‘THE OXFORD SERIES IN ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER ENGINEERING [AneL S. Sepa Seis Eaitor, Electrical Engineving The Science ee ane ee d Engi . eee een ae oy ecupaee mon ars and Engineering ee eceeieeece ee a ee peney eerie, : : Seuiae meena: of Microelectronic Se ecdacncas Cee Ss Mey Daag ot Ed Fabricati eae eat Comer Dig Let and State Mechine Design, 3d Ea abrication Ce aia ica ted nd Sem Ande, SE ectearcer me au Dimiutiev. Understanding Seiconducir Devices SECOND EDITION Reena pee alae eenecnaeeens Cel aimee cache Laney & termes nt Seems mene mec oe oe Jee ction Oc Fe Conmmioion tens Stephen A. Campbell Kuo, Digital Control Systems, 3rd Ed. Lancet) of Mnestta) ties te iid log Comma Sems St Ek Se Dita mete Creat Des Carer Syl en fran dnb EEL nan aa Eecronepene Pilar bopes ‘Warner and Grung, Semiconductor Device Electronics New York OxfordOxfnd University Pree Oxo New York Atboge Abelard — Bangkok Boge Bocnge Aes Caleta Cape Towa. Chena Darep Solas Deli rene Hong Kong Ital Karachy Kola Compur Madi Meitgimne "Merce Giy Mba Natt Pass St Paulo Shanghah Sigapore Tape Tatjy Teron Wow sed oat compas in Beip ean Copy © 200 by Oxford Universi Press Publi by Oxford Univers Pes, ne. 13 Aan acu New Yok New York 10016. nfo segs une ofOnford Univers Pest All ight reserved. No prof hie publication maybe repodced, red ina eal syst, o ante, 12am or by any nears elecons, mesic, prcoping. econ. robe, without Pt emai of Oxo Unive Pes Lincary of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Campoat, ups A 15 Tf science a coginecing of mises fabcaowStephen A, Campbell — ‘cm. — (The Onesies ia lactic and computer einen) jcade ibigrpacl elec and index fewerssimas | Sonoita Desi adigstcon Tie Sess Spacer S ooesen2 £ ; Aa ad Mare “* Prinng angst 33798 6B ‘ing in the United Stas Arsen oni re pager Contents Preface — xii Part I Overview and Materials 1 Chapter 1 An Introduction to Microelectronic Fabrication 1.1 Microelectronic Technologies: A Simple Example 5S 1.2 UnitProcesses and Technologies 7 13 ARoadmapforthe Course 8 14 Summary 9 Chapter 2 Semiconductor Substrates 10 2.1 Phase Diagrams and Solid Solubility” 10 22 Ceystallography and Crystal Stoeture® 13 23 Crystal Defects 16 2.4 Caochralski Growth 24 25 Bridgman Growh ofGaas 29 26 Float Zone Growth 30 27 Wafer Preparation and Specifications 31 28 Summary and Fuure Trends 33 Problems 33 References 34 Part I Unit Process |: Hot Processing and lon Implantation 37 Chapter 3 Diffusion 39 ‘31 Fick's Diffusion Equation in One Dimension 39 3.2. Atomistic Models of Diffusion 47 Thin seion roid tack me3.3. Analytic Solutions of Fick's Law 45 ‘34 Corrections to Simple Theory 47 ‘33. Diffusion Coefiicients for Common Dopants 48 36 Analysis of Diffused Profiles 52 37 Diffusion in SiO, $9. 3.8 Diffusion Systems 60 3.9 SUPREM Simulations of Diffusion Profs 61 310 Summary 64 Problems 64 References 65 Chapter 4 Thermal Oxidation 68 "iL The Detl-Grove Model of Oxidation 68 42 The Linar and Parsboic Rae Coeficients 71 43° The nial Oxidation Regime 75 44 TheSinctueof SO. 76 43 Oniecharnseioaion "7 46 The Efe of Dopunts ring Oxidation and Poysiison Ouation 447. Oridton-Inducd Stacking Fats 86 48 Alleratve Gate Isolators? 