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5ROXOSURJUDPULL HVWH FD ILH GDW R DQXPLW RSHUD LXQH VDX VXLW GH RSHUD LXQL UHSHWLWLYH FDUH VH DSOLF DVXSUD XQRU VHWXUL GH GDWH PHUHX GLIHULWH V ILH VFULV XQ SURJUDP FDUH V FHDU VHWXO GH GDWH GHLQWUDUHFHOH FDUH WUHEXLH V ILH SUHOXFUDWH V H[HFXWH DVXSUD ORU VXLWD VWDQGDUG GH RSHUD LXQL L V OLYUH]H GDWHOHGHLHLUH DGLF rezultatele). Q DFHVWH FRQGL LL SURJUDPXO WUHEXLH V ILH FRPSXV GLQ PDL PXOWH LQVWUXF LXQL Q primul rnd cele care UH]HUYGHFODUR]RQGHPHPRULHFDILLQGVSHFLDOGHGLFDWQXPDL SHQWUXDQXPLWHGDWHR]RQGHPHPRULHvQFDUHVHYRUFLWLGDWHOHGHLQWUDUHR]RQGH PHPRULHvQFDUHVHYRUSVWUDGDWHOHLQWHUPHGLDUH(cele care apar n decursul calculelor GDUGHFDUHXWLOL]DWRUXOQXDUHQHYRLHLGHDVHPHQLSHFHOHGHLHLUH3URJUDPXOWUHEXLH VFRQ LQLQVWUXF LXQLFDUHVFLWHDVFGHODXWLOL]DWRUGDWHOHGHLQWUDUHXUPDWHvQVIkULW GH LQVWUXF LXQLOH GH FDOFXO SURSULX ]LV FD vQ ILQDO V FRQ LQ LQVWUXF LXQLOH GH DILDUH D UH]XOWDWHORUGDWHOHGHLHLUH $UKLWHFWXUDXQXLVLVWHPGHFDOFXO Ca REVHUYD LH de ED]: un sistem de calcul este pur L simplu versiunea mult GH]YROWDW a unui calculator de buzunar L deci nu trebuie V ne DWHSWP de la el ca vreo GDW V IDF altceva dect l-a pus cineva, un programator prin intermediul unui program, V IDF. ,QWHOLJHQ DDSDUHQWa unui sistem de calcul provine din cantitatea de LQWHOLJHQ XPDQLQYHVWLWn respectivul program aflat n H[HFX LH Hilar, am putea spune F omul vQFHDUF V IDF pe cineva GXS chipul L DVHPQDUHD lui dar rezultatul este o copie SDOLG FDUH altfel este extrem de XWLO Din aceste lucruri GHULY vestitul principiu de aur al primilor programatori GIGO (Garbage In Garbage Out), care ntr-o traducere SUR]DLF vQVHDPQ: gunoi bagi gunoi VFR L L care are meritul, n DIDU de cel umoristic, de a atrage DWHQ LD oricui care se va apuca de programare F din nefericire calculatorul face numai ce i se LQGLF prin diverse metode V IDF. De aici UH]XOW R SULP DWHQ LRQDUH YDODELO aprope tot timpul n cazul GHSDQULL(H[HFX LHLSDVFXSDVn scopul JVLULLeventualelor defecte n IXQF LRQDUHunui SURJUDP &$87 17, (52$5($ 7$ '( 352*5$0$725 , $32, ' 9,1$ PE CALCULATOR. Desigur H[LVWun procent cam de 5% din VLWXD LLn care un program scris corect este executat JUHLW lucru care apare ca rezultat al LQWHUIHUHQ HL unor programe neautorizate, cum ar fi YLUXLL FX programul aflat n H[HFX LH n cazul n care nu este
valabil acest lucru problema este mai FRPSOH[putnd fi implicate GHIHF LXQLaleatorii ale SU LL KDUGZDUH Oricum ar fi aceste lucruri LQWU n sfera de DF LXQH a unui inginer de sistem, Ldeci nu sunt luate aprioric n FRQVLGHUD LHfiind de obicei rare. Pentru a putea vQ HOHJHarhitectura vom FXWDanumite analogii ntre un om Lun sistem de calcul. 6 DQDOL]P ce se vQWkPSO FX un om n momentul n care vede o formulare de genul : 2*2= . 'HLni se pare ceva evident, cu WR LLDPvQY DWpe de rost tabla vQPXO LULL V vQFHUFPacum o descompunere a SDLORUFDUHsunt H[HFXWD L n primul rnd PHPRUPn memoria WHPSRUDUsau de VFXUWGXUDWRSHUDQ]LLdatele asupra FURUDvom executa o RSHUD LXQHapoi UHDOL]PRSHUD LXQHDGHvQPXO LUHrezultnd 4, care este SkQODcomunicarea lui YHUEDOsau prin scris tot n memoria WHPSRUDU6H REVHUYFoperanzii 2,2 LRSHUD LXQHD DXfost preluate de pe un suport extern si anume cel scris, rezultatul putnd fi UHWXUQDWtrimis FWUHHPL WRUXOunei cereri de lucru GXS cum am spus tot pe DFHOLsistem extern de stocare. $FHVWH[HPSOXQXDIRVWGDWIUXQVFRSLDQXPHUROXOOXLHVWHSULQWUHDOWHOHGHD Y RELQXL FX QLYHOXO H[WUHP GH VF]XW OD FDUH VH IDFH DQDOL]D L GHVFRPSXQHUHD XQHL SUREOHPHUHDOHvQPRPHQWXOvQFDUHGRUHVFVRWUDQVSXQvQWUXQOLPEDMGHSURJUDPDUH i acum VDQDOL]PDUKLWHFWXUDEORF(structura IXQF LRQDODunui sistem de calcul. 'XS FXP VH REVHUY GLQ ILJ ntr-un sistem de calcul H[LVW - un dispozitiv de stocare n PDV rolul caietului pe care scrim /citim n cazul nostru. Acest dispozitiv este materializat prin Hard Disk (HDD) FUXLD i se mai 0HPRULH 'LVSR]LWLY spune Lsuport fix de date L)ORSS\'LVN 7HPSRUDUm ,QWUDUH (FDD) FUXLD i se mai spune L suport 5$0 ,H LUH mobil de date . )LJ$UKLWHFWXUDXQXL - o memorie WHPRUDU 5$0 5DQGRP VLVWHPGHFDOFXO Acces Memory) care MRDF H[DFW rolul memoriei de VFXUWGXUDWumane. - dispozitive de Intrare sau de ,HLUH prin care sistemul SULPHWH sau UHWXUQHD] GDWH n cazul unui sistem de calcul acestea sunt tastatura L PRXVH FD dispozitive de intrare L monitorul sau imprimanta ca dispozitive de LHLUH A mai Umas de OPXULWproblema microprocesorului care este inima unui sistem de calcul L DUH rolul de a coordona ntregul sistem. Desigur F DFHDVW coordonare se UHDOL]HD]WRWprin intermediul unor programe care H[LVWn ceea cea am putea numi, prin analogie cu omul, partea de reflexe FRQGL LRQDWH aceste programe se JVHVF ntr-o memorie ROM (Read Only Memory) deci nu pot fi dect citite.
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)XQF LRQDUHDXQXLVLVWHPGHFDOFXO Sistemul de calcul GXS FXP VH REVHUY FRPSRUW destul similitudini cu omul la nivel de DUKLWHFWXULdeasemeni, GXSFXPvom discuta, LODnivel de IXQF LRQDUH 6vedem cum se UHDOL]HD]ELQHvQ HOHVODnivel simplificat, H[HFX LDunei formule de genul 2*2= .
Se FLWHWH GH pe suportul de stocare programul care FRQ LQH cererea QRDVWU VH vQFDUF n memoria WHPSRUDU GH acest lucru se RFXS VLVWHPXOGHRSHUDUHprogramul specializat care se RFXS GH traducerea unor LQVWUXF LXQL VLPSOH L LQWXLWLYH DOH utilizatorului n comenzi directe FWUH partea de H[HFX LH D sistemului, n urma cererii noastre explicite de lansare a programului) L VH ncepe H[HFX LD lui de FWUH procesor H[HFX LHFDUHXUPHD]aproximativ sistemul uman de gndire. Pe scurt modul de H[HFX LH la nivelul procesorului poate fi descris ca : FLWHWHdatele utile (din RAM n aceast caz) (2,2) FLWHWHRSHUD LDFDUHtrebuie H[HFXWDWasupra datelor suspomenite(tot din RAM)(*) H[HFXWRSHUD LD returneazrezultatul (nnapoi n RAM)(4). La nivelul sistemului de calcul modul de H[HFX LHDUDWFDmai jos: FLWHWHprogramul de executat (de pe sistemul de stocare fix/mobil) L vQFDUFOn RAM H[HFXWprogramul (din RAM) la terminarea programului DWHDSWnoua cerere de H[HFX LH
0HPRULD7HPSRUDUDXQXLVLVWHPGHFDOFXO 'XSFXPDPpomenit n primul capitol, una din componentele de ED]DOHunui sistem de calcul este memoria GLQDPLF5$0sau memoria WHPSRUDU $FHDVWmemorie a fost FRQFHSXW LQkQGcont de faptul Fsistemul de QXPHUD LH folosit n interiorul unui calculator este ED] 'H aici UH]XOW F orice fel de GDW sau LQVWUXF LXQHefectiv SURFHVDWsau H[HFXWDWODnivelul PDLQLLtrebuie Vfie SDVWUDWVXE forma ei ELQDU deci FRUHVSXQ]WRDUH bazei 2). ntruct n baza 2 nu H[LVW dect dou numere 0 L UH]XOW F vom avea UHSUH]HQWUL VXE IRUPD unor LUXUL GH L GH /D nivelul PDLQLL materializarea HIHFWLY D respectivelor numere este UHDOL]DW GH obicei, prin DWDDUHD ORJLF D lui 1 la o tensiune de 5 YRO L iar lui 0 lipsei acestei tensiuni. 7RWXLindiferent de nivelul tehnologic este absolut nepractic ca VFRQVLGHUPIL[9sau fix 0 V ca valori de FRPSDUD LHpentru Facest lucru ar fi dus la QLWHechipamente extrem de scumpe LGHlente. Din aceasta FDX]VHFRQVLGHUDILsau 1 logic n jurul valorilor sus PHQ LRQDWH FX V. De aici a rezultat posibilitatea folosirii unui condensator ca element de memorare. Acest lucru este posibil deoarece n cazul unei UHvQFUFUL periodice a acestuia se poate RE LHQH FD tensiunea la bornele lui V varieze n limitele necesare QRX GDF fac suficient de repede DFHDVW UHvQFUFDUH n aceste FRQGL LL foarte simplist putem vedea o memorie GLQDPLF ca o matrice LPHQV de condensatoare care pot fi vQFUFDWHsau GHVFUFDWHn cursul RSHUD LXQLORUGHscriere/citire. Aici mai apare o SUREOHPLanume QXPUXOGHEL LFDUHcompun datele utile de calcul (ELWunitate LQIRUPD LRQDO FRUHVSXQ]WRDUH H[LVWHQ HL sau a unei tensiuni la intrarea unui dispozitiv digital) care pot fi SURFHVD LODun moment dat de un procesor. ntruct memoria RAM este cea care IXUQL]HD] respectivele date era logic ca ea V fie RUJDQL]DW n diviziuni de o PULPH HJDO cu cea a QXPUXOXL de EL L sus PHQ LRQD L. Aceste JUXSUL se numesc ORFD LLGHPHPRULHL pot fi considerate ca minima unitate care poate fi VFULV sau FLWLW dintr-o memorie. O GDW OPXULW acest aspect devine clar F pentru a P putea referi la una sau alta din ORFD LL trebuie V existe o PHWRG GH individualizare VWULFW6DDOHVcea mai VLPSOFXSXWLQ Lanume numerotarea lor QXPUXOORFD LHLnumindu-se DGUHVDORFD LHL. 5
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2EVHUYD LHQDFHDVWFDUWHVHYRUGLVFXWDQXPDL$/*25,70,6(&9(1,$/,L UHVSHFWLY352*5$0$5($6(&9(1,$/ 8Q DOJRULWP VHFYHQ LDO HVWH DFHO DOJRULWP FUHDW SHQWUX H[HFX LD SH XQ FDOFXODWRU VHFYHQ LDO'HQXPLUHDGHVHFYHQ LDOSURYLQHGLQIDSWXOFDFHVWDQXSRDWHH[HFXWDGHFkW RVLQJXURSHUD LHODXQPRPHQWGDW 5HSUH]HQWDUHDDOJRULWPLORU
Q JHQHUDO XQ DOJRULWP SRDWH IL FRQVLGHUDW FD R GHVFULHUH D SUHOXFUULL HIHFWXDWH asupra unui flux de date, prelucrare care are loc cu un scop bine determinat. Ca de obicei, vQ FD]XO GH]YROWULL XQHL QRL WHRULL VD FXWDW DWkW R FDOH GH VWDQGDUGL]DUH D PRGXOXL GH GHVFULHUH D XQXL DOJRULWP FkW L R FDOH GH DO IDFH LQGHSHQGHQW GH XQ OLPEDM GH SURJUDPDUHDQXPHUH]XOWkQGGRXPHWRGHFODVLFH metoda schemei logice (diagramei de flux (flowchart)); metoda pseudocodului.
0HWRGDVFKHPHLORJLFH QFDGUXODFHVWHLPHWRGHVHIRORVHWHXQVHWGHVLPEROXULSUH]HQWDWvQILJXUD SHQWUXGHVFULHUHDSDLORUFHWUHEXLHH[HFXWD LSHQWUXFDSURJUDPXOUH]XOWDWVQHUH]ROYHR DQXPLWSUREOHP 'HLDIRVWH[WUHPGHIRORVLWSkQQXGHPXOWDFHDVWPHWRGSDUHDSLHUGHWHUHQ vQ ID D UHSUH]HQWULL GH WLS SVHXGRFRG SRDWH L GDWRULW WLPSXOXL VXSOLPHQWDU SLHUGXW GH utilizator cu executarea simbolurilor grafice. 6 DQDOL]P XQ SURJUDP GH FDOFXO D PHGLHL SHQWUX WUHL QRWH L V YHGHP FXP DU DSUHDGHVFULVSULQDFHDVWPHWRG 'XSFXPVHREVHUYvQILJXUDVHGHVFULXHIHFWLYSDVFXSDVWRDWHRSHUD LXQLOH care trebuiesc urmate. Q ILJXUD VD VSHFLILFDW L vQFHSXWXO SURJUDPXOXL IDSW FDUH SDUH LQXWLO GDU vQ FD]XOGHVFULHULLXQXLSURJUDPIRDUWHPDUHVHSUHDSRDWHFDVFKHPDORJLFVVHvQWLQGSH ]HFLGHSDJLQLFD]vQFDUHGHYLQHHYLGHQWQHFHVLWDWHDGHFODUULLvQFHSXWXOXLLVIkULWXOXL de program. QXUPWRUXOSDVVHGHFODUYDULDELOHOH2YDULDELOHVWHXQLGHQWLILFDWRUSURSULXDO SURJUDPDWRUXOXL FDUH vQ FD]XO RSHUD LXQLL GH GHFODUDUH VH DWDHD] OD JHQHUDUHD SURJUDPXOXL XQHL ]RQH GH PHPRULH D FUHL GLPHQVLXQH HVWH vQ GLUHFW FRQFRUGDQ FX WLSXOGHGDWVWRFDWGHDFHDVWD Se trece apoi la citirea datelor de intrare. n acest caz este vorba de trei note ceea FH SUHVXSXQH F YDORULOH GH LQWUDUH SRW DYHD L FX ]HFLPDOH 0DL WkU]LX VH YD GLVFXWD GHVSUHDOHJHUHDWLSXOXLGHYDULDELOIXQF LHGHVSHFLILFD LLOHXWLOL]DWRUXOXL 6HH[HFXWFDOFXOXOSURSULX]LVGXSFDUHVHDILHD]UH]XOWDWXOFX]HFLPDOH$ PDL UPDV GRDU PDUFDUHD VIkULWXO GH SURJUDP &KLDU GDF PHWRGD DUH R LPSUHVLH DUWLVWLFVSRULWFkWHRGDWVHSLHUGHSUHDPXOWWLPSLKkUWLHvQFD]XOIRORVLULLHLLGH DFHHDGLQFHvQFHPDLPXO LSUHIHUFDPHWRGGHGHVFULHUHpseudocodul.
6LPERO GH WHUPLQDUH VDX vQFHSHUH SURJUDP &XWLH GH FDOFXO &XWLH GH FRPHQWDULX &XWLH GH ,QWUDUH VDX ,HLUH 'DWH
)LU GH H[HFXLH D SURJUDPXOXL

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CAPITOLUL 2 2. Limbajul C
Limbajele de programare de nivel mediu au fost serios dezvoltate pe la mijlocul anilor ,GHLOH GH ED] IRORVLWH SHQWUX SURLHFWDUHD ORU GHULY GLQ IRUPXOHOH IXQF LRQDOH &KXUFKFHIXVHVHUSURSXVHSULQDQLL/DRUDDFWXDOVHHVWLPHD]FH[LVWSHVWH GH OLPEDMH GH SURJUDPDUH GLIHUHQ HOH vQWUH HOH ILLQG OHJDWH vQ SULQFLSDO GH VWLOXO GH programare. Limbajul FORTRAN (FORmula TRANslator) a fost unul dintre primele limbaje GH SURJUDPDUH (O HVWH IRORVLW L DFXP vQ LQGXVWULH VDX FHUFHWDUH SHQWUX D LPSOHPHQWD DSOLFD LLVSHFLILFHFXYROXPHPDULGHFDOFXOHPDWHPDWLFHFRPSOH[H 3H OkQJ OLPEDMH GH SURJUDPDUH SHQWUX PDLQL VHFYHQ LDOH VDX GH]YROWDW L OLPEDMHFDUHVXSRUWSURFHVDUHSDUDOHO'LQQHIHULFLUHPDMRULWDWHDQXVXQWSRUWDELOHILLQG RULHQWDWH VWULFW SH DUKLWHFWXUD PDLQLL SHQWUX FDUH D IRVW GH]YROWDW OLPEDMXO 'H DELD vQ XOWLPLL]HFHDQLGH]YROWDUHDUDSLGDUH HOHORUGHFDOFXODWRDUHDFRQGXVLODRvQFHUFDUHGH standardizare a unor limbaje ce pot crea cod executabil simultan pe mai multe sisteme de calcul. $YDQWDMHOHSURJUDPULLODQLYHOinalt sunt: ascund GLIHUHQ HOHGHDUKLWHFWXULQWHUQ sunt XRUGHXUPULWLPHQ LQXWmodificare i depanare XRDU sunt portabile . De exemplu un cod scris n C poate fi executat i sub UNIX LVXE DOS nu au cel mai eficient FRGvQFRPSDUD LHFXFHOVFULVLQ$60GLUHFW De obicei sistemele de operare erau dezvoltate in limbaj de ansamblare pentru a fi mai rapide . Limbajul C, dezvoltat in 1972 este Dennis M.Retchie la Laboratoarele AT&T Bell, este primul limbaj pentru crearea sisteme de operare. Numele limbajului provine din faptul c este rezultatul PEXQW LULLlimbajului B, folosit n scrierea UNIX pentru DEC PDP7. Prima GRFXPHQWD LH despre acest limbaj a fost The C Programing Language, scrisGH5HWFKLHLBrian Kernighan n 1977. naintea ei exista doar The C Reference Manual, scris de Retchie. 2 FDUDFWHULVWLF LPSRUWDQW D DFHVWXL OLPEDM HVWH IDSWXO F SRDWHILFRQVLGHUDWVLPXOWDQLXQOLPEDMGHQLYHOPHGLXLXQOLPEDMGHQLYHOVF]XW 2 GDW FX UVSkQGLUHD OXL SULQWUH SURJUDPDWRULL SURIHVLRQLWL VD WUHFXW L OD DGDSWDUHDFRPSLODWRUXOXLSHQWUXVLVWHPXOGHRSHUDUH06'26'H DVHPHQHDD DSUXW L DOWSUREOHPLDQXPHIDSWXOFVWDQGDUGXO.&R nu mai era satisfFWRU'HDVHPHQHD GDWRULWYDULDQWHORUGHFRPSLODUHSHQWUX3&-uri C ncepuse VLpiardGLQportabilitate. n acel moment Institutul 1D LRQDOpentru Standarde al Americii (ANSI), a creat un subcomitet pt. a defini o versiune RILFLDOSWlimbajul C, rezultnd astfel ANSI C. /LPEDMXO & L YHUVLXQLOH VDOH 223 Object Oriented 3URJUDPPLQJ & L PDL QRXO 9LVXDO & VXQW SULQWUH FHOH PDL IRORVLWH OLPEDMH GH SURJUDPDUH OD RUD DFWXDO $ IRVW SURLHFWDW SRUQLQG GH OD GRX OLPEDMH GH]YROWDWH VSUH VIkULWXO DQLORU %&3/ L prima sa versiune B. 8Q OLPEDM GH QLYHO VF]XW HVWH RULHQWDW SH DUKLWHFWXU L SRDWH IL GHILQLW FD DYkQG IDFLOLWDWHDGHDVFULHLQVWUXF LXQLFHVHUHIHUGLUHFWODHOHPHQWHDOHUHVSHFWLYHLDUKLWHFWXUL interne (ca n cazul limbajului de asamblare).
8Q OLPEDM GH QLYHO vQDOW VDX PHGLX HVWH RULHQWDW SH SUREOHP SHUPL kQG SURJUDPDWRUXOXL VL VWUXFWXUH]H SURJUDPXO FkW PDL DSURSLDW SRVLELO GH SUREOHPD FH WUHEXLHLPSOHPHQWDW$FHVWOXFUXVFDGHDQVHOHXQHLHURULGHSURLHFWDUHODQLYHOORJLFDO DSOLFD LHL&KLDUGDFSURJUDPXOYDILPDLLQHILFLHQWGLQSXQFWGHYHGHUHDOYLWH]HLLDO RFXSULL UHVXUVHORU SULQ FRPSDUD LH FX XQ SURJUDP VFULV vQ OLPEDM GH DVDPEODUH HO DUH DYDQWDMXOFSRDWHILVFULVUHSHGHLH[WLQVFXXXULQ Limbajul C SHUPLWH IRORVLUHD DPEHORU WHKQLFL SURJUDPDUH VWUXFWXUDW L DFFHV GLUHFWODPDLQIDSWFDUHOIDFHVILHIRDUWHIOH[LELO 8OWLPXOLSRDWHFHOPDLLPSRUWDQWPRWLYSHQWUXvQY DUHDOLPEDMXOXL&HVWHIDSWXO FSHUPLWHWUHFHUHDFXXXULQ OD&VDX-DYD 'HLlimbajul C are o libertate foarte mare in scrierea codului, el acceptnd multe forme de scriere care n alte limbaje nu sunt premise, acest lucru ascunde vQVLpericole, n special pentru programatorii IUH[SHULHQ 6WUXFWXUDJHQHULFDXQXLSURJUDPVFULVvQ& 'HODSULPHOHSURJUDPHVFULVHHVWHELQHVVH LQFRQWGHRVHULHGHUHJXOLSULYLQG RUJDQL]DUHDFRGXOXLVXUV6WUXFWXUDJHQHUDODXQXLFRGYDIL Apeluri ale directivelor speciale de compilare; 'HFODUD LLGHELEOLRWHFLIRORVLWH 'HFODUD LLIXQF LLLQOLQH 'HFODUD LLDOHSURWRWLSXULORUIXQF LLORUSHUVRQDOH 'HFODUD LLYDULDELOHJOREDOH Corpul programului principal { GHFODUD LLYDULDELOH DSHOXULGHIXQF LL } &RUSXULOHIXQF LLORUGH]YROWDWHGHSURJUDPDWRU ([LVW FkWHYD REVHUYD LL VXSOLPHQWDUH SULYLQG WHKQRUHGDFWDUHD FRGXOXL VXUV GH FDUHDUILELQHVVH LQVHDPD 1. 6QXVHVFULHLQVWUXF LXQLOHXQDGXSDOWDFLXQDVXEDOWD 2. 7RDWHLQVWUXF LXQLOHFDUHIRUPHD]XQEORFSHQWUXRDOWLQVWUXF LXQHVILHGHSODVDWH ID GHvQFHSXWXOUHVSHFWLYHLLQVWUXF LXQL (WDSHOHJHQHUULLXQXLSURJUDPH[HFXWDELOSRUQLQGGHODRSUREOHPUHDO 8QD GLQ JUHHOLOH vQFHSWRULORU vQ SURJUDPDUH FRQVW vQ IDSWXO F SXQ SUHD PXOW DFFHQW SH LQWURGXFHUHD XQRU SURJUDPH JDWD VFULVH IU FD vQ SUHDODELO V VWXGLH]H SUREOHPDGHSRUQLUHSUHFXPLDOJRULWPXOJHQHUDWvQXUPDDQDOL]HLDFHVWHLSUREOHPH QPRPHQWXOJkQGLULLXQXLSURJUDPSHOkQJDOWHFRQVLGHUHQWHWUHEXLH LQXWFRQWLGH IDSWXOFHVWHRPDUHGLIHUHQ vQWUHSURJUDPHOHbune si cele care merg. Un program bun nu numai cPHUJHGDUHVWHLXRUGHvQ HOHVLPHQ LQXW0XO LGLQWUHvQFHSWRULLvQ
10
programarea C-XOXLDXWHQGLQ DGHD seOLPLWDODSURJUDPHFDUHVPHDUJLDFHVWIDSW conduce la GHSULQGHULQHVQWRDVH.
'H DFHHD PDL MRV YRP SUH]HQWD SDLL QHFHVDUL D IL XUPD L vQ HODERUDUHD XQHL DSOLFD LL SRUQLQGGHODRSUREOHPUHDO 1. Q HOHJHUHDSUREOHPHL 2. 5HDOL]DUHDPRGHOXOXLPDWHPDWLFGDFHVWHFD]XO 3. 9HULILFDUHDPRGHOXOXLPDWHPDWLFFXXQVHWGHGDWHUHDOVDXFDOFXODWHPDQXDO'DFVH REVHUY QHFRQFRUGDQ H VH YD UHOXD YHULILFDUHD SXQFWHORU DQWHULRDUH GDF QX VH FRQWLQX 4. ,GHQWLILFDUHD GDWHORU GH LQWUDUH D GDWHORU GH LHLUH SUHFXP L D YDULDELOHORU intermediare. 5. $OHJHUHDWLSXULORUGHGDWHIRORVLWHSHQWUXUH LQHUHDvQFXUVXOSURFHVULLDUHVSHFWLYHORU date. 6. Specificarea modului de LQWHUID DUHFXXWLOL]DWRUXOODQLYHOGHLQWUDUHVDXLHLUH 7. Generarea schemei logice sau a pseudocodului ce descrie algoritmul propus pentru rezolvarea problemei. 8. Verificarea modelului creat la punctul 7 cu un set date reale sau calculate manual. n caz de QHFRQFRUGDQ HVHUHLDYHULILFDUHDSXQFWHORUDQWHULRDUHGDFQXVHFRQWLQX 9. 6FULHUHDFRGXOXLVXUVWUDQVSXQHUHDvQWUXQOLPEDMGHSURJUDPDUHRDUHFDUH 10.(OLPLQDUHDHURULORUGHVLQWD[ 3HQWUXDH[HPSOLILFDSDLLPHQ LRQD LDQWHULRUYRPOXDXQH[HPSOXH[WUHPGHVLPSOX 6VHUHDOL]H]Hun program care UH]RYRHFXD LHRDUHFDUHGHJUDGXO,, Pasul 1 n acest caz este simplu, e clar Fne referim la o HFXD LHGHfoma ax+bx+c=0; Pasul 2 Modelul matematic este cel studiat n liceu: Fie = b a c atunci :

E E DF . D E L E + DF . 'DF<0 atunci: [ = D E 'DF=0 atunci: [ = . D Pasul 3 n acest caz poate fi evitat modelul matematic este prea simplu. 'DF>0 atunci: [

Pasul 4 6 YHGHP GHFL FDUH DU IL GDWHOH FH WUHEXLHVF IXUQL]DWH GH XWLOL]DWRU $YkQG vQ YHGHUHFVHGRUHWHUH]ROYDUHDXQHLHFXD LLJHQHULFHGHRUGLQXO,,HVWHFODUF - a,b,c date de intrare
11
- x GDWHGHLHLUH - GDWLQWHUPHGLDU Analiznd modHOXO PDWHPDWLF REVHUYP F D WUHEXLW V IRORVLP XQ VLPERO VXSOLPHQWDU IXQF LH GH FDUH VH IDFH vQWUHDJD GLVFX LH $FHVW VLPERO QX HVWH QLFL GDW GH XWLOL]DWRULQLFLQXLQWHUHVHD]SHQWUXUH]XOWDWXOILQDOGHFLHVWHRGDWLQWHUPHGLDUGH calcul.

Pasul 5 $FXP WUHEXLH V VSHFLILFP WLSXO GH GDW IRORVLW SHQWUX UHSUH]HQWDUHD LQWHUQ vQ PHPRULDFDOFXODWRUXOXLDYDULDELOHORU'HFLDYHPFkWHYDGDWHVXSOLPHQWDUHODGLVSR]L LH pentru a vedea tipul de reprezentare care trebuie ales: - VSHFLILFD LLOHXWLOL]DWRUXOXL - modelul matematic - H[SHULHQ DvQSURJUDPDUH Q DFHVW FD] PRGHOXO PDWHPDWLF QH VSXQH F DEF VXQW QXPHUH UHDOH )U R VSHFLILFDUHFODUDXWLOL]DWRUXOXLFDUHVvQGLFHFHOHDSDU LQDOWXLLQWHUYDOHVWHREOLJDWRULX FDVOXPvQFRQVLGHUDUHPRGHOXOFHOPDLH[WLQVGHFLFHOPDLDGDSWDELO'HVLJXU FQX YRP DOHJH FHO PDL FXSULQ]WRU WLS GH GDWH SXV OD GLVSR]L LH GH FWUH FRPSLODWRU vQ OLSVD XQRUVSHFLILFD LLH[WHUQH'HFLa,b,c vor fi de tipul float. 9DULDELOD LQWHUPHGLDU HVWH UH]XOWDW DO DSOLFULL XQHL IXQF LL OLQHDUH DVXSUD XQRU YDULDELOHGHWLSUHDOGHFLLGHOWDYDWUHEXLVILHfloat. 'DWHOH GH LHLUH [ GXS FXP VH REVHUY VXQW UH]XOWDWXO XQHL vQSU LUL L GHFL REOLJDWRULXVXQWUHDOHLQGLIHUHQWGHWLSXOGHGDWDOHVSHQWUXGDWHOHGHLQWUDUH

