6.14.

SELECTION OF DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMER BASED ON ECONOMIC CRITERIA

J. A. Jardini C. M. V. Tahan E. L. Ferrari Escola Polithica da Universidade de S%oPaulo

Centro de ExcelCncia em Distribuiqilo de Energia Elttrica / BRAZIL ABSTRACT This paper presents considerations related to tlie loss of life calculation and to the determination of tlie distribution transformers loading, with technical and economical consideratioiis and applying daily load curves obtained from measurements in typical transformers.

S. U. Ahn ELETROPAULO

Daily Load Curve The transformer daily load curve expresses the power through it and is made up here of tlie average demands in 15-minute-intervals. To establish a representative load curve of the residential distribution transformer, tlie major scope of this work, a population of 802 measurement days in the transformers of three Silo Paulo State utilities were performed. The measured transformers are from various rated power and a conversion of the demands in PU vilues was necessary in order to have homogeneous curves (6). So all the measurement values of demands were then divided by a Base Power, the monthly average power of the transformer (Phase), equal to [kWNmontlily/(24 x 30 h)]. Figure 1 shows the mean(p) and standard deviation for one transformer.
(0)

Loss of life estimation is done applying probabilistic

daily load curves and their probability of occurrence. The transformer loading rnanagement criteria is then compared to tlie methodology presently in use by Silo Paulo State utilities. Finally a transformer loading analysis is done through an economic criteria that consists on the calculation of tlie investment cost, losses, and the loss of life cost, all during its operational life. INTRODUCTION The distribution transformer is an equipment applied in large number, therefore its adequate rating selection results in saving companys costs, in the reduction of equipment not adequately used in tlie system, and in adequate losses during transformers operational life. This paper aims at recomniending a policy for transformers rating selection considering to technical and economical factors. Besides transformers cost and losses, this methodology consider the estimated loss of life in transformer, based on daily load curves obtained from measurement.

curves obtained

2.0 -

1.6-

2
.L

1.u-

fl - mean load ci

0.5 -

0.0 J

LOSS OF LIFE CALCULATION

The load in tlie transformer heats it and cause temperature increase. This temperature may lead to a degradation in tlie insulating material, reducing its life. The transformer life expectancy V, is estimated based on tlie Arrhenius law that relates the insulating material ageing due to temperature T. The equation is:
A+B

12
HOW

15

JB

21

Figure 1 Mean and standard deviation load curve. Ambient Temperature.

I n general for the calculation of the loss of life, tlie

annual average teniperature is applied. However, the peak load, for instance, in certain case, llappens at night when the ambient temperature is lower and in other cases during the day. To tqke this fact into consideration, a daily curve temperature expressed by a mean (ptZ,,,,,) a standard deviation and (ol,,,,,)curve are used in tlie calculation (Figure 2). ,

v =1

0 T

In this formulae, A and B are values, typical of tlie transformer insulating material, T (K) is considered the hot spot temperature. However, depending on tlie reference, of tlie values of the constants are different. (1) (2) (3) (4) (5).

ClRED 97,2-5 June 1997, Conference Publication No. 438, 0 IEE, 1997

6.14.2

25
20

B J5
(3temp

- standard deviation
9
le
15
18 21 24

10

51
0
9

Hour

'0

12

15

18

21

24

Hour

Figure 2- Ambient temperature curve Development of the Load and Temperature Curves

Figure 4 - Set of temperature curve Transformers Life If one load curve and one temperature curve are t<aken for the calculation, then the hot-spot and consequently the loss of life Lif (load, temperature) can be evaluated ( 6 ) , once a transformer rating is selected. In the calculation here the load curves are in PU of the so average power (Pbnse), the transformer rating should be converted to PU using the same base power. Now, combining all load curves i and temperature curves j, all the Lifii values can be determined. The total loss of life is obtained by the weighted average of the values. Liftot= LifijP(loadi) P(tem1q)

Once known the p and the (3 values, curves with a certain P% probability of not being exceeded, can be calculated by:
V(P) = p + k cs Where k is taken from the Gaussian probability table (ex: P=90% , k=l.28). The transformers load curve measurements showed that the demand values are distributed in a Gaussian curve (7).
A set of 11 curves was determined (P=2.5%; 10%;

