Lng H

Lng H l tn gi ca mt vng a l v ca mt nn vn minh ni gm lnh th Iraq, ng Syria, ng nam Th Nh K, v ty nam Iran hin i. Tn gc ca n xut pht t ting Hy Lp "gia" v "sng", ch hai vng chu th sng Euphrates v sng Tigris cng nh vng t nm gia chng. Tng t, trong ting rp n c gi l Bayn Nahrain "gia hai con sng". Vng a l c cung cp nc t hai con sng thng c gi l "Ci ni ca Vn minh", bi chnh ti y nhng x hi tri thc u tin pht trin t cui thin nin k th 4 trc Cng Nguyn. T Lng H (mesopotamia) c to ra trong giai on Hy Lp v khng h c bin gii r rng xc nh vng ny, ch mt vng a l rng ln v c l c ngi Seleucid s dng. Vng ny tng tr thnh mt tnh ca ch La M trong mt thi gian ngn thi Trajan, vi tn gi Provincia Mesopotamia. Cc nh hc gi cho rng thut ng biritum/birit narim trong ting Akkad tng ng vi mt khi nim a l v xut hin thi vng ny ang tri qua giai on Aramaic ho[1]. Tuy nhin, mt iu cng c nhiu ngi chp nhn rng nhng x hi Lng H sm n gin ch phn nh ton b nhng vng bi tch, kalam trong ting Sumer (dch ngha "t ai"). Nhng thut ng gn y hn nh "i Lng H" hay "Lng H Syria" c chp nhn vi ngha ch mt vng a l rng hn tng ng vng Cn ng hay Trung ng. Nhng tn khc sau ny u l cc thut ng do ngi Chu u t cho n khi h ti xm chim vng t ny vo gia th k 19[2].

Lch s

Bn tng quan Lng H c i Lch s Lng H bt u t s xut hin ca nn vn minh ti min nam Iraq vo thin nin k th 4 trc Cng Nguyn cho ti khi Alexander i ti y vo th k th 4 trc Cng Nguyn (y c coi l thi im bt u s Hy Lp ho vng Cn ng, v th cng nh du s "chm dt" ca Lng H). Thng thng, mi ngi cho rng c mt s ni tip vn ho v ng nht khng gian cho ton b thi gian lch s a l ny ("Truyn thng V i"), d cn mt s im cha r rng. Lng H l ni tn ti ca mt s vng quc c nht th gii, vi trnh t chc x hi mc cao v phc tp. Vng ny l mt trong bn nn vn minh pht sinh dc theo cc con sng ni ting trn th gii, ni pht minh ra ch vit, cng vi ng bng chu th sng Nile ti Ai Cp, chu th sng Indus ti Tiu lc a n v chu th sng Hong H ti Trung Quc. Lng H cng l ni pht sinh ca nhiu thnh ph c tm quan trng lch s nh Uruk, Nippur, Nineveh v Babylon cng nh nhiu vng quc rng ln khc nh vng quc Akkadian, Vng triu Ur th ba v ch Assyri. Mt s nh lnh o ni ting trong lch s Lng H l Ur-Nammu (Vua x Ur), Sargon (ngi thnh lp nn Vng quc Akkad), Hammurabi (ngi thnh lp quc gia Babylon c), Tiglath-Pileser I (ngi thnh lp ch Assyri), v Tigranes i (ngi thnh lp ch Armenia). "Lng H c i" bao gm giai on t cui thin nin k th 4 trc Cng Nguyn cho ti khi nhng ngi Achaemenid tri dy vo th k th 6 trc Cng Nguyn. Khong thi gian di ny c th c phn chia thnh nhng giai on nh sau:

"Cc nn vn ho" Hassuna, Samarra v Halaf (Cui thi mi) Giai on Ubaid (khong 5900 TCN - 4000 TCN) Giai on Uruk (khong 4000 TCN - 3100 TCN) Giai on Jemdet Nasr (khong 3100 TCN - 2900 TCN)

Cc triu i thnh bang sm (khong 2900-2350 TCN) ch Akkadia (khong 2350 BC - 2193 TCN). Vng triu Ur th ba ("S phc hng ca Sumer" hay "Giai on Tn Sumer") (khong 2119 TCN - 2204 TCN) Vng quc Assyria sm khong th k th 20 ti th k th 18 TCN Triu i Babylon u tin khong th k th 18 ti th k th 17 TCN Triu i Kassite, Giai on gia Assyria khong th k th 16 ti 12 TCN Thi k en ti khong th k th 12 ti 10 TCN Tn ch Assyria khong th k th 10 ti 7 TCN Tn ch Babylon khong th k th 7 ti 6 TCN

Ngy thng thuc thin nin k th hai v th ba trc Cng Nguyn ch gn ng; so snh Bng nin i Cn ng C i.