Pasul 6 QOLSVDXQRUVSHFLILFD LLGHODXWLOL]DWRUYRPDOHJHSHQWUXFLWLUHDGDWHORUFHDPDL VLPSOPHWRGFLWLUHDGLUHFWGXSFXPDPIFXWLSkQDFXP3HQWUXDILDUHvQVDYHP GRXPHWRGHDILDUHDGHWLSXO5H[L,P[VDXGLUHFWUH]XOWDWXOFDvQFDOFXOXOPDQXDO 9RPDOHJHFHDGHDGRXDPHWRG Pasul 7 3VHXGRFRGXOYDDUWDFDPDLMRV FLWHWHD FLWHWHE FLWHWHF FDOFXOHD]GHOWDGXSIRUPXOGHOWD E E D F GDFGHOWD>=0 atunci { x=(-b+sqrt(delta))/(2*a); x=(-b-sqrt(delta))/(2*a); afiDILHD][[ } altfel { delta=-delta; delta=sqrt(delta)/(2*a)
12
afiHD]x1 de forma re+i*im afiHD]x2 de forma re-i*im }
CWHYDREVHUYD LLUHODWLYHODFRQVWUXF ia pseudocodului - VH REVHUY F QX DP WUDWDW VHSDUDW VLWXD LD GHOWD SHQWUX F ]HUR OD DGXQDUH QX PRGLILFUH]XOWDWXO - vQDGRXDSDUWHDPIRORVLWXQDUWLILFLXGHFDOFXOvQVHQVXOFDPSVWUDWWRWvQYDULDELOD GHOWD UH]XOWDWH SDU LDOH GH FDOFXO $OWIHO DU IL WUHEXLW V LQWURGXFHP YDULDELOH VXSOLPHQWDUHSHQWUXSVWUDUHDS LLvQWUHJLLDSU LLUHDOH&RGXODUILIRVWPDLFODUGDU vQDFHODLWLPSDPILIRORVLWPDLPXOWPHPRULH'DFvQFD]XODFHVWXLSURJUDPFkWHYD YDULDELOH VXSOLPHQWDUH QX QH GHUDQMHD] vQ FD]XO XQRU SURJUDPH IRDUWH PDUL DFHVW OXFUX SRDWH ULGLFD JUHXW L FH QX SRW IL HOLPLQDWH GHFkW SULQ WUHFHUHD OD DORFDUHD GLQDPLFDPHPRULHL$FHDVWPHWRGYDILSUH]HQWDWXOWHULRU - VH REVHUY F DP VFULV PXOW FRG VXSOLPHQWDU FDUH GLQ SXQFW GH YHGHUH DO FDOFXOXOXL brut nu ne trebuie, dar din punct de vedere al modului n care i prezint rezultatul uni XWLOL]DWRUHVWHHVHQ LDOSHQWUXFHVWHH[DFWvQIRUPDPDWHPDWLFFXQRVFXW Pasul 8 Va fi evitat pentru acest exemplu deoarece este prea simplu. Pasul 9 Codul n cazul limbajului C va DUDWDFDPDLMRV #include <stdio.h> * #inlude <conio.h> // aici eroare de sintaxGHWHFWDELOGHinterpretor void main(void) { float a,b,c,delta,x1,x2; clrscr() printf(Pentru calculul ecuatiei a*x*x+b*x*c=0 dati coeficientii); printf(\na=); scanf(%f,a); //aici eroare de VLQWD[QHGHWHFWDELOGHinterpretor printf(\nb=); scanf(%f,&b); printf(\nb=); scanf(%f,&b); delta=b*b+4*a*c; // aici eroare de calcul if( delta >=0) { x=(-b+sqrt(delta))/(2*a); x=(-b-sqrt(delta))/(2*a); printf(\nx1=%f,x1) printf(\nx2=%f,x2) }
**
***
13
else {
delta=-delta; delta=sqrt(delta)/(2*a) printf(x1=%f+i*%f,-b/(2*a),delta); printf(x2=%f-i*%f,-b/(2*a),delta); } } Pasul 10 'XSFXPVHREVHUY DPLQWURGXVLQWHQ LRQDWWUHLWLSXULGHJUHHOL 3ULPD PDUFDW FX R VWHDHVWH JUHHDO GH VLQWD[ FH YD IL GHWHFWDW GH FRPSLODWRU L GHFL R SXWHP FRUHFWD vQ DFHDVWID] Pasul 11 Q FDGUXO UXOULL SURJUDPXOXL UH]XOWDW VH REVHUY F DFHVWD QX IXQF LRQHD] FRUHFW /D H[HFX LDSDVFXSDVVHYDREVHUYDFvQYDULDELODDQXVHGHSXQHFHHDFHVHFLWHWHGHOD WDVWDWXU (VWH R JUHHDO GH ORJLF GH SURJUDPDUH SHQWUX F scanf DWHDSW XQ pointer pentru a returna corect rezultatul, iar a nu este declarat SRLQWHU WUHEXLH WUDQVPLV DGUHVD OXLD$FHDVWHURDUHQXSRDWHILGHWHFWDWGHinterpretor. 'HDVHPHQHD FX WUHL VWHOH DP PDUFDW R JUHHDO GH WUDQVSXQHUH D DOJRULWPXOXL R JUHHDOVLPSOGHWUDQVFULHUHD XQHL IRUPXOH GH FDOFXO 'HDELD GXS HOLPLQDUHD DFHVWRU erori se poate continua testarea programului. (VWHELQHFDVH[LVWHXQ comentariu la vQFHSXWXORULFUHLVXUVHL&DYkQGXUPWRUXO FRQ LQXW /*----autor: GDWDFUHULL/modificrii ------copyright */
14
CAPITOLUL 3
1R LXQHDGHYDULDELOLWLSXULGHYDULDELOH 2YDULDELO HVWHXQLGHQWLILFDWRUQXPHGDWGXSGRULQ GHFWUHXWLOL]DWRUXQHL]RQH din memorie cu care se va lucra (stoca sau modifica datele utile programului) pe SDUFXUVXOVFULHULLFRGXOXLVXUV Q OLPEDMXOXL & SRW IDFH DVHPHQHD UHIHULUL GLUHFWH OD R ]RQ GH PHPRULH SULQ intermediul SRLQWHULORU DYkQG WRWRGDW DYDQWDMXO VLQWD[HL IDFLOH D XQXL OLPEDM GH QLYHO mediu. 3URJUDPXO VDX FRGXO VXUV HVWH WUDGXV SULQ LQWHUPHGLXO FRPSLODWRUXOXL & vQWUXQ program executabil. n cadrul acestui proces se face identificarea dintre numele variabilei L XQ DQXPLW QXPU GH ORFD LL GH PHPRULH 7RW vQ VDUFLQD FRPSLODWRUXOXL UPkQH L JHQHUDUHD GH LQVWUXF LXQL FDUH V VH RFXSH GH VFULHUHD VDX FLWLUHD vQ EORF D PDL PXOWRU ORFD LLGHRGDW2YDULDELOSRDWHRFXSDPDLPXOWGHRORFD LHGHPHPRULH Caracteristicile variabilelor sunt : 1. )LHFDUHYDULDELODUHXQQXPH 2. )LHFDUHYDULDELODSDU LQHXQXLWLSGHGDW 3. )LHFDUH YDULDELO UH LQH R YDORDUH VDX XQ VHW GH YDORUL XWLOH SHQWUX SURJUDP $FHVWH valori pot fi: - GHSXVHvQPHPRULHSULQLQL LDOL]DUHvQSURJUDP - SRWILFLWLWHGHODWDVWDWXUVDXGHODDOWGLVSR]LWLYGHLQWUDUH /HJDWGHQXPHOHXQHLYDULDELOHVHSRWIDFHFkWHYDREVHUYD LL 1. 1XPHOH XQHL YDULDELOH VH DOHJH GH RELFHL DVWIHO vQFkW V GHVFULH FH vQVHDPQ SHQWUX programator, din punct de vedere al SVHXGRFRGXOXL vQWUR IRUP FDUH SRDWH IL SUHVFXUWDW VDX QX GXS SUHIHULQ 'H H[HPSOX vQ FD]XO SUREOHPHL GLQ ILJXUD QXPHOH XQHL YDULDELOH FH UH LQH R QRW SXWHD IL QRWDB VDX Q VDX 1RWDB &D REVHUYD LH OLPEDMXO & HVWH FDVH VHQ]LWLY DGLF IDFH GLVWLQF LH vQWUH OLWHUHOH PLFL L PDUL IRORVLWH vQ VFULHUHD FRGXOXL VXUV GHFL 18 6( &216,'(5 $ ),,1' $&(/$, 180( '( 9$5,$%,/ 1 &$=8/ 1 &$5( (67( 6&5,6 &8 LITERE MARI SAU CU LITERE MICI. Mai concret nota_1 Nota_1NOTA_1. 2. &kQGVHGRUHWHFDXQQXPHGHYDULDELOVILHFRPSXVGLQGRXFXYLQWH186(9$ /6$ 63$,8 175( (/( FFL YRU IL FRQVLGHUDWH GRX FXYLQWH VHSDUDWH HOH WUHEXLHVFXQLWHFXOLQLHLQIHULRDUunderscore). 3. 1XPHOHGHYDULDELOHVXIHULGHXUPWRDUHOHUHVWULF LL QXSRWvQFHSHFXXQQXPUM nu pot ncepe cu $ ( $ abc ) nu pot fi cuvinte rezervate ( int ) nu pot FRQ LQHcaractere speciale ( bab*#*@l ) excep LHIFQGunderscore ex. bad_babe
15
,QL LDOL]DUHDYDULDELOHORU
QOLSVDXQHLLQL LDOL]ULH[SOLFLWHRYDULDELOORFDOYDFRQ LQHRYDORDUHRDUHFDUHDOHDWRDUH QXPLWvQPRGFXUHQW JDUEDJH $FHDVW YDORDUH VH JVHD vQ PHPRULD DORFDW UHVSHFWLYHL YDULDELOHODODQVDUHDvQH[HFX LDDSURJUDPXOXL ,QL LDOL]DWRULLH[SOLFL LVHSODVHD]GXSGHFODUDWRUXOODFDUHVHUHIHUVHSDUD LGH acesta prin semnul egal (de exemplu nr1=234).
H H OYDOXH UYDOXH
'DFRELHFWXOLQL LDOL]DWHVWHXQDJUHJDWXQFRQJORPHUDWGHGDWHUHFXQRVFXWVXEXQ QXPHFRPXQSHQWUXLQL LDOL]DUHVHIRORVHWHROLVWGHH[SUHVLLvQFKLVvQDFRODGHXQGHOD ILHFDUHFRPSRQHQWFRUHVSXQGHFkWHRH[SUHVLH 7UHEXLHUHVSHFWDWHXUPWRDUHOHUHJXOL 1. QXPUXO GH LQL LDOL]DWRUL QX SRDWH IL PDL PDUH GHFkW QXPUXO GH FRPSRQHQWH GH LQL LDOL]DW 2. QXVHSRWLQL LDOL]DGHFkWRELHFWHVDXWDEORXULFXGLPHQVLXQHGHILQLWDGLFVHFXQRDWH QXPUXOPD[LPGHYDORULGHLQWUDUHFHSRWILGDWHGHXWLOL]DWRUSHQWUXDILSURFHVDWH 3. H[SUHVLLOHIRORVLWHSHQWUXLQL LDOL]DUHWUHEXLHVILHFRQVWDQWHvQXUPWRDUHOHVLWXD LL ODLQL LDOL]DUHDXQXLRELHFWGHWLSVWDWLFvQ&QHVHPDLDSOLF ODLQL LDOL]DUHDXQXLWDEORXXQHLVWUXFWXUL sau unei uniuni. 4. QX VH SRW LQL LDOL]D LGHQWLILFDWRUL FX YDODELOLWDWH vQ LQWHULRUXO XQXL EORF GDU FX OHJDUH H[WHUQVDXLQWHUQ 5. GDF R OLVW vQFKLV vQWUH DFRODGH DUH PDL SX LQH HOHPHQWH GHFkW FRPSRQHQWH DUH DJUHJDWXOLQL LDOL]DWUHVWXOFRPSRQHQWHORUVHYRULQL LDOL]DDXWRPDW 2ELHFWHOHGHWLSVFDODURVHULHGHGDWHGHDFHODLWLSDFURUGHILQL LHSRDWHILGDWFD R vQLUXLUH GH GDWH FH SRW IL LGHQWLILFDWH SULQ SR]L LD ORU vQWUR vQLUXLUH VH LQL LDOL]HD] IRORVLQGRVLQJXUH[SUHVLHFDUHSRDWHILHYHQWXDOvQFKLVvQDFRODGH8QLXQLOHJUXSULGH PDL PXO L EL L GH GLPHQVLXQH GLYL]LELO FX GRL VH LQL LDOL]HD] FX R VLQJXU H[SUHVLH corespunznd ca tip primului membru al uniunii. 6WUXFWXULOHJUXSULGHGLYHUVHGDWHGHWLSXULGLIHULWHVXEXQQXPHFRPXQLXQLXQLOH VHSRWLQL LDOL]DFXRH[SUHVLHGHWLSVWUXFWXUVDXXQLXQHFRUHVSXQ]WRDUH9DORDUHDLQL LDOD structurii sau uniunii va fi valoarea obiectului citat. 3UH]HQ DXQHLLQL LDOL]ULvQWURGHFODUD LHLQGLFRGHFODUD LHGHILQLWRULHFHVSHFLILF FXFHYDILXPSOXWUHVSHFWLYXOVSD LXGHPHPRULH0DLMRVHVWHSUH]HQWDWXQH[HPSOX int zile [7] = { 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1 } ; char name1 [] = { "Costica" } ; char name2 [] = "Dragan" ; struct datep { int i ; // nr. ani char str [21] ; //nume double d ; //salar } vas = { 28, "Vasile", 1500000.0 } ;
16
$FHHDL YDULDELO QX VH SRDWH LQL LDOL]D FX GRX YDORUL GHFkW vQ FD]XO vQ FDUH VH UHQXQ ODYDORDUHDDQWHULRDUFXFDUHDIRVWLQL LDOL]DW 1XSRWH[LVWDGRXGHFODUD LLGHILQLWRULLFDUHvLVSHFLILFFRQ LQXWXOvQWU-un program. 3.2.Tipuri de variabile 8QD GLQ FHOH PDL GLILFLOH SUREOHPH FDUH DSDU vQ FDGUXO vQY ULL XQXL OLPEDM GH SURJUDPDUHHVWHGHVFULHUHDXQHLVLWXD LLGLQOXPHDUHDOIRORVLQGHOHPHQWHOHUHVSHFWLYXOXL limbaj. Q DIDU GH SURSXQHUHD XQXL DOJRULWP SHQWUX D UH]ROYD R SUREOHP UHDO SURJUDPDWRUXO PDL HVWH FRQIUXQWDW L FX XQ DOW DVSHFW GLILFLO DOHJHUHD WLSXOXL GH GDW SHQWUXRYDULDELOWUHEXLHIFXWvQFRQFRUGDQ FXYDORULOHFDUHOHSRDWHOXDDFHDVWD 'H DFHHD SULPXO SDV HVWH V YHGHP FH WLSXUL IXQGDPHQWDOH GH GDWH QH SXQH OD GLVSR]L LHOLPEDMXO& SUHFXP L JDPD GH YDORUL vQ FDUH HYROXHD] DFHVWHD 2 GDW WLXWH DFHVWHOXFUXULSXWHPvQFHSHVYHGHPFDUHHVWHOHJWXUDFXH[HPSOHOHGLQYLD DUHDO 'LQDQDOL]DLQIRUPD LHLFDUHFLUFXOFXUHQWvQWUHRDPHQLUH]XOWFH[LVWGLQSXQFW GHYHGHUHDOSURFHVULLGRXWLSXULGHLQIRUPD LH - LQIRUPD LH RE LQXW SULQ PVXUWRUL DVXSUD IHQRPHQHORU UHDOH FDUH VXQW H[DFWH L DVXSUDFURUDVHIDFSUHOXFUULPDWHPDWLFHGHRELFHL - LQIRUPD LH VXE IRUP FRQGHQVDW FDUH GH RELFHL HVWH UHFRPSXV DVRFLDWLY vQ PLQWHD XPDQFXPDUILOLPEDMXOVLLQIRUPD LDVFULV 'HDLFLUH]XOWFvQWUXQOLPEDMGHSURJUDPDUHDYHPQHYRLHGHGRXWLSXULGHYDULDELOH FDUHVSRDWILIRORVLWHSHQWUX stocarea unor valori numerice. VWRFDUHDXQRUFDUDFWHUHLQIRUPD LHVFULV
&RQIRUP DFHVWRU QHFHVLW L OLPEDMXO & D IRVW SUHY]XW FX XUPWRDUHOH WLSXUL fundamentale de date: intVWRFKHD]QXPDLQXPHUHvQWUHJL float, doubleSHQWUXQXPHUH]HFLPDOHFDOFXOvQYLUJXOPRELO charSHQWUXDVWRFDFRGXOXQXLFDUDFWHUVDXXQQXPUvQWUHJUHSUH]HQWDWSHPD[LPXP RSWEL LLQFOX]kQGLVHPQXO 2EVHUYD LHchar[QU@YDUH LQHXQLUGHnr caractere sau ntregi. 8QDGLQWUHXWLOL]ULOHLUXULORUGHFDUDFWHUHDUILPHVDMHOHGHGLDORJFXXWLOL]DWRUXOXQXL SURJUDPVDXPHVDMHOHGH HURDUH Q DFHVWFD]QXQHLQWHUHVHD] FRQ LQXWXO GLQ SXQFW GH vedere al valorii lor numerice ca atare. )XQF LH GH QHFHVLW LOH SURJUDPDWRUXOXL SXWHP VSXQH F H[LVW GRX FODVH GH WLS GH date care pot fi folosite n cazul unui limbaj de nivel mediu sau nalt: 1. tipuri de date predefinite tipuri de date definite de utilizator.
17
CAPITOLUL 4
4. Tipuri de date predefinite 4.1. Date numerice /LPEDMXO & HVWH SUHY]XW FX XQ VHW GH GDWH predefinite. Aceste tipuri de date sunt FRQFUHWL]DWH SULQ IRORVLUHD XQXL QXPU GH ORFD LL GH PHPRULH SHQWUX VWRFDUHD FRQIRUP XQXLDOJRULWPELQHGHILQLWIXQF LHGHWLSXOGHGDWDXQXLWLSGHGDWHH[LVWHQWHQFD]XO tipului de date FKDU GHL D IRVW LQWURGXV SHQWUX VWRFDUHD GDWHORU GH WLS DOIDQXPHULF HO SRDWHILIRORVLWvQFDOFXOHPDWHPDWLFHLORJLFHvQLQWHUYDOXOGHYDORULQXPHULFHSHFDUHOH poate stoca. 3HQWUXWLSXULOHGHGDWHFHVWRFKHD]YDORULQXPHULFHvQWUHJLSUHVFXUWDWLQWVDXGXS cum am spus FKDUQXPUXOHVWHVWRFDWvQPHPRULHGLUHFWVXEIRUPDUH]XOWDWODFRQYHUVLD n binar. n cazul datelor de tip real, float, sau GRXEOHODFRQYHUVLDGLUHFWDQXPUXOXLvQED]D GRLVDUILSLHUGXWSUHDPXOWHORFD LLGHPHPRULHLGHDFHHDHOHVH SVWUHD] VXE IRUPD WLLQ LILF$FHDVWIRUPVHUHIHUODIDSWXOFH[LVWR]RQGHPHPRULHFDUH LQHPDQWLVD L R ]RQ GH PHPRULH FDUH LQH H[SRQHQWXO 8Q H[HPSOX GH UHSUH]HQWDUH WLLQ LILF GLQ punct de vedere matematic ar fi: 123344445455454=1.23344445455454 * 1014 =1.23344445455454E+14 unde mantisa=1,23344445455454 iar exponentul = 14. 0DLMRVSUH]HQWPRVHULHGHWLSXULGHGDWHSUHGHILQLWHGLPHQVLXQLOHORULGRPHQLXO YDORULORU FDUH SRW IL VWRFDWH 6H REVHUY F VDX IRORVLW PRGLILFDWRUL GH WLS 3ULP PRGLILFDWRULGHWLSVHvQ HOHJFXYLQWHFKHLHFDUHDXFDHIHFWODFRPSLODUHFDGLPHQVLXQHD vQRFWH LSHFDUHHVWHUHSUH]HQWDWXQWLSGHGDWHVFUHDVFFXXQIDFWRUFDUHHVWHVDXR putere a lui doi)). char {128, 127} unsigned char {0, 255} IUVHPQ signed char {128, 127} semn int {32768, 32767 } cuvnt (2 octeti) unsigned int {0, 65535} semn signed int {32768, 32767} semn short int {32768, 32767} semn unsigned short int {0, 65535} semn 1 octet 1 octet 1 octet 1 FXYkQW IU 1 cuvnt cu 1 cuvnt cu FXYkQW IU cu
18
signed short int 32768 to 32767 semn long int {2147483648, 2147483647} signed long int {2147483648, 2147483647} float {3.4E38, 3.4E+38} double {1.7E308, 1.7E+308} long double {3.4E4932, 1.1E+4932}
1 cuvnt cu 2 cuvinte 2 cuvinte cu semn 2 cuvinte 4 cuvinte 5 cuvinte
2EVHUYD LH $FHVWH LQWHUYDOH VXQW GH RELFHL VSHFLILFH VLVWHPXOXL GH RSHUDUH VXE FDUH OXFUHD]FRPSLODWRUXOLPDLQLLSHFDUHDFHVWDHVWHH[HFXWDW'RPHQLLOHGHPDLVXVVXQW valabile pentru compilatorul de C++ realizat de Borland. 2SHUDWRUXOYLUJXO a,b HYDOXHD]DHYDOXHD]E $FHVWRSHUDWRUSHUPLWHHYDOXDUHDDGRXVDXPDLPXOWHH[SUHVLLGLVWLQFWHLQORFXULOHLQ FDUHRVLQJXUH[SUHVLHHVWHDGPLVDILIRORVLWDVWDHUD LXQHDLQWURGXFHULLOXL De ex: for ( j=0,k=100 ; k-j>0 ; j++,k-- ) este chivalent cu j=0 ; k=100; j=0 , k=100 { { j++; sau j++; k--; k--; } } 8QDOWH[HPSOXIXQF LDbreak_line: break_line (int interval) { int c,j; for (c=getchar(),j=0 ; c!=EOF ; c=getchar (),putchar (c),j++) if (j % interval = = 0 ) printf( \n ) ; } 4.2. Date alfanumerice Q FDGUXO SURLHFWULL XQHL DSOLFD LL SRW DSDUH SH OkQJ FHULQ H OHJDWH GH FDOFXOH QXPHULFHFRPSOH[HLFHULQ HSHQWUXSURFHVDUHDGHWH[WHVDXDXQRUED]HGHGDWH ToWDOLWDWHDFDUDFWHUHORUFHSRWILDILDWHVDXOLVWDWHvQFD]XOOXFUXOXLVXEXQVLVWHP GH RSHUDUH FODVLF 81,; VDX '26 VH QXPHVF FDUDFWHUH DOIDQXPHULFH DOIDEHWLFH L QXPHULFH )LHFDUH FDUDFWHU DUH R LPDJLQH SH HFUDQ $FHDVW LPDJLQH HVWH VWRFDW vQ memoria QHYRODWLODFDOFXODWRUXOXLLDUHDWDDWXQFRGXQLFODFDUHVHIDFHDSHOFkQGVH GRUHWHDILDUHDVDXOLVWDUHDHL 'DWRULW QHFHVLW LL FD XQ WH[W HGLWDW SH XQ VLVWHP IDEULFDW GH R DQXPH ILUP VL SVWUH]H vQ HOHVXO VD WUHFXW OD VWDQGDUGL]DUHD FRGULL LPDJLQLORU FDUDFWHUHORU $VWIHO D UH]XOWDWVWDQGDUGXO$6&,,IRORVLWODRUDDFWXDOGHWRDWHFDOFXODWRDUHOHGLQVHULD; ([LVWGHFDUDFWHUHvQDFHVWVWDQGDUG1XYRPIDFHUHIHULULODVHWXULOH H[WLQVHGH caractere specifice editoarelor de teste sau sistemelor de operare de tip Windows sau XWindows.
19
3HQWUXVWRFDUHDXQXLLUGHFDUDFWHUHOLPEDMXO&IRORVHWHXQWDEORXmonodimensional GH FDUDFWHUH FDUH SRDWH VWRFD FRGXULOH D PD[LPXP GH FDUDFWHUH R GDW vQ FD]XO GHFODUULLVWDWLFH 2EVHUYD LD 'DF VD GHILQLW YDULDELOD V FD DYkQG FDSDFLWDWHD GH VWRFDUH GH GH caractere iar la citirea ei sunt introduse mai mult de 25, atunci numai pentru primele 25 QXH[LVWULVFXOSLHUGHULLORUSHSDUFXUVXOH[HFX LHLSURJUDPXOXL Q DFHVWFD] SRW DSUHD erori mascate n cod. 2EVHUYD LDQFD]XOvQFDUHQXDPGHILQLWQXPUXOGHFDUDFWHUHFDUHSRDWHILVWRFDW vQ UHVSHFWLYD YDULDELO IXQF LH GH PRGXO GH FRQVWUXF LH DO FRPSLODWRUXOXL ILH VH DORF GLPHQVLXQHDPD[LPSRVLELOILHODSULPDLQL LDOL]DUHVHDORFH[DFWFkWHVWHQHFHVDUGDU nu peste maximul definit. 2EVHUYD LD 1XH[LVWQLFLROHJWXUvQWUHYDORDUHDQXPHULF[LFDUDFWHUXO[FDUH apare pe ecran. De exemplu 2 2. ,QL LDOL]DUHDXQHLGDWHFXRYDORDUHXWLOSRDWHDYHDORFvQXUPWRDUHOHPRGXUL - la declararea ei; - la citirea datelor de intrare; - oriunde n program . 4.2.1. Caractere speciale de control 3HOkQJFDUDFWHUHOHGLUHFWDILDELOHPDLH[LVWvQOLPEDMXO&RVHULHGHFDUDFWHUHGH FRQWURO$FHVWHDSURYLQGLQQHFHVLWDWHDGHFRQWURODXQHLLPSULPDQWHLVLPXOWDQDXIRVW IRORVLWHLODDILDUHDSHWHUPLQDOHOHDOIDQXPHULFH
6HFYHQD
\a \b \f \n \r \t \v \\ \ \ \? \ooo \xhh
Cod 07h 08h 0Ch 0Ah 0Dh 09h 0Bh 5Ch 27h 22h 3Fh ooo hh
Caracter BEL (alert produce un semnal sonor) BS (backspace) FF (form feed PXW FXUVRU OD
XUPWRDUHD SDJLQ
3HQWUX MXVWLILFDUHD LQWURGXFHULL DFHVWRU FDUDFWHUH GH FRQWURO VH YD SUH]HQWD XUPWRUXO FD]HUDLQXWLOWULPLWHUHDXQLQXPUIL[GHFDUDFWHUHLGHQWLFHGHILHFDUHGDWFkQGVHGRUHD XQ WDEXODWRU XQ DQXPLW QXPU GH VSD LL JRDOH OD vQFHSXWXO XQXL SDUDJUDI L DWXQFL VD FRQYHQLW V VH IRORVHDVF XQ FDUDFWHU GH FRQWURO XUPkQG FD LPSULPDQWD VO UHFRQYHUWHDVF LQWHUQ vQ VSD LL JRDOH $QWHULRU VD SUH]HQWDW XQ WDEHO FH FRQ LQH DFHVWH caractere. 2SHUD LXQLVLPSOHGHFLWLUHVDXDILDUHDGDWHORU)
LF CR (carriage return, salt la inceput de linie QRX HT (horizontal tab) VT (vertical tab) \ (backslash) (apostrof) (ghilimele) ? (semnul vQWUHEULL) Caracterul cu codul ooo n octal Caracterul cu codul hh n hexa
20
/LPEDMXO&DUHODGLVSR]L LHRVHULHGHIXQF LLSHQWUXFLWLUHDGDWHORUGHODWDVWDWXU VDX SHQWUX DILDUHD ORU SH HFUDQ &HOH PDL IRORVLWH GLQWUH HOH VXQW JUXSDWH vQ GRX biblioteci conio.h (&21VROH,QSXW2XWSXW+HDGHU L StandardInputOutput.Header) stdio.h. )XQF LLGHLQWUDUHVDXLHLUHFXXWLOL]DWRUXO)
Pentru a putea discuta primele programe este necesar studierea modului n care un SURJUDP SRDWH VFKLPED GDWH GLVSR]LWLYHOH VWDQGDUG GH LQWUDUH VDX LHLUH PRQLWRU WDVWDWXU'LQDFHVWSXQFWGHYHGHUHH[LVWGRXFODVHGHIXQF LL XQF LL GH LQWUDUH FX DMXWRUXO FURUD VLVWHPXO GH FDOFXO SULPHWH GH OD WDVWDWXU YDORUL QXPHULFH FRPHQ]L L RULFDUH DOW WLS GH LQIRUPD LH FH SRDWH IL IXUQL]DW SULQ intermediul acelui dispozitiv. XQF LLGHLHLUHFXDMXWRUXOFURUDVLVWHPXOGHFDOFXOOLYUHD]UH]XOWDWHOHDILHD] IRORVLQGXQGLVSR]LWLYVWDQGDUGGHLHLUHPRQLWRUVDXLPSULPDQW
3HQWUXDFLWLRGDWVDXXQLUGHGDWHGHODWDVWDWXUDYHPRIXQF LHVSHFLDOL]DWFDUH poate citi orice tip SUHGHILQLWGHGDWH)XQF LDDUHSURWRWLSXOSUH]HQWDWPDLMRV int scanf (const char *format [,address, ...]); 7LSXOGHGDWHHVWHVSHFLILFDWGHFWUHSURJUDPDWRUSULQPRGLILFDUHDXQRUSDUDPHWULDL IXQF LHL0DLMRVHVWHGDWXQVFXUWH[HPSOX #include <stdio.h> #include <conio.h> void main (void) { int a; char c; char b[20]; float d; FOUVFUWHUJHHFUDQXO VFDQIG DFLWHWHXQvQWUHJLOGHSR]LWHD]vQ // variabila a VFDQIF FFLWHWHXQFDUDFWHU VFDQIVEFLWHWHXQLUGHFDUDFWHUH VFDQII GFLWHWHXQQXPU]HFLPDO getch(); } $FHDVW IXQF LHOD DSHODUHSUHLDLQIRUPD LDLQWURGXV GH OD WDVWDWXU GXS DSVDUHD WDVWHL (17(5 &D HIHFW XWLOL]DWRUXO YHGH GRDU F SURJUDPXO vL RSUHWH GHUXODUHD L
21
DWHDSW FHYD GDU IU D SULPL XQ PHVDM FDUH V vL FRPXQLFH FH WUHEXLH V IDF VDX LQIRUPD LLGHVSUHQDWXUDGDWHORUFDUHWUHEXLHVFOLYUDWH 0DLMRVHVWHSUH]HQWDWSURWRWLSXOXQHLIXQF LLGHVIRORVLWvQDILDUHDGLYHUVHORUWLSXUL de date. int printf (const char *format [, argument, ...]); Ex: SULQWI$ILHD]FHOHQXPHUHGGGQUQUQU
Vom prezenta un prim exemplu despre unele din SRVLELOLW LHGHDILDUHDOHIXQF LHLprintf . #include <stdio.h> main() { int a; /*ntreg simplu */ long int b; /* ntreg lung */ short int c; /* ntreg scurt */ unsigned LQWG vQWUHJIUVHPQ char e; /* caracter simplu */ IORDWI QXPU]HFLPDOvQVLPSOSUHFL]LH GRXEOHJ QXPU]HFLPDOvQGXESUHFL]LH a = 1023; b = 2222; c = 123; d = 1234; e = 'X'; f = 3.14159; g = 3.1415926535898; printf("a = %G?QD DILDUHIRORVLQGED]DGHQXPHUD LH printf("a = %R?QD DILDUHIRORVLQGED]DGHQXPHUD LH printf("a = %[?QD DILDUHIRORVLQGED]DGHQXPHUD LH printf("b = %OG?QE DILDUHVSHFLILFSHQWUXvQWUHJOXQJ printf("c = %G?QF DILDUHVSHFLILFSHQWUXvQWUHJVFXUW printf("d = %X?QG DILDUHVSHFLILFSHQWUXvQWUHJIUVHPQ printf("e = %F?QH DILDUHVSHFLILFSHQWUXFDUDFWHU printf("f = %I?QI DILDUHVSHFLILFSHQWUXQXPUvQVLPSOSUHFL]LH printf("g = %I?QJ DILDUHVSHFLILFSHQWUXQXPUvQGXEOSUHFL]LH printf("\n"); /*salt la line QRX printf("a = %G?QD DILDUHVSHFLILFSHQWUXvQWUHJ SULQWID G?QD DILDUHVSHFLILFSHQWUXXQvQWUHJGDUDORFkQG caractere n dreapta */
22
SULQWID G?QD DILDUHVSHFLILFSHQWUXXQvQWUHJGDU alocnd 7 caractere n stnga */ c = 5; d = 8; printf("a = %*d\n",c,a); /* folosim un cmp de 5 caractere */ printf("a = %*d\n",d,a); /* folosim un cmp de 8 caractere */ printf("\n"); printf("f = %I?QI DILDUHSHQWUXQXPUvQVLPSOSUHFL]LH printf("f = %12f\n",f); /* folosim un cmp de 12 caractere */ SULQWII I?QI IRORVLPXQFkPSGHFDUDFWHUHGXS YLUJXO SULQWII I?QI IRORVLPXQFkPSGHFDUDFWHUHGXS YLUJXO SULQWII I?QI DILDUHVSHFLILFSHQWUXXQQXPUvQ VLPSOSUHFL]LHGDUDORFkQGFDUDFWHUHvQVWkQJD } 6UHOXPH[HPSOXOSUH]HQWDWODFLWLUHDGDWHORULQWURGXFkQGGHDFHDVWGDWL mesajele pentru utilizator. #include <stdio.h> #include <conio.h> void main (void) { int a; char c; char b[20]; float d; FOUVFUWHUJHHFUDQXO printf(Introduceti o valoare intreaga) VFDQIG DFLWHWHXQvQWUHJLOGHSR]LWHD]vQ variabila a printf(\nValoarea citita este %d, a); printf(\nDati un caracter ) VFDQIF FFLWHWHXQFDUDFWHU printf(\nCaracterul citit este %c,c); prinf(\nDati un sir de caractere ); VFDQIVEFLWHWHXQLUGHFDUDFWHUH printf(\nS-a citit urmatoarea propozitie %s,b); printf(\nDati un numar zecimal); VFDQII GFLWHWHXQQXPU]HFLPDO printf(\n Sa citi numarul %f,d) printf(\nApasa orice tasta pentru a continua) getch(); }
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CAPITOLUL 5
5. Operatori ai limbajului C 8QRSHUDWRUUHSUH]LQWGLQSXQFWGHYHGHUHDOSURJUDPULLDFHOVLPEROFDUHDOWXUDWOD XQDVDXGRXQXPHGHYDULDELOHVSHFLILFRSHUD LDFHWUHEXLHUHDOL]DWDVXSUDORU)XQF LH GHQXPUXOGHYDULDELOHGHFLGHGDWHDVXSUDFUXLDVHDSOLFRSHUDWRULLSRWILFODVLILFD L vQGRXPDULFDWHJRULL operatori XQDULDFURUIRORVLUHSRDWHILFDPDLMRV - nume_var_i oper_unar nume_var_j; - oper_unar nume_var_i, unde i, j N; RSHUDWRULELQDULDFURUIRORVLUHHVWHFDPDLMRV - nume_var_i=nume_var_j oper_binar nume_var_k, unde i, j, k N.
Limbajul C are mai multe tipuri de operatori: RSHUDWRULDULWPHWLFLFDUHGDXSRVLELOLWDWHDUHDOL]ULLRULFURUFDOFXOHDULWPHWLFH RSHUDWRUL UHOD LRQDOL FH VXQW IRORVL L SHQWUX WHVWDUHD UHOD LLORU FH SRW H[LVWD vQWUH FRQ LQXWXODGRXYDULDELOH RSHUDWRULORJLFLIRORVL LSHQWUX - DSXWHDUHDOL]DH[SUHVLLFRPSOH[HvQFDGUXOWHVWULLUHOD LLORUGLQWUHYDULDELOH - a procesa la nivel de bit variabilele.
5.1. Operatori aritmetici $FHVW WLS GH RSHUDWRUL UHDOL]HD] FDOFXOH PDWHPDWLFH VLPSOH 'HVLJXU F SUHFL]LD vQ FDUH YD IDFH FDOFXOXO UHVSHFWLYD DSOLFD LH LQH GH WLSXO FRQW GH GDW DOHV 2SHUDWRULL VXQW SUH]HQWD LvQOLVWDGHPDLMRV6FRQVLGHUPGRXYDULDELOHDLEFDUHODXQPRPHQWGDW FRQ LQYDORULOHD LE DWXQFL - + adunare y=a+by=8 - - VFGHUH y=a-by=-2 - * vQPXO LUH y=a*by=15 - / vPSU LUH y=a/by=0.60000000 - % modulo y=a%b\ UHVWXOvPSU LULLOXLDODE 5.2 Expresiile 2H[SUHVLHFRQVWGLQWUXQFRQJORPHUDWUHDOL]DWGLQ operanzi operatori vQVFRSXOFDOFXOULLXQHLYDORUL %ORFXULOHGHED]FRQVWUXFWLYHDOHH[SUHVLLORUSRWIL variabile constante
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DSHOXULIXQF LH
([LVWSDWUXPDULWLSXULLPSRUWDQWHGHexpresii:. 1. Expresii constanteFDUHUH LQQXPDLYDORULFRQVWDQWH De exemplu 5 5+6*13/30 a 2. Expresii ntregi care VXQWH[SUHVLLFDUHGXSUHDOL]DUHDWXWXURUFRQYHUVLLORUDXWRPDWH sau explicite de tip, produc un rezultat care este de tip ntre. Presupunnd j,k ntregi DWXQFLXUPWRDUHOHH[SUHVLLvQWUHJL j j*k j/k+3 k-a 3+(int)5.0 3. ([SUHVLLvQYLUJXOPRELOFDUHVXQWH[SUHVLLFDUHGXSWRDWHFRQYHUVLLOHDXWRPDWHVDX H[SOLYLWHGHWLSSURGXFXQUH]XOWDWFDUHHVWHvQYLUJXOPRELO'DF[HVWHfloat sau GRXEOHDWXQFLXUPWRDUHOHH[SUHVLLVXQWGHDFHVWWLS x x+3 x/y*5 3.0 3.0-2 3+(float) 4 4. Expresii de tip pointer FDUHVXQWH[SUHVLLFDUHvQXUPDHYDOXULLGDXRDGUHV'H H[HPSOXGDFSHVWHpointer, iar j este ntreg: p, p+1, (char* ) 0x00ffffff, &j, abc sunt expresii de tip pointer. 2UGLQHDGHHYDOXDUHDXQHLH[SUHVLLIXQF LHGHSUHFHGHQ DRSHUDWRULORUG 8QXOGLQSULPHOHOXFUXULGHFDUHWUHEXLH LQXWVHDPDFkQGVHVFULXH[SUHVLLDULWPHWLFH FRPSOH[H HVWH IDSWXO F VSD LLOH DOEH VSD LX WDEXODWRU VDOW OD OLQLH QRX QX DX vQ HOHV QXVXQWOXDWHvQFRQVLGHUDUH'HH[HPSOXFHOHGRXH[SUHVLLGHPDLMRVVXQWHFKLYDOHQWH y=x*x+2*x-5*x/y; y=x * x + 2 * x 5 * x / y; 2DPHQLL IRORVHVF FkWHRGDW VSD LX vQ ORF GH SDUDQWH]H SHQWUX D VSHFLILFD PRGXO GH HYDOXDUHDXQHLH[SUHVLL1R LXQHDGHHYDOXDUHVHUHIHUODRUGLQHDvQFDUHVHYRUUHDOL]D FDOFXOHOH GLQWUR H[SUHVLH PDWHPDWLF Q FDGUXO XQXL OLPEDM GH SURJUDPDUH QXPDL
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SDUDQWH]HOHMRDFDFHVWUROQOLSVDSDUDQWH]HORUGLQWURH[SUHVLHVHYRUUHVSHFWDUHJXOLOH GHSUHFHGHQ LPSOLFLW &DXQH[HPSOXVGLVFXWPPRGXOGHHYDOXDUHDH[SUHVLHGHPDLVXVGDFVHYD LQH VHDPD QXPDL GH SUHFHGHQ HOH LPSOLFLWH 'HRDUHFH RSHUDWRULL ^ ` DX DFHHDL SUHFHGHQ FDUHvQVHVWHPDLPDUHFDDRSHUDWRULORU^`HYDOXDUHDH[SUHVLHLVHYDIDFH GHODVWkQJDODGUHDSWDGXSFXPXUPHD] 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. VHFDOFXOHD]YDORDUHDOXLx*x; VHFDOFXOHD]YDORDUHDOXL [ VHFDOFXOHD]YDORDUHDOXL [ VHFDOFXOHD]YDORDUHDOXL [\ se face suma (x*x)+(2*x); VHIDFHVFGHUHDx*x)+(2*x) - (5*x)/y.
1R LXQHD GH SUHFHGHQ VH UHIHU OD PRGXO vQ FDUH LDX GHFL]LL vQ HYDOXDUHD XQHL H[SUHVLLGDFQXDPSXVHSDUDQWH]H0DLMRVHVWHSUH]HQWDWWDEHOXOFXWRDWHSUHFHGHQ HOH implicite: Operatori () [] ! ~ ++ -- + - (unary) & (type) sizeof * / % + << >> < <= > >= == != & ^ | && || ?: = += -= *= /= %= &= ^= |= <<= >>= , 2UGLQHDGHSUHFHGHQ de la stnga la dreapta de la dreapta la stnga de la stnga la dreapta de la stnga la dreapta de la stnga la dreapta de la stnga la dreapta de la stnga la dreapta de la stnga la dreapta de la stnga la dreapta de la stnga la dreapta de la stnga la dreapta de la stnga la dreapta de la dreapta la stnga de la dreapta la stnga de la stnga la dreapta
5.3. Tipuri aritmetice de date 1XPHUHOHvQWUHJLVXQWUHSUH]HQWDWHGLIHULWGH FHOHvQYLUJXO IORWDQW'H DFHHDDSDUH XUPWRDUHDSUREOHPFRQYHUVLDQXPHUHORUdintr un format ntr-altul. 'DF VH GRUHWH FD UH]XOWDWXO V ILH VWRFDW vQWUXQ DOW IRUPDW PDL PXOW VDX PDL SX LQ FXSULQ]WRUDWXQFLDFHVWDWUHEXLHGHSXVntrRYDULDELOGHUHVSHFWLYXOWLSLFRQYHUVLDVH YDIDFHDXWRPDW([LVWFD]XULvQFDUHFRPSLODWRUXOGHLDFFHSWFRQYHUVLDGXQPHVDM 26
GH DWHQ LRQDUH $FHDVW VLWXD LH DSDUH DWXQFL FkQG VH SRDWH DOWHUD YDORDUHD XQRU GDWH deoarece formatul n care fac conversia este mai mic. 'DF SURJUDPDWRUXO HVWH VLJXU F GRUHWH UHVSHFWLYD FRQYHUVLH DWXQFL WUHEXLH V UHDOL]H]H R FRQYHUVLH H[SOLFLW SHQWUX FD UHVSHFWLYXO PHVDM GH DWHQ LRQDUH V GLVSDU 'HRDUHFHODFRQYHUVLLOHLPSOLFLWHVHSRDWHDOWHUDYDORDUHDFDOFXODWSRDWHDSUHDRHURDUH JUHXGHWHFWDELO S1= (int)((double)z/x+0.5); QH[HPSOXOGHPDLVXVVHIRU HD]WUXQFKLHUHDGHODRUHSUH]HQWDUHGHWLSdouble la o reprezentare n numere ntregi. 'DWHOHQXSRWILDOWHUDWHGDFVHUHDOL]HD]RFRQYHUVLHGHWLSvQWUHXQWLSGHGDWFX GRPHQLXGHYDORULPDLPLFLXQWLSGHGDWDOFUXLGRPHQLXHVWHPDLPDUH 5.4. Operatorii unari ++L- 'XS FXP VD PHQ LRQDW DFHWL RSHUDWRUL VH QXPHVF XQDUL GHRDUHFH VH DSOLF DVXSUDXQHLVLQJXUHYDULDELOHH[SUHVLLODXQPRPHQWGDW(LUHDOL]HD]LQFUHPHQWDUHDVDX decrementarea valorii respective cu o unitate. /LPEDMXO & PDL DUH XQ DYDQWDM DFHWL RSHUDWRUL SRW IL IRORVL L SHQWUX SRVW VDX preincrementare. Acest lucru este prezentat n exemplu de mai jos: 'DF[ DWXQFL Preincrementare Predecrementare Postincrementare Postdecrementare 5.5. Operatorii op= $X IRW LQWURGXL SHQWUX VLPSOLILFDUHD VFULHULL FRGXOXL 2 LQVWUXF LXQH JHQHULF GH tipul rez = rez op opd1 UH]RS RSG$FHWLRSHUDWRULDSDU LQXUPWRDUHLFODVH^ += -= = /= %= &= ^= |=} de exemplu: x=x*7 x*=7; 2SHUDWRULUHOD LRQDOLLORJLFLG y=++x y=--x y=x++ y=x- x=x+1=5 L\ [ x=x-1=3 L\ [ y=x=4 L[ [ y=x=4 L[ [
Pentru a se putea lua decizii ntr-un program, deci pentru a realiza ramificarea IOX[XOXL GH SUHOXFUDUH D GDWHORU WUHEXLH V H[LVWH R PRGDOLWDWH GH FRPSDUDUH D LQIRUPD LLORU L GH DVHPHQL GH FRPELQDUH D H[SUHVLLORU ORJLFH SULPLWLY vQ H[SUHVLL PDL complexe. 'HH[HPSOXGDFvQYDULDELOHOH[L\DPVWRFDWYDORDUHDDWXQFLH[SUHVLDx==y va fi $'(95$7LYDDYHDODHYDOXDUHDH[SUHVLHLYDORDUHDQXPHULFGDF[ L\ atunci expresia [ \YDIL)$/6LGHFLvQXUPDHYDOXULLYDILvQORFXLWFXYDORDUHD
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Operatori UHOD LRQDOL == != > < >= <= Operatori logici || && !
([SOLFD LH Egal cu Diferit de Mai mare ca Mai mic ca Mai mare sau egal Mai mic sau egal SAU , NU
5.7. Expresii logice complexe 'H RELFHL HVWH LQVXILFLHQW R VLQJXU H[SUHVLH ORJLF VLPSO Q VFULHUHD XQXL SURJUDPHVWHQHFHVDUGHPXOWHRULFRPSXQHUHDDPDLPXOWHGHFL]LL8QH[HPSOXFODVLF HVWHFD]XOvQFDUHWUHEXLHYHULILFDWDSDUWHQH DYDORULLVWRFDWHvQWURYDULDELOODXQDQXPLW interval. De exemplu x[5,20] este echivalent cu xL[20 ceea ce folosind operatori ORJLFLLUHOD LRQDOLVHSRDWHVFULH[! [ 7DEHOHOHGHDGHYUSHQWUXRSHUDWRULLORJLFLDLOLPEDMXOXLVXQW
X Y 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 X&&Y 0 0 0 1 X||Y 0 1 1 1 !X 1 1 0 0
8UPHD]SUH]HQWDUHDXQSURJUDPVLPSOXFDUHUHDOL]HD]GLYHUVHRSHUD LLORJLFHFXXQ VHW GH YDORUL LQL LDOL]DWH GLUHFW vQ SURJUDP $FHDVW PHWRG GH LQL LDOL]DUHD DUH GH]DYDQWDMXOFSURJUDPXOQXSRDWHSULPLSHQWUXFDOFXODOWHYDORULGHFkWGDFVHPRGLILF FRGXOVXUV void main(void) { char mask; char number[6];// tablou de 6 elemente de tip char char and,or,xor,inv,index; QXPEHU>@ [LQL LDOL]DUHvQFRG number[1] = 0x11; number[2] = 0x22; number[3] = 0x44; number[4] = 0x88; number[5] = 0xFF; printf(" numerele asupra carora am aplicat diverse operatii logice folosind o masca sunt: \n");
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mask = 0x0F; for (index = 0;index <= 5;index++) { and = mask & QXPEHU>LQGH[@LORJLF or = mask | number[index];//sau logic xor = mask ^ number[index];// sau exclusiv inv = ~number[index];// not bit cu bit printf("%5x %5x %5x %5x %5x %5x\n",number[index], mask,and,or,xor,inv); } printf("\n"); mask = 0x22; for (index = 0;index <= 5;index++) { and = mask & number[index]; or = mask | number[index]; xor = mask ^ number[index]; inv = ~number[index]; printf("%5x %5x %5x %5x %5x %5x\n",number[index], mask,and,or,xor,inv); } }
3HQWUXUHVWXOWLSXULORUGHRSHUDWRULSUH]HQWD LYRPGDXQDOWH[HPSOXGHIRORVLUHDORU void main(void) { int x = 0,y = 2,z = 1025; float a = 0.0,b = 3.14159,c = -37.234; /* incrementare */ [ [ [VHLQFUHPHQWHD] x++; /* x se SRVWLQFUHPHQWHD] ++x; /* x se SUHLQFUHPHQWHD][ z = y++; /* z = 2, y = 3 */ z = ++y; /* z = 4, y = 4 */ /* decrementare */ \ \ \VHGHFUHPHQWHD] y--; /* y este postdecrementat */ --y; /* y este predecrementat */ y = 3; z = y--; /* z = 3, y = 2 */ z = --y; /* z = 1, y = 1 */ RSHUD LLDULWPHWLFH D D VHDGXQODD D VHDGXQvQFODD
29
D DVHvQPXO HWHFX a -= b; /* se scade b din a */ a /= 10.0; /* se mparte a la 10.0 */
H[SUHVLLFRQGL LRQDOH D E! " DFHDVWH[SUHVLH LIE! HVWHLGHQWLFFXWRDWLQVWUXF LXQHDif */ a = 2.0; /* din punct de vedere al rezultatului*/ else a = 10.5; c = (a > E"DE FSULPHWHPD[LPXPGLQWUHDLE c = (a > E"ED FSULPHWHPLQLPXOGLQWUHDLE }
30
CAPITOLUL 6
,QVWUXF LXQLGHVHOHF LHGHFL]LH6 ,QVWUXF LXQHVLPSOGHGHFL]LH )LHXUPWRDUHDSUREOHPFHWUHEXLHUH]ROYDWSULQLQWHUPHGLXOXQXLSURJUDP VHUHDOL]H]HXQSURJUDPFDUHIDFHDXWRPDWFDOFXOXOPHGLHLGHOLFHQ LDPHGLHL6 generale. 3URJUDPXOSULPHWHWUHLPHGLLGHOHH[DPHQHOHGHOLFHQ LQRWDSULPLWODVXV LQHUHD SURLHFWXOXLGHVWDW(OWUHEXLHVFDOFXOH]HPHGLDvQWUHQRWHOHGHODH[DPHQHOHGHOLFHQ UH]XOWkQGRSULPPHGLHFDUHDSRLVHPHGLD]FXQRWDGHODSURLHFWXOGHVWDWUH]XOWkQG PHGLDJHQHUDO ([LVWROLPLWDUHDVXSUDGDWHORUGHLQWUDUHFDUHWUHEXLHUHDOL]DWGHSURJUDPLDQXPH GDFXQDGLQPHGLLOHGHODH[DPHQXOGHOLFHQ HVWHPDLPLFFDFLQFLVQXPDLUHDOL]H]H FDOFXOXOPHGLLORUILQDOHLVOGHFODUHSHUHVSHFWLYXOFDQGLGDWUHVSLQV 2VROX LHGHUH]ROYDUHDSUREOHPHLODQLYHOGHSVHXGRFRGDUDWFDPDLMRV LQFOXGHOLEUULLOHQHFHVDUHOXFUXOXLvQPRGWH[W6 void main(void) {//nceput program GHFODUYDULDELOHOHQQQQVPPGHWLSUHDO WHUJHHFUDQXO FLWHWHQRWDvQYDULDELODQ FLWHWHQRWDvQYDULDELODQ FLWHWHQRWDvQYDULDELODQ GDFQ!LQ!LQ!DWXQFL6 { FLWHWHQRWDVWDWvQYDULDELODns; UHDOL]HD]PHGLDP QQQ6 UHDOL]HD]PHGLDP PQV6 DILHD]PHGLDGHOLFHQ DP6 DILHD]PHGLDJHQHUDOP6 } DOWIHODILHD]&DQGLGDWUHVSLQV DWHDSWRWDVW6 `VIkULWGHSURJUDP 6H REVHUY F D IRVW QHYRLH GH R UDPLILFDUH OD QLYHOXO SURFHVULL GDWHORU UDPLILFDUH FDUHDSDUHGLQQHYRLOHXWLOL]DWRUXOXL(VWHQHYRLHFDODXQPRPHQWGDWVKRWUkPPRGXUL PXOWLSOHGHSUHOXFUDUHSHQWUXDFHODLIOX[GHGDWHGHLQWUDUH Q OLPEDMXO & SHQWUX D LPSOHPHQWD DFHVW WLS GH GHFL]LL D IRVW LQWURGXV LQVWUXF LXQHDif cu sintaxa ca mai jos:
31
if (FRQGL LH DGHYUDW6 { LQVWUXF LXQL6 H[HFXWEORFLQVWUXF LXQL6 } else { H[HFXWEORFLQVWUXF LXQL6 };
altfel H[HFXWEORFLQVWUXF LXQL6
GDFFRQGL LDHVWHDGHYUDW H[HFXW EORF 6
6LQWD[D LQVWUXF LXQLL HVWH LGHQWLF FX SVHXGRFRGXO ELQHvQ HOHV F VH IRORVHWH OLPED HQJOH]
)LJD5HSUH]HQWDUHDSULQVFKHPDORJLFDLQVWUXF LXQLLGHGHFL]LH
)LJE5HSUH]HQWDUHDSULQVFKHPDORJLFDLQVWUXF LXQLLGHGHFL]LHVLPSOH Q ILJXULOH D L E HVWH SUH]HQWDW UHSUH]HQWDUHD OD QLYHO GH VFKHP ORJLF D LQVWUXF LXQLLGHGHFL]LH6SUHGHRVHELUHGHDOWHOLPEDMHGHSURJUDPDUHFXPDUIL3$6&$/ GHH[HPSOXOLPEDMXO&QXIRORVHWHYDULDELOHGHWLSORJLFSHQWUXUH]XOWDWXOHYDOXULLXQHL expresii. Valorile comparate pot rezulta din valoarea UHWXUQDW GH R IXQF LH GLQ FHD VWRFDWvQWURYDULDELOVDXGLUHFWGDWvQSURJUDP 'DFvQORFXO FRQGL LHLvQXUPDHYDOXULLH[SUHVLHLUH]XOWXQQXPUGLIHULW GH ]HUR DFHVWDYDILFRQVLGHUDWFDFRQGL LHvQGHSOLQLWLGHFLVHYDH[HFXWDEORFXOGHLQVWUXF LXQL GDF HVWH ]HUR FRQGL LD QX HVWH VDWLVIFXW DWXQFL VH YD H[HFXWD EORFXO GH LQVWUXF LXQL $FHVW OXFUX FRQIHU XQ PDUH DYDQWDM SULQ IDSWXO F VH SRW LQWURGXFH GLUHFW H[SUHVLL PDWHPDWLFH VDX DSHOXUL GH IXQF LL FH UHWXUQHD] UH]XOWDWH QXPHULFH vQ ]RQD GH WHVW D FRQGL LHL 1XvQWRWGHDXQDHVWHQHYRLHGH DPEHOHSU LDOHLQVWUXF LXQLLGHH[HPSOXFkQGVH H[HFXW R RSHUD LXQH QXPDL GDF HVWH vQGHSOLQLW R DQXPLW FRQGL LH 'H IDSW VWUXFWXUD ORJLF GH FRQWURO DU WUHEXL SUHY]XW L FX R UDPXU GH else dar acest lucru nu ar duce GHFkW OD VXSUDvQFUFDUHD FRGXOXL FHHD FH vQJUHXQHD] PXOW GHSDQDUHD SURJUDPXOXL UH]XOWkQGVLQWD[DSUH]HQWDWPDLMRV
32
if (FRQGL LH DGHYUDW6 { LQVWUXF LXQL6 H[HFXWEORFLQVWUXF LXQL6 };
GDFFRQGL LDHVWHDGHYUDWDWXQFL6 e[HFXW EORF 6
QFD]XOvQFDUHVXQWLPSOLFDWHPDLPXOWHGHFL]LLVLPSOHFDUHWUHEXLHVFOXDWHIXQF LH GH GLIHULWH YDORUL DOH XQHL VLQJXUH YDULDELOH OLPEDMXO HVWH SUHY]XW FX LQVWUXF LXQH VSHFLDOL]DWFDVH'LVFX LDDFHVWHLLQVWUXF LXQLVHYDIDFHXOWHULRU 0DLMRVHVWHSUH]HQWDWSURJUDPXOFRUHVSXQ]WRUpseudocodului prezentat anterior. #include <stdio.h> #include <conio.h> void main(void) { float n1,n2,n3,ns,m1,m2; clrscr(); printf(Dati prima nota:); scanf(%f,&n1); printf(\nDati a doua nota:); scanf(%f,&n2); printf(\nDati prima nota:); scanf(%f,&n1); if( (n1>5) && (n2>5) && (n3>5)) { printf(\nDati nota de la stat:); scanf(%f,&ns); m1=(n1+n2+n3)/3; m2=(m3+ns)/2; printf( media de licenta %f, m1); printf( media generala %f,m2); } else printf(Candidat respins); getch(); } 2EVHUYD LL6 1. Q DFHDVW ID] IDSWXO F VD IRORVLW R UHIHULQ SHQWUX FLWLUHD XQHL YDULDELOH YH]L QQXSRDWHILH[SOLFDWVXILFLHQWLYDWUHEXLOXDWFDDWDUHvQFD]XOFLWLULLYDULDELOHORU simple. 2. Operatorul ?QUHDOL]HD]XQVDOWODOLQLHQRX
33
3. 6H REVHUY F SH UDPXUD GH else nu s-au introdus delimitatorii de bloc (acoladele) SHQWUX F GDF DFHWLD QX VXQW SUHFL]D L SULPD LQVWUXF LXQH HVWH DXWRPDW FRQVLGHUDW DSDU LQkQGUDPXULLUHVSHFWLYH 4. 3HQWUX SURJUDPDWRULL PDL DYDQVD L vQ PRPHQWXO vQ FDUH EORFXO GH LQVWUXF LXQL HVWH IRUPDWGLQWURVLQJXULQVWUXF LXQHVHSRDWHIRORVLRSHUDWRUXO"FDvQH[HPSOXOGHPDL jos, unde : if(a>b) x=25; else yx=34; poate fi echivalat prin: a>b (x=25) : (y=34); 8Q DOW H[HPSOX GH IRORVLUH D RSHUDWRUXOXL " HVWH R OLQLH GH FRG FDUH FDOFXOHD] PD[LPXOGLQWUHYDULYDULOGHSXQHvQYDULDELODPD[ max=(var1>var2) ? var1 : var2; Mai jos vom prezenta un program simplu cu exemple despre evaluarea unor expresii compuse ntr-un program: void main(void) { int x = 11,y = 11,z = 11; char a = 40,b = 40,c = 40; float r = 12.987,s = 12.987,t = 12.987; LI[ \] H[HFX LDLQVWUXF LXQLLYDDYHDFDHIHFW] LI[!]D
$
H[HFX LDLQVWUXF LXQLLYDDYHDFDHIHFWD LI[!]D
%
H[HFX LDLQVWUXF LXQLLQXYDDYHDQLFLXQHIHFW LIE FU H[HFX LDLQVWUXF LXQLLYDDYHDFDHIHFWU LIU VW F H[HFX LDLQVWUXF LXQLLYDDYHDFDHIHFWW LI[ U V] H[HFX LDLQVWUXF LXQLLYDDYHDFDHIHFW IDSWXOF[YDOXDYDORULSR]LWLYHLDU] LI[ \] H[HFX LDLQVWUXF LXQLLYDDYHDFDHIHFW [ \L] LI[ ] H[HFX LDLQVWUXF LXQLLYDDYHDFDHIHFW] LI[] H[HFX LDLQVWUXF LXQLLYDDYHDFDHIHFW] ] H[HFX LDLQVWUXF LXQLLYDDYHD ca efect z = 33 */ LI[!\__]!] H[HFX LDLQVWUXF LXQLLYDDYHD6 ca efect z = 22 */ LI[ \ ]] H[HFX LDLQVWUXF LXQLLYDDYHD6 ca efect z = 11 */ LI[ \ ] U H[HFX LDLQVWUXF LXQLL6 x = y = z = 77; LI[ \ [
34
LI[
