subject. There can be many presentations in a seminar. A seminar can be whole day affair whereas a presentation is short. In short, a presentation can be a subset of a seminar whereas the reverse is not true. I would expect a seminar to be more educational than a presentation. In t seminar everyone has an equal right to be heard and an equal responsibility for keeping the seminar working properly. The most difficult and important skill in effective seminar participation is good listening. You need to attend carefully to what others are saying. And then you need to learn to respond intelligently and helpfully. A seminar is not just a collection of individual points of view declared one after the other. It has a rhythm, often an unpredictable rhythm, which is established, above all, by the ways in which the participants respond to each other. If someones contribution is puzzling, then ask him to continue, taking care of a particular trouble you have with a point he raised. If the contribution is very good, tell the speaker so. If you disagree or have an alternative point, then put that on the table. As in a conversation, in a seminar the participant has to be prepared to be flexible, adjusting her participation to what is happening moment by moment throughout the seminar. This is the major challenge of the process.
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How to become a Researcher? An editorial board includes a number of referees (also known as reviewers) who are responsible for reviewing and evaluating the submitted papers. Having reviewed a paper, each referee independently advises the editor whether to accept or to reject the paper. This is usually done using a peer review form provided by the editor. However, nal decisions are made by the editor. It is common practice that editors assign external referees to review submissions, for example when the referees of the editorial board do not have appropriate expertise to make constructive comments on a particular paper. The most important function of an editor (can also be a group of persons) is to make the nal decision whether to accept or to reject a submitted paper. Indeed, the comments of the referees just serve as suggestions. Nevertheless, as the editor alone would not be able to review and comment on all submissions in detail, he usually relies on the advice of his editorial board, where he can choose from a pool of experts in diverse elds of the journals main topics. If there is consensus on acceptance or rejection, the editors life is fairly easy. It becomes dicult only when there is signicant disagreement in the reviewers suggestions. In such a case the editor may make a nal decision based on the own opinion or after consulting additional referees. Completion of Research
Fig. The process of publishing a paper in a journal Journals are generally divided in to two types; one is national journals and another is International journals. National Journal are belongs to one nation or country, these publish articles or research papers with in the country. International Journals are worldwide journal they can publish research papers from all over the world.
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References
[1]. Yuksel, A.: Writing publishable papers. Tourism Management (In Press) [2]. National Institute for Regional and Spatial Analysis: Questions editors are often asked. http://www.may.ie/nirsa/geo-pub/geo-editors.html (2003) [3]. Davis, M.: Scientic Papers and Presentations. Academic Press, San Diego (1997) [4]. Day, R.A.: How to Write and Publish a Scientic Paper. Second edn. ISI Press, Philadelphia (1983) [5]. Dees, R.: Writing the Modern Research Paper. Second edn. Allyn & Bacon, Boston (1997) [6]. American Psychological Association: Apa style. http://www.apastyle.org/ pubmanual.html (2003)
Raju. A
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Publishing research work is very essential for researchers in their academic pursuit. It is therefore important to know the editorial policies of a particular journal before he submits his research work. After the submission of manuscript the researcher should also be aware of review process so that there will be transparency in the evaluat evaluation. The author should receive the feedback positively from the referee and develop the manuscript based on the suggestions to meet the journal standards. This chapter gives the methodology followed in general, by most of the publishers to evaluate the manuscripts. The researchers will manuscripts. get a better idea to submit quality papers which would easily clear the review process and get accepted for publication. Abstracting and Indexing process which is done post publication is also equally important for post-publication both researchers and publishers. This chapter shall discuss how a researcher can make use of this process during his data search while preparing manuscripts and also how important is his research work if it gets indexed. Publishing research papers in journals with greater impact factor adds value to researchers for their research work. But the actual story behind the impact factor calculation is known to very less people involved in teaching and research. This chapter shall cover all details of citations and impact factor calculation which will be useful to researchers in choosing the publication for pact their research work.
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4.1
The legislation, programs and practices that govern the publication of research work are called as editorial policies. In simple it is a principle or rule to guide the researchers to submit their manuscripts based on the requirements of the publishers. The principal criteria used to evaluate contributions are:
The contribution must present scientific findings that are original, i.e., they must not have appeared elsewhere and must not be under consideration by any other publication. The contribution must be scientifically constrained, i.e., any interpretations made or conclusions drawn must be based on the objective evaluation of scientific data. There must be effective separation of scientific facts and observations from interpretations and inferences. The article should make a contribution toward our deeper understanding of processes, broadly defined.
How to become a Researcher? text. The format of references can be obtained in any issue and the names of journals should be spelled out in full. Papers in preparation and submitted cannot be used as references. Please make a careful crosscheck of the reference list against citations in the text. Tables should be compiled on separate sheets and designed to fit across a single or double column width of the journal page. Use of decimal points, rather than commas, is required for all reported numbers. Illustrations should be legible and contain only relevant information. Place names and other locations mentioned in the text must appear clearly on maps. Clear instructions must be provided on how mathematical symbols and equations should be printed. For Greek and non-Roman letters, authors must identify the symbol in words the first time it is used. Receipt of manuscripts will be acknowledged by e-mail or by post if an e-mail address is not provided.
4.2
Review Process:
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____________________________________________________________________ (Title of the article) Do hereby authorize you to publish the above said article in the International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering published by CAFET-INNOVA Technical Society, Hyderabad, India I/We further state that: 1) The Article is my/our original contribution. It does not infringe on the rights of others and does not contain any libelous or unlawful statements. 2) Wherever required I/We have taken permission and acknowledged the source. 3) The work has been submitted only to International Journal of Earth Science and Engineering. CAFET-INNOVA Technical Society, Hyderabad, India 4) That it has not been previously published or submitted elsewhere for publication. 5) I/We hereby authorize you to edit, alter, modify and make changes in the Article to make it suitable for publication. 6) I/We hereby assign all the copyrights relating to the said Article to the CAFET-INNOVA Technical Society, Hyderabad, India. 7) I/We have not assigned any kind of rights of the above said Article to any other person/Publications. (Signature) Name of the Authors: 38 | P a g e
Item Originality of the work Scientific relevance Engineering /technological relevance Completeness of the work(-Field-lab) Organization of the manuscript Clarity in abstract, manuscript writing, tables, graphs and illustrations Acknowledgement of the work of others by references
Poor
Average
Good
Honours
Item Does the manuscript fall within the scope of the (IJEE) journal? Are you aware of prior publication or presentation of this work? In your opinion, is the technical treatment free of errors? Is the paper too lengthy Is the English grammar and punctuation good? Any other ( )
YES
NO
Recommendation Honours quality Acceptable in the same form Acceptable with minor modifications Acceptable with major revisions* (review required after revision) NOT ACCEPTABLE* *Justify for not accepting the paper
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How to become a Researcher? Comments by Reviewer: Modifications in manuscript before publication/further work I have gone through the above paper which presents the physicochemical characteristics of ore fluids associated with the Kallur copper deposit. My general remark is that approach of this type to understand role of fluids involved in the copper mineralization is appreciable. This paper presents the results of specific interest. Except for the minor modification which is required for the ultimate publication of the paper, the paper deserves publication in the journal. My other specific comments are marked in the text, tables, and diagrams and figure itself. The paper may be accepted for publication once the changes are incorporated. Date: Name of the reviewer / Referee: Email: NOTE: (name will be deleted-before sending authors)
4.3
This is a post-publication process done by various Abstracting and Indexing service organizations in order to avoid researchers, to manually search the journal articles of their interest by looking through various physical journals or consulting literature overviews. Since most of the journals are published electronically, the data can be searched through internet hence minimizing the time of the researcher in acquiring related data to his research. At the same time being represented in an Abstracting and Indexing services is an essential factor for the success of journal publishers. The abstracting and indexing are practical arts and have two general purposes i.e. minimizing the time & effort and maximizing the searching success. The function of an index is to give users systematic and effective shortcuts to the information they need. Some of the most important and few abstracting and indexing organizations that cover all disciplines are Google Scholar and Thomson Reuters ISI Web of knowledge. While the well known discipline specific indexing service include PubMed/Medline (in the field of medicine), ChemAbstracts (chemistry), ADS (astronomy & physics), Zentralblatt fr Mathematik (mathematics), among many others.
4.4
Citation:
A citation is an enumeration that quotes a reference to a precedent by acknowledging the relevance of others works. It represents the conceptual association of scientific ideas where the authors of a research paper make explicit linkages between their current research and prior work. However there is a difference in terminology between citation and reference. The reference is generally included in the current paper acknowledging the previous work. Also that particular previous work now will have a citation in the current paper, which will be recorded. Similarly there is a variation in the words cited and citing. The cited work is a paper that has been mentioned in the references of other works, while the citing work is the one that contains the references. 40 | P a g e
The basic citation data gives the number of articles published during that year and the number of times the articles in the journal were cited during the year by later articles in itself and other journals. It also gives detailed tables showing: The number of times the articles in the journal were cited during the year by later articles in itself and other journals. The number of citations made from articles published in the journal that year to it and other specific individual journals during each of the most recent ten years. The number of times articles published in the journal during each of the most recent ten years were cited by individual specific journals during the year
4.5
Impact Factor:
The Impact Factor (IF) is a measure of the frequency with which the average article in a journal has been cited in a particular year or period. In a given year, the impact factor of a journal is the average number of citations received per paper published in that journal during the two preceding years. However this is not a measure for the quality of research work done in a particular paper.
