Professional Documents
Culture Documents
ZOONOSIS DIVISION
RABIES
General Aspects & Laboratory Diagnostic Techniques
2007
ZOONOSIS DIVISION National Institute of Communicable Diseases WHO Collaborating Centre for Rabies Epidemiology
(Directorate General of Health Services) 22-Sham Nath Marg, Delhi 110054
Contributors
Dr. Mala Chhabra Deputy Director Dr. Veena Mittal Joint Director & Head Zoonosis Division Dr. U.V.S. Rana Joint Director Dr. R.L. Ichhpujani Addl. Director & NPO IDSP
CONTENTS
1. RABIES
1.1 1.2 1.3 Introduction Causative agent 1.2.1 Susceptibility to physical and chemical agents Epidemiology 1.3.1 Global status 1.3.2 Rabies in India 1.3.3 Mode of transmission 1.3.4 Pathogenesis 1.3.5 Incubation period Clinical features in humans Differential diagnosis Rabies in animals 1.6.1 Clinical features in dogs 1.6.2 Clinical features in cats 1.6.3 Clinical features in cattle Immune response in rabies infection and vaccination 1.7.1 Immunity in rabies infection 1.7.2 Immunity following vaccination Laboratory diagnosis 1.8.1 Laboratory tests Prevention of rabies in humans 1.9.1 Decision to treat 1.9.2 Management of wound 1.9.3 Passive immunisation 1.9.4 Active immunisation 1.9.4.1 Intra-muscular regimen 1.9.4.2 Intra-dermal regimens 1.9.5 Post exposure therapy for previously vaccinated persons 1 1 1 3 4 4 4 5 6 6 6 8 8 8 9 9 9 9 10 10 11 12 12 12 13 15 16 17 22 23 23 23 24
Contents
1.7
1.8 1.9
1.10 Pre-exposure prophylaxis 1.11 Prevention and control of rabies 1.11.1 Prevention of human deaths due to rabies 1.11.2 Reducing the transmission of the disease
iii
2.
2.1
26 26 26 27 28 28 28 28 28 29 29 31 33 34 36 38 40 42 50 50 51 51 51 51 51 51 52 52 52 52 52 52 53 53
2.2 2.3
3.
3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4
3.10 Decontamination 3.11 Disposal 3.12 Pre-exposure immunoprophylaxis 3.13 Post-exposure management
iv
4.
4.1 4.2 4.3
55 55 55 57 58 61 62
ANNEXURE 1: Stains, Buffers and Reagents ANNEXURE 2: WHO Collaborating Centres for Rabies in India Suggested further reading
Contents
PREFACE
Rabies is a disease of antiquity. It continues to persist as a major public health problem. It is perhaps the most gruesome and dreadful of all communicable diseases afflicting human beings. This disease is world wide in distribution, with the exception of a few areas and countries that have historically been free from it primarily due to their geographical locations. Rabies is endemic in India except for probably the water-locked islands of Lakshadweep and Andaman & Nicobar. This publication is a brief yet comprehensive document covering various aspects of the disease, aetiological agent, management of animal bites and laboratory diagnosis. Laboratory techniques have been described in detail to enable medical and veterinary laboratories to set up the diagnostic facilities. Due emphasis has been given to biosafety and quality assurance aspects which are an integral part of the laboratory system. It is sincerely hoped that the publication will help in improving the laboratory diagnosis of rabies and would provide updated information on animal bite management. The financial help received from WHO to bring out this publication is thankfully acknowledged.
RABIES
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Rabies is an acute viral disease which causes encephalomyelitis in virtually all the warm blooded animals including man. The causative agent is found in domestic and wild animals, and is transmitted to other animals and to humans through close contacts with their saliva (i.e. bites, scratches, licks on broken skin and mucous membranes). Rabies is an important zoonotic infection in which man is dead end of the infection and hence does not play any role in its spread to new hosts. In most of the developing countries, dogs are the principle reservoirs of rabies (canine rabies) whereas sylvatic rabies involving animals such as foxes, racoons and coyotes are principle reservoirs of this disease in developed countries. Rabies has terrified man since antiquity. The fear is by no means unfounded since the disease is invariably fatal and perhaps the most painful and horrible of all communicable diseases in which the sick person is tormented at the same time with thirst and fear of water (hydrophobia). Till date no treatment has succeeded in curing hydrophobia and in spite of great strides in the prevention of rabies, with few exceptions, the disease is no less a global problem now than it was almost a century ago.
antigenic data (Table 1): 1, RABV; 2, LBV; 3, MOKV; 4, DUVV; 5, European bat lyssavirus 1 (EBLV-1); 6, European bat lyssavirus 2 (EBLV-2); and 7, Australian bat lyssavirus (ABLV). Within each genotype, sublineages correspond to variants circulating in specific geographical regions and/or animal hosts. The genotypes further segregate in two phylogroups including genotypes 1, 4, 5, 6 and 7 (phylogroup I); and 2 and 3 (phylogroup II). Viruses of each phylogroup differ in their biological properties (pathogenicity, induction of apoptosis, cell receptor recognition, etc.)
I I I I
4 5 6 7
Duvenhage virus DUVV European bat lyssavirus type 1 European bat lyssavirus type 2 Australian bat lyssavirus EBLV-1 EBLV-2 ABLV
2 3
LBV MOKV
Aravan virus
ARAV
Central Asia
Insectivorous bats (isolated from Myotis blythi) Insectivorous bats (isolated from Myotis mystacinus) Insectivorous bats (isolated from Murina leucogaster) Insectivorous bats (isolated from Miniopterus schreibersi)
Khujand virus
KHUV
Central Asia
Irkut virus
IRKV
East Siberia
WCBV
Caucasian region
Lyssaviruses have a 12 kb-long non-segmented RNA genome of negative polarity encoding five viral proteins (3 to 5): nucleoprotein N, phosphoprotein P, matrix protein M, glycoprotein G and polymerase L. The lyssavirus particle has a bullet-shaped form, 100300 nm in length and 75 nm in diameter (Fig 1). It is composed of two structural and functional units [Fig 2]: (i) the outer envelope covered with spike-like projections (10 nm in length) corresponding to G-protein trimers which recognise specific viral receptors on susceptible cell membranes; Hence pathogenicity of Lyssavirus is attributed to protein G. (ii) the internal helically packaged ribonucleocapsid, which is composed of the genomic RNA intimately associated with protein N, polymerase L and its cofactor protein P (formerly named M1). The ribonucleocapsid complex ensures genome transcription and replication in the cytoplasm.
Fig 1: Negatively stained rabies virus as seen by transmission microscopy
G glycoprotein SPIKES
Finally, protein M (formerly named M2) occupies an intermediate position between the ribonucleocapsid and the envelope, and is responsible for virus budding and the bullet-shaped morphology.
1.3 EPIDEMIOLOGY
1.3.1 Global status
Rabies occurs in all continents with the exception of Australia and Antarctica. Several (>50) countries are currently free of rabies. Even in infected countries the disease is not uniformly distributed. Areas free of disease, of low and high endemicity and areas with epizootic outbreaks can be found in many countries. In Africa and Asia (with few important exceptions such as Japan and Singapore), rabies is prevalent in almost whole of the territory with a stable pattern. Most of the countries of Americas and Europe report occurrence of disease in limited or border areas (Fig-3:).
with dog bites. Cats, wolf, jackal, mongoose and monkeys are other important reservoirs of rabies in India (Table-3). Bat rabies has not been conclusively reported from India.
Note: All exposures in wild are considered as Category III exposures. * Bite by bats or rodents do not ordinarily necessitate rabies vaccination in India. However, bites by bats or rodents in unusual circumstances may be considered for vaccination in consultation with an expert in the field of rabies.
Rabies
Rare
Bites from infected animals Licks on broken skin and mucous membrane Scratches
1.3.4 Pathogenesis
On entering into human body through wounds or direct contact with mucosal surfaces, the rabies virus either multiplies at local site of inoculation in non-nervous tissues or directly enters peripheral nerves and travels by retrograde axoplasmic flow to the central nervous system prior to its spread towards brain via the nerves (Fig 4). Within the brain, virus spreads from infected to contagious cells. There may be regional differences in the intensity with which areas of brain become infected. The main areas affected are usually the cerebellum, hypothalamus, hippocampus and scattered neurons in the reticular formation. It may be that aggression in rabies is related to the presence of virus in mid brain raphe nuclei and medical hypothalamus, since these are the two inhibitory centres of aggressive behaviour. It may also be that the distribution of virus in the brain has a bearing as whether the disease becomes the manifest in dumb or classical furious rabies. It does not follow the haematogenous spread. The movement of the virus is extremely slow (15100 mm per day) which results into a long incubation period. The virus then moves from CNS via anterograde axoplasmic flow within peripheral nerves and reaches salivary glands and other organs. The virus is widely disseminated throughout the body at the time of clinical onset. This has practical implications as organ transplantation has resulted in transmission of the disease to the recipient.