88 43 Ouidaion Systems 50 4410 SUPREM Onidaions* 92 401 Summary 93 Problems 96 References 95 Chapter 5 lon implantation 98 ‘5.1 Ideatized fn implantation Systems 99 52 Coulomb Seattering® 104 53 Vertical Projected Range 105 5.4 Channing and Lateral Projected Range 110 55 Implantation Damage 112 5.6 Shallow Junction Formation’ 116 3.7 Buried Dielectrics” 118 ‘5.8 Ton Implancaion Systems: Problems and Concerns 120 5.9 Implanted Profiles Using SUPREM* 122 5.410 Summary 123, Problems 128, References 124 a genet Chapter 6 61 62 Rapid Thermal Processing 127 ness Gray Body Radiation, Heat Exchange, and Optical Absorption” High-Intensity Optical Sources and Chamber Design 130) ‘Temperature Measurement 133 ‘Thermoplastic Suess" 137 Rapid Thermal Activation of Impurities 138 Rapid Thermal Processing of Dielectrics 140 Silicidation and Contact Formation 141 Alternative Rapid Thermal Processing Systems 142 Summary M43 Problems 143 References 144 Unit Processes 2: Pattern Transfer Optical Lithography = 151 Lithography Overview 1ST Diffraction” 155 ‘The Modulation Transfer Function and Optical Exposures Source Systems and Spatial Coherence 159 ContacuProximity Printers 165 Projection Printers 167 ‘Advanced Mask Concepts" 172 Surface Reflections and Standing Waves 176 Alignment 178 Summary 179 Problems 180 References 180 149 Photoresists 183 Photoresist Types 183 Organic Materials and Polymers? 184 ‘Typical Reactions of DQN Positive Photoresist_ 186 Contrast Curves 187 ‘The Critical Modulation Transfer Function 190 Applying and Developing Phtoresist 191 Second-Order Exposure Effects 195 Ademcd Peed ire Ps” gs 158 12889 Chapter 10 101 102 103 104 103 106 107 108 Chapter 11 na na 03 us us us uz us Summary 200 Problems 200 References 202 Nonoptical Lithographic Techniques” 205 Interactions of High-Energy Beams with Mater” 205 Direc Weite Electron Beam Lithograpty Systems 208 Direct Write Electron Beam Lithography Summary and Outlook 214 X-Ray Sources? 216 Proximity X-Ray Exposure Systems 219) Membrane Masks 221 Projection X-Ray Lithography 224 Projection Electon-Beam Lithography (SCALPEL) 225 E-Beam and X-Ray Resists 227 Radiation Damage in MOS Devices 228 Sommary 230 Problems 231 References 231 Vacuum Science and Plasmas 9 236 ‘The Kinetic Theory of Gasses*™ 236, Gas Flow and Conductance 239 Pressure Ranges and Vacuum Pumps 240 ‘Vacuum Seals and Presure Measurement 267 ‘The DC Glow Discharge” 249 RF Discharges 251 High-Density Plasmas 252 Summary 255 Problems 255 References 256 Etching 258 Wetting "259 Chemica Mechanical Polishing 264 Base Regimes of lama Ecing. 265 Tigi Pessore Plasma ching 257 teeing 274 Rewtve lu Biching 27 Damage in Reactive on ihing® 281 Tigh Denity Plasma (HDP) Etching. 282 ns m0 Part IV Chapter 12 ma 122 123 2s 23 126 a7 ae Be 210 ru y212 113 as Chapter 13 13 B2 53 bs Bs 136 7 138 139 cots ix Liftrt 283, Summary 285 Problems 285 References 286 Unit Processes 3: Thin Films 293 Physical Deposition: Evaporation and Sputtering 295 Phase Diagrams: Sublimation and Evaporation’ 296 Deposition Racs 297 Sepeoverge 301 Evaporator Systems: Crile Heating Tesniqnes 302 Malicomponet Fins 30¢ Antnvoduston to Spuceing 305 Pyne of Spring” 306 Deposition Rat: Sputer Yield 308 igh Densiy lama Spotering 310 Moricogy and StepCoverge 312 Sputesng Methods. 315 Spoteringof Specific Maeals 317 Stress in Beposted Layers 319 Summary 320 Prien 321 References 322 Chemical Vapor Deposition 326 [A Simple CVD System forthe Deposition of Silicon 326, Chemical Equilibrium and the Law of Mass Action” — 328 Gas Flow and Boundary Layers? 331 Evaluation ofthe Simple CVD System 336 ‘Atmospheric CVD of Disecrics 337 Low-Pressute CVD of Dielectrics and Semiconductors in Ht Wall Systems 339 lastna-Enhanced CVD of Dielectrics 343, Metal CVD" 347 Summary 350 Problems 350 References 351eres Chapter 14 14 42 43 14 15 46 a7 48 9 110 10 112 wn “i Part V Chapter 15 1st 132 B3 159 15.10 1a Chapter 16 164 162 163 164 Epitaxial Growth = 355 ‘Wafer Cleaning and Native Oxide Removal 356 ‘The Thermodynamics of Vapor-Phase Growth 360 Surface Reactions 364 Dopant Incorporation 365 Defecs in Epitaxial Growth 366 Selective Growth” 368. Halide Transport GaAs Vapor-Phase Epitaxy 369) Incommensurate and Strained Layer Heteroepitaxy 370 Metal Organic Chemical Vapor Deposition (MOCVD) 373 ‘Advanced Silicon Vapor-Phase Epitaxial Growth Techniques 378. Molecular Beam Epitaxy Technology 381 BCF Theory? 