20%; 30%; 40%; 50%; 60%; 70%; 80%; 90%; 97.5%). to represent the load occiirence (Figure 3), and similarly a set of 11 curves for the temperature (Figure 4). Note that the 20% curve will be used to represent those curves included in the range of P from 15% to 25%, which occurs 10% of the time. The same applies to the others, except for those with P=2.5% and 97.5% which occurs 5% of the time.

where the P values are the probabilities (5% or 10% ;I , this case). For comparison the transformers loss of life in this investigation was also calculated, by applying only the temperature mean curve and all 1 1 load curves, obtaining close results. However if only the mean curve of the load is applied, in the calculation, the error is unacceptable. Figure 5 show the results obtained with all this approaches.
l.OWO0

3.0 2.5 -

k 2*ol.51.00.5

Set of load and temperature curves

Set of load and illeat1 temperature

0.0 -4

12

15

18

21

Hour

Figure 3 - Set of load curves

f.0CM
1.1 1.8

. 18 2.0 . .

E2 .

2.4

2.6

. 2.8 3.0 3.2 . . .

3.4

3.6

31 .

4.0

PU of Rsting

Figure 5

Loss of life with diKerents calculations procedures.

6.14.3

Other experiments in the calculation were made like: considering the set of load curves tninkated at +20; or considering in the calculation all the measured daily load curves. All these alternatives led to close results within a 10% accuracy.
So calculations with the set of I1 load curves and tlie temperature mean curve will froin now on be applied and its results are simply named statistical loss of

life.
To makc the calculation easier, the loss of life results are represented by an equation, function of ratings obtained through linear regression of calculated points. The chosen fitting curve is the exponential with polynomial exponent of 7th order. A correlation index of 0.999 and an average standard error of 0.03% was obtained.
TRANSFORMER LOAD MANAGEMENT

The procedure used in Brazil for already installed distribution transformer loading management is based on the expected loss of life calculation, and on statistical approach to determine the KVAS function(statistica1 LVA). In order to develop the KVAS function, samples of transformers in operation energy (kWh) are selected to be measured. The n~onthly in each transformer is calculated by adding the energy consumption of all customers connected to it. Measurements of the peak load (kVA) in the transformers are taken by iiiskilling electronic recorders over 2 day-period. The peak power measured for each transformer of the sample is the average power within 15 minute-intervals. The set of pairs kWh x kVA is used to determine a correlation curve (exponential or straight line), based on the least square fitting. The KVAS function is the result of this very curve fitting by considering a criterion of 90% probability of the curve not being exceeded. Now, if the energy through a certain transformer in the area not included in the sample is known, the KVAS fimction provides its expected peak demand. Then the expected loss of life is assessed by taking into account the average yearly temperature, and considering that the load profile is a two power step-curve. The continuous through power equivalent to the two step-curve is obtained froin the standards tables (3) and used in the rating evaluation (kVAN). This factor is taken as F=1.5, for the Silo Paul0 area and was determined by visual inspection of some typical load profiles in some transformers. The ratio R=KVAS/( 1.5,kVAN) is used to attribute to the transformer one of the following classifications: underloaded, normally loaded, overloaded, or critically loaded (ratio R ranges are: bellow 0.75, 0.75-1.25, 1.25-1.5, and above 1.5, respectively). An appropriate action is kaken, like relocation of loads or substitution

of the transfornier by another in a different size, when the transformer load is above normal. This criterion and methodology were established a long time ago and are being re-examined, and new calculation procedures are being considered. This new procedure considers the loss of life calculation as presented in the previous section which results are shown on Figure 5. To understand the new procedure, first it should be noted froin Figure 5 that, if for instance it is desired a life expectancy of 150 year for a transformer, then the rating should be 1.78 PU. Table 1 shows how the ratings change as function of the life expectancy criteria. Back to Figure 3, the peak demand of tlie mean curve is 2.08 PU. and the peak demand with 90% probability of not being exceeded is 2.8 PU. If this last value is t.akei1 as the KVAS value, the transformer rztiiig should 2.8/1.5=1.87 PU., by using the existing criterion. If the KVAS value is adopted at 97.5%, then KVAS=3.2 and the rating reaches 2.2 PU. From figure 5, the above ratings 1.87 PU and 2.2 PU, represent lives of 400 and 3500 years respectively. The criterion is then strongly dependent on the probability of the KVAS figure, as can be observed in Table I. TABLE 1 - Transformer rated power as function of life criterion. Life criterion Rating
3 30 1so 300 3.000