5. Brain infected
6. Virus travels from brain via nerves to other tissues such as eye, kidneys, salivary glands
4. Virus replicates in dorsal root ganglion and travels up spinal cord to brain
3. Virus infects nerve in peripheral nervous system Moves by retrograde transport 2. Virus replicates in muscle at site of bite
The first symptom to appear may be pain and tingling in the affected limb, especially around the site of bite. This is seen in 35-65% cases. Hydrophobia is the best known symptom of this disease and is pathognomonic for rabies.
Excitation phase
Paralytic phase
Hydrophobia (fear of water) is pathognomonic feature of rabies which is erroneously considered synonymous with rabies. It is usually the only neurologic abnormality found in patients presenting with furious rabies. This is due to a violent jerky contraction of the diaphragm and accessory muscles of inspiration that is triggered by the patients attempts to swallow liquid and by a variety of other stimuli such as strong current of air, loud noise and bright light. Hydrophobia is usually not associated with pain in neck or throat. It is also not a conditioned reflex caused by aspiration of liquid into trachea. About 20% of the patients present with paralytic form of rabies do not have hydrophobia. In these patients diagnosis can only be established by laboratory confirmation. This is important as rabies has been documented from USA in cluster of human rabies cases associated with transplantation of solid organs from a misdiagnosed rabies patient. Rabies cases have also been documented following corneal transplantation.
Paralytic phase
change in behavior of dog, change in bark tone, change in feeding habits, the animals may go off feed and eat abnormal objects. They may develop fever, vomiting, excessive salivation, paralysis of lower jaw, anxiety, restlessness, convulsions, paralysis leading to death with in 5-7 days on onset of disease. There is however no hydrophobia in animals. Rabies in dogs is also classified as dumb (predominantly paralytic manifestation with docile behavior of animal) or furious (mainly convulsions and aggressive behavior with greatly exaggerated biting tendencies). Clinical rabies in dogs has to be differentiated from other diseases which manifest with similar features. These include distemper, hepatitis, epilepsy, poisoning, brain tumours and head injury.
independently in cell mediated viral clearance are both key responses in the cell mediated immunity derived from viral antigens. The function of CTLs is to destroy target cells that display virus induced changes on their surfaces. However, in spite of their importance in viral clearance, T lymphocytes appear to be suppressed in animals infected by pathogenic street viruses. As a result of virus induced immunosuppression the disease increases in severity and mortality rises. It is clear from various studies that both B and T cells play an important role in virus clearance.
10
Though antemortem as well as post-mortem diagnostic techniques are available, the former do not have a sensitivity of more than 25% in best of hands. Battery of tests should be performed. A positive test by one of the standard procedures overrides negative reaction in the others. Negative tests do not rule out the possibility of rabies (Table - 7).
Difficult require battery of tests No single test has been positive in every case Distribution of rabies antigen in nuchal biopsy or corneal impression may be extremely irregular False positive results have been obtained in fluorescent examination of corneal epithelium Antibody response to infection on occasions may be absent It is necessary to test repeated samples Samples should be tested using all currently available tests Ante-mortem diagnosis should be attempted only by experienced laboratories A negative diagnosis does not rule out rabies
Limitations
Simple Rapid (1 hour) Easy to perform No special equipment required Specific (near 100%) Sensitive (near 100%) Relatively Rapid (1 day) Easy to perform Can detect very small quantity of virus Confirmatory
Expensive Good Fluorescent microscope Good quality conjugate Trained manpower Takes long time (21 days) More of academic value Use of laboratory animals (mice). Thus laboratories should have a well maintained animal house. Ethical issues involved in use of laboratory animals Special cell culture laboratory Expensive Trained manpower
Rabies
11
i ii
iii.
* Exposure to rodents,rabbits and hares seldeom,if ever,requires specific anti rabies treatment. ** If an apparently healthy dog or cat in or from a low risk area is under observation the situation may warrant delaying the initiation of treatment. *** Observation period only applies to dogs and cats. Other domestic and wild animals (except threatened or endangered species) suspected as rabid should be killed humanely and their tissues examined using appropriate laboratory techniques.
Source: Guidelines for post-exposure treatment. WHO Expert Consultation on Rabies,2004, WHO Technical Series 931.
12
for dogs and cats only. Bite by all wild animals should be treated as category III exposure. It should be noted that bites by rats, mice, squirrel, hare and rabbits seldom require treatment. Bat rabies has not been conclusively proved in India and hence exposure does not warrant treatment. It is re-emphasised that the treatment should be started as early as possible after exposure, but it should not be denied to person reporting late for treatment. There are three components of prevention of rabies in man. All three carry equal importance and one should not be given undue importance, or utter neglect, at the cost of other two components. Physician must attempt to provide the animal bite victim the benefit of all three of these. These components are: Management of wound Post-exposure immunisation Pre-exposure immunisation Advice to the patient
13
Chemical
Washing the wound with soap and water Apply disinfectants Povidone iodine Spirit Household antiseptics Infiltration of immunoglobulins in the depth and around the wound in Category III exposures Neutralisation of the virus
Biological
Donts
Touch the wound with bare hand Apply irritants like soil, chillies, oil, herbs, chalk, betel leaves etc. Suture Cauterise
Dose of Rabies Immunoglobulins (RIG): The dose of equine anti rabies serum is 40 i.u. per kg body weight of patient and is given after testing of sensitivity, upto a maximum of 3000 i.u. The ARS produced in India contains 300 i.u. per ml. The dose of the human rabies immunoglobulins (HRIG) is 20 i.u. per kg body weight (maximum 1500 i.u.). HRIG does not require any prior sensitivity testing. HRIG preparation is available in concentration of 150 i.u. per ml. Administration of Immunoglobulins: As much of the calculated dose of RIG as is anatomically feasible should be infiltrated into and around the wounds. Multiple needle injections into the wound should be avoided. Remaining, if any, after all wounds have been infiltrated, should be administered by deep intramuscular injection at an injection site distant from the vaccine injection site. Animal bite wounds inflicted can be severe and multiple, especially in small children. In such cases, the calculated dose of the rabies immunoglobulin may not be sufficient to infiltrate all wounds. In these circumstances, it is advisable to dilute the immunoglobulins in sterile normal saline 2 to 3 fold to be able to permit infiltration of all wounds. The total recommended dose of immunoglobulin must not be exceeded as it may reduce the efficacy of the vaccine. If immunoglobulin was not administered when vaccination was begun, it can be administered upto the seventh day after the administration of the first dose of
14
vaccine. Beyond the seventh day, Rabies Immunoglobulin (RIG) is not indicated since an antibody response to anti rabies vaccine is presumed to have occurred. Immunoglobulin should never be administered in the same syringe or at the same anatomical site as vaccine. Sensitivity test before administration of heterologous serum: With antisera of equine origin, anaphylactic shock may occur and thus sensitivity testing is mandatory before giving ERIG. Skin test may be performed as per the manufacturers instructions given in the product insert. Otherwise, general guidelines are described in Table-11.
A negative skin test must never reassure the physician that no anaphylactic reaction will occur. Those administering ERIG should always be ready to treat early anaphylactic reactions with adrenalin. The dose is 0.5 ml of 0.1% solution (1 in 1000, 1mg/ml) for adults and 0.01 ml/kg body weight for children, injected subcutaneously or IM. If patient is sensitive to ERIG, HRIG should be used. Approach to a patient requiring rabies immunoglobulins when none is available: In circumstances where no immunoglobulins are available greater emphasis should be given to proper wound toileting followed by Essen schedule of Tissue culture vaccine with double dose on day 0 at 2 different sites intramuscularly (0 day 2 doses on left and right deltoid, 3, 7, 14 and 28 days). It is emphasised that doubling the first dose of TCV is not a replacement to RIG. A full course of vaccine should follow thorough wound cleansing and passive immunisation. Tolerance and side effects: With RIG, there may be transient tenderness at the injection site and a brief rise in body temperature which do not require any treatment. Skin reactions are extremely rare. RIG must never be given intravenously since this could produce symptoms of shock, especially in patients with antibody deficiency syndromes.
Rabies
15
Serum sickness occurs in 1% to 6% of patients usually 7 to 10 days after injection of ERIG, but it has not been reported after treatment with HRIG.
3.