4.5.1a
The Journal Impact Factor is calculated by dividing the number of current year citations to the source items published in that journal during the previous two years. If A represents total number of cites in a current year, B represents the number of cites to articles published in previous two years, and C represents the number of articles published in previous two years, then the Impact Factor is given by the ratio of B to C.
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How to become a Researcher? Example: A = total cites in 2007 B = 2007 cites to articles published in 2005-2006 (this is a subset of A) C = number of articles published in 2005-2006 D = B/C = 2007 Impact Factor However the impact factor for the year 2007 will be published in 2008 Important Note: New journals, which are indexed from their first published issue, will receive an impact factor after two years of indexing; in this case, the citations to the year prior to Volume 1, and the number of articles published in the year prior to Volume 1 are known zero values. Journals that are indexed starting with a volume other than the first volume will not get an impact factor until they have been indexed for three years.
4.5.1b
An alternative five-year impact can be calculated based on adding citations in 2003-2007 articles published in the same five-year period. And yet another is possible by selecting one or two earlier years as factor B. A = citations in 2007 to articles published in 2002-2006 B = articles published in 2002-2006 C = A/B = five-year impact factor
4.5.1c
A = citations in 2007 to articles published in 2005-2006 B = 2007 self-citations to articles published in 2005-2006 C = A - B = total citations minus self-citations to recent articles D = number of articles published 2005-2006 E = revised impact factor (C/D)
4.5.1d
A = 1992 citations to articles published in 2005-2006 (a1 + a2) A1 = those for new title A2 = those for superseded title B = number of articles published in 2005-2006 (B1 + B2) B1 = those for new title B2 = those for superseded title C = unified impact factor (A/B) C1 = A1/B1 = Impact factor for the new title C2 = A2/B2 = Impact factor for the superseded title 42 | P a g e
References:
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] Price D. J. D. Little science, big science...and beyond. New York: Columbia University Press, 1986. 301 p. Small H. G. Cited documents as concept symbols. Soc. Stud. Sci. 8:327-40, 1978. Merton R. K. Foreword. (Garfield E) Citation indexingits theory and application in science, technology, and the humanities. Philadelphia: ISI Press, 1983. p. vi. Kochen M. How do we acknowledge intellectual debts? J. Doc. 43:54-64, 1987. Urey H. C. Lifelike forms in meteorites. Science 137:623-8, 1962. Selye H. General adaptation syndrome. J. Clin. Endocrinol. 6:117-230, 1946. Gray W. A. & Harley A. J. Computer assisted indexing. Inform. Storage Retrieval 7:167-74, 1971. Garfield E. & Sher I. H. KeyWords Plusalgorithmic derivative indexing. J. Amer. Soc. Inform. Sci. 44:298-9, 1993. Martyn J. Unwitting duplication of research. New Sci. 21:338, 1964.Gross P L K, Gross E M. College libraries and chemical education. Science 66:385-9, 1927. Brodman E. Methods of choosing physiology journals. Bull. Med. Libr. Assn. 32:479-83, 1944. Garfield E. Citation analysis as a tool in journal evaluation. Science 178:471-9, 1972. Citation indexing for studying science. Nature 227:669-71, 1970. Which medical journals have the greatest impact? Ann. Intern. Med. 105:313-20, 1986 http://ccp.wkpharma.com/pdfs/CCPolicy.PDF 2010 Wolters Kluwer
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Hafeez Basha. R did his B-Tech in Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, JNTU Hyderabad and M-Tech in Computer Science Engineering from Acharya Nagarjuna University, Guntur. He is recipient of Young Scientist Award and was earlier Research Engineer Trainee at Pentagram Research Centre. He is currently working as Research Analyst with the scientific division of Thomson Reuters, worlds leading Information company that accelerates research, scientific discovery and innovation globally.
Hafeez Basha. R
He served as Advisory / Technical member in various expert committees and even organized International Conferences and Technical Symposiums. He is also Managing Editor for International Journals published by Cafet-Innova Technical Society an international non-profit organization helping the scientific community.
Professor D. Venkat Reddy did his M.Sc (Geology) and M.Sc (Tech) Hydrogeology from Osmania University, Hyderabad. He obtained his Ph. D in Geology from the same University and currently working as Professor in Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology (NIT), Karnataka. He is serving as President of Cafet-Innova Technical Society and Editor-inChief for International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering. He is also Associate Editor for Dream Earth publication, Journal Pradushan Nirmulan and Drilling world along with expert in the field of geology in allexperts.com He is member of International Gondwana Research Association (Japan), Geological Society of India, Indian Geological Congress, Mineralogical Society of India, and Indian Society of Technical Education.
D. Venkat Reddy
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If we knew what it was we were doing, it would not be called research, would it?? - Albert Einstein (1879-1955) (1879
Introduction
The way in which research is conducted may be conceived of in terms of the research philosophy subscribed to, the research strategy employed and so the research instruments utilized (and perhaps developed) in the pursuit of a goal - the research objective(s) - and the quest for the solution of a problem i.e., the research question. Research is an academic activity and as such the term should be used in a technical sense. According to Clifford Woody research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting, organizing and evaluating data; ating making deductions and reaching conclusions; and at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis. D. Slesinger and M. Stephenson in the Encyclopedia of Stephenson Social Sciences define research as the manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of generalizing to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in construction of theory or in the practice of an art.Research is, thus, an original contribution to the existing stock of ice knowledge making for its advancement. It is the pursuit of truth with the help of study, observation, comparison and experiment. In short, the search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of finding solution to a problem is research. The systematic approach concerning generalization and the formulation of a theory is also research. As such the term research refers to the systematic method consisting of enunciating the problem, formulating a hypothesis, collecting the facts or data, ciating , analyzing the facts and reaching certain conclusions either in the form of solutions(s) towards the concerned problem or in certain generalizations for some theoretical formulation.
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5.1
Research Philosophy
A research philosophy is a belief about the way in which data about a phenomenon should be gathered, analysed and used. The term epistemology (what is known to be true) as opposed to doxology (what is believed to be true) encompasses the various philosophies of research approach. The purpose of science, then, is the process of transforming things believed into things known: doxa to episteme. Two major research philosophies have been identified in the Western tradition of science, namely positivist (sometimes called scientific) and interpretivist (also known as antipositivist) (Galliers, 1991).
5.1.1 Positivism
Positivists believe that reality is stable and can be observed and described from an objective viewpoint (Levin, 1988), i.e. without interfering with the phenomena being studied. They contend that phenomena should be isolated and that observations should be repeatable. This often involves manipulation of reality with variations in only a single independent variable so as to identify regularities in, and to form relationships between, some of the constituent elements of the social world. Predictions can be made on the basis of the previously observed and explained realities and their inter-relationships. "Positivism has a long and rich historical tradition. It is so embedded in our society that knowledge claims not grounded in positivist thought are simply dismissed as ascientific and therefore invalid" (Hirschheim, 1985, p.33). This view is indirectly supported by Alavi and Carlson (1992) who, in a review of 902 IS research articles, found that all the empirical studies were positivist in approach. Positivism has also had a particularly successful association with the physical and natural sciences. There has, however, been much debate on the issue of whether or not this positivist paradigm is entirely suitable for the social sciences (Hirschheim, 1985), many authors calling for a more pluralistic attitude towards research methodologies (Kuhn, 1970; Bjrn-Andersen, 1985; Remenyi and Williams, 1996). Indeed, some of the difficulties experienced in research, such as the apparent inconsistency of results, may be attributed to the inappropriateness of the positivist paradigm for the domain. Likewise, some variables or constituent parts of reality might have been previously thought un-measurable under the positivist paradigm and hence went unresearched (after Galliers, 1991).
5.1.2 Interpretivism
Interpretivists contend that only through the subjective interpretation of and intervention in reality can that reality be fully understood. The study of phenomena in their natural environment is key to the interpretivist philosophy, together with the acknowledgement that scientists cannot avoid affecting those phenomena they study. They admit that there may be many interpretations of reality, but maintain that these interpretations are in themselves a part of the scientific knowledge they are pursuing. Interpretivism has a tradition that is no less glorious than that of positivism, nor is it shorter.