Ngn ng v ch vit
Ngn ng vit sm nht ti Lng H l ting Sumer, mt t ng. Cc hc gi ng rng nhiu ngn ng khc cng c s dng Lng H trong thi k u song song vi ting Sumer. Sau ny Ting Semit, ting Akkad, dn tr thnh ngn ng ph thng, d ting Sumer vn c gi li s dng trong hnh chnh, tn gio, vn hc, v khoa hc. Nhiu bin th khc nhau ca ting Akkad vn c s dng cho ti cui thi k Tn Babalon. Sau , ting Aramaic, vn tr thnh ph thng ti Lng H, tr thnh ngn ng chnh thc ca triu i Achaemenid thuc ch Ba T. Ting Akkad b b ri, nhng c n v ting Sumer vn c s dng trong cc ngi n trong mt s th k.

Cc th vin v bo tng hong gia

Mt trong nhng b su tp vn bn ch hnh nm ln nht thuc cc vn kh ca Ashurbanipal, nh lnh o Assyria. Khong nm 650 TCN ng quyt nh thnh lp mt th vin ti Nineveh. Bi v mi ngi n ti Babylonia u c th vin, ng c cc s thn ti thu thp cc vn bn khc ti . Nu ngi n no t chi trao nhng vn bn ca mnh, cc v s thn s tin hnh sao chp li. Ch mt thi gian ngn, th vin hong gia ti Nineveh tr thnh th vin ln nht Assyria. a s nhng g chng ta hin bit v Lng H c i u c c th vin ny. Vua Babylon, Nebuchadnezzar II, thnh lp mt bo tng, ni trng by mt s bc tng, cc vt v mt s vn bn. y l mt v d v vn hc Babylon.

Khoa hc v k thut
C dn Lng H pht trin nhiu k thut nh gia cng kim loi, lm knh, dt vi, trng cy v tch tr nc cng nh ti tiu. H cng l nhng c dn u tin trn tri t tin vo thi k ng. Ban u h s dng ng , ng thau v vng, sau ny h s dng st. Nhng cung in c trang tr bng hng trm cn nhng kim loi qu gi

. Tng t, ng , ng thau v st cng c dng lm o gip cng nh cc loi v kh khc nhau nh kim, dao gm, gio, v chy.

Ton hc
Bi chi tit: Ton hc Babylon Ngi dn Lng h s dng h thng s m cn bn 60. y l ngun gc ca gi 60 pht v ngy 24 gi hin nay, cng nh vng trn 360 . Lch Summer cng tnh theo tun by ngy. S hiu bit ton hc ny c s dng trong vic lp bn .

Thin vn hc
Nhng nh thin vn hc Babylon rt ch tm nghin cu cc ngi sao v bu tri, v a s h c th d on cc k nht nguyt thc v cc im ch. Con ngi cho rng mi hin tng thin vn hc u c mt mc ch no . a s chng c lin quan ti tn gio v cc im bo hiu. Cc nh thin vn Lng H to ra lch 12 thng da trn nhng vng quay ca mt trng. H chia nm lm hai ma: ma h v ma ng. Nhng ngun gc ca thin vn hc c l bt u t thi im ny.