Duck Embryo
Schedule
Essen Schedule : Five dose intramuscular regimen - The course for post exposure prophylaxis should consist of intramuscular administration of five injections on days 0, 3, 7, 14 and 28. The sixth injection (D90) should be considered as optional and should be given to those individuals who are immunologically deficient, are at the extremes of age and on steroid therapy. Day 0 indicates date of first injection. This schedule is followed in India. Zagreb schedule: Abbreviated multisite intramuscular regimen (2-1-1) One dose of vaccine administered intramuscularly in the left and one into right deltoid region on day 0 followed by one dose on days 7 and 21 in deltoid region. This schedule saves 2 clinic visits and one vaccine dose.
16
Indications. All age groups of animal bite victims of Category II and III require the same number of injections and dose per injection. The Category III exposures, in addition require administration of rabies immunoglobulins as discussed earlier. Site of inoculation. The deltoid region is ideal for the inoculation of these vaccines. Gluteal region is not recommended because the fat present in this region retards the absorption of antigen and hence impairs the generation of optimal immune response. Storage and transportation. Though most tissue culture vaccines are marketed in freeze dried (lyophilised) form which is more tolerant of vagaries of temperature, yet it is recommended that these vaccines should be kept and transported at a temperature range of 2-8oC. Freezing does not damage the lyophilised vaccine but there are chances of breakage of ampoule containing the diluent. Liquid vaccines should never be frozen. Reconstitution and storage. The lyophilised vaccine should be reconstituted with the diluent provided with the vaccine immediately prior to use. However, in case of unforeseen delay it should not be used after 6-8 hours of reconstitution. Protective level of anti rabies antibody. Humoral antibodies are believed to play important role in protection against rabies and a titre of 0.5 i.u./ml or more in serum is considered as protective. Adverse effects with tissue culture vaccines. The tissue culture vaccines are widely accepted as the least reactogenic rabies vaccines available today. Various studies have now shown that adverse effects can be either general in nature or allergic in origin. The general adverse reactions include sore arm, headache, malaise, nausea, fever and localised oedema at the site of injection. Symptomatic treatment may be needed. Switch over from one brand of vaccine to the other. Shifting from one brand of TCV to other brand should not be encouraged as literature supports that good immunity is best achieved with same brand. 1.9.4.2 Intra-dermal (ID) regimens Concept of intra-dermal inoculation of anti rabies vaccines (IDRV) Intra-dermal regimens consist of the intra-dermal administration of a fraction of intramuscular dose of certain rabies vaccine on multiple sites. The vaccines used are same; however route, dose and site of administration differs. The use of intra-dermal route leads to considerable savings in terms of total amount of vaccine needed for full pre- or postexposure vaccination, thereby reducing the cost of active immunisation.
Rabies
17
Intra-muscular route (IM): Single bolus dose (1ml) of rabies vaccines/antigen when given by IM route gets deposited in the muscles. There after the antigen is absorbed by the blood vessels and is presented to antigen presenting cells which triggers immune response. Intra-dermal route (ID): Small amount (0.1ml) of Rabies vaccines/antigen is deposited in the layers of the skin at multiple sites. The antigen is directly presented to the antigen presenting cells (with out circulation/dilution in blood) at multiple sites triggering a stronger immune response. Mechanism of action of IDRV Intra-dermal inoculation is deposition of approved rabies vaccine (or antigen) in the layers of dermis of skin. Subsequently the antigen is carried by antigen presenting cells via the lymphatic drainage to the regional lymph nodes and later to the reticulo-endothelial system eliciting a prompt and highly protective antibody response. Immunity is believed to depend mainly upon the CD 4 + T- cell dependent neutralizing antibody response to the G protein. In addition, cell-mediated immunity has long been reported as an important part of the defense against rabies. Cells presenting the fragments of G protein are the targets of cytotoxic T- cells and the N protein induced T helper cells. The immune response induced by IDRV is adequate and protective against rabies. International Scenario Multiple clinical trials since early eighties proved that ID route of inoculation of Tissue Culture Anti rabies Vaccines (TCARV) is efficacious, safe and economical. It requires less quantity of vaccine which brings down the cost of immunisation and allows wider coverage in the existing quantity of vaccine. WHO recommended use of ID route of inoculation of TCARV in 1992. Thailand, Srilanka and Philippines have successfully adopted ID route of inoculation. Schedules approved by WHO for ID route 1. Updated Thai Red Cross Schedule (2-2-2-0-2): Vaccines approved for TRC schedule: Purified Vero cell Rabies Vaccine (PVRV) produced by Aventis Pasteur Purified Chick Embryo Cell rabies Vaccine (PCECV) produced by Chiron Vaccines Regimen: 2-2-2-0-2 i.e. one dose of vaccine, in a volume of 0.1ml is given intradermally at two different lymphatic drainage sites, usually the left and right upper arm, on days 0,3,7 and 28.
18
2. Eight site intradermal regimen (8-0-4-0-1-1) Vaccines approved for eight site schedule: Human Diploid Cell Vaccine (HDCV) produced by Aventis Pasteur Purified Chick Embryo Cell rabies Vaccine (PCECV) produced by Chiron Vaccines Regimen: 8-0-4-0-1-1 i.e. one dose of 0.1 ml is administered intra-dermally at eight different sites (Fig.-5) (upper arms, lateral thighs, Fig 5: Sites for ID inoculation in suprascapular region and lower quadrant of 8-site ID regimen abdomen) on day 0. On day 7, four 0.1ml injections are administered intra-dermally into each upper arm (deltoid region) and each lateral thigh. Following these injections one additional 0.1ml dose is administered on days 28 and 90. General guidelines Vaccines to be applied by intradermal route of administration should meet the WHO requirements for production and control related to vaccines for intra-muscular use including an NIH potency test of at least 2.5IU per single dose (intramuscular). Immunogenicity and safety of vaccine in question should be demonstrated in appropriate human trials using WHO post-exposure regimens. In countries where national health authorities have approved the ID route for pre-post exposure prophylaxis, and for vaccines that can be used by that route, the vaccine package leaflet should include a statement indicating that the potency as well as immunogenicity and safety allow safe use of vaccine by ID pre- and post-exposure prophylaxis in addition to other relevant information as described in WHO requirements for vaccine production and control. The decision to implement economical ID post-exposure prophylaxis rests with government agencies that define rabies prevention and treatment policies in their own countries. Intradermal injections must be administered by staff trained in this technique. Vaccine vials must be stored at 2 to 8C after reconstitution The total content of reconstitute vial should be used as soon as possible, but atleast with in 8 hours. All the reconstitute vaccines should be discarded after 8 hours of reconstitution and at the end of the day Rabies vaccines formulated with an adjuvant should not be administered intra-dermally. Vaccine when given intra-dermally should raise a visible and palpable bleb in the skin. In the event that the dose is inadvertently given subcutaneously or intramuscularly, a new dose should be given intradermally.
Rabies
19
IDRV Vaccines and regimen approved for use in the country The following vaccines have been approved by National Authorities in first phase for use by intradermal route after assessing the safety, efficacy and feasibility data as recommended by WHO: Vaccines PVRV Verorab, Aventis Pasteur (Sanofi Pasteur) India Pvt. Ltd. PCEC Rabipur, Chiron Behring Vaccines Pvt. Ltd. PVRV Pasteur Institute of India, Coonoor PVRV Abhayrab, Human Biologicals Institute. Potency of approved vaccines: The vaccines should have stated potency of > 2.5 IU per IM dose, irrespective of reconstituted volume. The same vaccine is used for ID administration as per stated schedule. 0.1ml of vaccine, irrespective of reconstituted volume, is administered per ID site as per schedule below. Schedule Post exposure Prophylaxis Updated Thai Red Cross schedule, (2-2-2-0-2). This involves injection of 0.1ml of reconstituted vaccine per ID site and on two such ID sites per visit (one on each deltoid area, an inch above the insertion of deltoid muscle) on days 0, 3, 7 and 28. The day 0 is the day of first dose administration of IDRV and may not be the day of rabies exposure/animal bite. Pre-exposure prophylaxis: This involves injection of 0.1 ml of reconstituted vaccine per ID site on days 0,7 and 21 or 28. Maintenance of vaccine vial in use Use aseptic technique to with draw the dose Store in a refrigerator at 2C to 8C Reconstituted vaccines should be used as soon as possible or within 6 to 8 hours if kept at 2C to 8C. All unused reconstituted vaccine at the end of 6-8 hours must be discarded. Materials required A vial of rabies vaccine approved for IDRV Fig 6: 1ml syringe with hypodermic and its diluent. needle (Insulin syringe) 2 ml disposable syringe with 24 G needle for reconstitution of vaccine. Disposable 1 ml (insulin) syringe (with graduations upto 100 or 40 units) with a fixed (28 G) needle (Fig.6) Disinfectant swabs (e.g. 70% ethanol, isopropyl alcohol) for cleaning the top of the vial and the patients skin.