va avea ca efect x = 1, y = 2, z = 3, r = 12.00 */ \ ] U H[HFX LDLQVWUXF LXQLLQX6 va avea nici un efect */
if (x == x); z = 27.345; /* z se va modifica ntotdeauna */ LI[ [] \QXVHYDPRGLILFDQLFLRGDW LI[ ] [YDOXDYDORDUHD]YDUPkQHQHVFKLPEDW } ,QVWUXF LXQHGHGHFL]LHPXOWLSOVHOHF LH6 ([LVW VLWXD LL vQ FDUH UH]ROYDUHD XQHL SUREOHPH LPSXQH FD R GHFL]LH V FRQGXF OD H[HFX LDDPDLPXOWGHGRXUDPXULGHSURJUDP&DH[HPSOXVFRQVLGHUPFD]XO FHOHL PDLVLPSOHIRUPHGHPHQLXFDUHSRDWHILRIHULWXQXLXWLOL]DWRU 6HFLWHWHXQQXPUGHODWDVWDWXU )XQF LHGHYDORDUHDGDWVHSRDWHDOHJHH[HFX LD XQHLDGLQWUHRS LXQLOHSUH]HQWDWHXWLOL]DWRUXOXL0DLMRVHVWHSUH]HQWDWXQPHQLXVLPSOX folosind metoda pseudocodului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if dar, acest OXFUXQXHVWHMXVWLILFDWDWkWWLPSFkW DYHPRLQVWUXF LXQHVSHFLDOL]DWSHQWUXDFHVWWLS GHVLWXD LL$FHDVWDHVWHLQVWUXF LXQHDFDVHFXXUPWRDUHDVLQWD[ sZLWFKRSHUDQGIXQF LHGHRSHUDQG6 { FDVHYDOGDFRSHUDQGXOLDYDORDUHD EORFGHLQVWUXF LXQL break; // stop case vDOGDFRSHUDQGXOLDYDORDUHD EORFGHLQVWUXF LXQL break; // stop
35
... case YDOQGDFRSHUDQGXOLDYDORDUHDQ EORFGHLQVWUXF LXQLQ break; // stop GHIDXOWSHQWUXRULFHDOWYDORDUH EORFGHLQVWUXF LXQLFHWUDWHD]UHVWXOYDORULORU ce le poate avea operandul } // stop
2IRUPGHUHSUH]HQWDUHODQLYHOGHVFKHPDORJLFDUILFHDSUH]HQWDWvQILJXUD
)LJ6FKHPDORJLFSHQWUXUHSUH]HQWDUHDXQHLVWUXFWXUL6 GHVHOHF LHPXOWLSO 0DL MRV HVWH SUH]HQWDW XQ SURJUDP FDUH FLWHWH GRL RSHUDQ]L GH OD WDVWDWXU DSRL QH SHUPLWHVHOHF LDRSHUD LHLPDWHPDWLFHFHWUHEXLHUHDOL]DWFDvQILQDOVDILH]HUH]XOWDWXO #include <stdio.h> #include <conio.h> void main(void) { int op1, op2; float rez; char oper; clrscr(); printf(Dati primul operand:); scanf(%d,&op1); printf(\nDati al doilea operand:); scanf(%d,&op2); printf(\nSelectionati operatia dorita); oper=getch(); printf(/n1- Adunare); printf(/n2- Scadere); printf(/n3- Inmultire); printf(/n4-Impartire ); switch(oper) 36
{ case 1:rez=op1+op2;break; case 2:rez=op1-op2; break; case 3:rez=op1*op2; break; case 4:rez=op1/op2; break; default: clrscr(); printf(Operatie nepermisa); } printf(\nRezultatul este: %d, rez); }
37
CAPITOLUL 7
,QVWUXF LXQLGHFLFODUH,QWURGXFHUH 6DGLVFXWDWSkQ DFXP GHVSUH VWUXFWXUL GH FRQWURO FDUH SHUPLW DOHJHUHD FRQGL LRQDW vQWUH H[HFX LD PDL PXOWRU VHWXUL GH LQVWUXF LXQL 6LVWHPHOH GH FDOFXO DX DYDQWDMXO F SRW UHSHWDRGDWLQVWUXLWHFHLFkWSURJUDPDWHXQQXPUGHRSHUD LXQLGH FkWHRUL HVWH QHYRLH 2ULFH OLPEDM GH SURJUDPDUH HVWH DUH LPSOHPHQWDW DFHDVW SRVLELOLWDWH ([LVW GRXFODVHGHLQVWUXF LXQLGHFLFODUHUHSHWDUH 2SULPFDWHJRULHVH UHIHUODLQVWUXF LXQLOH FDUH UHSHW XQ EORF GH LQVWUXF LXQL SkQ FkQGHVWHvQGHSOLQLWRFRQGL LHSULQFRQGL LHSXWHPvQ HOHJHRH[SUHVLHPXOWLSOFHYDIL HYDOXDW GH FWUH FRPSLODWRU 'H RELFHL HVWH IRORVLW SHQWUX LQWHUDF LXQL UHSHWLWLYH FX XWLOL]DWRUXOVDXvQFDOFXOXOQXPHULFSULQDSUR[LPD LLLGHDFHHDLQVWUXF LXQLOHUHVSHFWLYH VHQXPHVFLQVWUXF LXQLFXQXPUQHFXQRVFXWGHSDL 2 D GRXD FDWHJRULH GH LQVWUXF LXQL UHSHWLWLYH HVWH DFHHD D LQVWUXF LXQLORU FX QXPU FXQRVFXWGHSDL'LQSXQFWGHYHGHUHDOOLPEDMXOXLQXDUILVWULFWQHYRLHGHDFHVWWLSGH LQVWUXF LXQL SHQWUX F VH SRDWH UHDOL]D DFHVW OXFUX FX LQVWUXF LXQLOH GLQ SULPD FODV 7RWXL GXS FXP VH YD REVHUYD PDL MRV LPSOHPHQWDUHD FX LQVWUXF LXQL FX QXPU QHFXQRVFXWGHSDL SHQWUX DFHDVW D GRXD FODV SUHVXSXQH XQ FRG FDUH YD IL LGHQWLF OD DEVROXW WRDWH LQWHUSUHWULOH 3HQWUX D XXUD VFULHUHD FRGXOXL L DO IDFH PDL FODU VD LPSOHPHQWDWRLQVWUXF LXQHQRXIRU... . ,QVWUXF LXQLFXQXPUQHFXQRVFXWGHSDL6 ,QVWUXF LXQHDwhile (VWHRLQVWUXF LXQHFDUHSHUPLWHUHSHWDUHDVDXQXDH[HFX LHLXQHLEXF LGHFRGIXQF LH GHYDORDUHDGHDGHYUDXQHLH[SUHVLL 8QH[HPSOXvQFDUHDUILQHFHVDUDFHVWWLSGHLQVWUXF LXQLDUILUHVWULF LDGRPHQLXOXL de valori n cazul datelor care le poate introduce un utilizator. Acest lucru este necesar SHQWUXFGHRELFHLXWLOL]DWRUXOQX LQHFRQWGHWRDWHUHVWULF LLOHUHODWLYODLQWHUYDOXOvQFDUH poate da o valoare de LQWUDUHVDX SRDWH GD GLQ JUHHDO R YDORDUH LQFRUHFW 7RWXL PRGHOXOPDWHPDWLFVSHFLILFFODUFDOJRULWPXOOXFUHD]FRUHFWQXPDLvQLQWHUYDOXO>a,b]. 3HQWUX XWLOL]DWRU IDSWXO F SURJUDPXO G XQ UH]XOWDW HURQDW GDWRULW XQHL YDORUL GH LQWUDUH LQWURGXV JUHLW vQVHDPQ F SURJUDPXO QX IXQF LRQHD] FRUHFW (VWH QHFHVDU FD SURJUDPDWRUXO V QX SHUPLW LQWURGXFHUHD DOWRU GDWH GHFkW FHOH VSHFLILFDWH GH PRGHOXO matematic. 2EVHUYD LH OLPEDMXO & VSUH GHRVHELUH GH OLPEDMXO 3DVFDO QX JHQHUHD] XQ PHVDM GH HURDUH GDF WLSXO GH GDW LQWURGXV QX FRLQFLGH FX VSHFLILFDWRUXO GDW IXQF LHL scanf. Din DFHVWPRWLYvQPRPHQWXOvQFDUHVHSUHJWHWHRYHUVLXQHEHWDSULPDYHUVLXQHDDSOLFD LHL FDUH YD IL IRORVLW GH FWUH XWLOL]DWRU WUHEXLHVF LQWURGXVH WRDWH UHVWULF LLOH GH WLSXO PHQ LRQDWPDLVXV/DQLYHOGHSVHXGRFRGPHWRGDSRDWHILGHVFULVFDPDLMRV FLWHWHYDORDUHDGHLQWUDUH attaWLPSFkWYDORDUHDGHLQWUDUHQXVHDIOvQLQWHUYDOXO>a,b] HPLWHXQPHVDMGHDWHQ LRQDUHFWUHXWLOL]DWRU6
38
UHFLWHWHYDORDUHD6
3HQWUXDFHDVWDVHSRDWHIRORVLLQVWUXF LXQHDZKLOHDFUHLVLQWD[HVWHSUH]HQWDW mai jos: while(FRQGLWLHDWkWDWLPSFkWFRQGL LDHVWHDGHYUDWH[HFXW { EORFGHLQVWUXF LXQL6 } QILJXUDHVWHSUH]HQWDWVFKHPDORJLFFRUHVSXQ]WRDUHLQVWUXF LXQLLwhile.
LQVWUXF LXQLLwhile
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QH[HPSOXOGHPDLMRVHVWHYRUEDGHFLWLUHDXQHLYDORULvQWUHJLFDUHWUHEXLHVDSDU LQ intervalului [0,255]. #include <stdio.h> #include <conio.h> void main(void) { unsigned char value; clrscr(); printf(Nr1:); scanf(%d,&op1); while((value>255)&&(value<0)) { printf(Eroare ! Numarul trebuie sa fie intre 0 si 255 ); printf(Nr1:); scanf(%d,&op1); } XUPHD]UHVWXOSURJUDPXOXL6 } ,QVWUXF LXQHDGRwhile 'XSFXPVDPHQ LRQDWDQWHULRULQVWUXF LXQHDZKLOHWHVWHD]PDLvQWkLYDORDUHD GH DGHYU D H[SUHVLHL GH HYDOXDW L DSRL IXQF LH GH DFHDVWD H[HFXW VDX QX EORFXO GH LQVWUXF LXQL'HDFHHDLVHPDLVSXQHLQVWUXF LXQHGHFLFODUHFXWHVWDQWHULRU
39
'DFVHDQDOL]HD]H[HPSOXOGHPDLVXVGLQSXQFWGHYHGHUHDOVLPSOLW LLFRGXOXL VH REVHUY F EORFXO GH LQVWUXF LXQL SHQWUX FLWLUHD YDULDELOHL D IRVW VFULV GH GRX RUL 3HQWUXDHYLWDVFULHUHGHFRGLQXWLOvQDFHDVWVLWXD LHSVHXGRFRGXOWUHEXLHVILHFDPDL jos: FLWHWHYDORDUHD6 YHULILFGDFVHDIOvQLQWHUYDOXOGRULW6 GDFGDFRQWLQXSURJUDPXO6 GDFQXUHLDGe la citirea variabilei 3HQWUXDSXWHDUH]ROYDHOHJDQWVLWXD LLOHGHDFHVWJHQVDPDLLQWURGXVRLQVWUXF LXQHL anume doZKLOHDFUHLVLQWD[HVWHSUH]HQWDWPDLMRV GRH[HFXW { EORFGHLQVWUXF LXQL }ZKLOHFRQGL LHDWkWDWLPSFkWFRQGL LDHVWHDGHYUDW QILJXUDDYHPSUH]HQWDWVFKHPDORJLFSHQWUXLQVWUXF LXQHDGRwhile.
)LJ6FKHPDORJLFDLQVWUXF LXQLLGRwhile )RORVLQGDFHDVWLQVWUXF LXQHFRGXOSUH]HQWDWPDLVXVGHYLQH #include <stdio.h> #include <conio.h> void main(void) { unsigned char value; clrscr(); do { printf(Nr1:); scanf(%d,&op1); if( value>255)&&(value<0)) printf(Eroare ! Numarul trebuie sa fie intre 0 si 255 ); } while((value>255)&&(value<0)); XUPHD]UHVWXOSURJUDPXOXL6 }
40
'HFLVHFLWHWHQXPUXOLGDFDFHVWDQXHVWHFRUHFWVHUHLDFLWLUHD3HQWUXYDOLGDUHD DILULL PHVDMXOXL GH HURDUH VD SUHY]XW YHULILFDUHD FRQGL LHL SHQWUX F GDF XWLOL]DWRUXO LQWURGXFHFRUHFWYDORDUHDGHSULPDRDUQXHVWHSHUPLVDILDUHDPHVDMXOXLGHHURDUH $FHDVWLQVWUXF LXQHH[HFXWPFDURGDWEORFXOGHLQVWUXF LXQLLGHDELDDSRLIDFH HYDOXDUHDH[SUHVLHLSHQWUXDSXWHDYHGHDGDFDFHVWDVHPDLUHSHWVDXQX'HDFHHDLVH PDLVSXQHLLQVWUXF LXQHGHFLFODUHFXWHVWSRVWHULRU ,QVWUXF LXQLFXQXPUFXQRVFXWGHSDL,QVWUXF LXQHDIRU6
'LQFHOHSUH]HQWDWHSkQDFXPUH]XOWFVHSRDWHUHSHWDXQEORFGHLQVWUXF LXQLSkQ FkQGHVWHvQGHSOLQLWRFRQGL LH([LVWFD]XULFkQGVHFXQRDWHGHODvQFHSXWFkWHYDORULVH GRUHVFD ILSUHOXFUDWH ILH SULQ VSHFLILFDUHD GLUHFW D XWLOL]DWRUXOXL ILH FD UH]XOWDW D XQRU FDOFXOH DQWHULRDUH'HRELFHLDFHVWOXFUX VH DSOLF OD FDOFXOXO YHFWRULDO VDX PDWULFLDO GDU nu numai. QWUXFkWQXVDGLVFXWDWvQFGHVSUHDFHVWWLSGHGDWHVHYDOXDvQGLVFX LHXQH[HPSOX PDL VLPSOX FXP DU IL UHDOL]DUHD XQXL SURJUDP FH YD ULGLFD XQ QXPU OD R SXWHUH 3VHXGRFRGXOLDSRLSURJUDPXOVXQWSUH]HQWDWHPDLMRV FLWHWHQXPUXOnr) FLWHWHSXWHUHDODFDUHYDILULGLFDWpw) LQL LDOL]HD]YDULDELODUH]XOWDWFHYDSVWUDnr la putere, cu 1 (rez=1) DWkWDWLPSFkWYDULDELODFHDSULPLWSXWHUHD!I rez=rez*nr; pw=pw-1; UHSHW DILHD]UH]XOWDWXO &RGXOVXUVFRUHVSXQ]WRU #include <stdio.h> #include <conio.h> void main(void) { int nr, pw; float rez; clrscr(); printf(Numarul); scanf(%d,&nr); printf(\nPuterea); scanf(%d,&op2); rez=1; //**** while(pw>0)//***** { rez=rez*nr;
41
pw=pw-1;//***** } printf(Numarul %d la puterea %d este %f,nr,pw,rez); getch(); }
,QVWUXF LXQLOHPDUFDWHFXDVWHUL[VHUHSHWvQIRDUWHPXOWHVLWXD LLFkQGQXPUXOGHSDL HVWHFXQRVFXW'HDFHHDVDLPSOHPHQWDWLQVWUXF LXQHDIRUDYkQGXUPWRDUHDVLQWD[ for(FRQWRU YDORDUHLQL LDOFRQWRUVDX!YDORDUHILQDO contor=contor+sau -pas) { EORFGHLQVWUXF LXQL6 } /DQLYHOGHVFKHPDORJLFH[HFX LDLQVWUXF LXQLL for HVWHSUH]HQWDWvQILJXUD
)LJ6FKHPDORJLFLQVWUXF LXQLLfor $FXP VH REVHUY F DFHDVW LQVWUXF LXQH VFXWHWH SURJUDPDWRUXO GH D VFULH FRG suplimentar. Programul anterior UHVFULVIRORVLQGDFHDVWLQVWUXF LXQHHVWHGDWPDLMRV #include <stdio.h> #include <conio.h> void main(void) { int nr, pw,i; float rez; clrscr(); printf(Numarul); scanf(%d,&nr); printf(\nPuterea); scanf(%d,&op2); for(i=0;i<pw;i=i+1) rez=rez*nr; FRGXOPDLSRDWHILVFULVLFDLQ]RQDFRPHQWDWDFHXUPHD] // for(i=pw;i>0;i=i-1) // rez=rez*nr; printf(Numarul %d la puterea %d este %f,nr,pw,rez); 42
getch(); }
([LVWXQFRQWUROWRWDODVXSUDGHVIXUULLEXFOHLH[DFWFDLvQFD]XO while dar codul scris este mult mai succint. 2EVHUYD LD'DFEORFXOGHLQVWUXF LXQLFRQVWvQWURVLQJXULQVWUXF LXQHSDUDQWH]HOHQX mai sunt necesare 2EVHUYD LD 'DF VH SXQH GXS IRU DFHVWD YD FRQVLGHUD F DUH R EXFO YLG FRPSLODWRUXO QX YD UDSRUWD HURDUH VLQWDFWLF GDU FHHD FH HVWH VFULV vQ EORFXO GH LQVWUXF LXQLYDILGRDURVLQJXUGDWH[HFXWDW $OWHLQVWUXF LXQL6 ,QVWUXF LXQHDbreak (IHFWXOLQVWUXF LXQLLEUHDNFRQVWvQSUVLUHDLPHGLDWDFHOHLPDLDSURSLDWHWH[WXDO LQVWUXF LXQLswitch, ZKLOHGRIRUvQFRQMXUWRDUH ,QVWUXF LXQHDFRQWLQXH ,QVWUXF LXQHD FRQWLQXH QX VH SRDWH XWLOL]D GHFkW vQWU-un ciclu while, do sau for. (IHFWXOLQVWUXF LXQLLFRQWLQXHFRQVW ntrXQVDOWODHYDOXDUHDFRQGL LHLGHFLFODUHGDFFHDPDLDSURSLDWWH[WXDOLQVWUXF LXQH GHFLFODUHvQFRQMXUWRDUHHVWHwhile sau do. ntrXQ VDOWOD HYDOXDUHD H[SUHVLHL GLQ DWUHLD SR]L LH GDF FHD PDL DSURSLDW WH[WXDO LQVWUXF LXQHGHFLFODUHvQFRQMXUWRDUHHVWHIRU 3UH]HQWPPDLMRVXQH[HPSOXVLPSOXGHIRORVLUHDLQVWUXF LXQLLEUHDNLFRQWLQXH void main(void) { int xx; for(xx = 5;xx < 15;xx = xx + 1){ if (xx == 8) break; printf("In bucla oprita fortat , xx are valoarea %d\n",xx); } for(xx = 5;xx < 15;xx = xx + 1){ if (xx == 8) continue; printf("Prin aplicarea continue in bucla, xx devine %d\n",xx); } } ,QVWUXF LXQHDgoto QXPHBHWLFKHW (IHFWXOLQVWUXF LXQLLJRWRFRQVWvQWUXQVDOWQHFRQGL LRQDWODLQVWUXF LXQHDFXHWLFKHWD FLWDWvQLQVWUXF LXQHDGHVDOWFDUHWUHEXLHVVHDIOHvQDFHHDLIXQF LH
43
,QVWUXF LXQHDreturn
(IHFWXO LQVWUXF LXQLL UHWXUQ FRQGXFH OD WHUPLQDUHD LPHGLDW D H[HFX LHL IXQF LHL FXUHQWHLODUHYHQLUHDODIXQF LDDSHODQW'DFH[SUHVLDHVWHSUH]HQWHDWUHEXLHVILHGHXQ WLS FDUH SRDWH IL FRQYHUWLW OD WLSXO IXQF LHL vQ FDUH DSDUH LQVWUXF LXQHD return. Valoarea H[SUHVLHLHVWHYDORDUHDvQWRDUVGHIXQF LH 7.3.5. Constante simbolice
Cu ajutorul directivei "#define" se pot defini la nceputul programului nume sau FRQVWDQWHVLPEROLFHFDUHVXQWXQLUSDUWLFXODUGHFDUDFWHUH'XSDFHHDFRPSLODWRUXO YD vQORFXL WRDWH DSDUL LLOH QHSXVH vQWUH JKLOLPHOH DOH QXPHOXL SULQ LUXO FRUHVSXQ]WRU QORFXLUHDHIHFWLYDQXPHOXLSRDWHILRULFHWH[WHDQXVHOLPLWHD]ODQXPHUH #GHILQH0,1YDORDUHDPLQLPDGPLV #GHILQH0$;YDORDUHDPD[LPDGPLV # define AND && void main(void) { int x; printf(Dati un numar); scanf(%d,&x) if((x>=MIN)AND(x<=MAX))printf(\nNumarul este in interval); else printf(Numarul nu este in interval); getch(); } &DQWLW LOH 0,1 L 0$; VXQW FRQVWDQWH DD vQFkW HOH QX DSDU vQ GHFODUD LL 1XPHOHVLPEROLFHVHVFULXvQPRGQRUPDOFXOLWHUHPDULDDFSRWILXRUGLVWLQVHGH QXPHOH GH YDULDELOH FDUH VH VFULX FX OLWHUH PLFL /D VIkULWXO XQHL GHILQL LL 18 VH SXQH SXQFWLYLUJXO
44
CAPITOLUL 8
8. Masive de date. Tablouri QPDMRULWDWHDFDOFXOHORUWLLQ LILFHVHIRORVHWHQR LXQHDGHYHFWRUPDWULFHOXFUXOvQ VSD LL QGLPHQVLRQDOH /LPEDMXO & D IRVW SUHY]XW DUH SRVLELOLWDWHD GH D OXFUD FX XQ PDVLYHGHGDWHGHDFHODLWLSPDVLYHFHSRWILUHFXQRVFXWHVXEXQQXPHXQLF/LVHPDL VSXQHLWDEORXULGHGDWH([LVWSRVLELOLWDWHDGHILQLULLVWDWLFHGHWDEORXULFXPD[LPXPWUHL GLPHQVLXQL'HFODUDUHDXQXLWDEORXVHUHDOL]HD]FDPDLMRV tablou monodimensional: WLSGDWQXPHWDEORX>nr-elemente]; (ex: char s[10]) tablou bidimensional: WLSGDWQXPHWDEORX>nr-linii][nr-coloane]; (ex: int m[20][20]) tablou tridimensional: WLSGDWQXPHWDEORX>coord x][coord y][coord z];
(ex:
float
punct[10][10][10]). $FHVWHGHFODUD LLDXFDHIHFWUH]HUYDUHDXQXLVSD LXGHPHPRULHSHQWUXGHSR]LWDUHD caractere sau 100 de ntregi sau 1000 de valori reale pentru cazurile prezentate ca exemplu. $FFHVXO OD ILHFDUH ]RQ D WDEORXOXL VH IDFH SR]L LRQDO (OHPHQWHOH VXQW GHSXVH XQXO GXS DOWXOLDWXQFLUHIHULUHDVHIDFHSULQWUXQLQGLFHFDUHVSHFLILFSR]L LDHOHPHQWXOXLUHVSHFWLY DOFkWHOHDHVWHvQLU'HFLSRWH[LVWDUHIHULULGHJHQXO s[3]=2 sau m[2][2]=30 sau punct[0][0][0]=0.233445. Indicele poate fi furnizat prin intermediul unei variabile. Acest lucru permite IRORVLUHD XQRU LQVWUXF LXQL FLFOLFH SHQWUX SUHOXFUDUHD GDWHORU GLQ FDGUXO XQXL WDEORX GH GDWH 2 VLWXD LH PDL VSHFLDO HVWH vQ FD]XO WDEORXULORU PRQRGLPHQVLRQDOH LUXULORU GH caractere. Cum, n general, prelucrarea acestora nu se face caracter cu caracter, ele fiind GHRELFHLIRORVLWHvQPDQLSXODUHDLQIRUPD LHLVFULVHOLPEDMXO&DIRVWSUHY]XWFXRVHULH GHIXQF LLVSHFLDOL]DWHvQSUHOXFUDUHDJOREDODORU 8.1. Tablouri monodimensionale 'XS FXP DP VSXV WDEORXULOH PRQRGLPHQVLRQDOH SRW IL IRORVLWH L SHQWUX FDOFXOH PDWHPDWLFH vQ VSD LL QGLPHQVLRQDOH XQGH VH OXFUHD] FX XQ VHW GH Q FRRUGRQDWH 9RP SUH]HQWDFkWHYDLPSOHPHQWULDOHRSHUD LXQLORUVLPSOHFXYHFWRUL 3UHOXFUULVLPSOHFXYHFWRUL6 Q FD]XO GHFODUULL XQXL YHFWRU VH UH]HUY XQ VSD LX SHQWUX QXPUXO PD[LP GH HOHPHQWH FDUH VDU SXWHD V DLE QHYRLH XWLOL]DWRUXO SURJUDPXOXL 'H H[HPSOX FD]XO XQXL SURJUDP VSHFLDOL]DW SHQWUX FDOFXOH DVXSUD XQXL QXPU GH PVXUWRUL XWLOL]DWRUXO SRDW V IDFvQWUXQFD]PVXUWRULRHVWLPDUHPDLJURVLHULvQDOWXO'HFLVHYDGHILQLXQ YHFWRU FX GH HOHPHQWH GDU vQ DFHODL WLPS WUHEXLH FD SURJUDPXO V FHDU VSHFLILFDUHD QXPUXOXLGHYDORULFHWUHEXLHLQWURGXVHLVIDFSURFHVDUHDQXPDLDVXSUDORU9DWUHEXLV IRORVLPRLQVWUXF LXQHIRUGHRDUHFHDUHQXPUXOGHSDLFXQRVFXWQFD]XOvQFDUHVHSRDWH VSHFLILFDQLFLROLPLWSHQWUXQXPUXOGHYDORULFHWUHEXLHVFVWRFDWHVDXSUHOXFUDWHQXVHPDL SRW IRORVL WDEORXUL GHILQLWH VWDWLF FL OLVWH vQOQ XLWH 0DL MRV SUH]HQWP XQ SURJUDP FDUH
45
FLWHWHGRLYHFWRULGHDFHHDLGLPHQVLXQHGHODWDVWDWXULUHDOL]HD]RVHULHGHRSHUD LXQL VLPSOHFXHLDILkQGGHILHFDUHGDWUH]XOWDWHOH #include <stdio.h> #include <conio.h> void main (void) { int v1[100], v[100],v2[100],i,j,n; clrscr(); printf(Dati dimensiunea vectorilor n=); scanf(%d,&n); for(i=0;i<n;i++) { printf(V[%d]=,i); scanf(%d,v[i]) }//citirea vectorului v for(i=0;i<n-1;i++) for(j=i+1;j<n;i++) if(v[i]>v[j]) { t=v[i]; v[i]=v[j]; v[j]=t; } printf(\nVectorul ordonat:\n) for(i=0;i<n;i++) printf(%d ,v[i]);// afisarea vectorului v for(i=0;i<n;i++) { printf(V1[%d]=,i); scanf(%d,v1[i]); } for(i=0;j=0;i<n;i++;j++) { v2[j]=v1[2*i]; v2[j+1]=v[2*i+1]; } printf(\nVectorul v interclasat cu v1 este:\n) for(i=0;i<n;i++) printf(%d ,v[i]); for(i=0;i<n;i++) v2[i]=v1[i]+v[i]; printf(\nVectorul v sumat cu v1 este:\n) for(i=0;i<n;i++) printf(%d ,v[i]); getch(); }
0DLMRVHVWHSUH]HQWDWFRGXOFDUHLPSOHPHQWHD]DOJRULWPXOPHUJe sort, bazat pe WHKQLFDvPSDUWHLVWSkQHWHvQWURPDQLHUUHFXUVLY #include <stdio.h> int a[100],n; // variabile globale vizibile Ln main Ln interiorul //RULFUHLIXQF LLGHILQLWHGHutilizator
46
merge_sort(int st,int dr); // prototipurile IXQF LLORUproprii merge(int st,int mij,int dr); void main(void) { int i; printf("\n introd dimensiunea sirului de sortat : "); scanf("%d",&n); for(i=0;i<n;i++) { printf(\nV[%d]=,i); scanf("%d",&a[i]); } merge_sort(0,n-1); printf("\n sirul ordonat este :\n"); for(i=0;i<n;i++) printf("%3d ",a[i]); } merge_sort(int st,int dr) { int mij; if(st<dr){ mij=(st+dr)/2; merge_sort(st,mij); merge_sort(mij+1,dr); merge(st,mij,dr); } } merge(int st,int mij,int dr) { int h,i,j,k; int b[100]; h=st; i=st; j=mij+1; while(h<=mij && j<=dr){ if(a[h]<=a[j]) {b[i]=a[h];h++;} else {b[i]=a[j];j++;} i++; } if(h>mij) for(k=j;k<=dr;k++) {b[i]=a[k];i++;} else for(k=h;k<=mij;k++) {b[i]=a[k];i++;} for(k=st;k<=dr;k++) a[k]=b[k]; 47
} LUXULGHFDUDFWHUH
6DGLVFXWDWGHVSUHVHWXOGHFDUDFWHUH$6&,,LVHWXOGHFDUDFWHUHGHFRQWURO$FHVWHD VXQWLQWURGXVHSHQWUXPDQLSXODUHDXQHLLQIRUPD LLFDUHSRDWHILGRDUDILDWSHHFUDQVDXOD LPSULPDQW6SHFLILFDFHVWHLLQIRUPD LLHVWHFGHRELFHLPDQLSXOHD]vQSDFKHWHGHPDLPXOW GHXQFDUDFWHUQDFHVWHFRQGL LLWUHEXLHIRORVLWXQWDEORXGHFDUDFWHUH$FHVWDHVWHGHQXPLW LUGHFDUDFWHUH(ODUHvQSOXVID GHXQYHFWRUDGXJDWvQWRWGHDXQDODVIkULWXOGDWHORUXWLOH un caracter special \0 QXPLW WHUPLQDWRU GH LU $ IRVW LQWURGXV SHQWUX D XXUD VFULHUHD IXQF LLORUGHELEOLRWHFVDXXWLOL]DWRUIRORVLWHvQSUHOXFUDUHDXQXLLUGHFDUDFWHUH LUXULOH GH FDUDFWHUH DX H[DFW DFHOHDL FDUDFWHULVWLFL FD RULFDUH WDEORX monodimensional. IQL LDOL]DUHDXQLLUGHFDUDFWHUHVHSRDWHIDFHSULQPDLPXOWHPHWRGH ODGHFODUDUHIUGHILQLUHDGLPHQVLXQLLWDEORXOXL char s[]=.doc vQDFHVWFD]GLPHQVLXQHDWDEORXOXLYDILH[DFWQXPUXOGHFDUDFWHUHFXFDUHHLQL LDOL]DW LUXO la declarare cu definirea dimensiunii tabloului char s[20]=doi direct n program : s=Dati valoarea SULQFLWLUHGHODWDVWDWXU FXSURFHGXUgets(s) FXIXQF LHscanf(%s,s); SULQLQL LDOL]DUHFDUDFWHUFXFDUDFWHUvQFD]XOXQHLSUHOXFUULvQSURJUDP for(i=0;i<strlen(s1);i++)s2[i]=s1[i]+0x25; QXOWLPXOFD]DSDUHR SUREOHP vQ FD]XO LUXOXL VQX HVWH SXV DXWRPDW FDUDFWHUXO ?LGHFLWUHEXLH2%/,*$725,8LQWURGXVH[SOLFLWQH[HPSOXOGHPDLVXVDFHVWOXFUXVH UHDOL]HD]SULQDGXJDUHDLQVWUXF LXQLL s[i]=\0; 3UH]HQWPPDLMRVXQSURJUDPVLPSOXFHLQL LDOL]HD]vQFRGHOHPHQWFXHOHPHQW XQLUGHFDUDFWHUHDSRLDILHD]GLYHUVHSR LXQLGLQHO #include <stdio.h> void main(void) { FKDUQXPH>@ GHILQHVFXQLUGHFDUDFWHUH nume[0] = 'M'; nume[1] = 'i'; nume[2] = 'h'; nume[3] = 'a';
48
QXPH>@ FDUDFWHUXOFHPDUFKHD]VIkULWXO printf("Numele este %s\n",nume); printf("O litera din el este %c\n",nume[2]); printf("O parte din nume este %s\n",&nume[1]); getch(); }
7DEORXULELGLPHQVLRQDOH,PSOHPHQWDUHDQR LXQLLGHPDWULFH 3HQWUX FDOFXOH PDWHPDWLFH WDEORXULOH ELGLPHQVLRQDOH LPSOHPHQWHD] H[DFW FRQFHSWXO GHPDWULFHLSRWILPDQLSXODWHvQFRGDSURDSHODIHOFDvQPDWHPDWLF Apare aceeaL SUREOHP UHODWLY OD PRGXO vQ FDUH DOHJHP GLPHQVLXQHD PD[LP D unei PDWULFLFDLvQFD]XOYHFWRULORU([LVWFHOHGRXFD]XUL - 8WLOL]DWRUXOWLHH[DFWFkWHVWH GLPHQVLXQHD PD[LP D matricilor care vor fi folosite, acesta este cazul ideal care este relativ rar. - 8WLOL]DWRUXO DUH QLWH FHULQ H YDJL L SURJUDPDWRUXO SULQ GLVFX LH GLUHFW SRDWH DIOD DFHVW PD[LP VDX SRDWH VL IDF R LGHH GHVSUH HO FD] vQ FDUH YD OXD R YDORDUH acoperitoare. QRULFH FD]RULFDUHDUILGLPHQVLXQHDXQXLWDEORXHODUHXQQXPUWRWDOGH HOHPHQWH FDUHYDILDORFDWVWDWLF$FHVWQXPUVHSRDWHDIODFRQIRUPIRUPXOHORUGHPDLMRV tablou monodimensional: Nr_elem=dim_vect*sizeof(tip_data); tablou bidimensional: Nr_elem=dim_x*dim_y*sizeof(tip_data); tablou tridimensional Nr_elem = dim_x* dim_y *dim_z * sizeof(tip_data).
'HMDDSDUHRSUREOHPUHODWLYODVSD LXOPD[LPFDUHSRDWHILRFXSDWGHWRWDOXOGDWHORU GHILQLWHVWDWLFDGLFFXPDPYRUELWSkQDFXPLDQXPHIDSWXOFFKLDUVXEPRGHOXOGH FRPSLODUH +8*( QX VH SRDWH DORFD PDL PXOW GH 0R RFWH L SHQWUX GDWH Deci implicit apare automat o limitare asupra dimensiunii maxime care o poate lua un tablou. 'HFL LQGLIHUHQW GH FHULQ HOH XWLOL]DWRUXOXL QX VH SRDWH GHSL DFHDVW GLPHQVLXQH Q FD]XOvQFDUHVSHFLILFD LLOHGHSHVFDFHVWHGLPHQVLXQLH[LVWGRXPHWRGH metoda swap-ului; PHWRGDOLVWHORUGHRUGLQQXQGHQHVWHFRQIRUPQHFHVLW LORU
Q JHQHUDO DFHVWH PHWRGH VXQW PL[DWH FKLDU L OD QLYHOXO DSOLFD LLORU DFWXDOH 0HWRGD VZDSXOXL VH FRQFUHWL]HD] SULQ VFULHUHD vQWUXQ ILLHU D GDWHORU FH GHSHVF DFHVWH dimensiuni maxime. Practic dispozitivul de stocare devine un fel de prelungire a PHPRULHLRSHUDWLYH DYkQG vQV GH]DYDQWDMXO F WLPSLL GH DFFHV VXQW FDP GH RUL PDL PDULGHFkWvQFD]XOOXFUXOXLFX 5$0 FHHD FH YD GXFH OD VFGHUHD YLWH]HL GH H[HFX LH D UHVSHFWLYHL DSOLFD LL 0HWRGD OLVWHORU VH ED]HD] SH DORFDUHD GLQDPLF FDUH QH SHUPLWH DFFHVXOODWRDWPHPRULDIL]LF5AM QHRFXSDWGHDOWHSURJUDPH Mai jos vom prezenta un scurt exemplu de folosire a tablouri pentru implementarea de RSHUD LXQLVLPSOHFXmatrici.
49
#include <stdio.h> #include <conio.h>
void main(void) { int m1[5][5],m2[5][5],m3[5][5],m4[5][5],i,j,k,m,n,p; clrscr(); printf(n=); scanf(%d,&n);// se poate scrie LDDvQFRG printf(m=); scanf(%d,&m);// dar nu este recomandat printf(p=); scanf(%d,&p);// am citit dimensiunile matricilor for(i=0;i<n;i++) for(j=0;j++;j<m) { printf(\nA[%d,%d]=,i,j); scanf(%d,&m1[i][j]); }// am terminat de citit prima matrice // se observFDQXPHOHVXEFDUHRFLWHVFQXDUHOHJWXUFX //modul n care o denumesc n program. for(i=0;i<m;i++) for(j=0;j++;j<p) {printf(\nB[%d,%d]=,i,j); scanf(%d,&m2[i][j]); }// se poate scrie LDDn cod // deci am citit cele doumatrici, acum vom ncepe procesarea. for(i=0;i<n;i++) for(j=0;j++;j<p) { m3[i][j]=0; for(k=0;k++;k<m) m3[i][j]+=m1[i][k]*m2[k][j]; }// vQPXO LUHDDGRXmatrici printf(Matricea Cnp=Amn*Bnp este:) for(i=0;i<n;i++) {printf(\n) for(j=0;j++;j<p)printf(%d ,m3[i][j]); } for(i=0;i<n;i++) for(j=0;j++;j<p) m4[i][j]=m3[j][i]; printf(Transpusa lui C este ); for(i=0;i<p;i++) {printf(\n) for(j=0;j++;j<n)printf(%d ,m4[i][j]); } getch(); } Deoarece tablourile bidimensionale de caractere nu sunt folosite uzual, nu le vom trata.
50
CAPITOLUL 9
9. Tipuri de date definite de utilizator 6DGLVFXWDWSkQDFXPGHVSUHWDEORXULGHGDWHPRQRVDXPXOWLGLPHQVLRQDOHFDUHvQV FRQ LQHDXQXPDLGDWHGHDFHODLWLS6XQWPXOWHFD]XULvQFDUHHVWHQHYRLHFDGDWHGHWLSXUL GLIHULWHVILHJUXSDWHVXEXQQXPHFRPXQ $FHDVWSUREOHPVDUH]ROYDWSULQLQWURGXFHUHDQR LXQLLGHVWUXFWXUGHGDWHFDUH SHUPLWH XWLOL]DWRUXOXL VL FUHH]H QRL WLSXUL GH GDWH FkW PDL DSURSLDWH GH RELHFWHOH GLQ OXPHDUHDO$FHVWOXFUXVHPDLQXPHWHDEVWUDFWL]DUHDGDWHORU /DIHOFXPIXQF LLOHSHUPLWGHVFRPSXQHUHDFRPSOH[LW LLXQXLSURJUDPvQWHUPHQL GHRSHUD LXQLSHGDWHVWUXFWXULOHVXQWIRORVLWHSHQWUXDEVWUDF LXQL. 9.1. Declararea unei structuri 2VWUXFWXUHVWHXQWLSGHGDWJHQHUDOL]DWGHILQLWGHXWLOL]DWRUcare poate fi folosit pentru gruparea diferitelor tipuri de date ntr-un nou concept. De exemplu un tip de date FHVHUHIHUODXQHOHGLQFDUDFWHULVWLFLOHXQXLVWXGHQWHVWHSUH]HQWDWPDLMRV struct Student { char name[20]; // numele studentului unsigned short int age; // virsta unsigned char n_lab; // nota la laborator unsigned char n_ex; // nota la examen } ([LVWRFRQYHQ LHFRPXQOHJDWGHQXPHOHXQHLVWUXFWXULLDQXPHDFHVWDVvQFHDS FXOLWHUPDUH8QH[HPSOXGHGHFODUD LLFXDFHVWWLSGHGDWHHVWHGDWPDLMRV struct Student tmp, an99[20]; 9.2. Operatorul typedef Comanda W\SHGHIFDUHHVWHIRORVLWODredenumirea unor variabile HQXPHUDWH SRDWH IL IRORVLW L vPSUHXQ FX FXYkQWXO FKHLH VWUXFW 3HQWUX R VWUXFWXU WUHEXLH V DSDU GXS FH HVWH GHILQLW L vQDLQWH GH RULFH GHFODUD LH GH YDULDELOH 8]XDO noul tip de date se UHGHQXPHWHLVHDWDHD]RHWLFKHWHFKLYDOHQWFDPDLMRV typedef struct Student { char name[20]; // numele studentului unsigned short int age; // virsta unsigned char n_lab; // nota la laborator unsigned char n_ex; // nota la examen } stud;
51
Deci noul tip de date a fost redenumit ca VWXGvQDFHVWHFRQGL LLGHFODUD LLUHODWLYHODHO devin: 8QDOWH[HPSOXGHGHILQLUH Stud tmp,an99[20]; Definesc noul tip de date struct my_data { char name[19]; secol[11]; short month,day,year; } Folosesc noua defini ie struct my_data test,tab[100],*ptab;
Deoarece my_data nu este un tip predefinit de date ,ci este un conglomerat definit de programator trebuie specificat i cuvntul cheie struct. Creearea unui nou tip de date se face astfel: typedef struct { char name[19]; secol[11]; short month,day,year; }pers; ncepnd de acum pers se va folosi direct frDOWHVSHFLILFD LLvQGHILQLUHDXQRUHOHPHQWH de acest tip. pers test,tab[100],*ptab; IQL LDOL]DUHDXQHLVWUXFWXUL6 &DLvQFD]XOWDEORXULORUVDXDOWRUWLSXULGHGDWHSRDWHILUHDOL]DWDVWIHO: : La declararea unui element Ex: pers eu={MIKE, 354263,3,5,1978}; : Oriunde in cadrul programului Obs: Ini LDOL]DUHDXQHLVWUXFWXULQXSRDWHILUHDOL]DWODGHILQLUHDQRXOXLWLSGH GDW(cu typedef)(YLGHQWH[LVW o diferen FODULQWUHGHILQLUHDXQXLQRXWLSGHGDW LGHILQLUHDXQHLYDULDELOHGHXQDQXPLWWLS 9.3. Accesarea membrilor unei structuri 'HRDUHFH DFHVW WLS GH GDWH HVWH FUHDW GH SURJUDPDWRU FRPSLODWRUXO VDX IXQF LLOH H[LVWHQWHQXWLXVOXFUH]HGHFkWFXWLSXULOHpredefinite de date. De aceea este necesar ca
52
SUHOXFUDUHD V VH IDF WRW OD QLYHO GH PHPEUL FkPSXUL 3HQWUX DFHDVWD WUHEXLHVF FRQVWUXLWHIXQF LLVSHFLDOL]DWHvQRSHUD LXQLOHFXQRXOWLSGHGDWH QFD]XOGHFODUD LHLXQXLHOHPHQWGHWLSXOUHVSHFWLYRSHUDWRUXOGHDFFHVODRULFDUH din membri este .. Accesul se face prin referire la numele global urmat de numele PHPEUXOXL FD vQ H[HPSOXO GH PDL MRV XQGH HVWH UHDOL]DW FLWLUHD GH OD WDVWDWXU D XQXL tablou de elemente de tip student. for(i=0;i<10;i++) { clrscr(); printf(Nume); scanf(%s, an99[i].nume); printf(\n Nota la laborator:); scanf(%d,an99[i].n_lab); printf(\n Nota la examen:); scanf(%d,an99[i].n_ex); } 2VWUXFWXUvQLQWHULRUXODOWHLVWUXFWXULnested structures) ([LVW FD]XUL FkQG HVWH QHFHVDU FD LQIRUPD LD V ILH FkW PDL LHUDUKL]DW RE LQkQGXVH DVWIHO XQ FRG FkW PDL FODU Q FD]XO GLQ H[HPSOXOXL DQWHULRU GDF GRUHVF V UHDOL]H] R DSOLFD LHSHQWUXXQVHFUHWDULDWDPQHYRLHLGHQXPUXOJUXSHL([LVWGRXPHWRGHGHD UH]ROYDSUREOHPD8QDDUILLQWURGXFHUHDDvQFXQXLFkPSFDUHVUH LQQXPUXOJUXSHL GDU PRG GH UH]ROYDUHD SRDWH GXFH SH PVXU FH WRW PDL DGDXJ FDUDFWHULVWLFL QRL vQ VWUXFWXUODXQFRGJUHXGHXUPULW$OWFDOHDUILFUHDUHDXQHLQRLVWUXFWXULGXSFXPHVWH prezentat mai jos. typedef struct Grupa { int nume; // numarul grupei int an; // an de studii stud t[35]; grupa contine maximum 35 de studenti }gr; gr temp; Accesul la membri n acest caz se face prin compunere ca mai jos temp.nume //umele grupei temp.t[3].name QXPHOHFHOXLGHDOWUHLOHDVWXGHQWGLQJUXS6 0DLMRVSUH]HQWPvQFXQH[HPSOX typedef struct {char name[19],snum[11]; struct {short day; short month; 53
short year; }birth_date
Element VXEVWUXFWXUFPS VWUXFWXU mare
}pers; O referire la day se va face pentru persoana eu: eu.birth_date.day
Obs: numele cPSXULORUXQHLVWUXFWXULQXVXQWY]XWHGLUHFWvQDIDULGHFLRUHIHULUH: struct x {int x; ) x; este legalODDFFHVDUHx.x=5. Aten LHQFHSWRULLVHYLWHDFHVWOXFUXGHRDUHFHFUHD]RDPELJXLWDWHQHUHFRPDQGDWvQ cod. 9.5 Structuri autoreferite 2VWUXFWXU18SRDWHFRQ LQHLQVWDQ LHULDOHDOHHLGDUSRDWHFRQ LQHSRLQWHULFWUH LQVWDQ LHULDOHHL struct p struct p {int a,b; {int a,b; float c; float c; struct p next; struct p* next; } }
la analiza lexicalVHLQWUvQFLFOXLQILQLW
OK!!Acest lucru este posibil deoarece pointerul este o YDULDELOFDUHUH LQHDGUHVD altei variabile
7UDQVIHUXOVWUXFWXULORUFDDUJXPHQWHGHIXQ LL6 : transfer chiar structura (prin valoare) : transfer un pointer cWUHHD(prin referin ) Ex: pers om; func1 (om) func2 (&om) 7UDQVIHUXOSULQYDORDUHVHUHFRPDQGLQXUPWRDUHOHFD]XUL: structura este mic JDUDQWDUHDIDSWXOXLFIXQ LDDSHODQWQXPRGLILFVWUXFWXUDDSHODW La apelul prin valoare compilatorul JHQHUHD]Rcopie a respectivei structuri (IXQF LD DSHODQWpoate deci modifica doar DFHDVWcopie). DacDPGRULVVSHFLILFPWUDQVIHUXOSULQUHIHULQ LQFODU(vezi func2(&om)) este suficient ca sGHFODUPSHUV* om LDWXQFLIXQFRPHVWHFRUHFW Atunci n acest caz func1(om) nu ami este corect pentru cRPHVWHXQSRLQWHULQXR valoare. 9.7 Returnarea unei structuri K&R nu permite returnarea unei structuri dar ANSI permite acest lucru. 54
Deci: pos by value
pers f(.) { pers x; return x; }
pos by reference
pers* f1(..) { static pers* p; return &p; }
&kPSXULGHEL L6 Membrii unei structuri de tip int sau XQVLJQHGSRWILDORFD LvQFkPSXULGHSkQOD EL L%L LLVXQWDORFD LvQFHSkQGFXFHOPDLSX LQVHPQLILFDWLYELWDOILHFUXLFXYkQWGH EL L6LQWD[DHVWH WLS>LGHQWLILFDWRU@OUJLPH /UJLPHDFkPSXOXLWUHEXLHVILHRH[SUHVLHvQWUHDJFRQVWDQWFXSULQVLQWUHVL vQVHDPQDOLQLHUHODXUPWRDUHDOLPLWGHFXYkQW'DFQXVHVSHFLILFXQQXPHSHQWUX FkPSXOGHEL LFkPSXOHVWHDORFDWGDUQXHVWHDFFHVLELOVHIRORVHWHSHQWUXDOLQLHUL struct special_word { LQWLYDILUHSUH]HQWDWSHEL LLEE XQVLJQHGMYDILUHSUH]HQWDWSHEL LLESkQODE LQWYDILUHSUH]HQWDWSHEL LLESkQODE6 int k :1 ; // va fi reprezentat pe bitul b11 XQVLJQHGPYDILUHSUH]HQWDWSHEL LLESkQODE }; 2 UHVWULF LHLPSRUWDQW DVXSUDRSHUD LLORU FDUH VH SRW IDFH FX FkPSXULOH GHEL L HVWH DFHHDFQXOLVHSRDWHDIODDGUHVDFXDMXWRUXORSHUDWRUXOXL DGUHVDXQXLELWQXDUHVHQV 9.9. Uniuni 8QLXQLOH FRUHVSXQG FX vQUHJLVWUULOH FX YDULDQWH GLQ DOWH OLPEDMH GH SURJUDPDUH (Pascal, Modula-2, etc.); o uniune este un tip hibrid, valoarea variabilei uniune fiind YDORDUHD PHPEUXOXL DFWLY DO XQLXQLL FHLODO L PHPEUL ILLQG QHGHILQL L 'LQ SXQFW GH YHGHUH VLQWDFWLF GHILQL LD XQXL WLS XQLXQH VHDPQ FX GHILQL LD XQXL WLS VWUXFWXU FX GLIHUHQ D F indicatorul VWUXFWVHvQORFXLHWHFXXQLRQVXQWSHUPLVHLFkPSXULGHEL L Ca implementare sunt similare cu structurile, cu diferen DFPHPEULLVXQWVXSUDSXLXQXO GXS DOWXO vQ PHPRULH 6SD LXO GH PHPRULH HVWH IRORVLW OD PD[LPXP vQ UDSRUW FX 55
VWUXFWXULOH 'H IDSW SHUPLW FD DFHHDL ]RQ GH PHPRULH V ILH LQWHUSUHWDW GLIHULW IU D folosi cast. 'LPHQVLXQHDVSD LXOXLGHPHPRULHDORFDWXQLXQLLHVWHHJDOFXGLPHQVLXQHDVSD LXOXL alocat celui mai mare membru. Accesul la membrii uniunii se face sub forma unor componente selectate, foloVLQG DFHLDL RSHUDWRUL L DFHOHDL UHJXOL FD vQ FD]XO VWUXFWXULORU 1XPHOHGHXQLXQLUHVSHFWDFHOHDLUHJXOLFDLQXPHOHGHXQLXQLVSD LXGHQXPHXWLOL]DUH etc.). QUHJLVWUULYDULDELOH n cazurile n care se poate ca ntr-o ba]GHGDWHGRXVDXPDLPXOWHFPSXULV se DXWRHOLPLQHUHFLSURFIXQF LHGHGDWHOHLQWURGXVHvQHDVHSRDWHRE LQHRSWLPL]DUHD VSD LXOXLJUXSDWvQPHPRULHGHXQHOHPHQWDOVWUXFWXULLSULQJUXSDUHDDFHORUFPSXUL ntr-RXQLXQHFHDSDU LQHVWUXFWXULL Ex.: typedef union { struct { char c1,c2; }s long j; float x; }u 1000 C1 1001 C2 J X &RPSLODWRUXODORFVXILFLHQWPHPRULHSHQWUXDSXWHDUH LQHFHOPDLPDUHPHPEUXLWR L PHPEULLvQFHSODDFHHDLDGUHV'DWHOHVWRFDWHntr-o uniune depind de care membru al uniunii se va utiliza. pas.s.c1=a pas.s.c2=b 1000 1001 1002 1003 a b ... Unused 1002 1003
pas.j=5
VXSUDVFULHFHOHFDUDFWHUHLGHSXQHSHWR LFHLRFWH LWLSlong int) 1000 1001 1002 1003 0 0 0 5
6XSRUWDFHOHDLUHJXOLVLQWDFWLFHFDVWUXFWXULOH 56
([LVWDSOLFD LLGHED]SHQWUXXQLXQL: 1. FUHHD]VWUXFWXULIOH[LELOHYDULDQWDUHFRUGVvQFDUHSRWUH LQHGLIHULWHWLSXULGH date) 2. interpretea]DFHHDLPHPRULHvQPRGXULGLIHULWH Exemplu pentru cazul 1: Union myunion { int i ; double d ; char c ; } mu ; sizeof ( myunion ) --> 8 sizeof ( mu ) --> 8 sizeof ( mu .i ) --> 2 sizeof ( mu .c ) --> 1 sizeof ( mu .d ) --> 8
5HVSHFWkQGFRQYHUVLLOHQHFHVDUHSXWHPVSXQHFXQSRLQWHUFWUHRXQLXQHHVWHXQ SRLQWHUFWUHRULFDUHGLQWUHPHPEULLHL (double *) & mu == & mu .d O uQLXQH QX SRDWH IL LQL LDOL]DW GHFkW SULQ LQWHUPHGLXO SULPXOXL VX PHPEUX GHFODUDW 9RP SUH]HQWD PDL MRV XQ SURJUDP FDUH FLWHWH FXYLQWXO VSHFLDO FDUH UH LQH FRPSRQHQWHOHKDUGZDUHGHED]LQVWDODWHvQWUXQVLVWHPGHFDOFXO$FHVWDHVWHLQL LDOL]DWvQ urma DXWRGHWHF LHL IFXWH vQ VHFYHQ D GH SRUQLUH FH DUH ORF OD SXQHUHD VXE WHQVLXQH D sistemului. #include<stdio.h> #include<conio.h> #include<dos.h> union { unsigned w; struct bit_field { unsigned fd :1; unsigned dimR :2; unsigned modV :2; unsigned nrF :2; unsigned DMA :1; unsigned nrRS :3; unsigned game :1; unsigned serP :1; unsigned nrLpt :2; 57
} b; } eqp; void main(void) { unsigned far *ptr;
clrscr(); ptr=MK_FP(0,0410); eqp.w=*ptr; // urmeazDILDUHDILHFUXLHOHPHQWDOuniunii conform // cu vQ HOHVXOdat getch(); } Cazul 2 Interpretarea GLIHULWDdatelor Ca un exemplu VFRQVLGHUPproblema FRPXQLFD LHLseriale, unde datele vin octet cu octet. Uniunile permit o modalitate de grupare, a RFWH LORUvPSUHXQastfel vQFWVSRDW fi reconstruite n forma lor RULJLQDO'Hexemplu, Vpresupunem Fget_byte( ) este o func LHFDUHvQWRDUFHXQRFWHWFLWLWdintr-un device de comunica LH O valoare GRXEOHSHRFWH LSRDWHILH[WUDVGLQdevice prin 8 apeluri recursive DOHIXQF LHLGXSFXPVHYHGH: union double { char c[]; double val; } double get_double( ) { extern char get_byte( ); //optimal depinde de modul de structurare a //fiLHUXOXL int j; union double d; for (j=0; j<8 ; j++) d.c[j]=get_byte( ); return d.val; } Aten LH!!! (VWHRGLIHUHQ PDMRUvQWUHDFHVWPRGGHLQWHUSUHWDUHLFRQYHUVLLOHSULQcast. ,QL LDOL]DUHDXQLXQLLVSHFLILF$16,: union ex {int I; float f; 58
}; union ex test={1}; sau vQFD]XOXQLXQLFHUH LQHLRVWUXFWXU union n { struct {int i; float f;}s; char ch[6]; } union n test1 = {1, 1.10} (QXPHUUL6
Tipurile de date enumerate sunt folosite n principal pentru a da nume mnemonice unor constante ntregi. n exemplul de mai jos enum zile { luni,marti,miercuri,joi,vineri,simbata,duminica } oricezi ; VH GHILQHWH XQ QRX WLSvQWUHJ QXPLW HQXP ]LOH XQ QXPU GH FRQVWDQWH GH DFHVW WLS OXQL PDU LFXYDORULGHDFHVWWLSLVHGHFODURYDULDELOGHWLSHQXP]LOHQXPLWoricezi. Q SUH]HQWD RS LXQLL E VDX D FRPHQ]LL FRUHVSXQ]WRare din mediul integrat) FRPSLODWRUXO DUH OLEHUWDWHD VD DORFH VDX RFWH L SHQWUX R YDULDELOD GH WLS HQXPHUDUH LQ IXQF LHGHYDORULOHFRQVWDQWHORUGHILQLWHYDORULOHFRQVWDQWHORUGHILQLWHVXQWGHWLSunsigned FKDUVDXLQWQ&XQHLYDULDELOHGHWLSHQXPHUDUHLVHSRDWHDWULEXLRULFHYDORDUHvQWUHDJ enum days this_day ; days another_day ; // legal si in C si in C++ // legal numai in C++
Constantele de enumerare au implicit valori ncepnd cu 0 care cresc din 1 in 1 (luni PDU L GXPLQLFD /DGHILQL LDWLSXOXLRULFHFRQVWDQWGHHQXPHUDUHSRDWHIL HYHQWXDOXUPDWGHXQLQL LDOL]DWRUVXEIRUPDXQHLH[SUHVLLvQWUHJL FRQVWDQWH SR]LWLYH VDX QHJDWLYHFDUHVWDELOHWHYDORDUHDFRQVWDQWHL&RQVWDQWHOHGHHQXPHUDUHXUPWRDUHFDUHQX DXRYDORDUHH[SOLFLWFUHVFGLQLQ6XQWSHUPLVHYDORULGXSOLFDWH1XPHOHFRQVWDQWHORU GHHQXPHUDUHVHDIOvQDFHODL VSD LXGH QXPH FD L QXPHOHGH YDULDELOH IXQF LLL WLSXUL Valori de tip enumerare pot apare oriunde sunt permise valori de tip ntreg. enum coins { penny = 1, // 1 tuppence, // 2 nickel = penny + 4, // 5 dime = 10, // 10 quarter = nickel * nickel // 25 }; Tipuri enumerative Se folosesc atunci cand se doreste creerea unui set mic de valori care pot fi asociate cu o variabila .Compilatorul va genera o eroare daca se incearca asigurarea unei valori care nu face parte din multimea valorilor specificate in declaratii.
59
De ex.:
enum { red,blue,green,yellow } my_colors enum { bright,medium,dark } my_intensity color = yellow color = bright OK ERROR
Aceste valori numerice pot fi si direct specificat ,caz in care compilatorul aplica sumarea FXSR]L LHQXPDLODFHOHnespecificate. De ex.: enum { apple,arong=10,lemon,grope=-5,melon } va avea ca rezultat urmatoare atribuire de catre compilator: apple=0; orange=10; lemon=11; grape=-5; melon=-4;
60
CAPITOLUL 10