Tn gio
Tn gio Lng H l tn gio c nht c ghi chp ti ngy nay. Ngi dn Lng H tin rng th gii l mt ci a phng, c bao quanh bi mt khong khng gian to ln v trng rng, pha trn th gii l thin ng. H cng tin rng nc c mt mi ni, trn, di, v hai bn, v rng v tr sinh ra t trong bin c v bin . Tn gio Lng H l a thn gio, ngi dn y tin vo rt nhiu v thn. D nhng nim tin c miu t nh trn l iu thng thng i vi mi ngi dn Lng H, vn c mt s khc bit theo tng vng. T ca ngi Summer ch v tr l an-ki, gm tn nam thn An v n thn Ki. Con ca h l Enlil, v thn khng kh. H tin rng Enlil l v thn c nhiu quyn lc nht. ng ta l ngi ng u cc thn Pantheon, tng t thn Zeus ca ngi Hy Lp v thn Jupiter ca ngi La M. Ngi Sumer cng t t ra mt s cu hi trit hc nh: Chng ta l ai? Chng ta ang u? Ti sao chng ta li y. H cho rng nhng cu hi s c cc v thn linh ca h gii p. Nu ai b m, h s cu nguyn cc v thnh c lnh bnh. Nh cp trn, cc bc s Lng H khng c trnh cao v y hc, v th ngi dn phi trng i s gip ca cc thnh thn.

Nhng v thn u tin

Anu l v thn bu tri ca ngi Sumer. ng ly n thn Ki, nhng trong mt s tn gio Lng H, ng c mt ngi v tn l Ura.

Marduk l v thn chnh ca Babylon. Ngi dn ca ngi ng, v th ng s cho php Babylon t mt nc nh tr thnh mt ch hng mnh. Gula,*Utu (cng c gi l ama hay Sahamash) l v thn mt tri. Ishtar l n thn tnh yu v tnh dc. Enlil l v thn nhiu quyn lc nht trong tn gio Lng H. V ng l Ninlil, v cc con ca ng gm Inanna, Ikur, Nanna-Suen, Nergal, Ninurta, Pabilsag, Nushu, Utu, Ura Zababa v Ennugi. Nabu l v thn ch vit Lng H. ng rt t t, v c knh trng v ti vit ch ca mnh. mt s ni, ng c cho l ngi kim sot thin ng v tri t. Ikur (hay Adad) l v thn ca cc cn bo. Ninurta l v thn chin tranh ca ngi Sumer. ng cng l v thn ca nhng ngi anh hng. Inanna, v n thn tnh yu v chin tranh ca Sumer, cng l v ca Ninurta. Pazuzu, cng c gi l Zu, l v thn ma qu, ngi ly trm nhng t giy s mnh ca Enlil v v th b git. ng cng l ngi mang n bnh dch khng th cu cha.

Tang l
Cc nh kho c hc tm thy hng trm ngi m mt s ni ti Lng H. Nhng ngi m y k li cho chng ta nhiu iu v phong tc tang l Lng H. Ti thnh ph Ur, a s mi ngi c chn trong nhng ngi m gia nh bn di nh h. Tr em c t trong nhng chic bnh ln v c mang ti nh nguyn gia nh. Nhng ngi khc c chn trong ngha trang chung ca thnh ph. Mt s ngi c qun trong nhng chic chiu v thm. Trong a s cc ngi m, mt s vt c nhn ca ngi cht c chn cng h, v c 17 ngi m c nhng vt qu, v th chng c cho l nhng ngi m ca hong gia.

Ziggurat
Ziggurat l nhng ngi n to ln c xy dng cng t cc v thn. Chng c xy bng t st v bn v c ba hay bn phn. Chng c xy rt cao lun c gi kh ro bi thi y thng xuyn xy ra nhng trn l lt. Cn nhiu nhn cng xy dng mt ziggurat. t nht phi c ngi o t st, lm gch, v xp nhng vin gch li vi nhau. Nhng vin gch c lm bng bn v sy p. Ch ziggurat ti Ur cn tn ti ti ngy nay bi nhng ngi xy dng chng sau ny nhn ra rng vic nung t st s khin nhng vin gch c tui th lu hn. Nhng ziggurat c xy dng theo hnh kim t thp, vi nhng bc thang dn ln mt phng trn nh - rt ging nhng vn treo. Chng c xy trng ging nh nhng ngn ni, v ngi dn mun c c s cy g v cc khong cht phong ph nh ngn ni Zargos, nm gia Lng h v nc Iran hin nay, cng nh bi ni l ni tr ng ca cc v thn, v vic xy dng mt hn ni gi khin con ngi gn gi hn vi cc v thnh thn cng nh s thng xuyn c tha hu hn khi lun c cc v thn bn cnh.