How to become a Researcher? Laboratory experiments permit the researcher to identify precise relationships between a small number of variables that are studied intensively via a designed laboratory situation using quantitative analytical techniques with a view to making generalisable statements applicable to real-life situations. The key weakness of laboratory experiments is the "limited extent to which identified relationships exist in the real world due to oversimplification of the experimental situation and the isolation of such situations from most of the variables that are found in the real world"(Galliers, 1991, p.150). Field experiments extend laboratory experiments into real organisations and their real life situations, thereby achieving greater realism and diminishing the extent to which situations can be criticised as contrived. In practice it is difficult to identify organisations that are prepared to be experimented on and still more difficult to achieve sufficient control to make replication viable. Table 1 - Taxonomy of Research Methodologies Scientific/Positivist Interpretivist/Anti-positivist Laboratory Experiments Subjective/Argumentative Field Experiments Reviews Surveys Action Research Case Studies Case Studies Theorem Proof Descriptive/Interpretive Forecasting Futures Research Simulation Role/Game Playing Surveys enable the researcher to obtain data about practices, situations or views at one point in time through questionnaires or interviews. Quantitative analytical techniques are then used to draw inferences from this data regarding existing relationships. The use of surveys permit a researcher to study more variables at one time than is typically possible in laboratory or field experiments, whilst data can be collected about real world environments. A key weakness is that it is very difficult to realise insights relating to the causes of or processes involved in the phenomena measured. There are, in addition, several sources of bias such as the possibly self-selecting nature of respondents, the point in time when the survey is conducted and in the researcher him/herself through the design of the survey itself. Case studies involve an attempt to describe relationships that exist in reality, very often in a single organisation. Case studies may be positivist or interpretivist in nature, depending on the approach of the researcher, the data collected and the analytical techniques employed. Reality can be captured in greater detail by an observer-researcher, with the analysis of more variables than is typically possible in experimental and survey research. Case studies can be considered weak as they are typically restricted to a single organisation and it is difficult to generalise findings since it is hard to find similar cases with similar data that can be analysed in a statistically meaningful way. Furthermore, different researchers may have different interpretations of the same data, thus adding research bias into the equation. Simulation involves copying the behaviour of a system. Simulation is used in situations where it would be difficult normally to solve problems analytically and typically involves the introduction of random variables. As with experimental forms of research, it is difficult to make a simulation sufficiently realistic so that it resembles real world events. Forecasting/futures research involves the use of techniques such as regression analysis and time series analysis to make predictions about likely future events. It is a useful form of research in that it attempts to cope with the rapid changes that are taking place in IT and predict the impacts of these changes on individuals, organisations or society. However, it is a method that is fraught with difficulties relating to the complexity of real world events, the arbitrary nature of future changes and the lack of knowledge about the future. Researchers cannot build true visions of the future, but only scenarios of possible futures and so impacts under these possible conditions. 47 | P a g e
How to become a Researcher? Subjective/argumentative research, for example hermeneutics and phenomenology) requires the researcher to adopt a creative or speculative stance rather than act as an observer. It is a useful technique since new theories can be built, new ideas generated and subsequently tested. However, as an unstructured and subjective form of research, there is a strong chance of researcher bias. Action research is a form of applied research where the researcher attempts to develop results or a solution that is of practical value to the people with whom the research is working, and at the same time developing theoretical knowledge. Through direct intervention in problems, the researcher aims to create practical, often emancipatory, outcomes while also aiming to reinform existing theory in the domain studied. As with case studies, action research is usually restricted to a single organization making it difficult to generalize findings, while different researchers may interpret events differently. The personal ethics of the researcher are critical, since the opportunity for direct researcher intervention is always present.
5.2
Objectives of Research
The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of scientific procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been discovered as yet. Though each research study has its own specific purpose, we may think of research objectives as falling into a number of following broad groupings: 1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies with this object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative research studies); 2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group (studies with this object in view are known as descriptive research studies); 3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with something else (studies with this object in view are known as diagnostic research studies); 4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are known as hypothesis-testing research studies).
5.3
Motivation in Research
What makes people to undertake research? This is a question of fundamental importance. The possible motives for doing research may be either one or more of the following: 1. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits; 2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e., concern over practical problems initiates research; 3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work; 4. Desire to be of service to society; 5. Desire to get respectability. However, this is not an exhaustive list of factors motivating people to undertake research studies. Many more factors such as directives of government, employment conditions, curiosity about new things, desire to understand causal relationships, social thinking and awakening, and the like may as well motivate (or at times compel) people to perform research operations.
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5.4
Types of Research
The basic types of research are as follows: (i) Descriptive vs. Analytical: Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different kinds. The major purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of affairs as it exists at present. In social science and business research we quite often use the term Ex post facto research for descriptive research studies. The main characteristic of this method is that the researcher has no control over the variables; he can only report what has happened or what is happening. Most ex post facto research projects are used for descriptive studies in which the researcher seeks to measure such items as, for example, frequency of shopping, preferences of people, or similar data. Ex post facto studies also include attempts by researchers to discover causes even when they cannot control the variables. The methods of research utilized in descriptive research are survey methods of all kinds, including comparative and correlational methods. In analytical research, on the other hand, the researcher has to use facts or information already available, and analyze these to make a critical evaluation of the material. (ii) Applied vs. Fundamental: Research can either be applied (or action) research or fundamental (to basic or pure) research. Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society or an industrial/business organization, whereas fundamental research is mainly concerned with generalizations and with the formulation of a theory. Gathering knowledge for knowledges sake is termed pure or basic research. Research concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics are examples of fundamental research. Similarly, research studies, concerning human behavior carried on with a view to make generalizations about human behavior, are also examples of fundamental research, but research aimed at certain conclusions (say, a solution) facing a concrete social or business problem is an example of applied research. Research to identify social, economic or political trends that may affect a particular institution or the copy research (research to find out whether certain communications will be read and understood) or the marketing research or evaluation research are examples of applied research. Thus, the central aim of applied research is to discover a solution for some pressing practical problem, whereas basic research is directed towards finding information that has a broad base of applications and thus, adds to the already existing organized body of scientific knowledge. (iii) Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity. Qualitative research, on the other hand, is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind. For instance, when we are interested in investigating the reasons for human behavior (i.e., why people think or do certain things), we quite often talk of Motivation Research, an important type of qualitative research. This type of research aims at discovering the underlying motives and desires, using in depth interviews for the purpose. Other techniques of such research are word association tests, sentence completion tests, story completion tests and similar other projective techniques. Attitude or opinion research i.e., research designed to find out how people feel or what they think about a particular subject or institution is also qualitative research. Qualitative research is especially important in the behavioral sciences where the aim is to discover the underlying motives of human behavior. Through such research we can analyze the various factors which motivate people to behave in a particular manner or which make people like or dislike a particular thing. It may be stated, however, that to apply qualitative research in practice is relatively a difficult job and therefore, while doing such research, one should seek guidance from experimental psychologists.
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How to become a Researcher? (iv) Conceptual vs. Empirical: Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory. It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to reinterpret existing ones. On the other hand, empirical research relies on experience or observation alone, often without due regard for system and theory. It is data-based research, coming up with conclusions which are capable of being verified by observation or experiment. We can also call it as experimental type of research. In such a research it is necessary to get at facts firsthand, at their source, and actively to go about doing certain things to stimulate the production of desired information. In such a research, the researcher must first provide himself with a working hypothesis or guess as to the probable results. He then works to get enough facts (data) to prove or disprove his hypothesis. He then sets up experimental designs which he thinks will manipulate the persons or the materials concerned so as to bring forth the desired information. Such research is thus characterized by the experimenters control over the variables under study and his deliberate manipulation of one of them to study its effects. Empirical research is appropriate when proof is sought that certain variables affect other variables in some way. Evidence gathered through experiments or empirical studies is today considered to be the most powerful support possible for a given hypothesis. (v) Some Other Types of Research: All other types of research are variations of one or more of the above stated approaches, based on either the purpose of research, or the time required to accomplish research, on the environment in which research is done, or on the basis of some other similar factor. Form the point of view of time, we can think of research either as one-time research or longitudinal research. In the former case the research is confined to a single time-period, whereas in the latter case the research is carried on over several time-periods. Research can be field-setting research or laboratory research or simulation research, depending upon the environment in which it is to be carried out. Research can as well be understood as clinical or diagnostic research. Such research follow case-study methods or in depth approaches to reach the basic causal relations. Such studies usually go deep into the causes of things or events that interest us, using very small samples and very deep probing data gathering devices. The research may be exploratory or it may be formalized. The objective of exploratory research is the development of hypotheses rather than their testing, whereas formalized research studies are those with substantial structure and with specific hypotheses to be tested. Historical research is that which utilizes historical sources like documents, remains, etc. to study events or ideas of the past, including the philosophy of persons and groups at any remote point of time. Research can also be classified as conclusion-oriented and decisionoriented. While doing conclusion oriented research, a researcher is free to pick up a problem, redesign the enquiry as he proceeds and is prepared to conceptualize as he wishes. Decision-oriented research is always for the need of a decision maker and the researcher in this case is not free to embark upon research according to his own inclination. Operations research is an example of decision oriented research since it is a scientific method of providing executive departments with a quantitative basis for decisions regarding operations under their control. The above description of the types of research brings to light the fact that there are two basic approaches to research, viz., quantitative approach and the qualitative approach. The former involves the generation of data in quantitative form which can be subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis in a formal and rigid fashion. This approach can be further sub-classified into inferential, experimental and simulation approaches to research. The purpose of inferential approach to research is to form a data base from which to infer characteristics or relationships of population. This usually means survey research where a sample of population is studied (questioned or observed) to determine its characteristics, and it is then inferred that the population has the same characteristics. Experimental approach is characterized by much greater control over the research environment and in this case some variables 50 | P a g e
How to become a Researcher? are manipulated to observe their effect on other variables. Simulation approach involves the construction of an artificial environment within which relevant information and data can be generated. This permits an observation of the dynamic behavior of a system (or its sub-system) under controlled conditions. The term simulation in the context of business and social sciences applications refers to the operation of a numerical model that represents the structure of a dynamic process. Given the values of initial conditions, parameters and exogenous variables, a simulation is run to represent the behavior of the process over time. Simulation approach can also be useful in building models for understanding future conditions. Qualitative approach to research is concerned with subjective assessment of attitudes, opinions and behavior. Research in such a situation is a function of researchers insights and impressions. Such an approach to research generates results either in non-quantitative form or in the form which are not subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis. Generally, the techniques of focus group interviews, projective techniques and depth interviews are used. All these are explained at length in chapters that follow.