1R LXQHDGHIXQF LH 'HILQL LH2IXQF LH&HVWHRFROHF LHGHRSHUD LLVSHFLILFHOLPEDMXOXL6 3kQDFXPVDGLVFXWDWGHVSUHSURJUDPHH[WUHPGHVLPSOH'HDVHPHQHDVDXIRORVLW DSHOXULGHIXQF LLSUHGHILQLWHDOFUXLFRGHVWHJDWDVFULV6HSRDWHVSXQHFRIXQF LHHVWH REXFDWGHSURJUDPVHSDUDWVXESURJUDPFDUHHVWHIRORVLWvQPDLPXOWHVFRSXUL 5HDOL]DUHDXQXLFRGVXUVFkWPDLFODU 6LPSOLILFDUHDSURLHFWULLXQHLDSOLFD LLSULQVWUXFWXUDUH 5HDOL]DUHDGHELEOLRWHFLGHIXQF LLGHFLFUHWHUHDYLWH]HLGHGH]YROWDUHDDDSOLFD LLORU XOWHULRDUH 3HQWUXLQWURGXFHUHDDFHVWXLFRQFHSWvQPRGFRUHFWWUHEXLHGLVFXWDWHvQWkLXQPLQLPGH WHKQLFL GH SURLHFWDUHD D XQHL DSOLFD LL L DFHDVWD GHRDUHFH R IXQF LH QX VH LQWURGXFH vQ FDGUXOXQXLSURJUDPGLQPRWLYHDUWLVWLFHFLDUHRMXVWLILFDUHODQLYHOORJLFIRDUWHFODU &DWHKQLFLGHSURLHFWDUHH[LVWGRXPHWRGHWRSGRZQGHVXVvQMRVLERWWRPXS GHMRVvQVXV3URLHFWDUHDXQHLDSOLFD LLFRQVWvQGHVFRPSXQHUHDORJLFSHVXEPRGXOH )XQF LH GH FRPSOH[LWDWHD DFHVWHL DSOLFD LL GHVFRPSXQHUHD SRDWH FRQWLQXD UHFXUVLY OD QLYHOXOILHFUXLPRGXOUH]XOWDWSkQFkQG DFHVWDHVWHH[WUHPGHVLPSOXGHUHDOL]DW HVWHGHMDLPSOHPHQWDWUHVSHFWLYDSDUWHvQWURELEOLRWHFDFRPSLODWRUXOXL HVWHGHMDGH]YROWDWDQWHULRU GDWRULWVLPSOLW LLSURJUDPXOXLQXPDLDUHVHQV
Q FD]XO PHWRGHL GH SURLHFWDUH WRSGRZQ SURLHFWDUHD GHFXUJH H[DFW FXP DP GHVFULV PDL VXV 8]XDO vQ SURJUDPDUHD & VH IRORVHWH DFHDVW PHWRG Q FD]XO ERWWRPXS VH SRUQHWH GH OD XQ VHW GH IXQF LL L RSHUD LXQL H[LVWHQWH L VH FRQVWUXLHVF PRGXOH FDUH OD UkQGXOORUYRUFRQVWUXLUHFXUVLYDOWHPRGXOHSkQFkQGUH]XOWDSOLFD LD$FHDVWPHWRG HVWHIRORVLWX]XDOvQFD]XOSURLHFWULLDSOLFD LLORUSHQWUXED]HOHGHGDWH 7RWXLHVWHJUHXGHLPSXVXQDQXPLWWLSGHJkQGLUHFkQGVHUHDOL]HD]SURLHFWDUHDXQHL DSOLFD LHL ([LVW R WHRULH IRDUWH ELQH IXQGDPHQWDW L GRFXPHQWDW SULYLQG DFHVWH SUREOHPHQWURSULPID]HVHQ LDOHVXQWH[SHULHQ DDYXWvQSURLHFWDUHDXQXLDQXPLWWLS GHDSOLFD LHLDSRLH[SHULHQ DGHSURJUDPDUH 'HMD SHQWUX DSOLFD LL IRDUWH PDUL VH OXFUHD] vQ HFKLSH FX PHPEUL H[WUHP GH VSHFLDOL]D L vQ FkWH R ID] D SURFHVXOXL GH SURLHFWDUH LPSOHPHQWDUH WHVWDUH QV LQGLIHUHQWFkWGHFRPSOLFDWDUILGLVWULEX LDXQHLHFKLSHSURJUDPDWRUXOXLSURSULX]LVLVH GDX ILH VSHFLILFD LLOH UHODWLY OD FH YD WUHEXL V IDF SDUWHD GH FRG FDUH R GH]YROW ILH vQ DQXPLWH FD]XUL DOJRULWPXO Q DPEHOH VLWXD LL PRGXO vQ FDUH vL GHVFRPSXQH DSOLFD LD SHQWUXDR SXWHD UHDOL]D QX SULYHWH SH QLPHQL /D VIkULW DFHDVWD WUHEXLH V IXQF LRQH]H FRUHFWLDWkW 3DVXOLPHGLDWXUPWRUvQDSOLFDUHDPHWRGHLWRSGRZQHVWHUDILQDUHDSDLORU ([HPSOX&XPVDUSURLHFWDXQSURJUDPFDUHV1XPHUHFXYLQWHOHGLQWUXQILLHU"
61
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62
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63
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64
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Pentru a vedea mai clar folosirea conceptului de SRLQWHUVFRQVLGHUPSURJUDPXO GHPDLMRV$FHVWSURJUDPGHFODUXQYHFWRUGHHOHPHQWHvQWUHJLGHFLUHSUH]HQWDWHSH RFWH LILHFDUHSUHFXPLXQSRLQWHUODXQvQWUHJ$FHDVWDvQVHDPQFFRPSLODWRUXOYDWL vQFD]XOPDQLSXOULORUPDWHPDWLFHFXDGUHVDFDUHRFRQ LQHVIDFFDOFXOHOHFRUHFWGXS cum vom vedea mai jos. Geneza operatorului &op Se traduce prin adresa lui aplicat XQXL RSHUDWRU RS HVWH R PRWHQLUH GLQ YUHPHD DECPDP11 care folosea acest sistem. (VWHQHSOFXWFWHUPLQRORJLDV-a pVWUDWGHRDUHFH DPELJXLWDWHDDSDUHvQIDSWXO F QX WLP FRQFUHW GHVSUH FH DGUHV HVWH YRUED /D FH QH UHIHULP: cea ce poate reprezenta o DGUHVDUHSHUIHFWQRUPDOSHQWUXSURFHVRUXO;SRDWHVILHLPSRVLELO pentru controllerul SURGXVGH<SHQWUXRPDLQGHVSODWFDUHIRORVHWHDGUHVDUHDGH17 EL L . Deci problema SRUWDELOLW LL DEVROXWH V-a SVWUDW SHQWUX F D LQYHQWD XQ QRX WHUPHQ DU IL EXOYHUVDW PDL PXOWVLWXD LD Un SRLQWHUHVWHIRORVLWRUGDFHVWHRFDOHGHDFFHVODYDORDUHDDFUHLDGUHVDRUH LQH /LPEDMXO&IRORVHWHSHQWUXDFHDVWDRSHUDWRUXO*. vQFHSH]RQDLQFOXGHULGHELOLRWHFL LQFOXGHVWGLRK! LQFOXGHFRQLRK! VIkULW]RQDLQFOXGHULGHELOLRWHFL QXDPIXQF LLSURSULL QXDPYDULDELOHJOREDOH LQFHSH]RQDSURJUDPXOXLSULQFLSDO YRLGPDLQYRLG ^ LQW SSRLQWHUODRYDULDELOGHWLSvQWUHJ LQWY>@WDEORXGHHOHPHQWHGHWLSvQWUHJ LQWQLYDULDELOHQHFHVDUHSUHOXFUULLPDVLYXOXLGHGDWH FOUVFUWHUJHFUDQ SULQWIGDWLGLPHQVLXQHDYHFWRUXOXL1 VFDQIG QFLWHVFGLPHQVLXQHDYHFWRUXOXL IRUL LQL ^ SULQWI?Q9>G@ L VFDQIG Y>L@ `FLWHVFYHFWRUXO S YGHSXQDGUHVDGHvQFHSXWDPDVLYXOXLYvQYDULDELODS IRUL LQL ^ SULQWI?Q&RQWLQXWXOOXL YG GL YL SULQWI?Q$GUHVDOXL9>G@HVWHSLYL ` IRUL LQL ^
84
SULQWI?Q&RQWLQXWXOOXL SG GL YL SULQWI?Q$GUHVDOXLSGHVWHSLSL ` JHWFK ` VIkULW]RQDSURJUDPSULQFLSDO QHDYkQGIXQF LLSURSULLQXDPDLFLQLPLF
,HLUHD DFHVWXLSURJUDPvQFD]XOH[HFX LHL SHQWUX XQ YHFWRU GH WUHL HOHPHQWH DUDW FD mai jos: GDWLGLPHQVLXQHD1 9>@ 9>@ 9>@ &RQWLQXWXOOXLY $GUHVDOXL9>@HVWH&()' &RQWLQXWXOOXL Y $GUHVDOXL9>@HVWH&()' &RQWLQXWXOOXL Y $GUHVDOXL9>@HVWH&()' &RQWLQXWXOOXL S $GUHVDOXLSHVWH&()' &RQWLQXWXOOXL S $GUHVDOXLSHVWH&()' &RQWLQXWXOOXL S $GUHVDOXLSHVWH&()' 2SHUD LLDULWPHWLFHFXpointeri 2SHUD LLOHDULWPHWLFHSHUPLVHVXQW adunarea unui pointer cu un ntreg VFGHUHDXQXLvQWUHJGLQWU-un pointer VFGHUHDDGRLpointeri compararea unui SRLQWHUFXFRQVWDQW18//YDORDUHDvQWUHDJD compararea a doi pointeri.
6LQJXUDRSHUD LHDULWPHWLFSHUPLVDVXSUDSRLQWHULORUFWUHIXQF LLHVWHFRPSDUDUHDFX constanta NULL.
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Adunarea unui pointer cu un ntreg are ca rezultat un SRLQWHUGHDFHODLWLSQFD]XO n care SRLQWHUXODUHFDYDORDUHDGUHVDXQXLHOHPHQWGHWDEORXUH]XOWDWXODGXQULLHVWHDGUHVD HOHPHQWXOXL DO FUXLLQGLFH HVWH HJDO FXVXPDGLQWUH LQGLFHOH HOHPHQWXOXL FWUH FDUH LQGLF pointerul, plus valoarea ntregului. 'LQ PRWLYH OHJDWH GH PRGXO GH JHQHUDUH D DGUHVHORU IL]LFH GH FWUH SURFHVRU UH]XOWDWXOQXHVWHYDOLGGHFkWGDFLQGLFHOHUH]XOWDWGLQFDOFXOHVWHPDLPDUHVDXHJDOFX]HUR LPDLPLFVDXHJDOFXQXPUXOGHHOHPHQWHGLQWDEORX
6FGHUHD6unui ntreg dintr-un SRLQWHU 6H IDFH FD L FXP V-ar aduna la pointer YDORDUHDvQWUHDJUHVSHFWLYFXVHPQVFKLPEDW 6FGHUHD a doi pointeri. Cei doi SRLQWHULWUHEXLH VLQGLFH FWUH GRX HOHPHQWH GLQ DFHODLWDEORXUH]XOWDWXOHVWHXQvQWUHJHJDOFXGLIHUHQ DLQGLFLORUFHORUGRXDHOHPHQWH Compararea a doi pointeri. Cei doi SRLQWHULWUHEXLH VLQGLFH FWUH GRXD HOHPHQWH GLQDFHODLWDEORXUH]XOWDWXOFRPSDUD LHLHVWHHJDOFXUH]XOWDWXOFRPSDUD LHLLQGLFLORUFHORU doua elemente de tablou. 9DORULOH DSDU LQkQGXQXL WLS SRLQWHU SRW IL FRQYHUWLWH FWUH RULFH DOW WLS pointer prin folosirea unei conversii explicite. 11.1.3 Modele de memorie Structura procesoarelor 80x86 a determinat maniere diferite de generare a codului de FWUHFRPSLODWRDUHLQIXQF LHGHPRGXULOHGHDGUHVDUHXWLOL]DWH SHQWUXDFFHVXOODGDWHVDXGHPRGXOGHUHDOL]DUHDDSHOXULORUGHIXQF LL 'DFSURJUDPDWRUXOFXQRDWHFRPSOH[LWDWHDaplicatiei si volumul de date manipulat, el poate impune o anumita modalitate de generare a codului, astfel incit el sa fie optim. $DDDSUXWQR LXQHDGHPRGHOGHPHPRULHVSHFLILFPDMRULWDULLFRPSLODWRDUHORUGHSHR PDLQFRPSDWLELO,%0-PC. Pentru manipularea datelor se folosesc, adesea, SRLQWHUL Q IXQF LH GH PRGXULOH GH adresare utilizate, ei pot avea atributele: - near pointerSHEL LUHSUH]HQWkQGGHIDSWXQoffset in interiorul unui segment; - far pointerSHEL LUHSUH]HQWkQGRFRPELQD LHVHJPHQWRIIVHWDGLFRDGUHVUHDO FRPSOHWXQpointer "far" poate avea orice valoare (in limita a 1 MB de memorie), dar n calcule, segmentul nu poate fi modificat; - huge pointer este similar pointerului "far", dar n calcule segmentul poate fi modificat, astfel LQFkW V SRDW IL DGUHVDW WRDW PHPRULD IU VFKLPEDUHD H[SOLFLW D VHJPHQWXOXL $FHDVW FDUDFWHULVWLF HVWH GDW GH RSHUD LD GH QRUPDOL]DUH OD FDUH VXQW VXSXL pointerii "KXJHvQRULFHRSHUD LLGHFDOFXO 2EVHUYD LH QFOFDUHD UHJXOLORU GH PDL VXV QX HVWH VHPQDODW vQWRWGHDXQD SURPSW GH compilator. Rezultatele pot fi incerte. Modelele de memorie, utilizate de Turbo C, sunt: 7,1<60$//0(',80&203$&7/$5*(L+8*('LIHUHQ LHUHDORUHVWHGDW GHPRGXOGHXWLOL]DUHD]RQHORUGHFRGGDWHVLVWLYDSUHFXPLGHDWULEXWHOHLPSOLFLWHDOH SRLQWHULORUXWLOL]D LvQPRGHOXOUHVSHFWLY9RPIDFHGLVWLQF LHvQWUH]RQHOHGHGDWHVWDWLFHL zonele de date alocate dinamic (KHDS&DUHJXOLJHQHUDOHSHQWUXDORFDUHDGDWHORUVH LQH FRQWGHXUPWRDUHOH
86
GDWHOHVWDWLFHVHDORFvQVHJPHQWXOGHGDWH'6LVXQWOLPLWDWHODFHOPXOWkB; GDWHOHDORFDWHGLQDPLFVHSODVHD]ILHvQVHJPHQWXOGHGDWHODPRGHOHOH7,1<60$// MEDIUM), fie in "heap" (la modelele COMPACT, LARGE, HUGE); GDWHOHDXWRVHDORFvQVHJPHQWXOGHVWLY66LVXQWOLPLWDWHODFHOPXOWkB. $ORFDUHGLQDPLF6 11.2.1. Introducere 3kQ DFXP VD GLVFXWDW GHVSUH FHHD FH VH QXPHWH DORFDUH VWDWLF $FHVW WHUPHQ VH UHIHU OD IDSWXO F R GDW DORFDW R YDULDELO vQ SURJUDP PHPRULD FRUHVSXQ]WRDUH HL numai poate fi UHIRORVLW GDF OD XQ PRPHQW GDW QX DU IL QHYRLH GH HD SH SDUFXUVXO H[HFX LHLSURJUDPXOXL'HRDUHFHIRDUWHPXOWHRULPHPRULD5$0HUDH[WUHPGHVFXPS LDUQHFHVLW LOHGHPHPRULHIRDUWHPDULVDvQFHUFDWUH]ROYDUHDDFHVWXLFRQIOLFW 3ULPD PHWRG HUD FD DWXQFL FkQG QX DMXQJHD PHPRULD 5$0 VH IRORVHD R XQLWDWH H[WHUQ GH VWRFDUH FX SRVLELOLW L GH VFULHUH VDX FLWLUH $FHDVW PHWRG HVWH L DFXP IRORVLW6LQJXUXOGH]DYDQWDMDODFHVWHLPHWRGHHVWHIDSWXOFRSHUD LLOHFXGLVFXOVXQWPXOW mai lente dect cu memoria RAM. De aceea s-a pus problema folosirii ct mai optime a acestei memorii. n acest scop SURLHFWDQ LL XQXL VLVWHP GH RSHUDUH DX SUHY]XW vQ FDGUXO DFHVWHL IXQF LL VSHFLILFH GH gestionare a memoriei. 3ULQWUHIDFLOLW LOHGHED]DOHDFHVWRUIXQF LLVXQW alocare de memorie; dealocare de memorie; YHULILFDUHDVSD LXOXLGHPHPRULHUPDVnealocat .
Alocarea memoriei 3ULQ WHUPHQXO GH DORFDUH VH vQ HOHJH UH]HUYDUHD XQHL ]RQH GH PHPRULHGHRDQXPLWGLPHQVLXQHDFHDVW]RQGHPHPRULHGLVSDUHSUDFWLFGLQ]RQD GH PHPRULH vQ FDUH VLVWHPXO FLWHWH VDX VFULH IU UHVWULF LL /D DORFDUH VH UHWXUQHD] adresa de nceput a acestei zone. Dezalocarea memoriei. Prin termenul de GH]DORFDUH VH vQ HOHJH IHQRPHQXO LQYHUV DORFULL6HWULPLWHFWUHVLVWHPDGUHVDGHvQFHSXWDXQXLEORFDORFDWUH]HUYDWLLVHFHUH HOLEHUDUHD OXL DGLF UHLQWHJUDUHD vQ VSD LXO GH PHPRULH FH SRDWH IL DFFHVDW GH RULFH DOW program. 9HULILFDUHDVSD LXOXLGHPHPRULHnealocat'XSXQQXPURDUHFDUHGHDORFULIUD PDL IDFH L GH]DORFUL VSD LXO UPDV OLEHU WLQGH FWUH ]HUR )XQF LLOH GH DORFDUH vQ PRPHQWXO vQ FDUH OL VH FHUH V DORFH R DQXPLW ]RQ QRFWH L L QX PDL DX VXILFLHQW VSD LX OLEHU UHWXUQHD] 18// SHQWUX D VHPQDOL]D DFHDVW LPSRVLELOLWDWH 7RWXL DFHDVWD UHSUH]LQWRVLWXD LHFULWLFLQXVHPDLSRDWHIDFHPDUHOXFUX'HDFHHD FDWHKQLFGH SURJUDPDUH VH SRDWH IDFH GLQ FkQG vQ FkQG vQ SXQFWHOH FKHLH YHULILFDUHD VSD LXOXL GH PHPRULHUPDVOLEHUSHQWUXDFDOFXODDXWRPDWGDFSURJUDPXOSRDWHFRQWLQXDVDXQX
87
(URDUHGHJkQGLUHDvQFHSWRUXOXLUHODWLYODRSHUDWRUXOsizeof $FHVW RSHUDWRU WLH V vQWRDUF QXPUXO GH RFWH L SH FDUH HVWH VWRFDW XQ WLS GH GDW DEFINITILHLPSOLFLWWLSXULOHGHGDWLPSOLFLWHchar , int , long, double) fie cele definite de utilizator (structurile). Dar, NU POATEFDOFXODGLPHQVLXQHDXQHL]RQHGHVSUHFDUHQXDUHLQIRUPD LLFODUHvQ PRPHQWXOFRPSLOULL Exemplu clasic : char S[10]; ....... gets(S); n=sizeof(S) // eroare // S poate avea fie 255 caractere (caz vQ FDUH VH SVWUHD] sigur numai // primele 10, fie nici un caracter // deci nu poate fi aplicat. 'HDFHHDVDLQWURGXVIXQF LDstrlen(S) n acest caz. O versiune de strlen(S) ar fi nr_cars=0; while ( *S[i++]!=\0) nr_cars++; return nr_cars; 0DLMRVSUH]HQWPRDOWFODVLILFDUHDWLSXULORUGHGDWH
$ORFDUHDGLQDPLF 2ULFHWLSGHGDWpredefinit sau definit de utilizator poate fi alocat static VDX GLQDPLF )XQF LD GH ED] vQ OLPEDMXO & IRORVLW SHQWUX DORFDUHD GLQDPLF DUH XUPWRUXOSURWRWLS
88
YRLG PDOORFVL]HBWVL]H YRLGIDU IDUPDOORFXQVLJQHGORQJQE\WHV
$ORFDUHD GLQDPLF D XQXL EORF GH PHPRULH GH OXQJLPH GDW size, sau nbytes). "malloc" permite alocarea din segmentul de date a cel mult 64 kB, iar "farmalloc" permite alocarea din "heap" a cel mult 1 MB (de fapt in limitele memoriei ramase GLVSRQLELOH)XQF LLOHUHWXUQHD]SRLQWHU18//GDFQXPDL H[LVWVXILFLHQWPHPRULH pentru alocare. YRLG FDOORFVL]HBWQHOHPVL]HBWHOVL]H YRLGIDU IDUFDOORFXQVLJQHGORQJQXQLWVXQVLJQHGORQJXQLWV] $ORFDUHDGLQDPLFDXQXLEORFGHPHPRULHSHQWUXXQQXPUGDWGHHOHPHQWHnelem, QXQLWV GH GLPHQVLXQH FXQRVFXW elsize, XQLWV] 'LPHQVLXQHD WRWDO DORFDW HVWH produsul celor doi parametri. "malloc" permite alocarea din segmentul de date a cel mult 64 kB, iar "farmalloc" permite alocarea din "heap" a cel mult 1 MB (de fapt n limitele PHPRULHL UPDVH GLVSRQLELOH )XQF LLOH returneaza SRLQWHU 18// GDF QX PDL H[LVW VXILFLHQWPHPRULHSHQWUXDORFDUH YRLG UHDOORFYRLG EORFNVL]HBWVL]H YRLGIDU IDUUHDOORFYRLGIDU ROGEORFNXQVLJQHGORQJQE\WHV Modificarea dimensiunii unui bloc de memorie deja alocat. Pointerul block (ROGEORFN WUHEXLH V IL IRVW RE LQXW FX R IXQF LH GH DORFDUH DSHODW DQWHULRU malloc" ("farmalloc"), "calloc" ("IDUFDOORF 'DF UHGLPHQVLRQDUHD QX VH SRDWH IDFH IXQF LLOH UHWXUQHD]18//(VWHSRVLELOFDQRXOSRLQWHUUH]XOWDWVILHGLIHULWGHSRLQWHUXOLQL LDO YRLGIUHHYRLG EORFN YRLGIDUIUHHYRLGIDU EORFN (OLEHUHD]XQEORFGHPHPRULHGHMDDORFDWPointerul EORFNWUHEXLHVILIRVWRE LQXW FX R IXQF LH GH DORFDUH DSHODW DQWHULRU malloc" ("farmalloc"), "calloc" ("farcalloc"). QFHUFDUHDGHDDSHODXQDGLQIXQF LLOHGHPDLVXVFXXQSRLQWHURE LQXWSHDOWHFLSRDWH duce la rezultate imprevizibile. Q SURJUDPHOH FH XWLOL]HD] DORFDUH GLQDPLF VH UHFRPDQG FD RULFH ]RQ DVWIHO REWLQXWVILHHOLEHUDWGXSXWLOL]DUH 2EV&RPSLODWRUXOQXVHVL]HD]HURULGHWLSXOFHORUPHQ LRQDWHPDLVXVGHSDQDUHDHVWHGH DVHPHQHDGLILFLO XQVLJQHGFRUHOHIWYRLG XQVLJQHGORQJIDUFRUHOHIWYRLG (YDOXHD]GLVSRQLELOXOGHPHPRULHSRVLELOGHDILIRORVLWvQDORFDUHDGLQDPLF)XQF LD "coreleft" UHWXUQHD] PHPRULD OLEHU GLQ VHJPHQWXO GH GDWH LDU farcoreleft" memoria OLEHUGLQheap".
89
)XQF LLOH GH DORFDUH SULPHVF QXPUXO H[DFW GH RFWH L FH VH GRUHVF D IL DORFD L L UHWXUQHD]DGUHVDGHvQFHSXWDUHVSHFWLYHL]RQH'LQPRWLYHGHportabilitate a programului QXHVWHLQGLFDWVVHFDOFXOH]HGLPHQVLXQHD]RQHLGHDORFDWFXIRUPXOD 1UBHOHPHQWH QUBRFWH LBRFXSDWBGHBUHVSHFWLYXOBWLSBGDW
LDFHVWOXFUXGHRDUHFHIXQF LHGHDUKLWHFWXUDVLVWHPXOXLGHFDOFXOQXPUXOGHRFWH LSH FDUHHVWHUHSUH]HQWDWDFHODLWLSGHGDWHSRDWHGLIHULW'HFLSURJUDPXODUWUHEXLPRGLILFDW n cazul UHFRPSLOULLVXEDOWSODWIRUP Portabilitatea unui program 6H UHIHU OD PRGXO GH VFULHUH D XQXL FRG VXUV DVWIHO vQFkW OD recompilarea sau la H[HFX LDOXLVXEGLIHULWHSODWIRUPHKDUGZDUHVDXVRIWZDUHPRGLILFULOHFHWUHEXLHIFXWH SHQWUXDOIDFHIXQF LRQDOVILHPLQLPHVDXLQH[LVWHQWH Pentru a asigura SRUWDELOLWDWHDGLQSXQFWGHYHGHUHDODORFULLGLQDPLFHVHYDIRORVL XQ RSHUDWRU VSHFLDO DO OLPEDMXOXL & L DQXPH sizeof(WLSBGDW 1XPHOH VH WUDGXFH SULQ PULPHDOXL(OUHWXUQHD]QXPUXOGHRFWH LSHFDUHHVWHUHSUH]HQWDWUHVSHFWLYXOWLSGH GDWQDFHVWHFRQGL LLUH]XOWFODUF]RQDGHPHPRULHFHVHGRUHWHDILDORFDWWUHEXLH FDOFXODWFXXUPWRDUHDIRUPXO 1UBRFWH LBGHBDORFDW nr_elemente*VL]HRIWLSBGDW $FHVWRSHUDWRUWLHVIDFFDOFXOXOQXPUXOXLGHRFWH LRFXSD LLvQFD]XOXQXLWLSGHGDW definit de utilizator. $ORFDUHDGLQDPLFDWDEORXULORUGHGDWH 'XSFXPWLPvQFD]XOWLSXULORUGHGDWHDORFDWHVWDWLFVHSRWGHILQLWDEORXULFDUHV DLESkQODWUHLGLPHQVLXQL([LVWvQUHVSHFWLYXOFD]ROLPLWDUHD]RQHLGHPHPRULHFDUH SRDWHILDVWIHODORFDWLDQXPHvQWUHNRL0RIXQF LHGHPRGHOXOGHPHPRULHDOHV SHQWUXFRPSLODUH'DFvQFD]XOGHFODUULLVWDWLFHFRPSLODWRUXOVHRFXSGHWRWSURFHVXO vQFD]XODORFULLGLQDPLFHDFHVWSURFHVGHYLQHFHYDPDLFRPSOLFDW([LVWGRXPHWRGHGH alocare: Metoda I $ORFDUHD VH IDFH R VLQJXU GDW SHQWUX WRDWH HOHPHQWHOH L HVWH R VLQJXU LQVWUXF LXQH0HWRGDDUHSHQWUXWDEORXULOHDFURUGLPHQVLXQLVXQW! GH]DYDQWDMXOF accesul la un element se poate face numai prin intermediul unui SRLQWHU L WUHEXLH V IRORVHVFRIRUPXOGHFDOFXODDGUHVHLHOHPHQWXOXL$FHDVWIRUPXOWUHEXLHV LQFRQW GHDGUHVDGHvQFHSXWDPDVLYXOXLGHLQGLFLLHOHPHQWXOXLLGHQXPUXOGHRFWH LSHFDUH HVWH UHSUH]HQWDW $D VH OXFUD OD QLYHOXO OLPEDMXOXL GH DVDPEODUH XQGH QX DYHDP DOWH SRVLELOLW L )RUPXODGHHFKLYDOHQ ar[i] *(av+i).
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Vom prezenta un scurt exemplu de folosire a primei metode n cazul unui tablou monodimensional de caractere. #include <string.h> #include <stdio.h> YRLGPDLQYRLG ^ FKDUVWUJ>@ WKHUHRQHWZR LQW SWOLVW>@LQGH[ VWUFS\VWUJ$FHVWDHXQVLUGHFDUDFWHUH RQH VWUJ>@ RQHLWZRVXQWLGHQWLFLFDYDORDUH WZR VWUJ SULQWIRQHWZR FF?QRQHWZR RQH VWUJ>@ RQHLWZRVXQWLGHQWLFL WZR VWUJ SULQWIRQHWZR FF?QRQHWZR WKHUH VWUJ VWUJHVWHLGHQWLFFXVWUJ>@ SULQWIVWUJ>@ F?QVWUJ>@ SULQWIWKHUH F?Q WKHUH IRULQGH[ LQGH[LQGH[ OLVW>LQGH[@ LQGH[ SW OLVW SULQWIOLVW>@ G?QOLVW>@ SULQWI SW G?Q SW JHWFK ` Metoda II
3RUQHWH GH OD REVHUYD LD F FRPSLODWRUXO IDFH DXWRPDW FDOFXOXO DGUHVHL HOHPHQWXOXL vQ LUXO GH HOHPHQWH vQ FD]XO GHFODUULL VWDWLFH 6H SRDWH IRORVL L vQ FD]XO DORFULL GLQDPLFH DFHDVW IDFLOLWDWH D FRPSLODWRUXOXL FX FRQGL LD FD PRGXO vQ FDUH VH UHDOL]HD] DORFDUHD V UHVSHFWH PRGDOLWDWHD LQWHUQ IRORVLW GH FRPSLODWRU vQ FD]XO DORFULLVWDWLFH$FHVWOXFUXSHUPLWHFDGHLVHYDDORFDGLQDPLFXQWDEORXXOWHULRUvQFRG DFFHVXO OD RULFDUH HOHPHQW V SRDW IL UHDOL]DW IRORVLQG PHWRGD LQGLFHDO WLSLF FD]XOXL DORFULLVWDWLFH 11.2.3.1. Alocarea tablourilor monodimensionale n acest caz alocarea se face conform formulei de mai jos:
91
Nume_tablou=(tip_elem_tablou)malloc(nr_elem_tab *sizeof(tip_el_tablou)) Un exemplu de aplicare n program a acestei formule YRLGPDLQYRLG ^ LQWY Y LQW )PDOORF VL]HRILQW `
6HREVHUYFYDORULLreturnate de PDOORFvLDSOLFPXQRSHUDWRUGHFDVWQPRG QRUPDOFRQYHUVLDGHWLSVHIDFHDXWRPDWWRWXLvQFD]XODORFULLHVWHLQGLFDWVILHIFXW explicit. 9HFWRUXOYDSXWHDILIRORVLWFRQIRUPFHORUGRXPHWRGHFDPDLMRV 1. *(v+4*sizeof(int))=0x32; 2. v[4]=0x32; 8Q FD] VSHFLDO HVWH FD]XO DORFULL GLQDPLFH DO XQXL WDEORX monodimesional de FDUDFWHUH 2ULFH LU GH FDUDFWHUH HVWH SUHY]XW FX XQ WHUPLQDWRU VSHFLDO ? $FHDVWD SURYLQH GLQ OLPEDM GH DVDPEODUH DYkQG vQ YHGHUH IDSWXO F IXQF LLOH '26 GH OXFUX FX LUXULOHGHFDUDFWHUHVXQWJkQGLWHVSULPHDVFDGUHVDGHvQFHSXWGLQ]RQDGHPHPRULHL V SUHOXFUH]H HOHPHQW FX HOHPHQW LUXO SkQ FkQG HVWH vQWkOQLW WHUPLQDWRUXO 'DF LQL LDOL]DUHD VH YD IDFH HOHPHQW FX HOHPHQW vQ SURJUDP \0 trebuie depus explicit. )RORVLUHD IXQF LLORU GH ELEOLRWHF G DYDQWDMXO F WHUPLQDWRUXO HVWH SXV DXWRPDW GH UHVSHFWLYHOHIXQF LL 11.2.3.2. Alocarea tablourilor bidimensionale Formula de HFKLYDOHQ ar[m][n] *(ar[m]+n) *(*(ar+m)+n) DaFDUHVWHGHvQWUHJLint ar[m][n] atunci ar[i][j] este echivalent cu *(int*)((char*)ar + (i*a*sizeof(int) + j*sizeof(int)) Cast-urile trebuiesc puse pentru FVHREVHUYFFDOFXOHOHGHGHSODVDPHQW LQkQGFRQWGH GHVSD LXORFXSDWGHXQHOHPHQWGLQWDEORXDXIRVWIFXWHH[SOLFLW QDFHVWFD]DORFDUHDHVWHPDLFRPSOLFDWvQVXOWHULRUH[LVWDYDQWDMXOGHDVHSXWHD OXFUDLSULQVSHFLILFDUHDSR]L LHLHOHPHQWXOXL
92
LQWIDU WBDOORFLQWOLQLQWFRO ^ LQWL UHJLVWHULQWIDU SOLQ SGDWD
SGDWD LQWIDU IDUFDOORFOLQ FROVL]HRILQWIDU LISGDWD LQWIDU 18//HUU1XH[LVWDVSDWLX SOLQ LQWIDU IDUFDOORFOLQVL]HRILQWIDU LISOLQ LQWIDU 18//HUU1XH[LVWDVSDWLX IRUL LOLQL ^ SOLQ>L@ SGDWD SGDWD FRO ` UHWXUQSOLQ ` YRLGWBIUHHLQWIDU SD ^ IDUIUHH SD IDUIUHHSD ` ([HPSOXO GH PDL VXV QH SHUPLWH V SRW DFFHVD vQ SURJUDP XQ HOHPHQW GLQ WDEORX vQ maniera m[i][j] ceea face codul mai clar. 11.2.3.3. Tablouri tridimensionale 6H WUDWHD] GXS DFHHDL JkQGLUH FD L FHOH ELGLPHQVLRQDOH PDL MRV YRP SUH]HQWD XQ exemplu de tranfer de parametru n cazul tablou tridimensional. fie void main(void) { int m [5][6][7]; f2(m, x, y, z); } void f2 ( int *** argm, dim1, dim2, dim3) {int x; atunci x=2 + *((int x) argm + i*dim3*dim2 + j*dim2 + k) (echivalent cu argm[i][j] )
93
11.3. Pointeri la structuri
$YkQG vQ YHGHUH GHILQL LD SRLQWHUXOXL QX H[LVW QLPLF FDUH V vPSLHGLFH GHFODUDUHD unor SRLQWHUL OD R VWUXFWXU Q DFHVWH FRQGL LL WLSXO GH GDWH JUXS L VWXGHQW SUH]HQWDWH anterior se vor rescrie ca mai jos. W\SHGHIVWUXFW6WXGHQW ^ FKDU QDPH XQVLJQHGVKRUWLQWDJH XQVLJQHGFKDUQBODE XQVLJQHGFKDUQBH[ `VWXG W\SHGHIVWUXFW*UXSD ^ LQWQXPH LQWDQ VWXG W `JU JU S,*S 11.3.1. Accesarea membrilor 'HDFHDVWGDWVHYDIRORVLvQORFGHSXQFWUHVWXOUHJXOLORUGHDFFHVDUHUPkQkQG identice. Acest nou operator de acces a fost introdus doar pentru a scrie cod ct mai clar GHRDUHFHGDFDYHPVWXG S; atunci SQXPH este perfect echivalent cu SQXPH din punct de vedere sintactic. 11.3.2. Alocarea structurilor de date 7UHEXLHDYXWJULMFDWRWVSD LXGHFDUHHVWHQHYRLHVILHDORFDW([LVWGRXQLYHOHGH DORFDUHSULPXOVHUHIHUODDORFDUHDGHVSD LXSHQWUXQRXOWLSGHGDWDOGRLOHDQLYHOVH UHIHUODDORFDUHDGHVSD LXXQGHHVWHFD]XOSHQWUXPHPEULLQRXOXLWLSGHGDW Alocarea la primul nivel: *U S S JU PDOORF VL]HRIJU 1LYHOXOGRLGHDORFDUHHVWHFODUGHDELDvQID]DGHLQL LDOL]DUHDXQHLVWUXFWXUL ,QL LDOL]DUHLGLVWUXJHUHVWUXFWXUL6 'DF DORFDUHD GLQDPLF SHQWUX WLSXULOH GH GDWH SUHGHILQLWH H UHODWLY VLPSO vQ PDMRULWDWHD FD]XULORU vQ FD]XO VWUXFWXULORU GH GDWH WUHEXLH FD SURJUDPDWRUXO VL FRQVWUXLDVFSURSULLOHIXQF LLGHLQL LDOL]DUHHOLEHUDUHDGDWHORU
94
6HYRUSUH]HQWDIXQF LLOHGHLQL LDOL]DUHSHQWUXXQRELHFWGHWLSJUXSD6HREVHUY FXQRELHFWGHWLSJUXSDFRQ LQHXQWDEORXGHRELHFWHGHWLSVWXGHQWLGHFLWUHEXLHvQWkL VFULVIXQF LDFDUHLQL LDOL]HD]SHDFHVWD 6WXG LQLWBVWXGFKDU QDPHXQVLJQHGVKRUWLQWDJH XQVLJQHGFKDUQBODEQBH[ ^ VWXG S LIS VWXG PDOORFVL]HRIVWXGHUURU1RWHQRXJKPHPRU\ LIS!QDPH FKDU PDOORFVWUOHQQDPH VL]HRIFKDU HUURU1RWHQRXJKPHPRU\ VWUFS\S!QDPHQDPH S!DJH DJH S!QBODE QBODE S!QBH[ QBH[ UHWXUQ S ` YRLGIUHHBVWXGVWXG S ^ IUHHS!QDPH IUHHS ` JU LQLWBJULQWQXPHVWXG VWFKDUQDPHLQWDJHQQ ^ JU S LIS JU PDOORFVL]HRIJUHUURU1RWHQRXJKPHPRU\ S!QXPH QXPH S!DQ DQ S!VWXG VW UHWXUQS ` YRLGHUUFKDU V ^ FOUVFU SXWVV H[LW `
'XSFXPVHREVHUYFHOHGRXIXQF LLDORFFkWHXQHOHPHQW$ORFDUHDSHQWUXWDEORXO GH VWXGHQ L DO FUXL pointer este primit n LQLWBJU QX D IRVW SUH]HQWDW SHQWUX F VH IRORVHWHIXQF LDGHDORFDUHDXQXLVWXGHQWSHQWUXILHFDUHGLQHOHPHQWHLHOHSRWILGHSXVH vQWUXQWDEORXDORFDWVWDWLFVDXGLQDPLFVDXvQWUROLVWvQOQ XLW
95
'HFODUD LLFRPSOH[HvQ&6
3HVWH XQ DQXPLW QLYHO GH H[SHULHQ H[LVW WHQGLQ D IRORVLULL XQRU GHFODUD LL FRPSDFWH GDU FRPSOH[H L DFHDVWD FRPSLODWRUXO OH DFFHSW DFHVW OXFUX FRQGXFH OD VFGHUHD FODULW LL FRGXOXL GH DFHHD UHFRPDQGP HYLWDUHD SH FW SRVLELO 'H H[HPSOX XUPWRDUHDGHFODUD LHGHFODUSH[FDILLQGXQSRLQWHUODRIXQF LHFDUHvQWRDUFHXQpointer FWUHDOFLQFLOHDHOHPHQWGLQWUXQWDEORXGHpointeri la ntregi. Complicat , NU? int *(*(*x)()[5]; Mai IRVSUH]HQWPRPHWRGVLPSOSHQWUXHYLWDUHDDFHVWXLWLSGHFRPSOLFD LL typedef int *AP[5] //al 5-lea element dintr-un tablou de pointeri la ntreg W\SHGHI$3 )3IXQF LDFHYDreturna un pointer la al 5-lea element al unui tablou de SRLQWHULFWUHvQWUHJL FP *x // pointer la...... 0RWLYXO SULQFLSDO SHQWUX FDUH GHFODUD LLOH GH WLSXO FHORU SUH]HQWDWH PDL VXV VXQW DD FRPSOLFDWH vQ & HVWH GDWRUDW IDSWXOXL F RSHUDWRUXO pointer { * } este de tip prefix, iar RSHUDWRULLGHIXQF LHLWDEORXVXQWGHWLSpostfix. 3HQWUX D GHVFLIUD GHFODUD LL FRPSOH[H WUHEXLH SULYLW GLQXQWUX vQVSUH DIDU DGXJQG vQVWQJDLVDX>@vQGUHDSWD 'HVFLIUDUHDGHFODUD LLORUFRPSOH[HvQ&6 &HDPDLEXQVWUDWHJLHvQGHVFLIUDUHDGHFODUD LLORUFRPSOH[HHVWHVSRUQLPGHOD QXPHOHYDULDELOHLLDSRLVDGXJPV LQHPFRQWGHHIHFWXOILHFDUHSDUWHRSHUDWRUDL H[SUHVLHSRUQLQGFXRSHUDWRULLFHLPDLDSURSLD LGHQXPHOHYDULDELOHL n liSVDSDUDQWH]HORUVHYD LQH FRQW vQWL GH RSHUDWRULL GH WLS IXQF LH VDX WDEORX GLQ GUHDSWD YDULDELOHL GHRDUHFH DX SULRULWDWH PDL PDUH L GHDELD OD VIULW VH YD LQH cont de efectul operatorilor de tip prioritar) De exemplu: FKDU >@YDILGHVFLIUDWvQXUPWRULLSDL 1. x[ ] este un tablou 2. **[ ] este un tablou de pointeri 3. char *x[ ] este un tablou de SRLQWHULFWUHFDUDFWHUH 3DUDQWH]HOH SRW IL IRORVLWH ILH SHQWUX FODULWDWH ILH SHQWUX VFKLPEDUH D SUHFHGHQ HL 'H exemplu: LQW >@YDILGHVFRPSXVGXSFXPXUPHD] 1. x[ ] este un tablou 2. ( **[ ] ) este un tablou de pointeri 3. ( **[ ] ) ( ) este un tablou de SRLQWHULFWUHIXQF LL 4. int ( (*x [ ] ) ( ) este un tablou de SRLQWHULFWUHIXQF LLFHUHWXUQHD]XQvQWUHJ &RPSXQHUHDGHFODUD LLFRPSOH[H 3HQWUXDFRPSXQHGHFODUD LLFRPSOH[HSURFHVXOHVWHLGHQWLF FDODGHVFRPSXQHUH 'H H[HPSOX GDF VH GRUHWH GHFODUDUHD XQXL SRLQWHU FWUH XQ WDEORX GH SRLQWHUL FWUH IXQF LL FDUH vQWRUF SRLQWHUL OD WDEORXUL GH VWUXFWXUL FX QXPHOH 6 VH YRU IRORVL XUPWRULL SDL 1. ( *x) este un pointer 2. ( *x)[ ] este un pointer la un tablou
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3. ( *(*x[ ])) este un pointer la un tablou de pointeri 4. ( *(*x[ ])) ( )este un pointer la un tablou de SRLQWHULODIXQF LL 5. ( *( *(*x[ ])) ( ) )este un pointer la un tablou de SRLQWHUL OD IXQF LL FH vQWRUF pointeri 6. ( *( *(*x[ ])) ( ) ) [ ] este un pointer la un tablou de SRLQWHULODIXQF LLFHvQWRUF pointeri catre tablouri 7. struct S ( *( *(*x[ ])) ( ) ) [ ] este un pointer la un tablou de SRLQWHULODIXQF LLFH ntorc pointeri catre tablouri de structuri cu numele S
Q VFRSXO XXUULL vQ HOHJHULL VH YD SUH]HQWD XQ WDEORX FX diverese expresii complexe X]XDOHvQFRGXULOH&LDQXPLWHJUHHOLFRPXQH int i; un ntreg int* p; pointer la ntreg int a[ ]; tablou de ntregi LQWIIXQF LHFHvQWRDUFHXQvQWUHJ int **p; pointer la SRLQWHUFWUHvQWUHJ int ( *pa ) [ ]; pointer la tabloul de ntregi int ( *pf ) ( ); SRLQWHUODRIXQF LHFHvQWRDUFHXQvQWUHJ int *ap [ ]; un tablou de SRLQWHULFWUHvQWUHJL int aa [ ] [ ] un tablou de tablou de ntregi int DI>@XQWDEORXGHIXQF LLFHvQWRUFvQWUHJ NEPERMIS int *ISRIXQF LHFHvQWRDUFHXQpointer la ntreg LQWID>@RIXQF LHFHvQWRDUFHXQWDEORXGHvQWUHJL NEPERMIS LQWIRIXQF LHFHvQWRDUFHRIXQF LHFHvQWRDUFHXQint NEPERMIS int ***p; pointer la pointer la pointer la int int ( **ppa) [ ]; pointer la SRLQWHUFWUHXQWDEORXGHint int ( **ppf) [ ]; pointer la SRLQWHUFWUHRIXQF LHFHvQWRDUFHint int * ( *pap) [ ]; SRLQWHUFWUHXQWDEORXGHpointeri la ntregi int (* paa) [ ] [ ]; pointer la un tablou de SRLQWHULFHUH LQvQWUHJL int (* paf) [ ] ( ); SRLQWHUODXQWDEORXGHIXQF LLFHvQWRUFvQWUHJL NEPERMIS int *( *pfp) ( ); un SRLQWHUODRIXQF LHFHvQWRDUFHvQWUHJ int (* pfa ) ( ) [ ]; SRLQWHUODRIXQF LHFHvQWRDUFHXQWDEORXGHvQWUHJL NEPERMIS int IDI>@IXQF LHFHvQWRDUFHXQWDEORXGHIXQF LLFHvQWRUFvQWUHJL NEPERMIS int *IISIXQF LHFHvQWRDUFHRIXQF LHFHvQWRDUFHXQpointer la int NEPERMIS int (* pff) ( ) ( ); un SRLQWHUODRIXQF LHFHvQWRDUFHRIXQF LHFHvQWRDUFHXQvQWUHJ NEPERMIS int **app[ ]; un tablou de pointeri la SRSLQWHULFWUHvQWUHJL int ( *apa[ ] ) [ ]; un tablou de SRLQWHULFWUHXQWDEORXGHvQWUHJL int (*apf[ ] ) ( );un tablou de SRLQWHULFWUHIXQF LLFHvQWRUFvQWUHJL int *aap[ ] [ ];un tablou de tablouri de pointeri la ntregi 97
int aaa[ ] [ ] [ ]; un tablou de tablouri de tablouri de ntregi int DDI>@>@XQWDEORXGHWDEORXULGHIXQF LLFHvQWRUFvQWUHJL NEPERMIS int *DIS>@XQWDEORXGHIXQF LLFHvQWRUFpointeri la ntregi int DID>@>@XQWDEORXGHIXQF LLFHvQWRUFWDEORXULGHvQWUHJL NEPERMIS int DII>@XQWDEORXGHIXQF LLFHvQWRUFIXQF LLFDUHvQWRUFvQWUHJL NEPERMIS int **ISSRIXQF LHFHvQWRDUFHXQpointer la pointer de ntregi int ( *ISD>@RIXQF LHFHvQWRDUFHXQSRLQWHUFWUHWDEORXULGHvQWUHJL int ( * ISIIXQF LHFHvQWRDUFHXQSRLQWHUFWUHRIXF LHFHvQWRDUFHXQvQWUHJ int IDD>@>@IXQF LHFHvQWRDUFHXQWDEORXGHWDEORXULGHvQWUHJL NEPERMIS int *IDS>@IXQF LHFHvQWRDUFHXQWDEORXGHSRLQWHULFWUHvQWUHJL NEPERMIS
Cteva tehnici de FUHWHUHDvitezei de H[HFX LHDunui cod Propagarea copiei (se pune la asignare) Fie urmWRDUHDVHFYHQ GHFRG: x=y z=1.+x corect este: x=y z=1.+y (eliminLQWHUGHSHQGHQ HOHGLQWUHFHOHGRXUHOD LL Reducerea puterii Ex: y = pow (x,2) -> ia foarte mult timp QORFXL LFXy=x*x sau j=k*2 -> ia mult timp vQFRPSDUD LHFXDGXQDUHDM=k+k sau cu deplasarea la stQJDj=k<<2 Redenumirea variabilelor CWHRGDWFQGVHYUHDYLWH]PD[LPHVWHPDLELQHVHYLWPrefolosirea variabilelor x=y*z q=r+x+z x=a+b A b x=y*z x0=y*z q=r+x+z q=r+x0+x0 x=a+b x=a+b Compilatorul reali]HD]DXWRPDWDFHVWHOXFUXULGDUSHQWUXFDOFXOHGHILQH HHVWHELQHV facem personal optimizarea codului. Deoarece a) PQQFWLPSGHFDOFXOLDUEPQQF PHPRULHvQRS LXQLOHFRPSLODWRUXOXLH[LVW: 1. optimi]DUHSHQWUXYLWH]VWLOE 2. optimizare pentru dimensiune (stil a) 98
Eliminarea subexpresiilor comune Ex. D=C*(A+B) E=(A+B)/2 F=sqr(A+B)
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t=A+B D=C*t E=t/2 F=sqr(t) Aten LHODRUGLQHDvQFDUHVHVFULXsubexpresiile deoarece pt. compilator a+b+c poate fi diferit de %&DFKLDUFkQGVHIDFHRSWLPL]DUHDXWRPDW Eliminarea codurilor constante din bucle for (i=0;i<u;i++) {A[i]=B[i]+C*D; E=G[k]; } Se observF& 'HVWHFDOFXODWGH1RULLQXHVWHRIXQF LHGHL) . Absurd! /DIHOL(= G[k] este un transfer de memorie realizat de n ori LQXHVWHRIXQF LHGHL deci corect bucla este : temp=c*d; for(i=0;i<n;i++) A[i]=B[i]+t; E=G[k]; 6LPSOLILFDUHDSULQLQGXF LH Ex. for (i=0;i<n;i++) k=i*4+M DupRVFXUWDQDOL]PDWHPDWLFWHPDFDVUH]XOWRVHFYHQ HFKLYDOHQWGDUVH VFXWHVFQvQPXO LUL k=m for(i=0;i<n;i++) k=k+4; Se IRORVHte cnd referim direct tablouri adresa = adresa_de_baza(A)+(i-1)*sizeof(data) adresa = adresa_de_baza(A)-sizeof(data) adresa = adresa+sizeof(data) dacDSOLFLHOLPLQDUHDFRQVWDQWHORUFRGXOGHYLQH temp = sizeof(data) adresa = adresa_de_baza(a)-temp
99
adresa = adresa+temp
/XFUXOFXILLHUHOHGHGDWH,2),/(Streamuri (streams) &QXIDFHGLVWLQF LHvQWUHGLYHUVHGLVSR]LWLYHFXPDUILWHUPLQDO=,3+'' n toate cazurile I/O este realizat prin aceste VWUHDPXULFDUHVXQWDVRFLDWHFXILLHUHVDXFX dispozitive. 'HI: Un streamFRQVWGLQWURvQLUXLUHRUGRQDWGHRFWH L3RDWHILJQGLWFXPYD FDXQYHFWRUQXPDLFvQDFHVWFD]QXDPDFFHVSDUDOHOFLVHULDOODILHFDUHHOHPHQW Pentru a realiza accesarea unui stream trebuie declarat un SRLQWHUODRVWUXFWXUVWDQGDUG QXPLW),/(GHILQLWLQstdio.h. (DFRQ LQH ,QIRUPD LLGHVSUHQXPHOHILLHUXOXL Modul de acces Un SRLQWHUFWUHXUPWRUXOFDUDFWHUGLQstream $FHVWH LQIRUPD LL VXQW QHFHVDUH VLVWHPXOXL GH RSHUDUH GLQ SXQFWXO GH YHGHUH DO programatorului accesul se face prin intermediul unui SRLQWHU OD DFHDVW VWUXFWXU QXPLW SRLQWHUODILLHUILOHpointer). Un program poate avea unul sau mai multe streamuri deschise simultan. Unul din cmpurile din FILE este indicatorul dHSR]L LHvQILLHUFDUHVHUHIHUOD XUPWRUXORFWHWFHYDILVFULVFLWLWvQGLQILLHU 'XS ILHFDUH RSHUD LH 5: 62 PRGLILF DXWRPDW DFHVW pointer. Accesarea se SRDWH IDFH GLUHFW GDU DFHVW FD] SDUWLFXODU GH FDUH WUHEXLH LQXW VHDPD YD IDFH FD XQ SURJUDPVQXPDLILHSRUWDELO $WHQ LH: A nu se confunda SRLQWHUXO OD ILLHU FX LQGLFDWRUXO GH SR]L LH 8QXO HVWH XQ pointer altul este un deplasament. Streamuri standard ([LVW streamuri care sunt deschise automat pentru fiecare program. Ele se numesc stdin, stdout, VWGHUUQPRGQRUPDOHOHVHUHIHUODWHUPLQDOGDUPXOWHVLVWHPHGH operare permit redirectarea lor. ([XQPHVDMGHHURDUHSRDWHILVFULVvQWUXQILLHUvQORFGHWHUPLQDOSULQWILscanf() folosesc streamurile VWGLQLVWGRXW$FHVWHIXQ LLSRWILIRORVLWHSHQWUXOXFUXOFXILLHUHOH prin redirectarea VWGLQ L VWGRXW FWUH UHVSHFWLYHOH ILLHUH IRORVLQG BBBBBB 'DU PDL FRPRGHVWHIRORVLUHDIXQF LLORUIVFDQILfprintf(). )RUPDWWH[WLIRUPDWELQDU6 Datele pot fi accesate Q XQXO GLQ FHOH GRX IRUPDWH VWDQGDUG $16, WH[W VDX binar. Un VWUHDPGHWLSWH[WFRQVWGLQWURVHULHGHOLQLLXQGHILHFDUHOLQLHHVWHWHUPLQDW FXXQFDUDFWHUGHVDOWODOLQLHQRX\n. 2ULFH 62 SRDWH DYHD DOW SROLWLF GH VWRFDUH D OLQLLORU SH GLVF GHFL WHUPLQDWRUXO \n nu este obligatoriu. Dar din punct de vedere al programatorului este ca mai sus, restul fiind DVFXQVGHFRPSLODWRUXO&7RWXLOXFUXOvQPRGWH[WQXJDUDQWHD]RSRUWDELOLWDWHWRWDOD
100
XQXLSURJUDPQIRUPDWXOELQDUFRPSLODWRUXOQXUHDOL]HD]QLFLRLQWHUSUHWDUHDEL LORUvL FLWHWHVDXVFULHH[DFWFXPDSDU
Bufferarea (folosirea unei zone de memorie ca tampon) 'HRDUHFHFRPSDUDWLYFXPHPRULDGLVSR]LWLYHOHGHVWRFDUHvQPDVVXQWH[WUHPGH vQFHWHVHvQFHDUFUHGXFHUHDQXPUXOXLGHRSHUD LLGH ,2 FXGLVFXOBufferarea este cea PDLVLPSOPHWRGSHQWUXDUHDOL]DDFHDVWD Un EXIIHU HVWH R ]RQ XQGH VXQW VWRFDWH WHPSRUDU GDWHOH vQDLQWH GH D IL WULPLVH FWUHGHVWLQD LDORUILQDO7RDWH62IRORVHVFbuffere pentru a citi/scrie din dispozitivele ,2QXPDLFvQDFHVWFD]EXIIHUXODUHGLPHQVLXQHIL['HRELFHLHVWHGHVDX RFWH L$FHVWOXFUXvQVHDPQFFKLDUGDFVHGRUHWHFLWLUHDXQXLVLQJXUFDUDFWHUGLQWUXQ ILLHU62FLWHWHWRWEORFXOFDUHFRQ LQHUHVSHFWLYXOFDUDFWHU %LEOLRWHFD&FRQ LQHXQVWUDWDGL LRQDOGHbufferare care apare n 2 forme: buffere de linie buffere de bloc La EXIIHUDUHDvQOLQLHVLVWHPXOVWRFKHD]FDUDFWHUHOHSQODSULPXO\n sau SQ se umple EXIIHUXO L DSRL WULPLWH vQWUHDJD OLQLH OD 62 SHQWUX SURFHVDUH $FHVW OXFUX VH vQWPSOLFQGFLWHVFGDWHGHODWHUPLQDO La EXIIHUDUHD vQ EORF VLVWHPXO VWRFKHD] FDUDFWHUHOH SQ FQG DFHO EORF HVWH umplut. Implicit VWUHDPXULOH ,2 UHODWLY OD ILLHUH VXQW bufferate n bloc, iar cele care se UHIHUODWHUPLQDOstdin, stdout) sunt bufferate n linie. 'HDVHPHQHDELEOLRWHFD&LQFOXGHLXQPDQDJHUGHEXIIHUFDUH LQHDFHObuffer FW PDLPXOWSRVLELOvQPHPRULHGHFLGDFVHDFFHVHD]DFHHDLSRU LXQHGLQWUXQstream de PDLPXOWHRULH[LVWPDULDQVHFDVVHHYLWHDFFHVXOODGLVSR]LWLYXOGHVWRFDUH $WHQ LH$FHVWOXFUXSRDWHFUHDSUREOHPHGHFRQVLVWHQ GDFILLHUXOHVWHIRORVLW n comun de mai multe procese. Pentru sincronizarea ntre procese este nevoie de: scrierea n ASM a propriilor IXQF LL IRORVLUHDIXQF LLORUVSHFLILFH62SHFDUHVHOXFUHD] n ambele moduri de bufferare, bufferul poate fi golit la cerere cu ajutorul lui fflush() WULPL QGDVWIHOGDWHOHGLQHOODGHVWLQD LDORU 'HL DFHVW PRG GH bufferare este mai eficient GHFW SURFHVDUHD LQGLYLGXDO D ILHFUXL FDUDFWHU H[LVW FD]XUL vQ FDUH QH GHUDQMHD] L DQXPH FQG VH GRUHWH H[SOLFLW SURFHVDUHDLQVWDQWDQHHDXQXLFDUDFWHUILHODLQWUDUHILHODLHLUH&HOPDLVLPSOXH[HPSOX este atunci FQGVHGRUHWHSURFHVDUHDFDUDFWHUHORULQWURGXVHGHOD.%'IUDPDLDWHSWD \n. C permite modificarea memoriei bufferului chiar la acest nivel,tocmai pentru a SXWHDUH]ROYDLSUREOHPHOHGHDFHVWWLS &LWLUHDLVFULHUHDGDWHORU6 2GDWFHVDGHVFKLVXQILLHUVHYDIRORVLSRLQWHUXOODILLHUSHQWUXDSXWHDUHDOL]D RSHUD LLGHVFULHUHFLWLUH([LVWQLYHOHGHJUDQXODULWDWHILQH H 1. la nivel de caracter FkWHXQFDUDFWHURGDW 2. la nivel de linie FkWHROLQLHRGDW
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3. la nivel de bloc FkWHXQEORFRGDW
2 UHJXO FDUH VH DSOLF OD WRDWH QLYHOHOH GH ,2 HVWH DFHHD F QX SRW FLWL GLQWUXQ VWUHDPLDSRLVFULXvQHOIUDDSHODfseek() , rewind() sau IIOXVK/DIHOLvQFD]XO LQYHUV $FHVW OXFUX HVWH QHFHVDU SHQWUX F WUHEXLH JROLW EXIIHUXO vQDLQWHD RULFUHL RSHUD LLLSHQWUXDHYLWDSUREOHPHOHGHLQFRQVLVWHQ 1. Lucrul la nivel de caracter JHWFPDFURFLWHWHXQFDUDFWHU putc() - macro , scrie un caracter
de la stream-ul implicit
fgetc() fputc()
identice cu anterioarele lor dar sunt ILQF LL
'HLSULPHOHVXQWPDFURXULGHFLPXOWPDLUDSLGHSRWH[LVWDSUREOHPHGHex: putc(x, fp[M@VDUSXWHDVQXPHDUJFRUHFW 'H DFHHD HVWH LQGLFDW F DWXQFL FQG VH OXFUHD] FD vQ H[HPSOX V IRORVLP fputc() sau fgetc(); 2. La nivel de linie )XQF LLIJHWVLISXWVLVHVSHFLILFSDUDPHWUL s -> pointer la tabloul de caractere n -> nr. Maxim de caractere ce vor fi procesate stream -> VWUHDPXOFXFDUHVHOXFUHD] 3. La nivel de bloc Un bloc poate fi JQGLWFDXQWDEORX&QGFLWLPVFULHPvQEORFWUHEXLHVVSHFLILFPDWW QXPUXOGHHOHPHQWHDOEORFXOXLFWLGLPHQVLXQHDILHFUXLHOHPHQW )XQF LLIUHDGLIZULWHFXXUPWRULLSDUDPHWUL ptr -> SRLQWHUFWUHWDEORXOFHVWRFKHD]FDUDFWHUHOH VL]H!PULPHQUGHRFWH LDOWLSXOXLGHGDWIRORVLWUHFRPDQGsizeof() pentru portabilitatea programului QXPUHOHPHQWHFHWUHEXLHSURFHVDW pointer la stream I/O Nebufferat $QWHULRU DP PHQ LRQDW IDSWXO F H[LVW VLWXD LL vQ FDUH bufferarea datelor nu GHUDQMHD]([HPSOXFODVLFHVWHHGLWRUXOGHWH[WFQGVHVFULHXQWH[WLVHDSDVWDVWHOH de navigare prin el. Pentru a elimina buferarea pentru stdin se poate folosi fie setbuf(), fie setvbuf(). Setbuf(stdin,NULL) sau stat= setvbuf (stdin, NULL, IONBUF, O).
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$FFHVXODOHDWRUvQWUXQILLHU6 (VWHDVLJXUDWGHIXQF LDIVHHNFDUHSR]L LRQHD]SRLQWHUXOODILLHUODXQGHSODVDPHQWGRULW ID GHvQFHSXWXODFHVWXLD Ftell UHWXUQHD]YDORDUHDSRLQWHUXOXLGHILLHU
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CAPITOLUL 12