20
ID injection technique Using aseptic technique, reconstitute the vial of freeze-dried vaccine with the diluent supplied by the manufacturer. With 1 ml syringe draw 0.2 ml (up to 20 units if a 100 units syringe is used or upto 8 units if a 40 units syringe is used) of vaccine needed for one patient (i.e. 0.1 ml per ID site X 2 sites 0.2 ml) and expel the air bubbles carefully from the syringe thereby removing any dead space in the syringe. Using the technique of BCG inoculation, stretch the surface of the skin and insert the tip of the needle with bevel upwards, almost parallel to the skin surface (Fig.7) and slowly inject half the volume of vaccine in the syringe (i.e. 0.1ml; either 10 or 4 units) into the uppermost dermal layer of skin, over the deltoid area, preferably an inch above the insertion of deltoid muscle. If the needle is correctly placed inside the dermis, considerable resistance is felt while injecting the vaccine. A raised papule should begin to appear immediately causing a peau d orange (orange peel) appearance (Fig.8). Inject the remaining half the volume of vaccine (i.e. 0.1ml; either 10 or 4 units) on the opposite deltoid area. If the vaccine is injected too deeply into the skin (subcutaneous), papule is not seen. Then the needle should be withdrawn and reinserted at an adjacent site and the ID vaccine given once more. Anti rabies treatment centres which meet the following criteria may use ID administration: Have adequately trained staff to give ID inoculation of anti rabies vaccine Can maintain cold chain for vaccine storage Ensure adequate supply of suitable syringes and needles for ID administration Are adequately well versed in management of open vial and safe storage practices.
Rabies
21
The vaccine which is being used for IM administration can be used for ID administration after the vaccine manufacturers amend the label and package insert to indicate that the vaccine is fit for IM and ID route in designated centres. The manufactures should get the same approved by DCGI. A copy of protocol to generate Post Marketing Surveillance (PMS) data should be prepared and submitted by vaccine manufacturers for approval from DCGIs office. PMS should be maintained for minimum of two years. Since inclusion in Indian Pharmacopeia takes a long time, with the approval of vaccine from DCGI office and undertaking from the Pharmaceutical firms that the vaccine is fit for use by IM and ID route, the State health authorities may start use of ID route of inoculation of anti rabies vaccines.
Considering the recommendations on intradermal application of rabies by WHO and results of safety, efficacy and feasibility trials conducted in India, Drug Controller General of India (DCGI) approved the use of reduced dosage intradermal vaccination regimen for rabies post-exposure prophylaxis. The use of this route leads to considerable savings in terms of the total amount of vaccine needed for a full post-exposure vaccination, thereby reducing the cost of active immunisation. Precautions while using ID regimen: When the intradermal route is used, precautions include staff training, conditions and duration of vaccine storage after reconstitution, use of appropriate 1 ml syringe and short hypodermic needles. Vaccines to be applied by intradermal route of administration should meet WHO requirements for production and control related to vaccines for intramuscular use, including an NIH test potency of at least 2.5 IU per single (intramuscular) dose. In addition, immunogenicity and safety of the vaccine in question should be demonstrated in appropriate human trials using WHO/national post-exposure prophylaxis regimens. The vaccine package leaflet should include a statement indicating that the potency as well as immunogenicity and safety allow safe use of the vaccine for intradermal post-exposure prophylaxis, in addition to other relevant information as described in the WHO requirements for vaccine production and control.
22
Managing exposure following pre-exposure prophylaxis with TCV: If after recommended pre-exposure prophylaxis, a vaccinated person is exposed to rabies, a proper wound toileting should be done and two IM/ID (0.1 ml at two sites) doses of Tissue Culture Vaccine be given on days 0 and 3. Treatment with RIG is not necessary. Managing re-exposure following post exposure treatment with NTV: Persons who have previously received full post-exposure treatment with NTV should be treated as fresh case and may be given treatment as per merits of the case.
Rabies
23
should receive post exposure prophylaxis as per merits of the exposure without waiting for laboratory results or time period of observation of the biting animal.
24
Supplementary measures - Oral Vaccination of Dogs (OVDs): Oral vaccines are live attenuated vaccine strain (SAD stain) which are incorporated in the bait. The bait can be made species specific. Although the preferential vaccines for dog immunisation is parenteral vaccines, oral vaccines can be used whenever there is high population of free roaming and poorly supervised dogs which are difficult to access. Since these are live attenuated vaccines, they should be distributed under strict supervision in countries like India where animals and children of poor socio-economic status share similar ecological niche. These vaccines are expensive as compared to parenteral vaccines. Hence strategies for vaccine bait distribution must be carefully worked out. Dog population management and animal birth control (ABC) programme: Killing or removal of dogs alone does not have any significant effect on dog population density or spread of rabies. This may be because of high turnover of dogs and increased survival rate. However, three practical methods of dog population management have been recommended by WHO. These are movement restriction, habital control and reproduction control. Animal birth control programmes when conducted in a defined locality covering sizeable population of dogs has shown encouraging results with reduction in size of street dog population.
Rabies
25
26
sputum with few ml of tissue culture medium or 2% NHS in physiological saline and transfer to screw capped vial. Corneal Smear a) Retract the eye lids with thumb and one finger and press a clean marked slide against the cornea. b) Prepare two smears on each slide taking care to apply sufficient pressure to get the smear. c) Avoid exerting too much pressure as it may damage the eye. d) Air dry the smears for 10-15 mins at room temperature. e) Treat with chilled acetone and process further Skin Biopsy With very fine sharp scissors collect small pieces of skin from the site of bite and the face near the mandible. Preserve in vial containing 50% glycerol saline (prepared by mixing equal volume of glycerol and physiological saline and sterilised by autoclaving). Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) The CSF in acute phase of the disease is processed for isolation of the virus and in the later phase for antibodies. It is collected by lumbar puncture. Usually no preservative is used but, if required, 50% glycerol saline may be used. Blood Acute phase venous blood specimen is collected as soon as possible with the usual aseptic precautions. If the patient survives for several days, a second sample is taken. In case the patient recovers another blood sample is taken before discharging the patient. Brain The brain is collected at autopsy. Many times the relatives do not agree for a full postmortem. In such cases Vim-Silverman needle may be used to collect a small piece of brain sample which is then put in 50% glycerol saline.
27
If it is not possible to send the whole brain, pieces from Ammons horn of hippocampus, cerebrum, cerebellum, pons and medulla may be included.
2.1.3 Preservation
If possible the samples of brain and salivary glands may be sent in widemouth leakproof containers preserved on ice. However, if the samples are to be sent long distance these may be preserved by use of following: a) 10% formal saline/Zenkers fluid for half of the brain b) 50% glycerol saline for other half of the brain and salivary glands. c) Tissue culture medium 2% NHS saline for saliva, CSF,urine etc.
2.1.4 Labelling
All the specimens e.g. slides,vials must be labelled with number of specimens, name of the patient, or species of the animal,type of preservative used etc. Permanent markers should be used. The parcels should also be labelled properly. Information to be enclosed a) Hydrophobia: Name, Age, Gender, Treatment taken, Exposure to animal etc. may be enclosed. b) Animal: The species and breed of animal, contact with other animal, symptoms, mode and date of death, vaccination status etc.
2.1.5 Packing
a) b) c) d) It should preferably be wide mouth leakproof plastic containers. Seal the mouth of the container with tape or sealing paraffin. Pack in plastic bags and put in thermocol box with sufficient ice. If sending by post pack in sturdy wooden boxes with sufficient packing material (preferably absorbent cotton/saw dust/paddy husk).
2.1.6 Transportation
a) b) By courier By air/by post.
Utmost urgency should be exhibited in transportation of these specimens because any undue delay, especially in tropical climates, shall wither away the cooling effect of ice and result into putrefaction of the sample making it unsuitable for the diagnosis.
28
depends on the availability of appropriate facilities. The tests may be for detection of rabies antigen in ante-mortem specimens like corneal smear, CSF or saliva etc. or postmortem specimens which include brain and salivary glands.
29
b) c) d)
Cut through to lateral ventricle. Widen the opening to expose the hippocampus on ventricle floor. The hippocampus can be seen as white, glistening, semi cylindrical and curved body. e) Cut out a small piece of hippocampus (0.5-1 cm) and place it on a spatula/ filter paper with cut surface facing upwards. f) Place the filter paper on glass slide (5 x 7.5cm) g) Lightly sponge the cut surface with the edge of a filter paper to remove blood. h) Press a clean microscope slide on the tissue piece on spatula/filter paper to get an impression smear. i) Make at least 3 smears on each slide. j) While the smears are wet, flood the smear with working stain. k) Stain for 2-3 seconds. l) Quickly wash with tap water by gently flushing the slide. m) Air dry the smear. n) Examine under oil immersion. Observations Following may be observed (Fig. 9) Nerve cells Blue cytoplasm and dark blue nucleus Stroma Pink Erythrocytes Copper coloured Negri bodies Magenta to dark red with dark blue or black inner granules. Similarly smears can be prepared from cortex and cerebellum and examined for Negri bodies.