5.5
The study of research methodology gives the student the necessary training in gathering material and arranging or card-indexing them, participation in the field work when required, and also training in techniques for the collection of data appropriate to particular problems, in the use of statistics, questionnaires and controlled experimentation and in recording evidence, sorting it out and interpreting it. In fact, importance of knowing the methodology of research or how research is done stems from the following considerations: (i) For one who is preparing himself for a career of carrying out research, the importance of knowing research methodology and research techniques is obvious since the same constitute the tools of his trade. The knowledge of methodology provides good training especially to the new research worker and enables him to do better research. It helps him to develop disciplined thinking or a bent of mind to observe the field objectively. Hence, those aspiring for careerism in research must develop the skill of using research techniques and must thoroughly understand the logic behind them. (ii) Knowledge of how to do research will inculcate the ability to evaluate and use research results with reasonable confidence. In other words, we can state that the knowledge of research methodology is helpful in various fields such as government or business administration, community development and social work where persons are increasingly called upon to evaluate and use research results for action. (iii) When one knows how research is done, then one may have the satisfaction of acquiring a new intellectual tool which can become a way of looking at the world and of judging every day experience. Accordingly, it enables use to make intelligent decisions concerning problems facing us in practical life at different points of time. Thus, the knowledge of research methodology provides tools to took at things in life objectively. (iv) In this scientific age, all of us are in many ways consumers of research results and we can use them intelligently provided we are able to judge the adequacy of the methods by which they have been obtained. The knowledge of methodology helps the consumer of research results to evaluate them and enables him to take rational decisions.
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5.6
Whatever may be the types of research works and studies, one thing that is important is that they all meet on the common ground of scientific method employed by them. One expects scientific research to satisfy the following criteria: 1. The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts be used. 2. The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit another researcher to repeat the research for further advancement, keeping the continuity of what has already been attained. 3. The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results that are as objective as possible. 4. The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design and estimate their effects upon the findings. 5. The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and the methods of analysis used should be appropriate. The validity and reliability of the data should be checked carefully. 6. Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and limited to those for which the data provide an adequate basis. 7. Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced, has a good reputation in research and is a person of integrity. In other words, we can state the qualities of a good research as under: 1. Good research is systematic: It means that research is structured with specified steps to be taken in a specified sequence in accordance with the well defined set of rules. Systematic characteristic of the research does not rule out creative thinking but it certainly does reject the use of guessing and intuition in arriving at conclusions. 2. Good research is logical: This implies that research is guided by the rules of logical reasoning and the logical process of induction and deduction are of great value in carrying out research. Induction is the process of reasoning from a part to the whole whereas deduction is the process of reasoning from some premise to a conclusion which follows from that very premise. In fact, logical reasoning makes research more meaningful in the context of decision making. 3. Good research is empirical: It implies that research is related basically to one or more aspects of a real situation and deals with concrete data that provides a basis for external validity to research results. 4. Good research is replicable: This characteristic allows research results to be verified by replicating the study and thereby building a sound basis for decisions. About the Author:
Dr. D. Neelima Satyamr did her B-Tech in Civil Engineering from Sri Venkateshwara University, Tirupathi and M-Tech from IIT-Delhi, in Geo-technical Engineering. She obtained her Ph. D from IIT-Delhi. She was earlier Associate Professor at VNR Vignana Jyothi College of Engineering and currently Assistant Professor at International Institute of Information Technology (IIIT-Hyderabad). She is also Visiting faculty at National Academy of construction and associated with professional bodies like Indian Concrete Institute, Indian Geotechnical society, Indian Society of Earthquake Technology, Institution of Engineers (India), American Society of Civil Engineering, Earthquake Engineering Research Institute, International Society for Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering
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Intellectual Property (IP) is a buzz word that you as a young researcher should expect to know more. Most of us have heard words like patent, copyrights, trademarks, trade names, service marks, industrial designs, undisclosed indications, geographical indications, etc... But do we really know what they are? Well, if your interest is towards knowing them, then you have the right book in your hand. This section of this book will address your needs. Happy reading! We have organized the contents into two big chunks: Intellectual Property Overview; Patents. All though patents are a part of intellectual property, keeping in mind the extensive information that you guys would be interested in, we choose to take Patents as a division. This division is again sliced into five modules: Patents; How to Get a Patent; Patenting Abroad; Commercializing Patented Technology; Enforcing Patents.
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How to become a Researcher? New plant varieties. In many countries, a breeder of a new plant variety, which fulfils the requirements of novelty, distinctness, uniformity and stability, and is designated with a suitable denomination may obtain protection in the form of plant breeder's rights. For more information on the protection of new plant varieties, see: www.upov.int
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How to become a Researcher? Invention refers to a technical solution to a technical problem. It may be an innovative idea or may be in the form of a working model or prototype. Innovation refers to the translation of the invention into a marketable product or process. Why should you consider patenting your inventions? Short product cycles and increasing competition put enormous pressure on enterprises to become innovative and/or obtain access to other companies innovations, so as to become and remain competitive in domestic and export markets. The exclusive rights provided by a patent may be crucial for innovative companies to prosper in a challenging, risky and dynamic business climate. Key reasons for patenting inventions include: Strong market position and competitive advantage: A patent gives its owner the exclusive right to prevent or stop others from commercially using the patented invention, thereby reducing uncertainty, risk and competition from free riders and imitators. If your company owns or obtains the permission to exploit a valuable patented invention it may be able to create a market entry barrier for competitors in respect of the same inventions. This will help it to become a pre-eminent player in the relevant market(s). Higher profit or returns on investment. If your company has invested a significant amount of time and money in R&D, patent protection of the resulting inventions would help in recovering costs and obtaining higher returns on investments. Additional income from licensing or assigning the patent: As a patent owner you may license your rights over the invention to others in exchange for lump sum payments and/or royalties, in order to generate additional income for the company. Selling (or assigning) a patent implies transfer of ownership, whereas licensing implies only permission to use the licensed invention under specified conditions. Access to technology through cross-licensing: If your company is interested in technology owned by others you may use your companys own patents to negotiate cross-licensing agreements, by which your company and the other party agree to authorize each other to use one or more of your respective patents under conditions specified in the agreement. Access to new markets: Licensing of patents (or even pending patent applications) to others may provide access to new markets, which are otherwise inaccessible. In order to do so, the invention must also be protected in the relevant foreign market(s). Diminished risks of infringement: By obtaining patent protection you will be able to prevent others from patenting the same invention and also reduce the chances of infringing the rights of others when commercializing your products. While a patent by itself does not provide the freedom to use, it does 56 | P a g e
How to become a Researcher? prevent others from patenting the same or similar inventions and provides a reasonable indication that the invention that you have patented is new and significantly different from the prior art. Enhanced ability to obtain grants and/or raise funds at a reasonable rate of interest. Ownership of patents (or license to use patents owned by others) may enhance your ability to raise capital to take a product to market. In some sectors (e.g., biotechnology), it is often necessary to have a strong patent portfolio to attract venture capitalists. A powerful tool to take action against imitators and free riders: In order to effectively enforce the exclusivity provided by a patent, it may occasionally be necessary to litigate, or bring your patents to the attention of those who are violating your patent rights. Owning a patent considerably improves your ability to take successful legal action against copiers and imitators of the protected invention. Positive image for your enterprise: Business partners, investors, shareholders and customers may perceive patent portfolios as a demonstration of the high level of expertise, specialization and technological capacity of your company. This may prove useful for raising funds, finding business partners and raising your companys profile and market value. Some companies mention or list their patents in advertisements to project an innovative image to the public. If an invention is patentable, is it always wise to apply for patent protection? Not always. If an invention is patentable, it does not necessarily follow that it will result in a commercially viable technology or product. Therefore, a careful weighing of pros and cons and an analysis of possible alternatives is essential before filing a patent application. A patent may be expensive and difficult to obtain, maintain and enforce. To file or not to file a patent application is strictly a business decision. It should be based primarily on the probability of obtaining commercially useful protection for the invention that is likely to provide significant benefits from its eventual business use. Factors to be taken into account in deciding whether or not to file a patent application include: Is there a market for the invention? What are the alternatives to your invention, and how do they compare with your invention? Is the invention useful for improving an existing product or developing a new product? If so, does it fit in with your companys business strategy? Are there potential licensees or investors who will be willing to help to take the invention to market? How valuable will the invention be to your business and to competitors? Is it easy to reverse engineer your invention from your product or design around it? How likely are others, especially competitors, to invent and patent what you have invented? Do the expected profits from an exclusive position in the market justify the costs of patenting? What aspects of the invention can be protected by one or more patents, how broad can this coverage be and will this provide commercially useful protection? Will it be easy to identify violation of the patent rights and are you ready to invest time and financial resources for enforcing your patent(s)? 57 | P a g e
How to become a Researcher? What can be patented? An invention must meet several requirements to be eligible for patent protection. These include, in particular, that the claimed invention: Consists of patentable subject matter Is new (novelty requirement) Involves an inventive step (nonobviousness requirement) Is capable of industrial application (utility requirement) Is disclosed in a clear and complete manner in the patent application (disclosure requirement) The best way of understanding these requirements is to study what has been patented by others in the technical field of your interest. For this, you may consult patent databases. What is patentable subject matter? In most national or regional patent laws, patentable subject matter is defined negatively, i.e., by providing a list of what cannot be patented. While there are considerable differences between countries, the following are examples of some of the areas that may be excluded from patentability: Discoveries and scientific theories; Aesthetic creations; Schemes, rules and methods for performing mental acts; Mere discoveries of substances as they naturally occur in the world; Inventions that may affect public order, good morals or public health; Diagnostic, therapeutic and surgical methods of treatment for humans or animals; Plants and animals other than microorganisms, and essentially biological processes for the production of plants or animals other than non-biological and microbiological processes; and Computer programs. How is an invention judged to be new or novel? An invention is new or novel if it does not form part of the prior art. In general, prior art refers to all the relevant technical knowledge available to the public anywhere in the world prior to the first filing date of the relevant patent application. It includes, inter alia, patents, patent applications and non-patent literature of all kinds. The definition of prior art differs considerably from country to country. In many countries, any information disclosed to the public anywhere in the world in written form, by oral communication, by display or through public use constitutes prior art. Thus, in principle, the publication of the invention in a scientific journal, its presentation in a conference, its use in commerce or its display in a companys catalogue would all constitute acts that could destroy the novelty of the invention and render it not patentable. It is important to prevent accidental disclosure of inventions prior to filing the patent application.