)DFLOLW LGHQLYHOVF]XWDOHOLPEDMXOXL& 5XWLQHOH XWLOL]DWH GH VLVWHPXO GH RSHUDUH 06'26 SHQWUX WUDWDUHD RSHUD LLORU GH LQWUDUHVDXLHLUHLJHVWLXQHDUHVXUVHORUVLVWHPXOXLSRWILDSHODWHLGLQWU-un program scris intr-un limbaj GHQLYHOvQDOWFXPHVWH&/LPEDMXOSHUPLWHLOHJDUHDFXPRGXOHVFULVH in limbaj de asamblare. Rutinele DOS sunt apelate prin ntreruperi software. ntreruperea 21h (INT 21h) este serviciul pentru apelul IXQF LLORU'26Pentru apelul unei IXQF LLaceste registre (nu toate) se SUHJWHVFFXGLYHUVHvalori: AH AL con LQHQXPUXOIXQF LHL con LQHQXPUXOVXEIXQF LHLGDFeste cazul)
Celelalte registre se vQFDUFdiferit de la caz la caz. Se JHQHUHD]apoi, ntreruperea INT 21H. Similar cu IXQF LLOH'26VHSRWrealiza Lapeluri de IXQF LLBIOS pregWLQGregistrele intr-un mod convenabil. Sunt astfel accesibile majoritatea IDFLOLW LORU pe care programatorul le avea numai la nivelul limbajului de asamblare. Vom descrie in continuare cteva din func LLOH cuprinse in biblioteca C ale FURU prototipuri se afla in fisierele dos.h, bios.h, setjmp.h, process.h. 12.1. )XQF LLpentru acces direct la memorie unsigned FP_OFF(farpointer); unsigned FP_SEG(farpointer); void far *MK_FP(unsigned seg, unsigned ofs); Aceste trei macrouri sunt folosite pentru a returna: -offsetul unui pointer far; -segmentul unui pointer far; -un pointer far cu segmentul seg si ofsetul ofs. Exemplu: #include <dos.h> #include <stdio.h> void main(void) { char far *ptr; unsigned seg,off; ptr=MK_FP(0x8000,0); seg=FP_SEG(ptr);
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off=FP_OFF(ptr); printf("farptr=%Fp, segment=%04x, offset=%04x\n", ptr,seg,off); } int peek(unsigned segment,unsigned offset); char peekb(unsigned segment,unsigned offset); void poke(unsigned segment,unsigned offset,int value); void pokeb(unsigned segment,unsigned offset,char value);
Cele patru IXQF LLGHmai sus UHDOL]HD] citirea (peek, peekb) respectiv scrierea (poke, pokeb) unui cuvnt sau caracter de la sau la adresa de memorie segment:offset. 12.2. )XQF LLpentru accesul la porturile de intrare sau LHLUH int inp(int portid); int outp(int portid, int value); int inport(int portid); unsigned char inportb(int portid); void outport(int portid,int value); void outportb(int portid,unsigned char value); Toate cele DVH IXQF LL GH mai sus au drept scop citirea (inport) respectiv scrierea (outport) a unui cuvnt, sau caracter (inp, inportb, outp, outportb) de la, sau la portul de intrare sau LHLUHspecificat prin variabila portid. )XQF LLSHQWUXJHVWLXQHDLQWHUYDOHORUGHWLPS void delay(unsigned miliseconds); )XQF LDVXVSHQGH[HFX LDprogramului n intervalul specificat (n milisecunde). void sleep(unsigned seconds); )XQF ia suspendH[HFX LDprogramului curent pe durata seconds secunde. 12.4. Functii pentru controlul sistemului de ntreruperi void disable(void); $FHDVWIXQF LHLQYDOLGHD]ntreruperile, OVkQGYDOLG numai ntreruperea QHPDVFDELO NMI. Este echivalentFXLQVWUXF LXQHD&/,GLQlimbajul de asamblare. void enable(void);
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$FHDVW IXQF LH YDOLGHD] ntreruperile oferind programatorului controlul flexibil al ntreruperilor hardware. Este echivalentFXLQVWUXF LXQHD67,GLQlimbajul de asamblare. 12.5. )XQF LLpentru alocarea memoriei (prin DOS) int allocmem(unsigned size, unsigned *segp);
)XQF LDDSHOHD]'26[pentru a aloca o zonGHmemorie OLEHUGHdimensiune size*16 RFWH L Ea UHWXUQHD] adresa de segment a blocului alocat n ORFD LD SRLQWDW GH segp. n caz de succes UHWXUQHD] -1. n caz contrar se VHWHD] Bdoserrno si variabila JOREDOerrno. int setblock(unsigned segx, unsigned newsize); $FHVW IXQF LH PRGLILF dimensiunea DORFDW unui bloc de memorie, de la adresa de segment segx UPkQkQGDORFD Ldoar newsize*16 RFWH Ln caz de succes IXQF LDUHWXUQHD] -1. )XQF ia face apelul DOS 0x4A. int freemem(unsigned segx); )XQF LD HOLEHUHD] un bloc de memorie alocat cu allocmem. Parametrul segx este adresa de segment UHWXUQDW de aceasta din XUPn caz de succes IXQF ia UHWXUQHD]-1. )XQF LDface apelul DOS 0x44. 12.6. ntreruperi software. Accesul la registrele procesorului. void geninterrupt(int intr_num); Acest macrou JHQHUHD] ntreruperea software intr_num. Starea registrelor GXS apel depinde de ntreruperea DSHODW. Accesul la registrele procesorului se face prin variabilele pseudoregistru prezentate mai jos: _AX, _BX, _CX, _DX, _SI, _DI, _BP, _SP, _DS, _CS, _ES, _SS, _FLAGS care le copie starea. Aceste variabile trebuie folosite cu precau LH6HUHFRPDQGDVHevita alterarea variabilelor _DS, _SS, _CS si _SP. n orice caz, se va XUPULcodul generat LVH va depana cu DWHQ LHprogramul. int int86(int intno, union REGS *inregs, union REGS *outregs); Aceasta IXQF LH H[HFXW ntreruperea software VSHFLILFDW n intno. naintea H[HFX LHL ntreruperii, se copie n registre valorile specificate n reuniunea SRLQWDWGHinregs. 'XS execu LHvalorile registrelor sunt copiate n outregs; de asemenea, Lstarea bitului Carry n x.cflag (1=de obicei LQGLFReroare). De notat Foutregs poate pointa pe DFHHDLstructura ca inregs. )XQF ia UHWXUQHD]valoarea din AX la terminarea ntreruperii. Reuniunea REGS este GHILQLWastfel:
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struct WORDREGS { unsigned int ax,bx,cx,dx,si,di,cflag,flags;}; struct BYTEREGS { unsigned char al,ah,bl,bh,cl,ch,dl,dh;};
union REGS { struct WORDREGS x; struct BYTEREGS h; }; int int86x(int intno, union REGS *inregs, union REGS *outregs, struct SREGS *segregs); Aceasta IXQF LH este LGHQWLF FD IXQF LXQH cu cea DQWHULRDU SHUPL kQG n plus folosirea registrelor de segment pentru transmiterea de parametri (VDOYHD]si UHVWDXUHD] automat ES si DS). 5HWXUQHD]DFHOHDLvalori ca int86. Structura SREGS este GHILQLW astfel: struct SREGS { unsigned int es; unsigned int cs; unsigned int ss; unsigned int ds;}; void intr(int intno, struct REGPACK *preg); )XQF LDUHDOL]HD]RDOWHUQDWLYpentru LQWHUID area cu ntreruperile software, QXPUXO ntreruperii fiind specificat n variabila intno. Structura REGPACK este GHILQLWastfel: struct REGPACK { unsigned r_ax,r_bx,r_cx,r_dx; unsigned r_bp,r_si,r_di,r_ds,r_es,r_flag;}; void segread(struct SREGS *segp); )XQF ia returneazn structura pointata de segp valorile registrelor de segment. )XQF LLSHQWUXFLWLUHDVDXPRGLILFDUHDYHFWRULORUGHvQWUHUXSHUH void interrupt (*getvect(int interruptno))(); Fiecare procesor din familia 80x86 include un set de vectori de ntrerupere, QXPHURWD L de la 0 la 255. Valoarea pe 4 RFWH LGLQfiecare vector este o DGUHVreprezentnd adresa rutinei de tratarea a ntreruperii. getvect FLWHWH valoarea vectorului de ntrerupere specificat de interruptno LUHWXUQHD]DFHDVWvaloare ca un pointer far la o UXWLQGHtratare a ntreruperii.
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void setvect(int interruptno, void interrupt (*isr)()); $FHDVWIXQF LHVHWHD]valoarea vectorului de ntrerupere specificat prin interruptno cu o valoare QRX isr, care este un pointer far la adresa altei IXQF LL GH tratare a ntreruperii. Obligatoriu aceasta QRXIXQF LHtrebuie sa fie GHFODUDW de tip interrupt (cu modificatorul interrupt). Exemplu: #include <stdio.h> #include <dos.h> void interrupt (*oldvect)(); void interrupt get_out(); void capture_prtscr(void interrupt (*func)()); int looping=1; void main(void) { puts("Pentru a termina apasati <Shift><PrtSc>"); capture_prtscr(get_out); while(looping); puts("Succes"); } /*noua rutina de tratare intrerupere*/ void interrupt get_out() { setvect(5,oldfunc); looping=0; } void capture_prtscr(void interrupt (*func)()) { oldfunc=getvect(5); setvect(5,func); } 12.8. Apeluri de IXQF LL DOS. int bdos(int dosfun, unsigned dosdx, unsigned dosal); )XUQL]HD]accesul direct la multe IXQF LL'26&Dargumente: dosfun = QXPUXOIXQF LHL'26 dosdx = valoarea registrului DX; dosal = valoarea registrului AL.
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)XQF ia UHWXUQHD]valoarea registrului AX. Exemplu: #include <stdio.h> #include <dos.h> char current_drive(void); main() { printf("DRIVERUL %c\n",current_drive()); getch(); } char current_drive(void) { char drive; drive = bdos(0x19,0,0); return ('A'+drive); }
int bdosptr(int dosfun, void *argument, unsigned dosal); )XQF LDIXUQL]HD]accesul la IXQF LLOH'26prin argumentele sale: dosfun = QXPUXOIXQF LHL'26 argument = pointer cerut de IXQF LHLQregistrul DS:DX; dosal = valoarea registrului AL. 5HWXUQHD]DFHOHDLvalori ca bdos. int intdos(union REGS *inregs, union REGS *outregs); )XQF LD DSHOHD] ntreruperea INT 21h pentru a realiza func LD sistem VSHFLILF n registrul AH (inregs->h.ah). Structura outregs este DFWXDOL]DWsetndu-se in caz de eroare indicatorul carry. int intdosx(union REGS *inregs, union REGS *outregs, struct SREGS *segregs); Este VLPLODU IXQF LHL intdos, SHUPL kQG n plus L transmiterea parametrilor prin registrele de segment (DS,ES). Aceste registre sunt restaurate la terminarea apelului. Exemplu: #include <stdio.h> #include <dos.h>
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int delete_file(char far *filename);
main() { int err; err=delete_file("Temp1.$$$"); printf("S-a sters fisierul Temp1.$$$:%s\n",(!err)?"DA":"NU"); } int delete_file(char far *filename) { union REGS regs; struct SREGS sregs; int ret; regs.h.ah=0x41; /*delete file*/ regs.x.dx=FP_OFF(filename); sregs.ds=FP_SEG(filename); ret=intdos(&regs,&regs,&sregs); return(regs.x.cflag?ret:0); } )XQF LLSHQWUXWHUPLQDUHDVDXODQVDUHDSURJUDPHORU void exec(int code); )XQF LD GHWHUPLQ terminarea QRUPDO D programului i furnizarea unui cod de retur (code) la LHLUH Acest cod poate fi interpretat ulterior n ILLHUHOH de comenzi. Este HFKLYDOHQWFXIXQF ia DOS 0x4C. void abort(void); 3URYRDFterminarea DQRUPDODprogramului, cu DILarea unui mesaj FRUHVSXQ]WRUpe consola sistemului. void keep(unsigned char status,unsigned size); Apelul acestei IXQF LL permite terminarea programului curent cu transmiterea VWULL procesului SULQWHn variabila status, precum Lsetarea lui ca program TSR (Terminate and Stay Resident) de dimensiune size paragrafe. Restul memoriei este eliberat. )XQF ia este VLPLODUapelului DOS 0x31. int system(const char *cmd); /DQVHD] &200$1'&20 L H[HFXW R FRPDQG LQWHUQ sau o comand H[WHUQ sau un ILLHUGHcomenzi. irul de caractere, folosit ca parametru, FRQ LQHnumele complet al comenzii Ltoate argumentele necesare H[HFX LHL
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unsigned getpsp(void);
)XQF LDUHWXUQHD]VHJPHQWXOSUHIL[3URJUDPSegment Prefix) al programului curent. (D UHDOL]HD] IXQFWLD DOS 0x62. Q ORFXO DFHVWHL IXQF LL vQV VH SRDWH IRORVL GLUHFW valoarea variabilei globale _psp. int bioskey(int cmd); Pot fi executate serviciile specifice INT 16h. &X DMXWRUXO DFHVWHL IXQF LL VH SRW FLWL FRGXULOHGHVFDQDUHFRGXULOHH[WLQVHDOHWDVWHORUVHSRWFLWLFDUDFWHUHIUH[WUDJHUHGLQ bufferul tastaturii, sau se poate afla starea tastelor speciale (SHIFT, CTRL, ALT): FPG FLWHWHFRGXOGHVFDQDUHVLVFRDWHFDUDFWHUXOGLQEXIIHUXOWDVWDWXULLGDFQXPDL VXQWFDUDFWHUHVHDWHDSWDSVDUHDXQHLQRLWDVWH FPG FLWHWHFRGXOGHVFDQDUHIUDVFRDWHFDUDFWHUXOGLQEXIIHUXOWDVWDWXULLGDFQX PDLVXQWFDUDFWHUHIXQF LDUHWXUQHD] FPG FLWHWH%,266KLIW6WDWHVWDUHDWDVWHORUVSHFLDOH6+,)7&75/$/7 int biosprint(int cmd, int abyte, int lpt_port); 5HXQHWH WRDWH IXQF LLOH VSHFLILFH ,17 K DFFHVXO OD SRUWXO SDUDOHO /37[[ )XQF LD permite FLWLUHDVWULLWULPLWHUHDXQXLFDUDFWHUDE\WHVDXLQL LDOL]DUHDLPSULPDQWHL - FPG WULPLWH FDUDFWHUXO DE\WH OD SRUWXO SDUDOHO FX QXPUXO GDW GH OSWBSRUW /37 1=LPT2, etc). - FPG LQL LDOL]HD]LPSULPDQWDFRQHFWDWSHOSWBSRUWFXYDORULOHGLQDE\WH - FPG FLWHWHVWDUHDLPSULPDQWHLFRQHFWDWHSHOSWBSRUW int bioscom(int cmd, int abyte, int com_port); 5HXQHte toate IXQF LLOH specifice INT 14h (accesul la portul serial COMxx). )XQF LD permite citirea VWULLtrimiterea unui caracter (abyte) pe FRPXQLFD LHcitirea unui caracter de pe FRPXQLFD LHsau setarea unor controale Lparametri de IXQF LRQDUH cmd=0 LQL LDOL]DUHD portului de FRPXQLFD LH com_port (0=COM1, 1=COM2) cu parametrii GD LGHabyte. cmd=1 trimite caracterul abyte pe linia de FRPXQLFD LHGDWDGHcom_port. cmd=2 FLWHWHcaracterul UHFHS LRQDWpe linia de FRPXQLFD LHGDWGHcom_port. cmd=3 citeste starea portului de FRPXQLFD LHcom_port. long biostime(int cmd, long newtime); )XQF LDpermite citirea (cmd=0), sau modificarea (cmd=1) timpului sistem, exprimat n incrementi de 55ms, de la pornirea sistemului.
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'H]YROWDUHDGHFRGvQWUXQOLPEDMPL[W&L$60
(VWH VSHFLILF PHGLXOXL GH GH]YROWDUH %RUODQG & FDUH RIHU SRVLELOLWDWHD LQVHUULL GH FRG$60vQSURJUDPHVXUV&)LHFDUHLQVWUXF LXQH$60WUHEXLHSUHFHGDWGHFXYkQWXO cheie DVPVDXWUHEXLHLQFOXVvQWUXQEORFGHWLS$60GHIRUPD asm { LQVWUXF LXQL$60 } Acest model de dezvoltare este foarte comod, deoarece vizibilitatea obiectelor definite n &VHH[WLQGHLDVXSUDEORFXULORU$60$VWIHOSXWHPIRORVLQXPHGHSDUDPHWULIRUPDOLDL IXQF LLORUHWF IU D PDL VFULH FDUDFWHUXO B vQ ID D QXPHORU UHVSHFWLYH 6H HYLW DVWIHO VHFYHQ HOHGHLQWUDUHLUHYHQLUHGLQIXQF LLFDUHVXQWUHDOL]DWHDXWRPDWGHFRPSLODWRUXO& ([LVWUHVWULF LLGHXWLOL]DUHDHWLFKHWHORU0DLSUHFLVHWLFKHWHOHWUHEXLHGHILQLWHFD etichete C, deci n afara blocurilor ASM. &D L OD GH]YROWDUHD SH PRGXOH VHSDUDWH SURJUDPDWRUXO WUHEXLH V JHVWLRQH]H explicit modelele de memorie, n sesnsul definirii precise a adreselor far sau near. Pentru DFHDVWDVHXWLOL]HD]PRGHOHOHGHPHPRULH&LVDXFXYLQWHOHFKHLHQHDULIDU 3HQWUX H[HPSOLILFDUH V GLVFXWP LPSOHPHQWDUHD XQHL IXQF LL GH FXWDUH IRORVLQG DWkWPHWRGDFODVLFFkWLPHWRGDFXFRGGHDVDPEODUH )XQF LDUHVSHFWLYVFULVvQ&HVWHSUH]HQWDWPDLMRV int my_search(int *x, size_t n, int y) { int i; for(i=0;i<n;i++) if(y==x[i])return i; return 1; // nu am JVLWvQWUHJXO\vQWDEORXO[ } )XQF LDUHVFULVIRORVLQGOLPEDMGHDVDPEODUH int my_search(int near *x, size_t n, int y) { asm { push si push cx push dx mov si,x mov cx,n jcxz nu mov dx,x sub si,2 }
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et: asm { add si,2 cmp [si], dx loopnz et jnz nu mov ax,n sub ax,cx dec ax jmp m_end } } nu: asm mov ax,-1 m_end: asm { pop dx pop cx pop si } return _AX }
6H REVHUY F LQGLFHOH JVLW D IRVW FDOFXODW FD GLIHUHQ GLQWUH GLPHQVLXQHD Q D WDEORXOXL L YDORDUHD LQFUHPHQWDW D FRQWRUXOXL &[ OD LHLUHD GLQ EXFO 5HYHQLUHD GLQ EXFO VH IDFH IRORVLQG YDORDUHD VWRFDW vQ UHJLVWUXO $; OD FDUH DP DFFHV SULQ preudoregistrul _AX. 0HWRGD DUH GH]DYDQWDMXO VFGHULL SRUWDELOLW LL OD recompilarea sub alte compilatoare.
12.11 Tratarea dispozitivelor bus asincrone 6 SUHVXSXQHP F VH GH]YROWD XQ FRG SHQWUX FRQWUROXO XQXL GLVSR]LWLY KDUGZDUH XQ driver de exemplu). Acest lucru este realizat prin depunerea de diverse valori n registre hard la adrese absolute ( existente fizic independent de modul virtual de manipulare a PHPRULHLSXVODGLVSR]L LHGH62 6SUHVXSXQHPFDFHVWGLVSR]LWLYDUHUHJLVWUHILHFDUHfiecare avnd lungimea de 16 EL LODDGUHVHGHPHPRULHFUHVFWRDUH 0HWRGDFODVLFGHDFFHVDUHHVWHFDPDLMRV: struct devregs { unsigned short csr // control si stare unsigned short data // portul de date }
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#define ER 0x1 #define RDY 0x2 #define RES 0x4
// adresa absoluta a dispozitivului #define DEVADR (( struct dev regs*)ox ffff0000 // QXPUXOGHGLVSR]LWLYHGHDFHVWWLSGLQVLVWHP #define NDEVS 4 // RIXQF LHFHFLWHWHXQRFWHWGLQGLVSR]LWLYXOQIRORVLQGSURWRFROGHWLSbusy/wait. $WHDSWpna cnd apare semnal de RDY (ready) sau ER(error); dacQX HVWHHURDUHL un UHDG\ DFWLY vQVHDPQ F SRW FLWL XQ RFWHW DOWIHO YD DQXOD HURDUHD GDU YRL vQWRDUFH 0xffff. unsigned int read_dev ( unsigned devno) { unsigned devregs *dvp=DEVADR + devno; if ( devno >= NDEVS ) return (0xffff) QXH[LVWXQDVHPHQHDGLVSR]LWLYvQORW while (( dvp -> csr& (RDY | ER )) == 0); // EXFODYHFWRUFDUHDWHDSWSULPDXQDGLQFRQGL LLHVWHYDOLGDW if dvp -> csr & ER // a fot eroare { dvp -> csr= RES // reset return 0xffff; } return (dvp-> data) & 0xffff; // nu DIRVWHURDUHLGLVSR]LWLYXOHJDWDVHPLWRFWHWXO }
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CAPITOLUL 13 13. Preprocesorul
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13.3. Directiva #include
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// calculul randamentului si puterii pentru un fir conectat la un generator de cc #include <stdio.h> #include <conio.h> #include <math.h> void main(void) { // incepe zona declarare variabile int e,ri,l,s,imax; float r,pext,eta,i,g; //sfirsit zona declarare variabile // incepe zona citire date de intrare clrscr(); printf("\nTensiunea gen. E="); scanf("%d",&e); printf("\nRez. interna gen. ri="); scanf("%d",&ri); printf("\nLungimea fir L="); scanf("%d",&l); printf("\nSectiunea fir S="); scanf("%d",&s); printf("\nCurentul maxim admis Imax="); scanf("%d",&imax); printf("\nConductivitatea gama="); scanf("%f",&g); // sfirsit zona citire date de intrare //incepe zona de calcul conform algoritmului r=l/(g*s); i=e/(r+ri); pext=r*sqrt(i); eta=pext/(e*i); // sfirsit zona de calcul conform algoritmului //incepe zona afisarii rezultatelor printf("\nPext=%3.8f",pext); printf("\nRandament=%3.8f",eta); if(i<imax) printf("\nI=%3.8f < Imax",i); else printf("\nI=%2.8f >Imax",i); //sfirsit zona afisarii rezultatelor printf("\nApasati orice tasta ca sa terminati programul"); getch(); }
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/*********************************************************************** ************************************************************************ ***************************/ //exemplu de calcul a unei functii cu mai multe ramuri; #include <stdio.h> #include <conio.h> void main(void) { int x,f; clrscr(); printf("x="); scanf("%d",&x); if(x<-5)f=x-1; else if(x==-5)f=-6; else f=2*x+4; printf("\nf(x)=%d",f); getch(); } /*********************************************************************** ************************************************************************ ***************************/ // repetarea de un numar specificat de ori a calcului // pentr o functie_multipla; #include <stdio.h> #include <conio.h> void main(void) { int x,n,f,i; begin clrscr; printf("Numarul de repetari a calculului functiei f n="); scanf("%d",&n); for(i:=0;i<n;i++) { clrscr(); printf("x="); scanf("%d",&x);
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if(x<-5)f=x-1; else if(x==-5)f=-6; else f=2*x+4; printf("\nf(x)=%d",f); } getch(); }
/*********************************************************************** ************************************************************************ ***************************/ // exemplu de lucru cu sirurile de caractere #include <stdio.h> #include <conio.h> #include <string.h> void main(void) { char s[10],a,c; int i,b,d; clrscr(); printf("Introduceti sirul de prelucrat s="); gets(s); a=s[0]; b=strlen(s); c=s[b-1]; if ((a>='A')&&(a <='Z')) { s[0]+=32; s[b-1]+=32; } else { s[0]-=32; s[b-1]-=32; } printf("\nprima litera %c",a); printf("\nultima litera %c",c); printf("\nsirul prelucrat %s",s); getch();
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//obs programul nu ia in calcul situatia in care in sir de litere apar si cifre } /*********************************************************************** ************************************************************************ ***************************/ // program care implementeaza functia de stergere a unui caracter #include <stdio.h> #include <conio.h> #include <string.h> int strdel(char s[], int pos); void main(void) { char s[20]; int n; clrscr(); printf("Dati sirul s="); gets(s); printf("dati pozitia de eliminare "); scanf("%d",&n); if(strdel(s,n))puts("Eroare, pozitia este in afara sirului "); else printf("\n Noul sir este=%s",s); getch(); } int strdel(char s[], int pos) { if(pos>=strlen(s))return -1;// eroare de apelare pos--; while(s[pos]!='\0') { s[pos]=s[pos+1]; pos++; } return 0;// functia s-a terminat corect } /*********************************************************************** ************************************************************************ ***************************/ // program care implementeaza functia de stergere a unui caracter // existenta in pascal #include <stdio.h> #include <conio.h> #include <string.h> int strdelpas(char s[], int pos, int nrcars); void main(void)
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{ char s[20]; int n,nrc; clrscr(); printf("Dati sirul s="); gets(s); printf("dati pozitia de eliminare "); scanf("%d",&n); printf("dati nr de caractere ce se vor sterge "); scanf("%d",&nrc);
if(strdelpas(s,n,nrc))puts("Eroare, pozitia este in afara sirului"); else printf("\n Noul sir este=%s",s); getch(); } int strdelpas(char s[], int pos, int nrcars) { if(pos>=strlen(s))return -1;// eroare de apelare pos--; while(s[pos]!='\0') { s[pos]=s[pos+nrcars]; pos++; } return 0;// functia s-a terminat corect } /*********************************************************************** ************************************************************************ ***************************/ //program pentru eliminarea caracterelor indentice; #include <stdio.h> #include <conio.h> #include <string.h> void main(void) { char s[25]; int i=0,j,n,pos; clrscr(); printf("Introduceti sirul de prelucrat s="); scanf("%s",s); n=strlen(s); do {
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j=i+1; do {
if(s[i]==s[j]) { pos=j; while(s[pos]!='\0') { s[pos]=s[pos+1]; pos++; }
n--; } else j++; }while (j<n); i++; }while (i<n); printf("Sirul rezultat este s=%s",s); getch(); } /*********************************************************************** ************************************************************************ ***************************/ //program pentru eliminarea caracterelor indentice folosind functii; // transfer de parametri in vechea maniera de programare #include <stdio.h> #include <conio.h> #include <string.h> int strdel(char s[], int pos); void main(void) { char s[25]; int i=0,j,n,pos; clrscr(); printf("Introduceti sirul de prelucrat s="); scanf("%s",s); n=strlen(s); do {
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j=i+1; do {
if(s[i]==s[j]) { strdel(s,j); n--; } else j++; }while (j<n); i++; }while (i<n); printf("Sirul rezultat este s=%s",s); getch(); } int strdel(char s[], int pos) { if(pos>=strlen(s))return -1;// eroare de apelare while(s[pos]!='\0') { s[pos]=s[pos+1]; pos++; } return 0;// functia s-a terminat corect } /*********************************************************************** ************************************************************************ ***************************/ // program pentru ordonarea unui vector // algoritm FOARTE lent pentru valori mari ale lui n #include <stdio.h> #include <conio.h> void main(void) { float v[100],temp; int i,n,j; clrscr(); printf("Introduceti dimensiunea vectorului n="); scanf("%d",&n); for(i=0;i<n;i++)
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{ printf("V[%d]=",i); scanf("%f",&v[i]); } for(i=0;i<n-1;i++) for(j=i+1;j<n;j++) if(v[i]>v[j]) { temp=v[i]; v[i]=v[j]; v[j]=temp; }; puts("Vectorul ordonat"); for(i=0;i<n;i++) printf("%3.3f ",v[i]); } /*********************************************************************** ************************************************************************ ***************************/ //program pentru extragerea unui vector ce contine //elementele mai mari ca 1 dintr-un matrice; // se foloseste validarea input-ului #include <stdio.h> #include <conio.h> void main(void) { int n,m,i,j,k; float a[10][10], b[100]; clrscr(); printf("n="); scanf("%d",&n); printf("m="); scanf("%d",&m); while ((n<0)||(n>10)||(m<0)||(m>10)) { puts("0<m,n<10"); printf("n="); scanf("%d",&n); printf("m="); scanf("%d",&m); } for(i=0;i<n;i++)
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for(j=0;j<m;j++) { printf("m[%d,%d]=",i,j); scanf("%f",&a[i][j]); };
k=0; for(i=0;i<n;i++) for(j=0;j<m;j++) if(a[i][j]>1) b[k++]=a[i][j]; if(!k)puts("\nMatricea nu are elemente > 1"); else { puts("vectorul elem. >1 este:"); for(i=0;i<k;i++)printf("%3.2f ",b[i]); }; getch(); } /*********************************************************************** ************************************************************************ ***************************/ //program inmutire matrici Amn x Bpq; #include <stdio.h> #include <conio.h> void main(void) { int m,n,p,q,i,j,k; float a[10][10], b[10][10],c[10][10]; clrscr(); printf("m="); scanf("%d",&m); printf("n="); scanf("%d",&n); printf("p="); scanf("%d",&p); printf("q="); scanf("%d",&q); while (n!=p) { puts("Date eronate, n trebuie sa fie egal cu p"); printf("m="); scanf("%d",&m);
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printf("n="); scanf("%d",&n); printf("p="); scanf("%d",&p); printf("q="); scanf("%d",&q);
} for(i=0;i<m;i++) for(j=0;j<n;j++) { printf("a[%d,%d]=",i,j); scanf("%f",&a[i][j]); }; for(i=0;i<p;i++) for(j=0;j<q;j++) { printf("b[%d,%d]=",i,j); scanf("%f",&b[i][j]); }; for(i=0;i<m;i++) for(j=0;j<q;j++) { c[i][j]=0; for(k=0;k<n;k++) c[i][j]=c[i][j]+a[i][k]*b[k][j]; }; clrscr(); puts("Matricea C=A*B este "); for(i=0;i<m;i++) { for(j=0;j<q;j++) printf("%3.2f ",c[i][j]); puts(""); } getch(); } /*********************************************************************** ************************************************************************ ***************************/ // program care generaza vectorul ce contine // suma elem de pe liniile unei matrici; #include <stdio.h> #include <conio.h>
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void main(void) { int n,m,i,j,k; float a[10][10], b[10],s; clrscr(); printf("n="); scanf("%d",&n); printf("m="); scanf("%d",&m);
for(i=0;i<n;i++) for(j=0;j<m;j++) { printf("m[%d,%d]=",i,j); scanf("%f",&a[i][j]); };
for(j=0;j<m;j++) { s=0; for(i=0;i<n;i++) s+=a[i][j]; b[j]=s; } for(i=0;i<n;i++) { for(j=0;j<m;j++) printf("%3.2f ",a[i][j]); puts(""); } puts("Vectorul continind suma elementelor pe fiecare linie este"); for(i=0;i<m;i++) printf("%3.2f ",b[i]); getch(); } /*********************************************************************** ************************************************************************ ***************************/ // program exemplu de functie; #include <stdio.h> #include <conio.h> #include <math.h>
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#include <values.h>
float rezolv(float x, float y); void main(void) { float a,b,x; clrscr(); printf("a="); scanf("%f",&a); printf("b="); scanf("%f",&b); x=rezolv(a,b); printf("\nSolutia este %8.3f",x); getch(); } float rezolv(float x, float y) { float fx,fy,fc,c,eps; fx=x*sqrt(x)+5*sqrt(x)+2*x-7; fy=y*sqrt(y)+5*sqrt(y)+2*y-7; if(fx*fy<0) return MAXDOUBLE; // semnalez o eroare de calcul do { c=(x+y)/2; fc=c*sqrt(c)+5*sqrt(c)+2*c-7; if (fx*fc>0) { fx=fc; x=c; } else y=c; eps=abs(x-y); }while(eps>0.001); return c; } /* program care realizeaza sumarea a doi vectori de aceeasi dimensiune, versiune cu for */ #include <stdio.h> #include <conio.h>
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void main(void) { int i,n; int x[20],y[20],z[20]; clrscr(); printf("n="); scanf("%d",&n); for(i=0;i<n;i++) { printf("x[%d]=",i); scanf("%d",&x[i]); }
for(i=0;i<n;i++) { printf("y[%d]=",i); scanf("%d",&y[i]); } for(i=0;i<n;i++) { z[i]=x[i]+y[i]; } for(i=0;i<n;i++) { printf("\nz[%d]=%d",i,z[i]); } getch(); } /*********************************************************************** ************************************************************************ ***************************/ /* program care realizeaza sumarea a doi vectori de aceeasi dimensiune, versiune cu while */ #include <stdio.h> #include <conio.h> void main(void) { int i,n; int x[20],y[20],z[20];
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clrscr(); printf("n="); scanf("%d",&n);
i=0; while(i<n) { printf("x[%d]=",i); scanf("%d",&x[i]); i++; } i=0; while(i<n) { printf("y[%d]=",i); scanf("%d",&y[i]); i++; } i=0; while(i<n) { z[i]=x[i]+y[i]; i++; } i=0; while(i<n) { printf("\nz[%d]=%d",i,z[i]); i++; } getch(); } /*********************************************************************** ************************************************************************ ***************************/ /* program care realizeaza sumarea a doi vectori de aceeasi dimensiune, versiune cu do..while Observatie nu este o echivalnta perfecta a for.. pentru ca testul fiind posterior bucla se executa macar o data ! */ #include <stdio.h> #include <conio.h>
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void main(void) { int i,n; int x[20],y[20],z[20]; clrscr(); printf("n="); scanf("%d",&n); i=0; do {
printf("x[%d]=",i); scanf("%d",&x[i]); }while(i++<n); i=0; do { printf("y[%d]=",i); scanf("%d",&y[i]); }while(i++<n); i=0; do { z[i]=x[i]+y[i]; }while(i++<n); i=0; do { printf("\nz[%d]=%d",i,z[i]); }while(i++<n); getch(); } /*********************************************************************** ************************************************************************ ***************************/ /* program care realizeaza scaderea a doi vectori de aceeasi dimensiune, versiune cu for */ #include <stdio.h> #include <conio.h> void main(void) {
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int i,n; int x[20],y[20],z[20]; clrscr(); printf("n="); scanf("%d",&n); for(i=0;i<n;i++) { printf("x[%d]=",i); scanf("%d",&x[i]); }
for(i=0;i<n;i++) { printf("y[%d]=",i); scanf("%d",&y[i]); } for(i=0;i<n;i++) { z[i]=x[i]-y[i]; } for(i=0;i<n;i++) { printf("\nz[%d]=%d",i,z[i]); } getch(); } /*********************************************************************** ************************************************************************ ***************************/ /* program care realizeaza produsul scalar a doi vectori de aceeasi dimensiune, versiune cu for */ #include <stdio.h> #include <conio.h> void main(void) { int i,n,s=0; int x[20],y[20]; clrscr(); printf("n=");
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scanf("%d",&n); for(i=0;i<n;i++) { printf("x[%d]=",i); scanf("%d",&x[i]); }
for(i=0;i<n;i++) { printf("y[%d]=",i); scanf("%d",&y[i]); } for(i=0;i<n;i++) { s+=x[i]*y[i]; } printf("\nProd scalar este %d",s); getch(); } /*********************************************************************** ************************************************************************ ***************************/ /* program care realizeaza ordonarea descrecatoare prin "Buble sort" a unui vector de aceeasi dimensiune, versiune cu for */ #include <stdio.h> #include <conio.h> void main(void) { int i,j,n,t; int x[20]; clrscr(); printf("n="); scanf("%d",&n); for(i=0;i<n;i++) { printf("x[%d]=",i); scanf("%d",&x[i]); }
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for(i=0;i<n-1;i++) { for(j=i+1;j<n;j++) { if(x[i]<x[j]) { t=x[i]; x[i]=x[j]; x[j]=t; } } } printf("Vectorul ordonat descrescator este: \n"); for(i=0;i<n-1;i++) { printf(" %d",x[i]); } getch(); } /*********************************************************************** ************************************************************************ ***************************/ /* program care realizeaza ordonarea crescatoare prin "Buble sort" a unui vector de aceeasi dimensiune, versiune cu for */ #include <stdio.h> #include <conio.h> void main(void) { int i,j,n,t; int x[20]; clrscr(); printf("n="); scanf("%d",&n); for(i=0;i<n;i++) { printf("x[%d]=",i); scanf("%d",&x[i]); } for(i=0;i<n-1;i++) {
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for(j=i+1;j<n;j++) { if(x[i]>x[j]) { t=x[i]; x[i]=x[j]; x[j]=t; } } } printf("Vectorul ordonat crescator este: \n"); for(i=0;i<n-1;i++) { printf(" %d",x[i]); } getch(); } /*********************************************************************** ************************************************************************ ***************************/ /* program care realizeaza sumarea a doi vectori de dimensiuni diferite, evident se considera completat cu zero vectorul de dimensiune mai mica */ #include <stdio.h> #include <conio.h> void main(void) { int i,n,m,dim; int x[20],y[20],z[20]; clrscr(); printf("n="); scanf("%d",&n); printf("m="); scanf("%d",&m); for(i=0;i<n;i++) { printf("x[%d]=",i); scanf("%d",&x[i]); }
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for(i=0;i<m;i++) { printf("y[%d]=",i); scanf("%d",&y[i]); } if(n<m) { for(i=0;i<m;i++) { if(i<n)z[i]=x[i]+y[i]; else z[i]=y[i]; } dim=m; } else { for(i=0;i<n;i++) { if(i<m)z[i]=x[i]+y[i]; else z[i]=x[i]; } dim=n; }
for(i=0;i<dim;i++) { printf("\nz[%d]=%d",i,z[i]); } getch(); } /*********************************************************************** ************************************************************************ ***************************/ /* program care realizeaza scaderea a doi vectori de dimensiuni diferite, evident se considera completat cu zero vectorul de dimensiune mai mica */ #include <stdio.h> #include <conio.h> void main(void) { int i,n,m,dim; int x[20],y[20],z[20];
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clrscr(); printf("n="); scanf("%d",&n); printf("m="); scanf("%d",&m); for(i=0;i<n;i++) { printf("x[%d]=",i); scanf("%d",&x[i]); }
for(i=0;i<m;i++) { printf("y[%d]=",i); scanf("%d",&y[i]); } if(n<m) { for(i=0;i<m;i++) { if(i<n)z[i]=x[i]-y[i]; else z[i]=-y[i]; } dim=m; } else { for(i=0;i<n;i++) { if(i<m)z[i]=x[i]-y[i]; else z[i]=x[i]; } dim=n; } for(i=0;i<dim;i++) { printf("\nz[%d]=%d",i,z[i]); } getch(); } /*********************************************************************** ************************************************************************ ***************************/
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/* program care realizeaza cautarea unei valori intr-un vector, si anunta prima pozitie pe care este gasita valoarea */ #include <stdio.h> #include <conio.h> void main(void) { int i,n,t,val,pos=-1; int x[20]; clrscr(); printf("n="); scanf("%d",&n); for(i=0;i<n;i++) { printf("x[%d]=",i); scanf("%d",&x[i]); } printf("Valoarea de cautat:"); scanf("%d",&val); i=0; while((x[i]!=val)&&(i++<n)); if(i<n)pos=i; if(pos>0)printf("El se gaseste in pozitia a %d a",pos+1); else puts("Nu s-a gasit in vector"); getch(); }
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Seturi de teme Introducere in programare