386 Gas Source MBE and Chemical Beam Fpitaxy* 391 Summary 392 Problems 392 References 393 Process Integration 399 Device Isolation, Contacts, and Metallization 401 Sanetion and Oxide Isolation 401 LOCOS Methods 404 Trench lolaion 407 Silicon on Insulator Ioation Techniques 411 Semi-insulating Substrates 412 Schottky Contacts 41d Implanted Ohmic Contacts 418 Alloyed Contacts 421 Mulilevel Metlizaion 423, Planarizaton and Advanced Interconnect 428 Summary 432 Problems 433 References 434 CMOS Technologies 439 Basic Long Channel Device Behavior 39 Eaty MOS Technolgies 441 “The Base Sum Tecnology 442 Device Sing 437 165 166 167 168 169 Chapter 17 in 2 3 14 a3 176 i Chapter 18 iat 2 183 184 185 186 187 188 189 Chapter 19 ist 192 193 198 133 135 197 98 coe Hot Cari Efects and Drain Engineering 455 Processing for Robust Oxides 458 Latehup 459 _ Shallow Source/Drains and Tailored Channel Doping 461 Summary 464 Problems 464 References 466 GaAs Technologies 471 Basic MESFET Operation 471 Basic MESFET Technology 472 Digital Technologies 474 MMIC Technologies 478 MODFETs 480 Optoelectronic Devices 482 Summary 484 Problems 484 References 485 Silicon Bipolar Technologies 488 Review of Bipolar Devices: Ideal and Quasideal Behavior 488, Second-Oxder Elects 489 Performance of BITs 491 Early Bipolar Processes 494 ‘Advanced Bipolar Processes 495 Hot Electro Effects in Bipolar Transistors S04 BICMOS 508 Analog Bipolar Technologies $07 Summary 508 Problems 508 References 510 MEMS = 514 Fundamentals of Mechanics SIS Stress in Thin Fits 517 Mechanical to Blectical Transduction S18 ‘Mechanies of Common MEMS Devices 523 Bulk Micromachining Eching Techniques $27 Bulk Micromachining Process Flow 535, Surface Micromachining Basics $40 Surface Micromachining Process Plow S44MEMs Actuators 546 High Aspect Raton Microsystems Technology (HARMST) 551 Summary Problems 554 References 557 Chapter 20. Integrated Circuit Manufacturing 559 Fo Yrliteticconand Yield Tracking 60 32 Paaleceel 505 5 Sst! Press Conta 209 Salta Cxptments and ANOVA 569 25 Deumoreeenmen 57 sae ConpuerincgtetMenfatsing 578 any carey gor Prniers 578 otecnss 578 Appendix I. Acronyms and Common Symbols | 580 Appendix I. Properties of Selected ™ Semiconductor Materials 585 Appendix 111, Physical Constants 586 ‘Appendix 1V. Conversion Factors 588 Appendix V. Some Properties of the Error Function 591 Appendix VI. FValues 595 Appendix Vit. SUPREM Commands 597 Index 599 —<$—$——_—_—_—_—_—_—_[___=—=_=_—————— Preface “The inet of his book is stroducemicroclectnicprocesicg to & wile audience wrote it asa textbook for senior andor firet-year graduate student Dut i may also be used asa ference for provtcing professionals The goal hasbeen to provide a took hati ety to fed and understand Bath sion and GaAs procestes and wchaolgis are covered, although the emphasis on ilicon: thsedtecologies. The took assumes ove yar of physic, one year of mathematics (Owough simple ‘erential equation) and one cure in chemistry. Most sade with electrical engineering bck founds wil lo have ad at est one course in semiconductor physics and devices including pe Jnctons and MOS transistors. This material extremely wel forthe lst Bie chapters an Te ‘iced inthe fst sections of Capers 16,17, nd 8 for sodens who havent seen it before or Rnd that bey area