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How to become a Researcher? Assistance of a competent patent agent is often crucial for a clear determination of what is included in the prior art. Prior art often includes secret prior art such as pending unpublished patent applications, provided they are published at a later stage.
When is an invention considered to involve an inventive step? An invention is considered to involve an inventive step (or to be non-obvious) when, taking into account the prior art, the invention would not have been obvious to a person skilled in the particular field of technology. The non-obviousness requirement is meant to ensure that patents are only granted in respect of truly creative and inventive achievements, and not to developments that a person with ordinary skill in the field could easily deduce from what already exists. Some examples of what may not qualify as inventive, as established by past court decisions in some countries, are: mere change of size; making a product portable; the reversal of parts; the change of materials; or the mere substitution by an equivalent part or function. What is meant by capable of industrial application? To be patentable, an invention must be capable of being used for an industrial or business purpose. An invention cannot be a mere theoretical phenomenon; it must be useful and provide some practical benefit. The term industrial is meant here in the broadest sense as anything distinct from purely intellectual or aesthetic activity, and includes, for example, agriculture. In some countries, instead of industrial applicability, the criterion is utility. The utility requirement has become particularly important for patents on genetic sequences for which a utility may not yet be known at the time of filing the application. What is the disclosure requirement? According to the national legislation of most countries, a patent application must disclose the invention in a manner sufficiently clear and complete for the invention to be carried out by a person skilled in the specific technical field. In some countries, patent law requires that the inventor discloses the best mode for practicing the invention. For patents involving microorganisms, many countries require the microorganism to be deposited at a recognized depositary institution. What rights are granted by patents? A patent grants its owner the right to exclude others from commercially using the invention. This includes the right to prevent or stop others from making, using, offering for sale, selling or importing a product or process, based on the patented invention, without the owners permission. It is important to note that a patent does not grant the owner the freedom to use or the right to exploit the technology covered by the patent but only the right to exclude others.
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How to become a Researcher? While this may seem a subtle distinction, it is essential in understanding the patent system and how multiple patents interact. In fact, patents owned by others may overlap, encompass or complement your own patent. You may, therefore, need to obtain a license to use other peoples inventions in order to commercialize your own patented invention and vice versa. Also, before certain inventions (such as pharmaceutical drugs) can be commercialized other clearances may be required (e.g., marketing approval from the relevant regulatory body). Who is an inventor and who owns the rights over a patent? The person who conceived the invention is the inventor, whereas the person (or company) that files the patent application is the applicant, holder or owner of the patent. While in some cases the inventor may also be the applicant, the two are often different entities; the applicant is often the company or research institution that employs the inventor. The following specific circumstances merit further analysis: Employee inventions: In many countries, inventions developed in the course of employment are automatically assigned to the employer. In some countries, this is only so if it is so stated in the employment contract. In some cases (e.g., if there is no employment agreement) the inventor may retain the right to exploit the invention, but the employer is given a non-exclusive right to use the invention for its internal purposes (called shop rights). It is important to find out about the specific legislation in your own country and to ensure that employment contracts deal with issues of ownership over employee inventions to avoid future disputes. Independent contractors: In most countries, an independent contractor hired by a company to develop a new product or process owns all rights to the invention, unless specifically stated otherwise. This means that, unless the contractor has a written agreement with the company assigning the invention to that company, in general, the company will have no ownership rights in what is developed, even if it paid for the development. Joint inventors: When more than one person contributes in significant ways to the conception and realization of an invention, they must be treated as joint inventors and mentioned as such in the patent application. If the joint inventors are also the applicants, the patent will be granted to them jointly. Joint owners: Different countries and institutions have different rules concerning the exploitation or enforcement of patents that are owned by more than one entity or person. In some cases, no single coowner may license a patent or sue third parties for infringement without the consent of all other coowners.
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How to become a Researcher? How to apply for patent protection? After a prior art search has been performed and the decision to seek patent protection has been made, a patent application has to be prepared and submitted to the relevant national or regional patent office. The application will include a full description of the invention, the patent claims that determine the scope of the patent applied for, drawings and an abstract. Some patent offices make it possible for applicants to submit their application through the Internet. In some countries, there may be an option for filing a provisional patent application. The task of preparing a patent application is generally performed by a patent attorney or agent who will represent your interests during the application process. The box on the following page provides a basic overview of the application process. Note that there may be important variations between countries and it is always best to check with the patent office of the relevant country or a patent law firm in the relevant country to obtain up-to-date information on procedures and applicable fees. How much does it cost to patent an invention? The costs vary considerably from country to country and within a country depending on factors such as the nature of the invention, its complexity, attorneys fees, the length of the application and objections raised during the examination by the patent office. It is important to keep in mind and properly budget the costs related to patent application and maintenance: There are generally costs associated with performing a prior art search, particularly if you rely on the services of an expert; There are official filing fees that vary widely from country to country. The relevant national or regional patent office will be able to give you details on the fee structure. Some countries have discounts for SMEs and/or for applicants filing the application on-line. In addition, some countries allow expedited examination on payment of additional fees. If you rely on the services of a patent agent/attorney to assist you in the application process (e.g., provide the patentability opinion, draft the patent application, prepare the formal drawings and correspond with the patent office), you will incur additional costs; Once a patent has been granted by the patent office, you must pay maintenance or renewal fees, generally on an annual basis, to maintain the validity of the patent; In case you decide to patent your invention abroad, you should consider also the relevant official filing fees for the countries in question, the translation costs and the costs of using local patent agents (which is a requirement, in many countries, for foreign applicants). In case of inventions involving microorganisms, where the deposit of the micro-organism or biological material with a recognized depositary institution is necessary, fees for filing, storage and viability testing of the deposited material will have to be paid.
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How to become a Researcher? When should you file a patent application? In general, it is preferable to apply for patent protection as soon as you have all the information required for drafting the patent application. However, there are a number of factors that help an applicant to decide the best time to file a patent application. Reasons for ensuring that your application is filed early include the following: In most countries worldwide (with the notable exception of the United States of America) patents are granted on a first-to-file basis. Thus, filing an application early is important to ensure that you are the first to file an application on that particular invention so that you do not lose your invention to others. Applying for patent protection early will generally be useful if you are seeking financial support or wish to license your invention to commercialize it. You can generally only enforce a patent once it has been granted by the relevant patent office, which is a procedure that may take a few years. Nevertheless, rushing to file a patent application as soon as you have an invention may also be a problem for the following reasons: If you apply too early and subsequently make changes to your invention it will generally not be possible to make significant changes to the original description of the invention. Once you have filed your application in one country or region, you normally have 12 months to file an application for the same invention in all the countries of interest to your business in order to enjoy the benefit of the filing date of your first application. This may be a problem if the costs of applying in various countries and paying the maintenance fees are too high for your company. One way of mitigating this problem, is by postponing the payments of translation and national fees for a period of 30 months by using the Patent Cooperation Treaty (PCT). When deciding on the timing for filing a patent application, it is important to bear in mind that the application should be filed before disclosing the invention. Any disclosure before filing the application (e.g., for test-marketing, to investors or other business partners) should be done only after signing a confidentiality or nondisclosure agreement.
How important is it to keep an invention confidential prior to filing a patent application? If you wish to obtain a patent on your invention, keeping it confidential prior to filing the application is absolutely necessary. In many circumstances, public disclosure of your invention prior to filing the application would destroy the novelty of your invention, rendering it un-patentable, unless the applicable law provides for a grace period. It is, therefore, extremely important for inventors, researchers and companies to avoid any disclosure of an invention that might affect its patentability until the patent application has been filed.