Fig 9: Sellers stain: Negri Bodies
Negri Bodies
Other Inclusion Bodies Some of the inclusion bodies in normal brains of cats, foxes, mouse etc. may appear similar to the Negri bodies to an inexperienced worker. The inclusion body due to some other diseases in dogs e.g. distemper may also stain similar to Negri bodies. However, these can be differentiated from Negri bodies on the basis of following features:
30
Negri bodies a) b) c) d) e) Oval, round or elongated Size 3-20m Presence of basophilic inner granules and heterogenous matrix Less refractile Mostly abundant in hippocampus
Other Inclusion bodies Oval or round Small to large Homogenous matrix without granules More refractile Rare in hippocampus
31
Dichroic Mirror
Excitation Filter
Obj
Specimen
Procedure a) Prepare two impression smears of approximately 1 cm diameter about 1.5 cm from each end of the labelled slides. Prepare at least 4 slides each from the cerebrum, hippocampus, midbrain, cerebellum and medulla of brain. b) Air dry the smears for 25-35 minutes at room temperature. c) Immerse the slides in coplin jars containing chilled acetone in a deep freeze at 20C to 25C. d) Keep for 4 hrs to overnight. e) Drain off the acetone and store slides at 20C till stained. f) Take out the impression smear slides from deep freeze and dry at room temperature for 20 minutes. Include known positive and negative smears also. g) Mark the outline of the smears with grease marking pencil or wax pen. h) Flood the smear with ready to use conjugate with the help of a pasteur pipette. i) Place the slides in a chamber with moist filter paper at the bottom. j) Cover the chamber and keep at 37C for 30 minutes. k) Wash the slides in 0.01 M phosphate buffered saline (pH 7.5) for 5 minutes. l) Repeat washing. m) Remove from buffer and dip in a jar of distilled water for 5 minutes with gentle shaking (Washing can also be performed by gentle agitation using a magnetic stirrer). n) Remove from distilled water and dry the slides at room temperature. o) Mount in 90% buffered glycerol (pH 9.0). p) Examine under a microscope with ultraviolet source of light (fluorescent microscope), the known positive, known negative and test slides. A dark ground condenser is useful.
32
Observations Rabies antigen is seen as fine dusty particles emitting bright to dull yellowish green fluorescence. (Fig 12)
Fig 12: Fluorescent Antibody Test showing apple green fluorescence of rabies antigen in brain tissue of rabid animals.
Laboratory Diagnosis of Rabies: Techniques
33
d) e) f)
Centrifuge tubes. Pestle mortar, tissue grinder or omni mixer. Scissors and forceps.
Procedure Brain a) Aseptically collect 3-4 gm or pieces Fig 13: Intra cerebral inoculation of mice of brain tissue of approximately 1 cm diameter cut out from different areas of the brain, i.e. hippocampus, cerebrum, cerebellum, medulla, pons etc. b) By weighing calculate the exact weight of the tissue pieces. c) Homogenise these pieces to make a fine paste with the help of a pestle mortar/tissue grinder/ electric grinder/omnimixer. d) Add enough chilled distilled water containing 2% inactivated normal horse serum (serum should be collected from horses not vaccinated against rabies) to make a 10% suspension. Mix thoroughly while adding the diluent. e) Transfer to a sterile 15 ml centrifuge tube. f) Centrifuge at 1000-1500 rpm for 5 minutes. g) Collect the supernatant with the help of pipette in a Bijou bottle/half tube kept in ice bath. h) Add 100 units/ml penicillin and 50g/ml of streptomycin and keep for 30 minutes. i) Inoculate into 3-4 weeks old white mice by intracerebral route with long 26/27 gauze needle in 0.03 ml dose/mice. (Fig 13) Use at least eight mice for each inoculum. j) Observe for 21 days for signs like roughening and loss of lustre of the fur, tremor, hyperexicitability, arching of the back, convulsions, paralysis of the hind legs and death. k) Check any mouse dying after 72 hours for presence of Negri bodies in brain by Sellers staining or antigen by FAT. Salivary Gland Grind the salivary glands with the help of sterile sand or sterile coarse glass powder in a pestle and mortar and repeat the processes e to k as described above.
34
Reagents and Equipment a) Murine Neuroblastoma 2A cell lines (Fig 14) b) Culture tubes c) MEM Medium + 10% FCS d) TPVG solution Brain tissue preparation a) Take approximately 0.5 gm of tissue from the hippocampus of the brain. b) To this add 5 ml of PBS containing antibiotic to make a 10% w/v suspension. c) Vortex mix vigorously and allow to settle for at least 1 hour at 4C. d) Withdraw the upper clear layer and dilute 10-fold with MEM medium supplemented with 10% fetal calf serum. e) Add 100 units/ml penicillin and 50g/ml of streptomycin. Shaken or vortex mix vigorously and allow to settle for at least 1 hour at 4C. CSF Can be inoculated directly after treatment with antibiotics. Cell suspension Murine Neuroblastoma 2A cells are grown for maintenance at 35 37C in 25 cm2 plastic culture bottles/tubes containing 5 ml of MEM-10 media. For inoculation of samples, the subculture is done in 25 cm 2 culture tube with 5 ml MEM supplemented with 10% FCS media.
Fig 14 : Murine Neuroblastoma 2A Cell lines (10x 40 magnification) Laboratory Diagnosis of Rabies: Techniques
35
Procedure a) For each specimen take 2 ml of cell suspension in a culture bottle. b) Add 4 ml of the 1% suspension (in MEM + 10% FCS) to each of the tubes containing cells. c) With each batch use a known positive control and negative control. d) Incubate the tubes at 37C for four days. e) The tubes should be checked daily for contamination. f) After four days of growth, take Teflon slides and keep in the acetone for 2 5 minutes at room temperature. g) Air dry the Teflon slides in laminar flow. h) The fluid is separated in sterile tubes from infected cell culture tubes and stored at 70C in liquid Nitrogen. Approximately 0.5 ml fluid is left in the cell culture tube. i) Gently tap the tubes and by repeated forceful pipetting attempt to detach the cells. j) Inoculate the resuspended cells with the help of the Pasteur pipettes in the wells of Teflon coated slides including the test samples cells, positive control and negative control. k) Air dry the drops for 2 3 hours in the laminar flow. l) Immerse the slides in coplin jar containing chilled acetone in a deep freeze at 20C to 25C for 4 hours to overnight. m) Take out the slides from chilled acetone and dry at room temperature for 20 minutes. n) Pour 1 2 drops of rabies antinucleocapsid FITC conjugate with the help of Pasteur pipette. o) Place the slides in moist chamber at 37C for 30 minutes. p) Wash the slide in 0.01 M phosphate buffer saline (pH 7.5) twice for 5 minutes each. q) After this give two washings with distilled water for 5 minutes each. r) Take out the slides from distilled water and dry at room temperature. s) Mount in 90% buffered glycerol. t) Examine the slides under a fluorescent microscope.
36
N1 (+) sense : (587) 5-TTT GAG ACT GCT CCT TTT G-3 (605) N2 (-) sense : (1029) 5 CC CAT ATA GCA TCC TAC 3 (1013) For typing and molecular studies the highly variable area, rabies pseudogene is selected. It is a non protein-coding region and is highly susceptible to mutation and therefore is most suitable for detecting strain variation and closely related isolates. G (+) sense : (4665) 5-GAC TTG GGT CTC CCG AAC TGG GG-3 (4687) L (-) sense : (5543) 5 CAA AGG AGA GTT GAG ATT GTA GTC3 (5520) Procedure RNA extraction c-DNA synthesis c-DNA amplification Detection of PCR products RNA extraction Homogenise the infected brain tissue with lysine buffer to lyse the cells, cell membranes and nuclear membrane. This can be done by manual method, 1-phenol, 2 phenol/chloroform (1:1) and 1-chloroform as described by Tordo et al or by RNA extraction kits (trizol, Life technologies) c-DNA synthesis Anneal the RNA (1g) with the N1 primer (100g) at 65C for 3 minutes. After chilling on ice, add murine leukemia virus reverse transcriptase and incubate for 90 minutes at 42C. c-DNA amplification by PCR To the c-DNA reaction, add PCR buffer containing 100g of N2 primer and 2 units Taq polymerase and subject it to five initial cycles of denaturation (D) 60 seconds at 94C, annealing (A) 90 seconds at 45C and elongation (E) 90 seconds at 72C followed by 30 additional cycles of D for 30 seconds at 94C, A for 20 seconds at 50C and E for 60 seconds at 72C. Carry out the final elongation at 72C for 10 minutes. Detection of PCR product by polyacralmide gel electrophoresis To 1.2% agrose gel add 0.5g/ml. of ethidium bromide and pour in trough with combs to make wells. Add approximately 250 ml of 1X electrophoresis buffer to the reservoir tank. Mix 20l of PCR product with 2l of loading dye (containing bromophenol blue, xylene cynol and glycerol) and load in the well. Add 100 bp DNA ladder to the first lane. Switch on the power supply, adjust to 100V and leave it for electrophoresis. Switch off the power supply when the dye front is about 0.5 cm from the positive end. View the gel in UV trans illumination. DNA segment can be seen at 443 bp.