SET1 1. Scrie LXQSURJUDPFDUHDILHD]XQPHVDM 2. 6FULH LRIXQF LHFDUHvQWRDUFHDUJXPHQWXOODSXWHUHDDWUHLDFXSURWRWLSXO int pw3 ( int num ). X= pw3 (y) <-> x = y 3 . 3. Scrie LRIXQF LHFHFDOFXOHD] x = y 4 IRORVLQGIXQF LDsqrt(double x) 4. Scrie LXQSURJUDPFDUHFLWHWHGHODWDVWDWXUXQvQWUHJL-l afiHD]ODSXWHUHDD treia prin folosirea pw3. 5. 6FULH LvQSVHXGRFRGXQSURJUDPFDUHHOLPLQFRPHQWDULLOHdintr-o surs& 6. (OLPLQD LHURULOHGLQXUPWRDUHDVHFYHQ : main (x) { VFDQI&k LJQGDFLVXQW" , nr_gQGDFL); printf ( Acest program are %d probleme , nr_gQGDFL } SET2 1. Atunci cQGVHDILHD]RYDULDELOGHWLSfloat sau double folosind specificatorul de format %f cWHFLIUH]HFLPDOHVXQWDILate ? printf() realizeazURWXQMLUHDVDXWUXQFKLHUHDYDORULLDILDWH 2. 6FULH LXQSURJUDPFHFRQ LQHXUPWRDUHOHGHFODUD LL: char c; int j; float f; LDILHD]DGUHVDILHFUHLYDULDELOH9RUEL LGHVSUHPRGXOvQFDUHFRPSLODWRUXO DORFPHPRULHSHQWUXYDULDELOH 3. 6FULH LHFKLYDOHQWXORFWDOKH[D]HFLPDOSHQWUXXUPWRDUHOHQXPHUHELQDUH: 1. 0001.0010 2. 0110.0101 3. 0110.1011 4. 1011.1011 5. 0011.1111 6. 0101.1111 7. 0000.0010.0110.0100 n ambele cazuri FQGVHFRQVLGHUFQXPHUHOHVXQWGDWHvQ a) FRPSOHPHQWID GH b) FRPSOHPHQWID GH 4. 6FULH LGHFODUD LLOHSHQWUXXUPWRDUHOHIRUPDWH: a) QWUHJOXQJIUVHPQ b) 9DULDELOvQYLUJXOPRELOFXGXEOSUHFL]LH c) Pointer la caracter d) &DUDFWHULQL LDOL]DWFXx e) Func ie H[WHUQce ntoarce un ntreg IUsemn
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5. 6FULH LXUPWRDUHOHQXPHUHvQELQDUvQFRPSOHPHQWID GHVDXvQFRPSOHPHQW ID GH: 1, -1, 255, 256, 511, 512, 513, 128, -128, 0xFF, 0x7F.
SET3 1. )LHFDUHFDOFXODWRUHVWHOLPLWDWvQSUHFL]LDPD[LPFDUHRSRDWHIRORVLvQ UHSUH]HQWDUHDQXPHUHORUvQYLUJXOPRELO'LQDFHVWPRWLYSHQWUXXQHSVLORQ VXILFLHQWGHPLFXUPWRDUHDH[SUHVLHYDILDGHYUDW 1.0 = 1.0 + eps SVHVFULHXQSURJUDPFDUHJVHWHFHDPDLPDUHYDORDUHSHQWUXeps pe computerul pe care e executat. Obs.: aceastYDORDUHGLIHUvQWUHIORDWLGRXEOH6HYDIRORVLSHQWUXWHVWHLQX SHQWUXFPDMRULWDWHDFDOFXODWRDUHORUQXDXLQVWUXPHQWHGHOXFUXVSHFLILFHSHQWUX manipularea aritmeticii lui 0. 2. 6VHUHVFULHXUPWRUXOSURJUDPIUDVHIRORVLLQVWUXF LXQLOHEUHDNFRQWLQXHL go to. SURJUDPXOQXPUFDUDFWHUXOa din intrare #include <stdio.h> #include <ctype.h> void main (void) { int nr_a=0; char c; c=getch(); while(1) { if(c== \n) break if (isdigit(c)) continue if (c==a) goto add_a; get_ch: c=getchar(); goto end; add_a: nr_a++; goto get_ch; end: ; } } 3. 6FULH LRIXQF LHFDUHDFFHSWXQvQWUHJODLQWUDUHLVFULHXQQXPUGHVSD LLHJDO FXSDVGHLQWUDUH)RORVLQGDFHHDLIXQF LHVVHVFULHXQSURJUDPFDUHFLWHWH FDUDFWHUHGHODLQWUDUHDVWDQGDUGLOHDILHD]GDUvQORFXLHWHWDEXULOHFXVSD LL 4. 0XOWHSURJUDPHFDUHQHFHVLWWUDQVIHUGHFDUDFWHUHGLQWUXQORFvQDOWXOIRORVHVFXQ mecanism de FKHFNVXPVXPGHFRQWUROSWDYHULILFDFRUHFWLWXGLQHD WUDQVIHUXOXL$FHDVWDVHUHDOL]HD]SULQVXPDUHDYDORULORUWXWXURUFDUDFWHUHORU WUDQVPLVHLWULPLWHUHDHLvPSUHXQFXLUXOUHVSHFWLY'DFVXPDVHSRWULYHWH H[LVWRRDUHFDUHSUREDELOLWDWHFDHOHVILIRVWWUDQVIHUDWHFRUHFW6FULH LXQ SURJUDPFDUHVIRORVHDVFRIXQF LH
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unsigned int CS (char *s)
care Vcalculeze checksum-ul pentru o linie LQWURGXVGHODWDVWDWXU 5. 6FULH Lun program care FODVLILFcaracterele citite ntr-una din XUPWRDUHOH categorii: white _Space (space, \n, \r, \t) punctuator ( ,!;:()?) alfabet (a-z , A-Z) numeric (0-9) uncknown (oricare alt caracter) Deci la orice WDVWDWLQVVDSDUpe ecran codul tastei Lclasa din care face parte. 5.1. 3URJUDPXOVILHUH]ROYDWQXPDLFXif, HOVHLreturn 5.2. 3URJUDPXOVILHUH]ROYDWQXPDLFXVZLWFKLreturn. 6. 6FULH LXQSURJUDPFDUHDILHD]OLWHUHOHPLFLLPDULSUHFXPLYDORULOHORU zecimale. SET 4 1. ,QWURGXFH Lparanteze n expresiile de mai jos DvVfie specificat (cu ajutorul lor ) explicit modul de evaluare implicit folosit de compilator.(Se va folosi tabela de preceden a) a=b*c==2 b) a=f(x)&&a>100 c) a==b&&x!=y d) a=b+=2+f(2) e) a=b>>2+4 f) a=s.f+y.x g) a=b&&a>z?x=y:z h) a=*++p*p i) a=b^c&d 2. 6 se construiasca o expresie ce va genera un long int (4 octe L) prin apelul repetat al func LHLgetbt() care ntoarce un singur octet. Ordinea de aranjare este ca primul apel al lui getbt() va genera octetul cel mai semnificativ din ntreg (nr=Expresie (getbt()). 3. Care este ieLUHDXUPtorului program ? void main(void) { short i=0; printf (y.d\n,(i+1)*(1=1)); } 4. 6VHVFULHRIXQF LHunsigned long int circular_shift (unsigned long int a,int n); care face deplasare stanga cu UHFLUFXODUHFXQSR]L LLDQXPUXOXLD a=0001.0110.0011.1010.0111.0010.1110.0101
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DSOLFQGFLUFXODU_shift (a,5) spre VWQJD ! 1100.0111.0100.1110.0101.1100.1010.0010
5. Folosind <<sau>> sVHGHWHUPLQHFDUHHVWHFHOPDLPDUHvQWUHJFDUHSRDWHIL reprezentat pe calculator. 6. 6FULH LRIXQF LHFDUHSULPHWHXQvQWUHJL-ODILHD]vQELQDUIRORVL Lsizeof (int) pentru a afla nr de bi L 7. 6FULH LRIXQF LHFDUHFLWHWHXQQUvQIRUPDELQDUL-OFRQYHUWHWHvQIRUPhexa. 8. 6FULH LRIXQF LHpack care compune un long int din 4 caractere de intrare long int pack (char a,char b, char c, char d)
Bublle sort # define FALSE 0 #define TRUE 1 #include <stdio.h> void bubble_sort (int*v,int n) { int j,k,temp,sorted=FALSE; while (!sorted) { sorted=TRUE //sc pp vect sortat for (j=0;j<n-1;j++) { if (v[j]>v[j+1]) { // cel pu in un element nu este n ordine sorted =FALSE; temp=v[j]; v[j]=v[j+1]; v[j+1]=temp; } } } } int strlen1(char *s) { int i=0; while (s[i])++i; return i; }//ntoarce nr elemente dintr-un nr mai pu LQ\0
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void strcopy1(char *s1, char *s2) { int i; for (i=0;*(s1+1];++I)*(s2+i)=*(s1+I); s2[++I]=0; } //classical sau void strcopy1(char *s, char *s2) { while (*s2++=*s1++); } //professional
echivalentul func iei pas din Pascal , str str un contor un nr ntr-altul . Int strstr1(char *s1,char *s2) { char *p,*q, *subs; for (subs=s1;*subs; subs++) { p=subs; q=s2; while (*q) if(!(*q++!=*p++)) return subs s1; else break; } return( 1); } //de verificat
Set 5 1. 6VHH[SOLFHFHYDUH]XOWDvQXUPDHYDOXULLXUPWRDUHORUH[SUHVLL: Fie static int ar []={10,15,4,25,3,-4} int *p; p=&ar [2]; a) *(p+1) b) p[-1] c) (ar-p) d) ar [*p++] e) *(ar+ar[2]) 2. &HHVWHJUHLWvQXUPWRDUXOFD]: Int j , v[5]={1,2,3,4,5} for (j=1; j<5; ++j) printf(x.d\n,v[j])
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3. MRGLILFD Lbubble sort DvvQORFVrearanjeze elementele ntr-XQWDEORXHOV VWRFKH]HQXPDLRUGLQHDFRUHFWGHDUDQMDUH