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How to become a Researcher? What is a grace period? The legislation of some countries provides a grace period of 6 or 12 months, from the moment an invention was disclosed by the inventor or the applicant until the application is filed, in which the invention does not lose its patentability because of such disclosure. In such countries, a company may disclose its invention, for example by displaying it in a trade show or publishing it in a company catalogue or technical journal, and file the patent application within the grace period without the invention losing patentability and being barred from obtaining a patent. However, as this is not the case in all countries, relying on the grace period in your own country would preclude you from patenting the invention in other markets of interest where a grace period is not available. What is the structure of a patent application? A patent application has a range of functions: It determines the legal scope of the patent; It describes the nature of the invention, including instructions on how to carry out the invention; and It gives details of the inventor, the patent owner and other legal information. Patent applications are similarly structured worldwide and consist of a request, a description, claims, drawings (if necessary) and an abstract. A patent document may be anywhere between a few pages to hundreds of pages long, depending on the nature of the specific invention and the technical field Request: It contains information on the title of the invention, the date of filing, the priority date and bibliographic data such as the name and address of the applicant and inventor. Description: The written description of an invention must describe the invention in sufficient detail so that anyone skilled in the same technical field can reconstruct and practice the invention from the description and the drawings without putting in further inventive effort. If this is not the case, the patent may not be granted or may be revoked after it is challenged in a court action. Claims: The claims determine the scope of protection of a patent. The claims are absolutely crucial to a patented invention since, if they are badly drafted, even a truly valuable invention could result in a worthless patent that is easy to circumvent or design around. In patent litigation, interpreting the claims is generally the first step in determining whether the patent is valid and in determining whether the patent has been infringed. It is strongly advisable to seek the advice of an expert to draft patent applications, particularly the claims. Drawings: The drawings show the technical details of the invention in an abstract and visual way. They help to explain some information, tool or result set out in the disclosure. Drawings are not always a necessary part of the application. If the invention is for a process or method of doing something, drawings usually are not required. If drawings are required, formal rules govern their acceptability. Abstract: The abstract is a brief summary of the invention. When the patent is published by the patent office, the abstract is included on the front page. The abstract is sometimes improved or drafted by the patent examiner in the relevant patent office. 64 | P a g e
How to become a Researcher? How long does it take to obtain patent protection? The time taken for a patent office to grant a patent varies significantly from office to office and between fields of technology and may range from a few months to a few years, generally between 2 to 5 years. Some patent offices have established a procedure for accelerated grant that can be requested by applicants in specific circumstances. From what date is your invention protected? Your rights effectively begin on the date of grant of your patent, as you can only take legal action against unauthorized use of the invention by third parties once it has been granted. In some countries, you may sue infringers after the grant, for infringement that occurred between the date of publication of the patent application (generally 18 months after the first application has been filed) and the date of grant. Typically, you may claim reasonable compensation for use between publication and grant. But this is not the case in all countries. In some countries, it is possible to file a patent application and a utility model application for the same invention. This is sometimes done in order to benefit from utility model protection (which is generally granted faster) until the patent is eventually granted. How long does patent protection last? The current international standard provides for a term of protection of 20 years from the filing date of the application, provided the renewal or maintenance fees are paid on time and that no request for invalidation or revocation has been successful during this period. While the above relates to the legal life of a patent, the business or economic life of a patent is over if the technology covered by it is outdated, if it cannot be commercialized or if the product based on it has not been successful in the market. In all such circumstances, the patent holder may decide to no longer pay the maintenance or renewal fees, leaving it to expire earlier than the term of protection of 20 years, and thus, let it fall into the public domain. In some countries, protection may be extended beyond 20 years or a Supplementary Protection Certificate (SPCs) may be granted in very specific circumstances. This is the case, for example, for patents on pharmaceuticals, due to delayed commercialization resulting from time required to obtain marketing approval from the appropriate governmental authorities. SPCs have a limited duration and generally cannot exceed five years. Do you need a patent agent to file a patent application? Preparing a patent application and following it through to the grant stage is a complex task. Applying for patent protection means: Making a prior art search in order to identify any prior art that renders your invention unpatentable; Writing the claims and full description of the invention combining legal and technical jargon; Corresponding with the national or regional patent office especially during the substantive examination of the patent application; Making the necessary amendments to the application requested by the patent office. 65 | P a g e
How to become a Researcher? All these aspects require in-depth knowledge of patent law and patent office practice. Therefore, even if legal or technical assistance is generally not mandatory it is strongly recommended. It is advisable to rely on a patent agent who has the relevant legal knowledge and experience as well as the technical background in the technical field of the invention. Most laws require foreign applicants to be represented by a registered patent agent who is resident in the country. Can you apply for protection of many inventions through a single application? Most patent laws provide for certain limitations in respect of the number of different inventions that may be included in one patent application. These limitations include the so-called requirement of unity of invention. Whereas some patent laws provide for other types of requirements of unity of invention (for example, the patent law of the United States of America), others (e.g., the European Patent Convention and the Patent Cooperation Treaty) permit groups of inventions so linked as to form a single inventive concept to be included in a single application. In case of lack of unity of invention, the applicant may be required to either restrict the claims or divide the application (divisional applications). As a result of differences in the applicable law, one patent application may suffice in some countries, while in others; two or more applications may have to be filed to cover the same ground.
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How to become a Researcher? After the expiration of the priority period and until the patent is first published by the patent office (generally 18 months after the priority date) you will still have the possibility to apply for protection for the same invention in other countries, but you can no longer claim priority of your earlier application. Once the invention has been disclosed or published, you may be unable to obtain patent protection in foreign countries, due to loss of novelty. Where should you protect your invention? As protecting an invention in many countries is an expensive undertaking, companies should carefully select the countries in which they require protection. Some of the key considerations when selecting where to patent are: Where is the patented product likely to be commercialized? Which are the main markets for similar products? What are the costs involved in patenting in each target market and what is my budget? Where are the main competitors based? Where will the product be manufactured? How difficult will it be to enforce a patent in a given country? How do you apply for patent protection abroad? There are three main ways of protecting an invention abroad: The national route: You may apply to the national patent office of each country of interest, by filing a patent application in the required language and paying the required fees. This path may be very cumbersome and expensive if the number of countries is large. The regional route: When a number of countries are members of a regional patent system, you may apply for protection, with effect in the territories of all or some of these, by filing an application at the relevant regional office. The regional patent offices are: The African Intellectual Property Organization (OAPI) (www.oapi.wipo.net); The African Regional Intellectual Property Organization (ARIPO) (www.aripo.wipo.net); The Eurasian Patent Organization (EAPO) (www.eapo.org); The European Patent Office (EPO) (www.epo.org); and The Patent Office of the Gulf Cooperation Council (www.gulf-patent-office.org.sa). The international route: If your company wants to have the option of protecting an invention in any number of member countries of the Patent Cooperation Treaty (PCT), then you should consider filing an international PCT application. To be eligible to do so, you must be a national or resident of a PCT Contracting State or, your business must have a real and effective industrial or commercial presence in one of these countries. By filing one international application under the PCT, you may simultaneously seek patent protection for an invention in the more than 125 member countries of the PCT. This application may be filed either at your national or regional patent office and/or at the PCT receiving office at the World Intellectual Property Office (WIPO) in Geneva, Switzerland.
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How to become a Researcher? In each case, it is an individual decision, based on your needs and priorities. However, assigning a patent is generally not recommended and patent owners generally prefer to maintain ownership over their inventions and grant licenses. How do you license your patent to be exploited by others? A patent is licensed when the owner of the patent (the licensor) grants permission to another (the licensee) to use the patented invention for mutually agreed purposes. In such cases, a licensing contract is generally signed between the two parties, specifying the terms and scope of the agreement. Authorizing others to commercialize your patented invention through a licensing agreement will enable your business to obtain an additional source of revenue and is a common means of exploiting a companys exclusive rights over an invention. Licensing is particularly useful if the company that owns the invention is not in a position to make the product at all or in sufficient quantity o meet a given market need, or to cover a given geographical area. As a license agreement requires skillful negotiations and drafting, it is advisable to seek the assistance of a licensing practitioner for negotiating the terms and conditions and for drafting the licensing agreement. In some countries, licensing agreements need to be registered with a government regulatory authority. What royalty rate should you expect to receive for your patent? In licensing deals, the owner of the right is generally remunerated through lump-sum payments and/or through recurring royalties, which may be based on sales volume of the licensed product (per unit royalty) or on net sales (net sales-based royalty). In many cases, the remuneration for a patent license is a combination of a lump-sum payment and royalties. Sometimes, an equity stake in the company of the licensee may replace a royalty. While industry standards for royalty rates exist for particular industries and may usefully be consulted, it must be remembered that each licensing agreement is unique and the royalty rate depends on the particular and very distinct factors being negotiated. Therefore, industry standards may provide some useful initial guidance but too great a reliance on such standards is often misplaced. What is the difference between an exclusive and non-exclusive license? There are three types of licensing agreements depending on the number of licensees that will be allowed to work the patent: Exclusive license: a single licensee has the right to use the patented technology, which cannot even be used by the patent owner; Sole license: a single licensee and the patent owner have the right to use the patented technology; and Non-exclusive license: several licensees and the patent owner have the right to use the patented technology. 69 | P a g e
How to become a Researcher? In a single licensing agreement, there may be provisions that grant some rights on an exclusive basis and others on a sole or non exclusive basis. Should you grant an exclusive or non-exclusive license for your patent? It depends on the product and on your companys business strategy. For example, if your technology can become a standard that is needed by all players in a specific market to perform their business, a nonexclusive, widely held license would be the most advantageous. If your product needs one company to invest heavily to commercialize the product (e.g., a pharmaceutical product that requires investments in performing clinical trials),a potential licensee would not want to face competition from other licensees, and may rightly insist on obtaining an exclusive license. When is the best time to license your invention? There is no best time to license your invention, as the timing will depend on the specificities of the case. However, for an independent entrepreneur or inventor, it is often advisable to start the search for licensees as early as possible in order to guarantee a revenue stream that will be useful to cover the costs of patenting. There is no need to wait for the patent to be granted. More than the right time, it is critical to find the right partner(s) to generate profits from the commercialization of the patented invention. If you are interested in a competitors patent, can you obtain permission to use it? It may not always be easy or affordable to obtain authorization to incorporate technology owned by a competitor into your products/processes. However, if your competitor is also interested in your companys patents, then you should think of cross-licensing. Cross-licensing is very common in industries where a number of patents covering a wide range of complementary inventions are held by two or more competitors. Such competing companies seek to ensure their freedom to operate by obtaining the right to use patents owned by their competitors while providing the right to use their own patents to the competitors.