Laboratory Diagnosis of Rabies: Techniques
37
While using G & L primers for typing and moleculer studies DNA segment can be seen at 880 bp. (Fig 15)
Precautions Always wear gloves while handling the samples and Fig 15: reagents Agarose Gel showing amplicons from RT-PCR of Frequently change gloves Rabies Street Strain Virus RNA. while handling RNA A. Lane I - Positive sample showing band of 880 b.p. Carry out high-speed b. Lane II - Negative sample c. Lane III - Positive sample showing band of 880 b.p. mixing and centrifugation d. Lane IV - Negative sample procedure in tightly e. Lane V - Positive control (Paw RNA) closed container and in a f. Lane VI - Negative control biological safety cabinet. g. Lane VII - 100 b.p. DNA ladder Avoid mouth pipetting Always include a positive control (infected mouse brain) a negative control (uninfected mouse brain) and a negative PCR control (Add water instead of the template) in each run of PCR. Uses PCR is probably not a very practical diagnostic tool, its main use is for strain differentiation while using it as an epidemiological marker.
38
e) f) g) h) i)
Procedure Preparation of Agar gel slides a) Prepare 0.9% agarose in 0.5 M Barbitone buffer (pH 8.2) containing 1:10,000 methiolate b) Apply a thin coat of the agarose on to clean 5 x 7.5 cm glass slides c) Dry the slides at room temperature d) Add 8 ml of melted agarose on to each slide e) Allow to gel at room temperature f) Place in a petridish and keep at +4C for 30 minutes. g) Cut out wells of 6 and 3 mm each in parallel rows at 8 mm distance. The distance between wells of same row being 10 mm Preparation of Titration of Antigen a) Prepare a 40% (w/v) suspension of Challenge Virus Strain (CVS) infected brain mouse/suckling rabbit in 0.01M PBS (pH 7.2) b) Add BPL to get a final concentration of 1:3000 c) Incubate for 2 hours at 37C in a waterbath d) Keep at +4C overnight e) Next day remove an aliquot (1.0 ml) for checking inactivation by inoculating intracerebrally in six mice. f) Centrifuge at 17,000 g for 10 minutes (14000 rpm) g) Collect and supernate and discard the deposit h) Add merthiolate in final concentration of 1:10000 i) Heat in a waterbath at 56C for 30 minutes. j) Distribute in small volumes i.e. 1 ml/vial and store at +4C. It can be kept for six months. Titration a) Make 5 fold dilution of the antigen starting from 1:5 in 0.01 M PBS b) Add respective dilutions to 6 mm wells on 4 slides c) Make 1:5, 1:10, 1:20 and 1:40 dilution of equine hyperimmune anti rabies serum (200 IU/ml) in 0.01M PBS d) Add 1:5 dilution of serum to all the 3 mm wells of slide No 1. e) Add similarly 1:10, 1:20 and 1:40 dilutions of serum to wells of slide No. 2 to 4. f) Place in the electrophoresis chamber and run the current for 2 hours at 15mA/slide
Laboratory Diagnosis of Rabies: Techniques
39
g) h)
Remove slides, read and note dilutions giving sharp preciptin band for finding out the optimum dilutions. Store optimum dilution of equine hyperimmune anti rabies serum at -25C for use as indicator serum
Test procedure a) Inactivate the sera at 48 - 50C for 30 minutes in a waterbath b) Dilute each serum in 0.01 M PBS (pH 7.2) to make neat, 1:5, 1:10, 1:20 and 1:40 dilutions c) Mix each dilution of serum with equal volume of optimal dilution of antigen (0.1 ml + 0.1 ml) in dilution tubes d) Shake well and incubate at 37C for one hour in a waterbath e) Cut out 6 mm wells in the agar gel slide f) Add serial final dilutions i.e. 1:2, 1:10, 1:20, 1:40 and 1:80 of serum to 6 mm wells. Care should be taken not to overflow the well g) Place in the electrophoresis chamber and run for 45 minutes at 10V/slide h) After the run remove agar from 3 mm wells and add indicator serum to these wells i) Continue electrophoresis for another 120 minutes at a constant current of 15mA/slide j) If the electrophoresis apparatus is not fitted with cooling device maintain the temperature of gel by periodically moistening the connecting filter paper k) After the run read the slides against light using a hand lens l) The slides may be washed and stained by using a portein slain Observations Fig 16: Immunoprecipitation lines Presence of bands against a particular (Amido black staining) dilution shows residual amount of antigen i.e. absence of anti rabies antibodies. (Fig 16)
40
peroxidase. Positive controls, calibrated against WHO standards, allow the qualitative or quantitative determination of anti rabies antibody titre in the serum ofrplasma. The test is carried out using commercially available kit (PLATELIATM RABIES II kit, BIO-RAD, Ref: 3551180). Implementation of the test comprises the following reaction steps: The unknown sera as well as the calibrated positive controls or the quantification standards are distributed in the glycoprotein coated wells of the microplates. During incubation of one hour at 37C anti rabies antibodies present in the sample bind the glycoprotein coated to the microplate wells. After incubation, unbound antibodies and other serum proteins are removed by washings.
The conjugate (protein A labeled with peroxidase) is added to the microplate wells. During a second incubation of one hour at 37C, the labeled protein A binds to the anti rabies-antibody-antigen complexes attached to the microplate wells. The unbound conjugate is removed by washings. The presence of immune complex is demonstrated by the addition of a solution containing a peroxidase substrate and a chromogen including a colour development reaction. After 30 minutes incubation at room temperature, the enzymatic reaction is stopped by addition of a solution H2SO4 1N. The optical density reading obtained with a spectrophotometer set at 450 620 nm is proportional to the amount of anti rabies antibodies present in the samples. A standard curve is constructed out of the quantification standards obtained by serial dilutions of the calibrated positive controls. The optical density values for the unknown samples are compared with the positive controls. Sera titres in quantification tests are obtained after a direct reading on the standard curve and are expressed as equivalent units per ml (EU/ ml), unit equivalent to the international units defined by seroneutralisation). Reagents and Equipment a) Sprectrophotometer or ELISA reader b) Patient serum c) Microplate: 12 strips of 8 wells sensitised with the rabies virus glycoprotein. d) Wash solution: 10-fold concentrated Tris NaCl buffer. e) Negative control: Non reactive control TRIS EDTA. f) 0.5 EU/ml positive control (human): 0.5 EU/ml calibrated positive control. Glycerine buffer containing human anti rabies IgG and BSA. g) 4.0 EU/ml positive control (human): 4 EU/ml calibrated positive control. Glycerine buffer containing human anti rabies IgG and BSA.
Laboratory Diagnosis of Rabies: Techniques
41
h) i) j) k) l)
Sample diluent: Ready to use TRIS-EDTA buffer for sample dilution. Conjugate: Solution containing Protein A-Peroxidase and purified bovine protein. Peroxydase substrate buffer: solution of citric acid and sodium acetate containing 0.015% H2O2 and 4% dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO). Chromogen: Tetramethylbenzidine (TMB) solution 0.25%. Stop solution: 1N sulphuric acid solution.
42
e) f) g) h) i) j) k) l) m) n)
o) B. a) b) c) d)
FBS Distilled water Fungizone Hepes Buffer L. Glutamine Antibiotic Antimycotic solution Sodium bicarbonate Trypsin Versene Phosphate Buffered Saline (PBS) Formula number 4550; 0.01M, pH 7.4 + 0.5 Formula number 4588; 0.01M, pH 7.4 7.6 Dimethylsulfonide (DMSO) Glassware and plastic ware Cell culture flask (Fig 16) Lab-Tek Chamber slides with cover slip (Fig 17) Disposable sterile plastic pipettes Centrifuge tube
e) f) g) C. a) b) c)
Cryovials Millipore disposable filter (pore size 0.22) 250 ml; 500 ml Hemacytometer Equipment Biological safety cabinet CO2 incubator Freezer
Laboratory Diagnosis of Rabies: Techniques
43
d) e) f) g) D. a) b) c)
Inverted microscope Fluorescent Microscope Refrigerated centrifuge (0 8000 rpm) Waterbath Standards and references Mouse Neuroblastoma Cells (MNA) Rabies Challenge Virus Strain (CVS) Reference serum standards diluted 2 I.U./ml.
