Antennas and open-frame

structures
Wind loading and structural response
Lecture 23 Dr. J.D. Holmes
Antennas and open-frame structures
Single frames
Multiple frames
Antennas - isolated structures - radio telescopes and microwave
antennas
Lattice towers
Antennas - attached to towers - aerodynamic interference
Common feature : aerodynamic interference between various elements - e.g.
antennas and supporting tower or other antennas, members of a frame
Antennas and open-frame structures
Radio telescope
Paraboloid dish
f
Focus
Antennas and open-frame structures
Radio telescope
Paraboloid dish
Normal to dish surface intersects axis at 2 focal length
2f
Approximate center of aerodynamic forces
2
2f e
d
+ =
e
d
C
Antennas and open-frame structures
Radio telescope
Paraboloid dish
Wind
F
X

F
Y

e
b
u
d
F
y
force generates significant moments about dish supports
Antennas and open-frame structures
Radio telescope
Paraboloid dish
Total
moment
Azimuth
angle,
135
o

Altitude
moment
Azimuth
moment
Effect of
boundary
layer
profile
0 20 40 60 80 90
Zenith angle, degrees

0.10


0.08


0.06


0.04


0.02


0
C
M

Zenith
angle |
Focus
o
Azimuth
angle
Wind
Altitude
axis
PLAN VIEW
Ab U
M
C
2
h a 2
1
M
=
Antennas and open-frame structures
Microwave dish antenna
Impermeable dish
Small effect of turbulence
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
1% turbulence

10% turbulence
u (degrees)
b
u
A
2
a 2
1
D
U
) D(
) ( C
u
u =
A = (tb
2
/4)
(projected area)
Antennas and open-frame structures
Microwave dish antenna
Interference factor
WIND
WIND
D
a
WIND
D
t
D
e
a
D
t
D
e
D
i
K

=
a
.D
i
K
t
D
e
D + =
Antennas and open-frame structures
Microwave dish antenna
Interference factor
0
0.5
1
1.5
0 45 90 135 180
Wind direction (degrees)
I
n
t
e
r
f
e
r
e
n
c
e

f
a
c
t
o
r

Experimental data
Equation with t=0.5
K
i
= exp [-k(C
D
o )
2
]. [(1+t) + t cos 2(u - u
d
- 90)]
u
Antennas and open-frame structures
Cell-phone antenna
isolated panels
b
C
d
~1.1
120
O

C
d
(ref.b) ~ 0.8
Antennas and open-frame structures
Cell-phone antenna
grouped panels
~2b
combined
C
d
(ref.b) ~ 1.1
combined
C
d
(ref.b) ~ 0.9
grouping gives large reduction in total drag
Antennas and open-frame structures
Cell-phone antenna
grouped panels
total drag of group : about 30% less than sum of individual elements
0
o
60
o
Antennas and open-frame structures
Open frames
Single frame. Two-dimensional. Normal wind
sharp-edged members
reference area for drag coefficient = solid area of frame
2.0
1.0
0.5 1.0 0
Solidity ratio, o
C
D

solidity = solid area of frame/total enclosed area
drag coefficient relatively independent of details of member arrangement
Antennas and open-frame structures
Open frames
Single frame. Two-dimensional. Normal wind
at high solidity, frame acts as a solid plate (Lecture 8)
at low solidity, members act as individual elements
intermediate solidity : aerodynamic interference between members C
D
~ 1.6
2.0
1.0
0.5 1.0 0
Solidity ratio, o
C
D

Antennas and open-frame structures
Open frames
Pairs of frames. Two-dimensional. Normal wind

1
C
D
(1)
is drag coefficient of upstream frame
(downstream frame influences upstream frame)
C
D
(2)
= C
D
(1)
[
1
+
2
]

2
C
D
(1)
is drag coefficient of downstream frame
approximately,
1
~ 1,

0.45
0.45
2
b
s
1

|
.
|

\
|
=
s
b
For circular members, equivalent solidity to calculate
2
, o
e
~ 1.2 o
1.75
0 < o < 0.5
Antennas and open-frame structures
Open frames
3 frames in series. Solidity = 0.1
X(o) = force normal to frame
A U
) X(
) ( C
2
a 2
1
N
X

=
angle of attack, o
spacing/width = 1.0
spacing/width = 0.1
15 75
A = projected area of one frame at
0
o
angle of attack
Antennas and open-frame structures
Open frames
3 frames in series. Solidity = 0.5
A = projected area of one frame at
0
o
angle of attack
Maximum C
X
N
at 30
o
to 45
o

angle of attack, o
spacing/width = 1.0
spacing/width = 0.1
15 75
A U
) X(
) ( C
2
a 2
1
N
X

=
Antennas and open-frame structures
Open frames
10 frames in series. Solidity = 0.1
A = projected area of one frame at
0
o
angle of attack
angle of attack, o
spacing/width = 1.0
spacing/width = 0.1
15 75
A U
) X(
) ( C
2
a 2
1
N
X

=
Open frames
10 frames in series. Solidity = 0.5
A = projected area of one frame at
0
o
angle of attack
Maximum C
X
N
at 30
o
to 45
o

angle of attack, o
spacing/width = 1.0
spacing/width = 0.1
15 75
A U
) X(
) ( C
2
a 2
1
N
X

=
Antennas and open-frame structures
Antennas and open-frame structures
Open frames
Design method :
Wind loads and anchor bolt design for petrochemical facilities (ASCE)
Needs more wind tunnel studies for pipe racks etc.
Drag coefficients for lattice tower (Lecture 21)
o = solidity of one face = area of members total enclosed area
Australian
Standards
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Solidity Ratio o
4.0


3.5


3.0


2.5


2.0


1.5

Drag
coefficient
C
D
(u=0
O
)

Square cross section with flat-sided members (wind normal to face)
(ASCE-7 : C
D
= 4.0o
2
5.9o +4.0 )
includes interference and shielding effects between members
Antennas and open-frame structures
C
D
= 4.2 - 7o (for 0.1<o < 0.2)
C
D
= 3.5 - 3.5o (for 0.2<o < 0.5)
Drag coefficients for lattice tower
C
D
= 3.5 - 4o (for 0.1<o < 0.3)
C
D
= 2.9 2o (for 0.3< o < 0.5)
Triangular cross section with flat-sided members
(ASCE-7 : C
D
= 3.4o
2
4.7o +3.4 )
Antennas and open-frame structures
Drag coefficients for lattice tower
depends on Reynolds Number
for super-critical flow - C
d
for cross section ~ 0.5 times that for
equivalent sharp-edged tower with same solidity
Cross section with circular members
Antennas and open-frame structures
some members may be in super-critical flow - others in sub-critical flow


End of Lecture 23

John Holmes
225-405-3789 JHolmes@lsu.edu