I .45 1.62

I .78 1.82 2.18

It is reconmended that the transformer loading management be based on life criterion as follows:

TABLE 2 - Recommended transformer loading

management criteria > 300 year 30 to 300 year 3 to 30 year < 3 year underloaded normally loaded overloaded critically loaded

If a 150 year-life is t<aken as a basis for classification (loo%), then iinderloaded, normal, overloadcd,critical represent loads of: bellow 0.95; 0.95-1.10; 1.10-1.23; over 1.23; respectively, above base power, values deducted from Table 1. The ranges are though narrower than the ranges of todays criterion. It should be remembered that this criteria can be used for transformer loading management, since no econoniic criteria is considered.

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ECONOMIC CRITERIA In order to select the trarlsfornler by economic criteria, the following cost aspects should be considered: Transformer rating cost. Iron losses, and copper losses costs. 0 Installation cost and eventually removal cost. 0 Residual transformer cost at the renioval date. Transformer Cost
0

where: PCV= copper losses for rated power (PU). To calculate the energy lost in the copper all curves in Figure 3 must be used with their probabilities. For the mean curve p the losses in a day shall be :

In the first year the transformer purchase cost (CTO)is given by:

where:

At = is the time interval in hours (lSmid60min).

n = the number of 15min. intervals in a day. Pn = are the power values in the mean cuwe in PU of the base power Phase. For the other curves like (a, a) one above and the other below the mean, equidistant of the mean of (k..o), the copper losses are. AP, = B.C ( P, + AP,. = B.C ( P, kaon)*

CTO CTRPN being : Cm = Cost per kVA in the initial year PN = Rated Power (kVA) The annual cost, payment in installments (CAT)), in N years of loan that covers the cost (CT,)witli a discount rate d and an inflation rate i, in the year J is:

Removal and Installation Cost The removal cost at the date of the removal (CRJ)in relation to the cost (C,) in the initial year shall be: cRJ=cR( 1 + i ) In similar manner the installation cost at the removal date, in relation to the cost (C,) in the initial year is: ~ ~ ~ = ~ ~ ( l + i ) ~ Transformer Losses Cost Transformer the losses cost is made up of two parts: one due to the iron losses; and the other to the copper losses. The annual iron loss cost ( C p ~ ~is evaluated ) considering the related peak and the energy value as:
C p ~ = (Cd +8766.Ce). Pfe. PN . ( 1 + i) j

APa + AP,. = 2.B.C ( Pn2-t k: :) n For example: a maybe the 60% and a the 40% curves. For is done in Figure 3 with 10% of probability, except the extremes that have S%, results.
r
I

~Pn2+0.2~~~,2(k,2+~2+k,2+k,,2+0.5~k2e)

The total annual cost of copper losses (peak and energy) C ~ Cof the transformers is then: J

Transformer Residual Cost at Removal Date. The transformer operating with rated temperature (95) have a life duration of N years (say 30 years). When loaded above the rated temperature, the loss of life rate (DVJ)is higher. The additional loss of life &I, V) a relative value is then:

where: Cd = pe<akcost $/kW in the initial year Ce = cost of energy $/kWh in the initial year Pfe = the iron loss in pu of rating PN. The copper losses depend on the transformer daily load curve. This cost is also evaluated considering the peak and the energy values and unit prices. To calculate the transformer annual pe,ak demand of the copper losses, the transformer peak delnand (Pp) must be used. From Figure 3, it can be adopted for instance P,, = 3.4 Phase (value at 2 CT ) where: Ph,is the base power (kW). The correspondent copper losses cost (Cpcu),valued at peak unit cost, is then

DDVI ( Dvr -1 ) = This value of additional loss of life can be converted

into cost in the year J having it multiplied by the transformer annual cost (CATJ).