0 1 2 3 4
Deci v[]={13 , 25 ,11, 2 ,14 } vQXUPDDSOLFULLbubble sort modificarea se UHDOL]HD]vQWDEORXO ord[] = {1,4,0,2,3} 6HREVHUY V[ord[0]]=V[1]=25 V[ord[1]]=V[4]=14 V[ord[2]]=V[0]=13 . . 4. Scrie LRIXQF LH void sort_concat(double *a, double *b, double *c) care ia a,b douWDEORXULVRUWDWHLOHGHSXQHvQFFDUHWUHEXLHVILHLHOVRUWDW deasemenea. 5. 0RGLILFD LIXQF LDGHPDLVXVDVWIHOvQFkWVHOLPLQHYDORULOHHJDOH 6. 6FULH LRIXQF LH char * plussir (char *a, char *b); care concatenea]SHDFXE 7. 'HFODUD LLOH char S[10] L char *S sunt la fel dacQXDUWD LGLIHUHQ HOHVFULLQGXQSURJUDPvQFDUHHOHQXSRWIL nlocuite. 8. 6FLH LRIXQF LHFDUHVRUWHD]XQWDEORXGHLUXULGHFDUDFWHUHvQRUGLQHDOIDEHWLF ex. : S[][] = {{mike},{oana},{lili},{dana}} n urma apelului IXQF LHL6>@>@ ^^dana},{lili},{oana},{mike}}. 9. Fiind date urmWRDUHOHGHFODUD LL: static int a[2][3]={{-3,14,5},{1,-10,8}}; static int *b[]={a[0],a[1]}; int *p=b[1]; Cum vor fi evaluate urm[toarele expresii : a) *b[1] b) *(++p) c) *9*(--p-2) 10. Care din XUPWRDUHOHH[SUHVLLHVWHHFKYDOHQWFXa[j] ? : 1. *(a[j]+k) 2. **(a[j+k]) 3. (*a+j))[k] 4. (*(a+k))[j] 5. *((*a+j))+k) 6. **(a+j)+k 7. *(&a[0][0]+j+k)
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Set 6 1. Scrie i o IXQF LHFDUHDILHD]pe ecran din 20 n 20 de apeluri , de cte ori a fost apelata n total. 2. 6VHscrie 2 IXQF LL conversie integer -> BCD conversie BCD -> integer folosindu-se ckPSXULOHGHEL LELWfield). 3. 2VWLYHVWHROLVWPDLSDUWLFXODUvQVHQVXOF: DGXJDUHDVHSRDWHIDFHGRDUODFDSWXOOLVWHLRSHUD LHQXPLWpush) WHUJHUHDPDLWRWGLQFRDGDOLVWHLRSHUD LHQXPLWSRS 6FULH LXQSURJUDPFDUH: crea]ROLVWGHDFHVWWLSIRORVLQGFHOHIXQF LL SXVKSHQWUXDGXJDUH SRSSHQWUXWHUJHUH 7UHEXLHVFLPSOHPHQWDWHLDFHVWHIXQF LL
Set7 1. 6VHVFULHXQSURJUDPFDUHVSULPHDVFvQOLQLDGHFRPDQGRIUD]SUHFXPL switch-XULOHFVDX&IXQF LHGHDFHVWHDSURJUDPXOYRIHUIUD]DGLQOLQLDGHLQWUDUHFX OLWHUHPLFLVDXPDUL'DFswitch nu este precizat se va considera implicit c adic DILDUHDFXOLWHUHPLFL 2. 6FULH LRYHUVLXQHUHFXUVLYDIXQF LHLstrlen. Este UHFXUVLYLWDWHDPDLEXQFD YHUVLXQHDQRUPDO$UJXPHQWD L 3. 6FULH LRIXQF LHUHFXUVLYFDUHFDOFXOHD]FHOPDLPDUHGLYL]RUFRPXQDGRXQU pozitive ntregi. 4. 6FULH LLRYHUVLXQHLWHUDWLYSHQWUXSXQFWXO 5. 6FULH LRIXQF LHUHFXUVLYFDUHDFFHSWXQpointer la string ca argument, WUDQVIRUPUHVSHFWLYXOLUntr-ROLVWvQODQ XLWGHFDUDFWHUHLvQWRDUFHSRLQWHUXOFWUH SULPXOHOHPHQWGLQOLVW 6. 6FULH LRIXQF LHUHFXUVLYFDUHQXPUHOHPHQWHOHdintr-oOLVWvQOQ XLW $UJXPHQWXOWUHEXLHVILHSRLQWHUXOFWUHSULPXOHOHPHQWGLQOLVW(YLGHQWFYDORDUHD UHWXUQDWYDILvQWUHDJ 7. 6FULH LRIXQF LHUHFXUVLYFDUHDILHD]YDORULOHILHFUXLHOHPHQWdintr-ROLVW vQOQ XLW 8. 9HULILFD LOHJDOLWDWHDXUPWRDUHORUGHFODUD LL: a. *(*( ) ) [ ] b. * (** ) [ ] c. (*(*(*x( ) ) [ ] ) ( ) ) d. **x[ ] ( ) e. * ( x[ ] ) [ ] f. * ( * (x ( ) ) ( ) ) Set8 1. Explica LHIHFWHOH(LWUDGXFHUHD) urmWRDUHORUPDFURXUL: 1.1. #define BS 1024 int buf [BS+1]
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1.2.
1.3.
1.4.
1.5.
#define a[b] b+1 a(1) + 1 # define a(b) b+1 a(1) +1 #define cos(x) *cos(x) cos(x) + cos ( cos(y) + 1) #define min(x,y) ((x) >= (y) ? x:y) min (1,min (a,b))
Set9 1. Scrie LXQSURJUDPFDUHVLPSOHPHQWH]Hcomanada # include nume_fiLHU 2. Scrie LRIXQF LHFDUHHOLPLQWRDWHVSD LLOHVXSOLPHQWDUHdintr-o surs& 3. 6FULH LXQSURJUDPFDUHVYHULILFHLQFKLGHUHDFRUHFWDSDUDQWH]HORUntr-RVXUV& ,QGLFD LH: stiva. 4. Scrie LXQSURJUDPFDUHQXPUFDUDFWHUHOHFXYLQWHOHLOLQLLOHXQXLILLHU 5. 6FULH LXQSURJUDPFDUHSULPHWHFDDUJXPHQWHPDLPXOWHILLHUHLOHDILHD]SH ecran (un fel de type cu mai multe inturi )
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Cuprins Introducere in programare