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How to become a Researcher? The exclusive rights granted by a patent give the patent owner the opportunity to prevent or stop competitors from making products and using processes that infringe on its rights and to seek compensation for damages suffered. To prove that infringement has occurred, it must be shown that each and every element of a given claim, or its equivalent, is contained in the infringing product or process. Enforcing your rights when you believe that your patented invention is being copied may be crucial to maintaining your competitive edge, market share and profitability. Who is responsible for enforcing patent rights? The main responsibility for identifying and taking action against infringers of a patent lies with its owner. As a patent owner, you are responsible for monitoring the use of your invention in the marketplace, identifying any infringers and deciding whether, how and when to take action against them. Independent inventors and SMEs may decide to shift this responsibility (or part of it) to an exclusive licensee. It is advisable to contact a patent lawyer to assist you in taking any steps for enforcing your patent, both domestically and/or in any export markets. A lawyer will also advise you on the costs and the risks involved and the best strategy. What should you do if your patent is being used by others without your authorization? If you believe that others are infringing your patent, i.e., using it without your authorization, then, as a first step, you need to collect information about infringing parties and their use of the infringing product or process. You should accumulate all available facts to determine the nature and timing of your action. Always engage a patent lawyer to assist you in making a decision on the infringement of your patented invention. In some cases, when infringement is detected, companies choose to send a letter (commonly known as a cease and desist letter) informing the alleged infringer of a possible conflict between your rights and the other companys business activity. This procedure is often effective in the case of nonintentional infringement since the infringer will in many such cases either discontinue such activities or agree to negotiate a licensing agreement. Sometimes, however, surprise is the best tactic in order to avoid giving the infringer time to hide or destroy evidence. In these circumstances, it might be appropriate to go to court without giving notice to the infringer and to ask for an interim injunction in order to surprise the infringer by a raid, often with the help of the police, at his business premises. The court may order that the alleged infringers stop their infringing action pending the outcome of a trial (which may take many months or years). However, the question of whether a patent has been infringed may be very complex and a decision may, therefore, only be taken in proceedings on the merits of the case. Where the company decides to initiate civil proceedings, the courts generally provide a wide range of civil remedies to compensate aggrieved owners of patent rights. A patent lawyer will be able to provide you the relevant information. In order to prevent the importation of goods infringing patents, measures at the international border may be available to patent holders in some countries through the national customs authorities. Many countries, however, provide for border measures in accordance with their international obligations only in cases of importation of counterfeit trademark goods and pirated copyright goods. As a general rule, if you identify infringement, it is highly advisable to seek professional legal advice. 71 | P a g e
How to become a Researcher? What are your options for settling the patent infringement out of court? If the dispute is with a company with which there is a signed contract (e.g., a licensing agreement), then first check whether there is an arbitration or mediation clause in the contract. It is advisable to include a special provision in contracts for the dispute to be referred to arbitration or mediation in order to avoid long and expensive litigation. It may be possible to use alternative dispute resolution systems, such as arbitration or mediation, even if there is no clause in the contract or no contract at all, as long as both parties agree to it. Arbitration generally has the advantage of being a less formal and shorter procedure than court proceedings, and an arbitral award is more easily enforceable internationally. An advantage of mediation is that the parties retain control of the dispute resolution process. As such, it can help to preserve good business relations with another enterprise with which your company may wish to collaborate in the future. The WIPO Arbitration and Mediation Center provides services for alternative dispute resolution. More information on arbitration and mediation can be found at: arbiter.wipo.int/center/index.html.
References:
1. 2. 3. 4. www.wipo.int/sme www.patentoffice.nic.in www.uspto.gov www.patentoffice.nic.in
P. Nikhil Prakash
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Generally most of the research work fails to attract the market even though the quality of research is very high due to inefficient presentation of the work by the researchers. This chapter on impact of presentation skills for professional development is added in this book so that the researcher can learn the tactics of marketing his research work and bring out his innovation for the industry.
Planning and Preparation of the presentation Presentation Material and Using visual aids effectively Overcoming presentation nerves Delivering the presentation confidently Answering questions competently
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7.1.1 7.1.1a
Planning the presentation involves much of the work that is done before the actually delivery of the presentation. This is a very important where people should consider improving their skills in. A key part of this planning is to research your presentation audience. The more one knows about the audience, the easier it is to understand them as to what preconceptions they might have.
7.1.1b
Preparation
The most important thing while preparing the text is to decide exactly what to say, where to find the required information, and how to give it a proper shape. It must be logical and should have a smooth flow from one point to the next. For beginners, it is advisable to write down the whole speech, include the address, the opening sentences and the ending sentences. The tone of the speech is less formal than the tone of writing. All the same there is a formality in official speaking as distinguished from social or personal style of speaking. Bad habits, often picked up in conversation, should not be allowed to creep into a speech, repeating phrases should be avoided
7.1.2
Once the planning is done it is important to consider as to what visual aids would be used during the presentation. Think about what you want to do here why you actually need the visual aids in your presentation and what are they going to be used for. Often they are fairly redundant people put them in for the sake of it.
Some key presentation skills well be looking at involve reducing the number of slides in a presentation to the minimum required to support the message. We will further look into as how we can make visual aids effective and what type of visual aids would help in a presentation. For example handing out supplemental materials like articles, reports, etc. along with the presentation, or handing out copies of the presentation, like handing out copies of the slides that could be used as a reference during the presentation or might use transparency slides or showing slides from a personal computer. If you plan to project your slides from a computer onto a projection screen, then be sure to check out the computer system before people come into the meeting room, if at all possible. Use a consistent layout, or organization of colors and images, on your materials. If you use transparencies on an overhead projector, then allocate one slide for every 3-5 minutes of your presentation. Include 5-8 lines of bulleted phrases on each slide. If you provide the supplemental information during your presentation, then your audience will very likely read that information during your presentation, rather than listening to you. Therefore, hand out this information after you have completed your presentation.
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7.1.3
Were then going to look at You Yourself! To start considering your personal presentation skills. When most people when they hear the word presentation previously built presentation skills are often forgotten about and nerves kick in. So were going to help you overcome your nerves and become more confident in your personal presentation skills. There are lots of techniques and things you can do to help you to control your nerves and build your confidence even before you actually start your presentation as well as while youre speaking and delivering it.
7.1.4
It is important to think about how an individual is actually going to deliver his / her presentation. This section would give an insight at some of the key techniques and skills that would help one to speak confidently, how to keep the audiences interest, and engage with them. Usage of personal resources is very important while delivering a presentation. If you plan to project your slides from a computer onto a projection screen, then be sure to check out the computer system before people come into the meeting room, if at all possible. Use a consistent layout, or organization of colors and images, on your materials. If you use transparencies on an overhead projector, then allocate one slide for every 3- 5 minutes of your presentation. Include 5-8 lines of bulleted phrases on each slide. If you provide the supplemental information during your presentation, then your audience will very likely read that information during your presentation, rather than listening to you. Therefore, hand out this information after you have completed your presentation. Or, hand it out at the beginning of your presentation and ask them not to read it until you have completed your presentation. If you hand out copies of your slides, be sure that the text on the slides is large enough that your audience can read the text on the table in front of them without having to hold the handouts up to their faces. Be sure to leave space on the handouts for the audience to make notes on them.
7.1.5
Finally it is important that one should have the confidence to interact with the audience and deal with any questions that the audience might throw at you. This section will give an insight to the techniques to deal with the difficult questions the different scenarios that one might face while interacting with the audience
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7.2.1
It is essential that the basic elements of communication be identified. These elements are: Sender/encoder/speaker Receiver/decoder/listener Message Medium Feedback/reply
7.2.1a
Sender/encoder/Speaker:
The person who initiates the communication process is normally referred to as the sender. From his personal data bank he selects ideas, encodes and finally transmits them to the receiver.