bit uty. One course in Bak attics also encourage bit ist require fo this ‘Microeectonice textbooks neces vie the fabrication sequence into a mer of unit cones ae pate to frm be nega sit The ffs five the book a ervey ‘or a numberof loosely related opce cach wit is owa background mate. Most sont have “dtc ecaling al of te Dackground materia. They have ten it once, two oF thee year and ‘mary fil exan ago ts iporian that his flamer matralbe reestablished before stdying ‘ew materia, Dnrtated through each caper of ths Book are reviews ofthe sence that underies the engincrng. These sections marked with an", so hep maketh dsinction between the i Imuable scat lews andthe ppton of those Inv, with all he aendant approximations and ‘aveatsothetecialogy at and Optical lidoraphy, fr iestance, aay have sited Wie, bat i Fedee wil always be with us. "A secon cen dh rises in teaching tis type ofcourse thatthe solution of he eustons describing the proves often cannot te done anlyicl’. Comer difsion as an example. Fick's Ts hav analyte solutions, bot hey ae only vali in very rested parameter space. Predepos hom dffixons ee done a igh concentrations at which tne smplifyig ssumpsion used in he Sld- hom eivaton ae snply not vali. In the ares of iograpey even the simpiest solutions ofthe Fas fel equations are beyond the scope ofthe bok. I thi text a widely wed simulation program ced 'SUPREM I's been used fo provide more meaningful exipls ofthe sot of real-word dopant ‘edistibution problems tat he mirolectone fabrication engineer might ace. The sofware {ended to agen nt eplace, leaning the frdsoentalequaans tht describe microelectronic po ‘coving. pie instalatons inhale VAX-, SUN, Apollo, and DOS-bsed microcomputers. The ‘ook lve niches the bare teri with aditonl seins and chapters on proces iniepration fr ‘avlou tecnologie ad on ware danced processes. This dional material cin sections atk with 1" tie doce mat poi covering these restos, hey my be omited without loss of the isi coment of te cour “The econ edion ax aed ari of opt keep itcanent. Most otably ew chaps ten ad orf! new aplatons fr microfabrication roses. Called ecelecroretanialeee syst (MEMS), his etiting ea promise to oem p many rew ares fr microfabrication. The new ‘Chop 19 was wine by Br Gregory Cnc fo fanages he Mirtehnology Laboratory athe ‘versity of Minna and has worked on MEMS fr a mor of yeas. If yo have questions oom ‘moms on hi aren you can contact Gog rectly at hurr @ece un ial, os has to acknowedge tht omar how man ines this materials eviews i cannot be ptameed o be fe ofall the Caopetlly) nina eos. othe past, pulses have pro- “ied rata when eror were sucienly numerous or egresios. Even when eala ae published. They ave ver fc to gto the people who have already bought the book. This means the he trope ears often unaware of mt ofthe cores url anew or revised eon ofthe bok is ‘elwsed. Ths book wll hve an ema ha anyone can aces at any ime. We wll ao provide ‘rior adios to the book Bat were not vba press me. You ean cess the fe by going 0 the Oxford University Presa web ste forth Book, pr cap-esa cr/sbo0 9536085 nh ‘Rs me goes on {wil be adding other minor updates new topics on this site as wel I youd ‘Cenehng tat you fecl nods cerecton or clnctinn in he bo, | eve yout ny me ay ‘mal ediess,Campbellece unm ed, Please be suet lace yeu jutifeaton ching publishes telerences Minneapolis sac. The Science and Engineering of Microelectronic FabricationPart I Overview and Materials scours is enlike many tat you my have lake nth the mater that wil be covered is [Pmsily x mumber of Unit processes th ae ute distinct or each ler. The bok then [eth fave