Capitolul 1 1 Introducere...................................................................................................1 1.1 Programarea si limbaje de programare.....................................................3 1.2 Arhitectura unui sistem de calcul..3 1.3 Functionarea unui sistem de calcul ..4 1.4 Notiunea de algoritm .....6 1.5 Reperezentarea algorimilor...7 1.5.1 Metoda shemei logice....7 1.5.2 Metoda pseudocodului...8 Capitolul 2 2 Limbajul C.9 2.1 Structura generica a unui program scris in C.10 2.2 Etapele generarii unui program prornid de la o problema reala.10 Capitolul 3 3 Notiunea de variabila si tipuri de variabile....15 3.1 Initializarea variabilelor..16 3.2 Tipuri de variabile...17 Capitolul 4 4 Tipuri de date predefinite...18 4.1 Date numerice.18 4.1.1 Operatorul virgula ...19 4.2 Date alfanumerice...19 4.2.1 Caractere speciale de control.......20 4.3 Operatiuni simple de citire sau afisare a datelor.20 4.3.1 Functii de intrare sau iesire cu utilizatorul...21 Capitlul 5 5 Operatori ai limbajului C...24 5.1 Operatori aritmetici.24 5.2 Expresiile ...24 5.2.1 Ordinea de evaluare a expresiei...25 5.3 Tipuri aritmetice de date 26 5.4 Operatorii unari ++ si -- .27 5.5 Operatorii op=.27 5.6 Operatorii relationari si logici.27 5.7 Expresii logice complexe28 Capitolul 6 6 Instructiuni de selectie(decizie).31 6.1 Instructiune simpla de decizie31 6.2 instructiune de decizie multipla..35 Capitolul 7 7 Instructiuni de ciclare. Introducere38 7.1 Instructiuni cu un numar necunoscut de pasi..38
7.1.1 Instructiunea while...38 7.1.2 Instructiunea do .. while ..39 7.2 Instructiuni cu numar cunoscut de pasi ..41 7.3 Alte instructiuni..43 7.3.1 Instructiunea break..43 7.3.2 Instructiunea continue.43 7.3.3 Instructiunea goto nume_eticheta43 7.3.4 Instructiunea return..44 7.3.5 Constante simbolice.44 Capitolul 8 8 Masive de date. Tablouri45 8.1 Tablouri monodimensionale...45 8.1.1 Prelucrari simple cu vectori.45 8.1.2 Siruri de caractere48 8.2 Tablouri bidimensionale. Matrici49 Capitolul 9 9 Tipuri de date definite de utilizator51 9.1 Declararea unei structuri.51 9.2 Operatorul typedef..51 9.3 Accesarea membrilor unei structuri52 9.4 O structura in interiorul altei structuri53 9.5 Structuri autoreferite...54 9.6 Transferul structurilor ca argumente de functii..54 9.7 Returnarea unei structuri.54 9.8 Campuri de biti...55 9.9 Uniuni.55 9.10 Enumerari.59 Capitolul 10 10 Notiunea de functie.61 10.1 Declararea si definirea functiilor.62 10.1.1 Declararea functiilor.62 10.1.2 Declaratii implicite63 10.2 Definirea functiilor...63 10.3 Tipul de data void.66 10.4 Recursivitatea....73 10.5 Variabile globale...77 10.6 Macrouri78 10.7 Macrouri predefinite.79 10.7.1 ASSERT79 10.7.2 Macrouri specializate in clasificarea caracterelor.80 10.7.3 Macrodefinitii predefinite.81 Capitolul 11 11 Pointeri si alocare dinamica83 11.1 Introducere...83 11.1.1 Notiunea de pointer...83 11.1.2 Operatii aritmetice cu pointeri...85 11.1.3 Modele de memorie...86
11.2 Alocare dinamica..87 11.2.1 Introducere.87 11.2.2 Alocarea dinamica.88 11.2.3 Alocarea dinamica a tablourilor de date90 11.2.3.1 Alocarea tablourilor monodimensionale.91 11.2.3.2 Alocarea tablourilor bidimensionale...92 11.2.3.3 Alocarea tablourilor tridimensionale..93 11.3 Pointeri la structuri94 11.3.1 Accesul membrilor.94 11.3.2 Alocarea structurilor de date..94 11.3.3 Initializare si distrugere structuri...94 11.4 Declaratii complexe in C..96 11.5 Descifrarea declaratiilor complexe in C...96 11.6 Lucrul cu fisierele de date (I/O FILE) Streamuri100 11.6.1 Citirea si scrierea datelor.101 11.6.2 Lucrul la nivel de character..101 Capitolul 12 12 Facilitati de nivel scazut ale limbajului C..104 12.1 Functii pentru accesul direct la memorie104 12.2 Functii pentru accesul la porturile de intrare sau iesire..105 12.3 Functii pentru gestionarea intervalelor de timp..105 12.4 Functii pentru controlul sistemului de intreruperi..105 12.5 Functii pentru alocarea memoriei(prin DOS).106 12.6 Intreruperi software. Accesul la registrele procesorului.106 12.7 Functii pentru citirea sau modificare vectorilor de intrerupere..107 12.8 Apeluri de functii DOS...108 12.9 Functii pentru terminarea sau lansarea programelor...110 12.10 Dezvoltarea de cod in limbaj mixt(C si ASM).112 12.11 Tratarea dispozitivelor bus asincrone...113 Capitlul 13 13 Preprocesorul.115 13.1 Directiva nula.115 13.2.Directivele #define si #undef..115 13.3 Directiva #include...116 13.4 Directiva de compilare conditionata...116 13.5 Directiva line..116 13.6 Directiva #error...117 13.7 Directiva #pragma..117 Exemple121 Seturi de teme..143 Sintaxa ANSI151

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Introducere in programare

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short year; }birth_date

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int delete_file(char far *filename);

#define ER 0x1 #define RDY 0x2 #define RES 0x4

CAPITOLUL 13 13. Preprocesorul

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printf("n="); scanf("%d",&n); printf("p="); scanf("%d",&p); printf("q="); scanf("%d",&q);

for(i=0;i<n;i++) for(j=0;j<m;j++) { printf("m[%d,%d]=",i,j); scanf("%f",&a[i][j]); };

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Seturi de teme Introducere in programare

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