CVJ DDVI = CATJ Note: When the relative loss of life comes to 1 PU(al1 life), in a certain year, a high value for the annual cost of life is allocated in the formulae above. Overall Economic Evaluation
For the overall economic evaluation, calculations of the costs on year per year basis should be performed, then all annual parcels has to be converted into

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present worth and be added to reach the total cost in the study period So the economic evaluation is started from the load average power at the initial year Po. In a given year J the average power in considering of growth rate r (PU), is estimated by: J PJ=PO(l+r) The economic evaluation of the transformer in this year is then done by calculating, using all the formulae presented before for power Pj, and applying all the standard rating transformers in the company. CTAJ CATJ (CPFJ CPCJ)+ CVJ = + + The values (CTN) are plotted in a graphic to check which transformer has the lowest annual cost. Figure 6 shows an example of such costs. In Figure 6 various alternatives (A,, A*, .. AN) were established. They are shown at kqble 3.
I

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

From the analysis performed in this paper, the following conclusions can be drawn: 0 Transformers load curve can be represented by t k mean and deviation being this model useful for the transformer loading representation and its selection. 0 To have the adequate value of loss of life a set of load curve and the temperature mean curve should be applied in the calculation. 0 For transformer loading management a criteria based on life duration is recommended as a refinement of the existing criteria. 0 The economical evaluation methodology here proposed is recommended for the use of the utilities. This methodology includes transformers cost, losses, loss of life and removdhstallation cost.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL REFERENCES
1. Blake J.H. and Kelly E.J, 1969 Oil-immersed

5a

Figure 6 Cost x Time

TABLE 3 Alternatives of transformers PN(LVA) A, A2 A3 A4

30 45 75 112.5 150 0-4 5-12 13- 19 20-26 26-30 0-12 0-12 13 19 2 0 - 2 6 13 - 2 6 2 6 - 3 0 26-30

0-12 13-30

To understand the figures on Table 3 note that, alternative A, consider an alternative that starts with 3OkVA that remains in operation from year 0 to 4, then change to 45kVA from years 5 to 12, then 75kVA from years 13 to 19, etc... For all selected alternatives, there should be calculated the present worth of the parcels in the study period and then add to it the removal and new installation costs. It should be mentioned that alternative Az was the one with lowest total cost, in the example of Figure 6. Of course the most economic alternative to be selected depend on the average power, in the initial year and on the growing rate.

power transformer overload calculations by computer IEEE vol.PAS-88 no 8. August. 2. Montsinger V.M., 1930 Loading Transformers by Temperature Transactions AIEE. 3. ANSI, 1981 Guide for loading mineral-oi! immersed overhead and pad-mounted distributhi transformers (rated 500 kVA and less with 65OC or 55OC average winding rise) ANSI (257.91. 4. T, 1981 Loading Power Transformers Book, WR-5416). Brazilian Standards 5. IEC 354, 1991 Loading Guide for Oil Immersed Transformers ,IEC publication. 6. Jardini J.A. et all, 1996 Daily Load Curves-Data Base Established on Field Measurements CIRED Argentina 96 .Buenos A ires. 7. Jardini J.A., et allii, 1994 Determination of the Typical Daily Load Curve for Residential Area Based on Field Measurements IEEE Transmission and Distribution Conference Chicapo. USA. 8. Ahn S.U., 1993 Distribution Transformer Loading Police - Msc dissertation. Siio Paulo Universitu. 9. McNutt W.Jr., 1992 Insulation Thermal Life Consideration for Transformer Loading Guide, IEEE transation on Power Deliverv. January. 10.Lockie A.M., 1984 Loading Distribution Tranformcn beyond Name Plate Ratink Tutorial Course Application of Distribution Transforms. 11.Jardini J.A , et allii, 1995 Residential and Commercial Daily Load Curve Representation by Statistical Function for Engineering Studies Purposes CIRED Conference 95 Brussels Belgium. 12. ELETROPAULO, 1993 ND-2.005 Distribution Transformer Loading, Technical Guide 1993.