Procedure Preparation of seed virus a) Trypsinise a three day old 150 ml culture flask of MNA cells b) Resuspend cells in 3 ml of 10% MEM with FCS (30 x 106 cells) c) Add 1 ml of virus (CVS) 10 x 106 (Infectious units) d) Incubate for 15 minutes at 37C e) Add 10 ml of MEM with 10% FCS f) Centrifuge at 1000 rpm for 10 minutes, discard the supernatant g) Add 30 ml of MEM 10 h) Transfer to 150 ml flask i) Gently rock this flask j) Take 6 ml of suspension from the flask k) Put 0.2 ml suspension in each well of 3 lab - tek chamber slides for 20 hours, 40 hours, 64 hours l) Incubate the flask and slides at 37C and 38C in a humidified incubator with 0.5% CO2. m) Stain the 1st slide after 24 hours and observe n) Stain the 2nd slide after 40 hours and observe o) Stain the 3rd slide after 64 hours and observe p) Harvest the supernatant after 70% infectivity q) Centrifuge in 50 ml tube at 4000 g or 8800 rpm for 10 minutes r) Aliquot supernatant in 0.5 ml volume s) Store at 80C Titration of seed virus suspension a) Thaw one aliquot of seed virus b) Prepare 8 serial to fold dilutions (10-1 to 10-8) in MEM 10 c) Distribute 0.1 ml of each virus dilution into one well of an 8 well tissue culture chamber slide d) Add 0.2 ml of MNA cells suspended in MEM 10 to each well e) Mix the cells and virus by gentle rocking the slide f) Incubate at 37C in humidified 0.5% CO2 incubator for 40 hours g) Acetone fix and stain the slide using an immunofluorescence technique
44
h)
Evidence of virus infection should be observed at 10-6 dilution of virus (so that virus stock suspension containing 1 x 10-6 infectious units per 0.1 ml)
Preparation of stock virus suspension a) Infect 30 x 106 cells MNA cells with 10 x 106 infectious units of seed virus b) Harvest the supernatant (24 hours) after the cells reach 100% infectivity c) Distribute he supernatant into 0.5 ml aliquots d) Store at 80C Titration of stock suspension a) Thaw one aliquot of the seed virus b) Prepare 6 serial to fold dilutions (10-1 to 10-6) in MEM 10 c) Distribute 0.1 ml of each virus dilution into one well of an 8 well tissue culture chamber slide d) Add 0.2 ml of MNA cells suspended in MEM 10 (concentration 1 x 105 cells per 0.2 ml) to each well e) Mix the cells and virus suspension by gently rocking the slide f) Incubate at 37C in humidified 0.5% CO2 incubator for 20 hours g) Acetone fix and stain the slide using immunofluorescence technique Procedure for performing RFFIT a) Heat inactivate (HI) human serum at 56C for 45 minutes. Animal serum is HI at 56C for 30 minutes b) Dilute the test sera in MEM 10. Serum end-point titration are routinely tested at 8 serial 5 fold dilutions (1:5 to 1:390625). Using an 8-well Tissue-Tek slide, use one slide per test sample. Alternately, serum can be screened per slide End-point titration a) Label slides with corresponding test sera number. Use 1 slide per test serum when determining end-point titer. The dilution factor is 8-serial five-fold. b) Add 0.075 ml of MEM 10 to the first well using a microtiter pipette. This will be the 1:5 dilution of test serum. c) Add 0.1 ml of MEM 10 to the seven other wells of the slide. d) Add 0.05 ml of test serum to the first well (1:5 dilution). Mix the serum and MEM 10 several times trying not to create bubbles. e) Transfer 0.025 ml of the 1:5 dilution well (serum MEM 10) to the second well (1:25 dilution) and continue to transfer 0.025 ml to each consecutive well up to the final dilution (1:390625), discarding 0.025 ml at the end. f) Prepare all serum samples as described above. Preparation of the control slide a) Prepare a control slide with a reference serum control, a virus back titration and a cell control.
Laboratory Diagnosis of Rabies: Techniques
45
b) c)
d) e)
Add 0.75 ml of MEM 10 to the first well of the reference serum dilution on the left of the slide. This will be the 1:5 dilution of reference serum. Add 0.1 ml of MEM 10 to the remaining wells of the reference serum dilution wells (1:25 1:625) and to the 3 wells of the virus back titration. The cell control well receives 0.2 ml of MEM 10. Add 0.05 ml of reference serum containing 2IU/ml to the 1:5 dilution well on the bottom left of the slide (well 1). Mix several times and transfer 0.025 ml of the 1:5 dilution of reference serum (well 1) to the 1:25 dilution well (well 2) and continue through to the 1:625 dilution well (well 4) discarding 0.025 ml at the end.
Preparation of the challenge virus and back titration a) The amount of virus to be used in the test should be 50 FFD50/0.1 ml b) Using MEM 10 as diluent for CVS 11, prepare a 50ml centrifuge tube containing 50 FFD50/0.1ml. Allow 1.0 ml of the FFD50/0.1ml for each slide in the test. For example, if running 10-test serum, prepare 11 ml of CVS 11 in MEM 10 (10-test serum plus 1 control slide). c) Make 2-serial 10-fold dilutions (1:10 and 1:100) of CVS-11 from the FFD50/0.1 tube to give 5.0 FFD50 and 0.5 FFD50 and 0.5 FFD50/0.1 ml, respectively. Lable 2 vials 1 (1:10) and 2 (1:100) dilutions, add 0.9 ml of MEM 10 to each. Use a pipetman and to transfer 0.1 ml of 50 FFD50 to the 1:10 vial, mix several times and discard tip. Transfer 0.1 ml from the 1 vial to the 2 vial, mixing several times. d) Add 0.1 ml of the 0.5 FFD50, 5.0 FFD50,and 50 FFD50 of virus to sequential chambers e) Add 0.1 ml of the virus preparation containing 50 FFD50/0.1 ml to all chambers of the test sera and reference serum dilutions. f) Incubate all slides for 90 minutes at 37C in a CO2 incubator with 0.5% CO2.` Preparation of the Murine Neuroblastoma (MNA) Cells a) Prepare the cells just prior to use, 20 to 30 minutes before the end of the 90 minutes, even suspension of MNA cells in 10 ml of MEM 10%. b) Adjust the cell count to give 5.0 x 105 cell/ml. c) Add 0.2 ml of the 5.0 x 105 cell/ml to each chamber of the slides, starting with the cell control well on the bottom right corner of the control slide. d) Incubate the slides for 20 hours at 37C in a 0.5% CO2 incubator. Fixation of slides a) Decant the supernatant and remove the chamber slides from the slides. b) Dip rinse in phosphate buffered saline (PBS), formula number 4588. c) Dip rinse in cold acetone (-20C). d) Fix for a longer 30 minute incubation in fresh 20C acetone in a freezer. e) Following 30 minute fixation. Remove slides from acetone and allow them to air dry at room temperature for 10 minutes.
46
Staining of slides a) Add rabies conjugate (working dilution previously determined) to each chamber monolayer sufficient to cover the entire monolayer (approximately 100l per well). b) Incubate the slide in a humidity chamber (e.g. place slides on a tray with a moistened paper towel and covered with the lid of a 96 well microtiter plate) at 37C for 30 minutes. c) Following 30 minute incubation, decant conjugate from slide and rinse 2X in PBS (4588) for 10 minutes each rinse. d) Dip rinse in distilled water and place slides in a slide holder on cold packs for reading using a fluorescent microscope. Interpretation Each of the 8-well Tissue Tek slide chambers contains 25 to 50 distinct microscopic fields when observed at 160 to 200 times magnification. Observe 20 low-power (160-200X) microscope fields in each chamber, and count the number of fields which contain fluorescing cells. Begin to count fields starting in one of the corners of the well. Read the control slide first. The cell control should have no fields with fluorescing cells, i.e. no virus infected cells. Of the 20 fields inspected in each well of the virus back titration, the 50 FFD50/0/1 ml should have at least 18 to 20 positive fields. The 50 FFD50/0/1 ml should have 10 to 20 positive fields, and the 0.5 FFD50/0/1 ml should have less than 10 positive fields. An example of the number of positive fields observed on a reference and test serum slide are given below: Control slide: 20 fields are observed per well and the number of positive fields (fields with fluorescing foci) are recorded on the RFFIT data sheet. Test serum: The test serum slides are observed and the number of positive fields are recorded on the RFFIT data result sheet. Calculations: Using the control slide and test serum values from the previous example, the test serum end-point titre and international units can be calculated. Determination of 50% end point titres of serum The serum neutralisation end-point titer is defined as the dilution factor of the highest serum dilution in which there is a 50% reduction in the number of fluorescing foci.