7.2.1b
Receiver/decoder/listener:
The listener receives an encoded message which he attempts to decode. This process is carried on in relation to the work environment and the value perceived in terms of the work situation.
7.2.1c
Message:
Message is the encoded idea transmitted by the sender. The formulation of the message is very important for an incorrect patterning can turn the receiver hostile or make him lose interest.
7.2.1d
Medium:
Another important element of communication is the medium or channel. It could be oral, written, or non-verbal, prior to the composition of the message, the medium/ channel should be decided.
7.2.1e
Feedback:
This is the most important component of communication. Effective communication takes place only when there is feedback. The errors and faults that abound in business situations are a result of lack of feedback. Basic Model of Communication:
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7.2.2
Saves time of communication Helps in coordinating, controlling and issuing instructions Brings improvement in speaking abilities, listening, interacting, writing, convincing and persuading.
7.2.3
In any business environment, adherence to the 7Cs & 4Ss helps the sender in transmitting his message with ease and accuracy.
7.2.3a
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
Cs Relevance
Credibility Builds trust Courtesy Improves relationship Clarity Makes comprehension easier Correctness Builds confidence Consistency Introduces stability Concreteness Reinforces confidence Conciseness Saves time
7.2.3b
1. 2. 3. 4.
4Ss
7.2.4
Barriers in Communication
Sender-oriented Receiver-oriented
7.2.4a
It can be either voluntary or involuntary. At any cost, efforts should be made on the part of the sender to identify and remove them. Some of the barriers that are sender oriented are: Badly expressed message: concrete ideas and well structures message Loss in transmission: correct choice of medium or channel
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7.2.4b
Receiver-oriented barriers:
Poor retention: jot down points Inattentive listening: improve concentration Tendency to evaluate: delay evaluation Interest and attitudes: develop interest Conflicting information: confirm with feedback, clarify Differing status and position: encourage juniors to come up with ideas and listen Resistance to change: be flexible Refutations and arguments: enter into healthy discussions
It matters not so much what you say as it does how you say it. Your communication style is a SET of various behaviors and methods of relaying information that impact all facets of life How to speak.
Guidelines:
Speed Clarity Punctuation Pronunciation Familiarity Fluency Expression.
Teaching communication skills can be a rather daunting task, considering that almost every individual feels that they are very good communicators. In fact, most trainers prefer to be regarded as facilitators, who are able to bring to light the nuances that occur while communicating ineffectively, rather than pointing a direct finger and saying - You all cannot communicate well'
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7.2.5
Maintain eye contact with the audience: This is vital as it keeps all those present involved in the conversation. It keeps them interested and on the alert, during the course of the conversation. Body awareness: One needs to be aware of all that their body is conveying to them, as well as others. For instance, if there is anxiety rising during the course of a conversation then one feels thirsty and there may be a slight body tremor. At that point one needs to pause and let someone else speak. A few deep breaths and some water works as the magic portion at this point. Gestures and expressions: One needs to be aware of how to effectively use hand gestures and the way they need to posture their body to convey their messages effectively. Sometimes it may happen that they verbally convey something, but their gestures and facial expressions have another story to tell. Convey one's thoughts: It is important for one to courageously convey what they think. This is because when things are left unsaid, then what is being spoken is not as convincing as it should be. Then a lack of confidence develops. Practice effective communication skills: One should practice speaking and listening skills as often as possible.
In order to practice effective speaking skills one can be read passages from a book aloud, in front of a mirror, or simply perform a free speech in front of the mirror. And where listening is concerned, one can try transcribing from the radio or television, etc. this helps in honing sharper listening skills.
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7.3.1
Initiation/ Introduction
When you initiate a Group Discussion, you not only If you can make a favorable first impression with your content and communication skills after you initiate a Group Discussion, it will help you sail through the discussion. But if you initiate a Group Discussion and stammer/ stutter/ quote wrong facts and figures, the damage might be irreparable. If you initiate a Group Discussion impeccably but dont speak much after that, it gives the impression that you started the Group Discussion for the sake of starting it or getting those initial kitty of points earmarked for an initiator! When you start a Group Discussion, you are responsible for putting it into the right perspective or framework. So initiate one only if you have in depth knowledge about the topic at hand.
7.3.2
Different techniques to initiate a Group Discussion and make a good first impression:
Quotes Definition Questions Shock statement Facts, figures and statistics Short story General statement
7.3.2a
Quotes:
Quotes are an effective way of initiating a Group Discussion. If the topic of a Group Discussion is: Should the Censor Board be abolished?, you could start with a quote like, Hidden apples are always sweet. For a Group Discussion topic like, Customer is King, you could quote Sam (Walmart) Waltons famous saying, there is only one boss: the customer. And he can fire everybody in the company from the chairman on down, simply by spending his money somewhere else.
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7.3.2b
Definition:
Start a Group Discussion by defining the topic or an important term in the topic. For example, if the topic of the Group Discussion is Advertising is a Diplomatic Way of Telling a Lie, why not start the Group Discussion by defining advertising as, Any paid form of non-personal presentation and promotion of ideas, goods or services through mass media like newspapers, magazines, television or radio by an identified sponsor? For a topic like The Malthusian Economic Prophecy is no longer relevant, you could start by explaining the definition of the Malthusian Economic Prophecy.
7.3.2c
Questions
Asking a question is an impactive way of starting a Group Discussion. It does not signify asking a question to any of the candidates in a Group Discussion so as to hamper the flow. It implies asking a question, and answering it yourself. Any question that might hamper the flow of a Group Discussion or insult a participant or play devils advocate must be discouraged. Questions that promote a flow of ideas are always appreciated. For a topic like, Should India go to war with Pakistan, you could start by asking, What does war bring to the people of a nation? We have had four clashes with Pakistan. The pertinent question is: what have we achieved?
7.3.2d
Shock statement
Initiating a Group Discussion with a shocking statement is the best way to grab immediate attention and put forth your point. If a Group Discussion topic is, The Impact of Population on the Indian Economy, you could start with, At the centre of the Indian capital stands a population clock that ticks away relentlessly. It tracks 33 births a minute, 2,000 an hour, 48,000 a day which calculates to about 12 million every year. That is roughly the size of Australia. As a current political slogan puts it, Nothings impossible when 1 billion Indians work together.
7.3.2e
If you decide to initiate your Group Discussion with facts, figure and statistics make sure to quote them accurately. Approximation is allowed in macro level figures, but micro level figures need to be correct and accurate. For example, you can say, approximately 70 per cent of the Indian population stays in rural areas (macro figures, approximation allowed). But you cannot say 30 states of India instead of 28 (micro figures, no approximations).
7.3.2f
Short story
Use a short story in a Group Discussion topic like, Attitude is everything. This can be initiated with, A child once asked a balloon vendor, who was selling helium gas-filled balloons, whether a blue-coloured balloon will go as high in the sky as a green-coloured balloon. The balloon vendor told the child, it is not the colour of the balloon but what is inside it that makes it go high.
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7.3.2g
General statement
Use a general statement to put the Group Discussion in proper perspective. For example, if the topic is, Should Sonia Gandhi be the prime minister of India?, you could start by saying, Before jumping to conclusions like, Yes, Sonia Gandhi should be, or No, Sonia Gandhi should not be, lets first find out the qualities one needs to be a good prime minister of India. Then we can compare these qualities with those that Mrs. Gandhi possesses. This will help us reach the conclusion in a more objective and effective manner.
7.3.3 7.3.3a
7.3.3b
DONTs
Do not be loud or aggressive Do not go overboard with enthusiasm if you are familiar with the topic Do not interrupt other speakers Do not deprecate other speakers Do not speak first if you are unfamiliar with the topic. Grab the opportunity to speak, you also grab the attention of the examiner and your fellow candidates Do not change your opinions Do not ask irrelevant questions Do not stop abruptly Do not get nervous if the previous speakers have presented their points in a better way Do not exhibit your emotions
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7.3.4
Tips:
If you are a participant always try to be the most key participant. Put points firmly and always try to get others support too If you find that the discussion is going off the track then never lose an opportunity to bring it back to stream this is the best point to score max Try to keep latest information on the topic Be very polite, people may try to provoke you to get more points but try to keep cool Most important, dont wait for your turn to speak when discussion is on. Interrupt politely if you want to put forward your points Last but not the least keeps a tab on the time given for discussion. Score points by wrapping up the discussion if you feel that the discussion is heating but the time is going to be over During conclusion, do end with the conclusion note. That shows your leadership quality.
References:
Business Communication, Urmila Rai and S.M. Rai, Himalaya Publications Business Communication, RK Madhur, Vikas Publications Pvt Ltd
About the Author: Dr. R. Suresh Kumar did his MBA and M-Phil from Shivaji University, Maharashtra and obtained his Ph. D from the same university. He has more than 15 years of teaching experience and is a pre-placement trainer for MBA, MCA, B-Tech and B-Pharm students. He is visiting faculty for AP Productivity Council and also corporate trainer for various MNCs, Research Centres and Government organizations. Dr. R. Suresh Kumar Contact details: drrongala@gmail.com 9948962356, 8008820556
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