ofa survey of topes hat wil Be covered rae than a linear progression, This pat ut he bak wil ay the foundations Hat il be unde Ine etn he various abc Son process. “The fist chaper wil provide a roadmap of the cour aan ineoduction to intgrate crit fabcaion. The process that are Grove giveth and Gates ies asaya he sigan taketh away. Semiconductor technology, the fabocation of imegsed esisrs, is teed to demonstrate a flow of tes poceses which we wil ella \echnology. Extensions of the tehnalogy to inte capacitors an MOSFETe ae also discos. The secon chapter wil nroce the opie of eystal growth and wafer radon, The chap ter contain base mars information ikst will be used thoughout the rest of the book, Tas Incldes erst siete and erste defen, phase diagrams, andthe concept of sla slut ‘Unt he eer uit processes hat wil be covered ia te ltr chapirs, very few imegrae cic Tabcabon faites actualy grow their own wafers, The lope of wafer producion, Nowever. ‘emonsates some of the important properties of semicondctor ails that wl be portant both Shoring he fabrication proce and to the evel yee and performance ofthe seated eit. The ‘ferences nthe production of siiconand GaAs waters are dscessed,Chapter 1 An Introduction to Microelectronic Fabrication “The eens industry has gon rp inthe pst four dead. This growth has ben ven y 2 ‘volun in rotten sry 1D puting moe than oe tei on ie of Sei ‘Coocer wis considered outing edge: Iga circuits (1s) contain eso devies were unheard ‘ST Dipl computes were large slow and exer coy Bell Lab, which had invent ihe tas {eea decade ear rected the concept of ICs, They reasood ta in ert schiewe working ecu ‘Slate descr mut work Therefore thave a SU pohly of uncon for 20 asso ce ‘isthe probably of device funtonaliy mst be (5) = 0966, or 9666. This was considered to betidiculusy optimistic tthe me, ye ay integrated cuits are ult wih ions of sists Bary tanitors were made fem grnaiom, bt most reais ae now made on sion si strates. We wl therefore emphasize silicon nis book. The second most popular material for bul ing 1s i alm arvenige(OuAs). Where appropriate, the book wil cus the processes rouired (Or GaAsiC. Aldwugh GaAs ha higher electron mobil than sco, it als has several seve {Dnitatons including low hole mobility, las sabi daring thermal pocesing, poor thermal ‘hide, high cost an perhaps most ioral, much higher defect dense, Silom bas therefore fecsse the material choice fr bphly imtgrted cea, and GaAs is teserved for ccs that pea avery high spends bt wid low to moderate levels of iteration. Curent he most om ‘on appa of GuAs i analog seats operving ot speeds in excess ofa gigabers (10 Hr). ‘Moe seventy mietoelectone farcaon fests have because 1 bull a vary of sorts Incloing micromagntics, optical devies, and micromechanical scares, Insane cases these ‘Hévure hve ap been imegrted into chipe conainingelcronic crit. A poplar nonlec- tronic splcation, sicromecharical (MEMS) swactures wil be introduced ater nhs book. “Tohart the proper of slcon microelectronics it i easiest follow one typeof chip. Mem cory cigs ave hd essen he se fonction fox mary years, aking his eype of says mean Sect Hentermore they ar extremely regula a can be soldi age volumes, making technology seteaaion forthe ep esgn eco, Ar x esl memory chips have te highest densi of [Svea Fae shows te enaiyoféymamicandom access memories (DRAMS) a8 faztin of tine. Toe vetcal axis logan, The density ofthese circus increase by increments of 4. Ech of tose ierements takes aprons thee years. One ofthe most fundameatal changes the fbrcaion proces that allow this techology evlutin iste mii fete size hat canbe 3 ____e@ FO