47
The 50% end point titre of serum can be made by determining the number of fluorescing foci at each dilution, and then use the cumulative totals in the ReedMeunch formula: a) Calculate the percentage of fields containing infected cells
Serum dilution No.of fields containing infected cells 0/20 0/20 0/20 0/20 12/20 20/20 20/20 20/20 Fields containing infected cells 0 0 0 0 12 32 52 72 Field containing no infected cells 88 68 48 28 8 0 0 0 % of fields containing infected cells 0/88 = 0 0/68 = 0 0/48 = 0 0/28 = 0 12/20 = 60 32/32 = 100 52/52 = 100 52/52 = 100
b)
Using the method of Reed & Muench, calculate the difference between the logarithm of the starting dilution and the logarithm of the 50% end-point dilution (difference of logarithms) from the formula: 50% - (infectivity next below 50%) x logarithm of (infectivity next above 50%) - (infectivity next below 50%) dilution factor
In this example the starting point dilution (the dilution showing an infectivity next below 50%) is 625, the dilution factor is 5. Hence, the difference in logarithm is: 50 0 x 0.69897 = 0.582475 60 0 c) Since the infectivity is increasing as the dilution increases, the 50% end point dilution is higher than the starting point dilution and is calculated by adding the difference of logarithms as follows: Log (reciprocal of 50% end point dilution) Log (reciprocal of the starting point dilution) + difference of logarithms = 2.79588 + 0.582475 = 3.38 (approx.) Hence, log (50% end point dilution) = - 3.38 and the 50% end point dilution = 10-3.38 = (1:2399) Determination of the potency of test serum in international units (IU) per ml The results of the RFFIT can be expressed as a serum titer or in International Units (IU) of antibody. In either case, a reference serum of known titer is required. When the results are to be reported as a titer, the reference serum is used as a
48
control to insure the sensitivity of the test. It should demonstrate approximately the same titer determined in previous tests. When the test serum results are expressed in IU, the calculation is dependent on the number of IU in the reference serum. The reference serum is diluted to contain 2 IU/ml and tittered along with the test serum. The ED50 titers of the reference serum and the test serum are then related in the following formula for calculation of IU/ml in the test serum: Number of IU/ml = End-point titer of the test serum x End-point titer of the reference 2 IU/ml in reference serum
49
50
b)
51
3.6 AEROSOLS
Air borne rabies infection has been demonstrated hence all procedures which generate aerosols (high speed mixing, centrifugation, pipetting etc.) should be carried out in hoods with laminar flow of air under negative pressure. Centrifugation and mixing should be carried out in tightly closed containers. Laminar hoods should have UV light for disinfection. When not in use mouth pipetting should be strictly avoided.
3.10 DECONTAMINATION
It is done by boiling for sufficient in time in steriliser or preferably autoclaving. The small animals may be put in formalin jar pending disposal.
3.11 DISPOSAL
The carcass of the small animals should be placed in plastic leakproof bags, sealed and incinerated. The bedding of animals and disposable plastic ware may also be incinerated.
52
53
in laboratory. If proper attention is given to prevention, personnel can be protected. Laboratory workers should be aware of the dangers of working with virus and should also know how to tackle the emergencies originating from accidents in laboratories. This occupational risk can be negated through safe laboratory design, safe equipment, protective clothing, thorough and repeated training, appropriate pre and post exposure immunisation and above all good laboratory practices which remains the fundamental of safety and even now, irreplaceable.
54
55
environment safe enhance the commitment and performance of the laboratory workers.
ELISA
Positive controls provided in the kit One sample with known titre
CIEP RFFIT
Control slide Tittered reference serum control Virus reference serum control Virus back titration Cell control
Standard operating procedures manual (SOP) should include all encompassing information such as instructions about collection, storage and transport of clinical samples, inoculation/test procedures, biosafety guidelines, quality assurance procedures, reporting and interpretation of results. Top management should regularly authenticate it. It should not only be available to all on the laboratory work benches, but instructions given there in should also be strictly adhered to, to assure uniformity. Essential features of SOPs are summarised here. iii) Post-analytical factors Of the post - analytical factors that can influence quality, right recording of the results is most important. Right interpretation of the results should be written on the report. Reporting of the laboratory results is the most crucial aspect in quality. Test reports should be given on a pre-designed, pre-tested format, written legibly or typed, highlighting the abnormal findings and interpreted in a simple language. The report given to the patient about a laboratory test should be short, clear, unambigous and should not leave any room for making errors in its interpretation.
56
57
Mix by using a pestle & mortar and store in a tightly stoppered bottle at + 4C. Any other make of methylene blue and basic fuchsin may be used with dye content not less than 85% and 92% respectively. iii. Working stain 1. Mix thoroughly and store in properly stoppered container Stock solution A -2 vol. Stock solution B -1 vol. 2. Keep for 24 hours before use 3. Can be kept for long period if protected from evaporation. b) Adjustment of stain With properly prepared stain usually no adjustment is required. However, sometimes the smear may stain too red or blue. Adjustment of the stain may be made by adding methylene blud or basic fuchsin solution. It may be standardised by staining slides for known positive brain. 10% Formal saline Formaline Physiological saline Prepare just before use Zenkers Fluid Potassium Dichromate Mercuric chloride Distilled water Bouins Fixative Saturated solution of picric acid (1.2%)
70 ml.
58
Formalin (40%) Glacial acetic acid Phosphate Buffered Saline (pH 7.5) NaH2PO4 Na2HPO4 NaCl Dissolved in 1000 ml. of distilled water 90% Buffered Glycerol 0.2M sodium phosphate buffer (pH 8.5) Glycerol neutral (Analar)
25 ml. 5 ml.
10 ml. 90 ml.
2% Normal Horse Serum Distilled Water Normal horse serum (Sterile) 10 ml. Distilled water (sterile) 490 ml. Mix and add Penicillin G sodium 1,25,000 units Streptomycin Sulphate 50 mg. Distribute in 50 ml. quantity in sterile screw capped vials, store at + 4C. 0.05 M Barbitone Buffer (pH 8.2) A. Stock solution a) 5,5 Diethyl Sodium Barbiturate Distilled water Dissolve by shaking b) 5,5 Diethyl Barbituric Acid Distilled water 95C Dissolve by shaking c) NaOH Distilled water to make Store in glass stoppered bottles d) Methiolate Dissolve by shaking B. Working buffer a) Mix a and b b) Adjust pH to 8.2 with c c) Add 0.15 g merthiolate d) Adjust volume to 1000 ml. 0.01 PBS pH 7.2 A. Stock M/2 PBS a) Na2HPO4 (Anhydrous) Distilled water
36.084 gm. 3500 ml. 6.925 gm. 750 ml. 10 gm. 50 ml. 0.15 gm.
59
Mix A + B and add 2 litres of distilled water. Add a few drops of chloroform for preservation. Stopper and store at room temperature. B. Working PBS M/2 Stock Phosphate Buffer NaCl Distilled water to make Staining solution for Electrophoresis slides A. Destainer Solution Acetic acid glacial Methanol Mix and store in airtight container B. Staining Solution Destainer solution (A) Amido black - 10B (Colour index No. 20470) Mix and store in airtight container
C. Stain the slides in B for 90 minutes and destain in A for 1-2 minutes in 2-3 changes of destainer as required. Phosphate Buffered saline pH 7.2 - 7.4 A. Material required Sodium chloride Disodium hydrogen phosphate Sodium dihydrogen phosphate Distilled water
B. Procedure Dissolve the above ingredients in 1000 ml. of distilled water and adjust pH to 7.2 - 7.4. Dissolve 0.25 ml of Tween 20 in 500 ml. of Phosphate buffer saline and shake well.
60
61
62
Rabies is probably the most feared of all human diseases. It has plagued man since ancient times and is believed to be as old as our civilization. The most dreadful and gruesome of all the communicable diseases, it is one of the most important zoonotic diseases which confronts us today. It is fatal in virtually cent per cent of cases, if no treatment is administered. However, timely and appropriate treatment of animal bites nearly always prevents the occurrence of disease. The laboratory occupies an important place in efforts to prevent and control the disease. It also provides assurance that vaccines used for treatment have been effective. Laboratory plays a central role while testing for newer vaccine, schedule and route of administration.
ZOONOSIS DIVISION