Vn ho
m nhc v bi ht
Nhng bi ht c sng tc ca ngi cc v thn thnh, nhng cng c nhiu bi ht ghi li cc s kin quan trng. D m nhc v cc bi ht l tiu khin cho cc v vua v cc quan cai tr, chng cng c nhiu ngi dn thng hm m v h thng ht, nhy ma ti nh ring hay ti cc khu ch. Nhng bi ht c dy cho tr em v tr em li truyn li cho cc th h sau . Nh th nhng bi ht c lu truyn cho ti khi c ai vit li chng. Nhng bi ht l phng tin lu tr cc thng tin quan trng qua nhiu th k v cc s kin lch s cn li n chng ta ngy nay. Oud (ting Rp: )l mt nhc c dy nh. Bc tranh c nht v Oud c t giai on Uruk pha Nam Lng H hn 5000 nm trc. N hin ti Bo tng Anh v do Tin s Dominique Collon tm thy. Hnh nh th hin mt ph n ngi bn cc nhc c trn mt chic thuyn, chi bng tay phi. Nhc c ny xut hin hng trm ln trong lch s Lng H v ti hin c thi Ai Cp c i t vng triu th 18 tr v sau, nhc c c cc bin th c di v ngn mi. Oud c coi l tin thn ca so Chu u. Tn ca n xut pht t al-d (g) trong ting Rp, c l l loi cy c g dng ch to ra oud.

Ngh thut
Hi ha

iu khc

Mu vi cc ch tng hnh, 3500 TCN Ashmolean Museum, Oxford

Mt n, 2500-2400 TCN<>bo tng Louvre, Paris

Gii tr
Cc v vua Assyri thng i sn bn. Nhng cnh m bc v u vt thng c th hin trong ngh thut, v polo cng c th l mn th thao ph thng, d khi chi mt ngi s ngi ln vai ca ngi kia thay v ci nga. [3]. H cng chi tr board game tng t nh hin nay.

Cuc sng gia nh

T l t vong tr em ln ti t 75 n 95 phn trm, ch con ci hong gia v cc gia nh giu c cng nh cc th chuyn mn, hc gi, cc bc s, thy tu vn vn c ti trng. a s tr em trai c tip tc lm cng vic ca cha mnh hay i ra ngoi hc bun bn[4]. Tr em gi nh cng m, hc ni tr v chm sc nhng a em nh hn. Mt iu kh l thi im , ph n cng c quyn. H c th s hu ti sn v nu c l do, c th ly hn.

Nng nghip
Ngun cung cp lng thc ti Lng H kh phong ph nh v tr gia hai con sng, cng l ngun gc tn gi ca vng ny, sng Tigris v sng Euphrates. Nhng vng t gn sng mu m hn v thun li hn cho trng cy, nhiu vng t xa ngun nc kh v thng khng c ngi . iu ny gii thch ti sao s pht trin h thng ti tiu rt quan trng i vi nhng ngi dn nh c ti Lng H. Nhng pht kin mi ca Lng H cn bao gm vic kim sot nc bng p v s dng knh dn nc. Nhng ngi nh c u tin vng t mu m Lng H s dng nhng chic cy g lm mm t trc khi trng cy la mch, hnh, nho, c ci, v to. Nhng ngi dn Lng H cng l mt trong nhng ngi u tin bit lm bia v nu ru. Thi tit kh on nh ca Lng H l mt tr ngi i vi nhng ngi nng dn; ma mng thng b tht bt v th nhng ngun lng thc d tr nh b v cu cng c pht trin. Nh kh nng trng cy lng thc ti tnh, nhng ngi dn Lng H khng phi ph thuc vo n l lm vic ng ng, ch tr mt s ngoi l nh. Cng c nhiu nguy c c th gp khi s dng n l (v d b trn/hay ni lon). H sng nhng vng t c gi l vng t hnh trng li lim mu m.

Triu nh
Vua cha
Nhng ngi dn Lng H tin rng vua v n hong ca h l con chu ca thn linh, nhng khng ging nhng ngi Ai Cp c i, h khng bao gi tin rng cc v vua l nhng v thn thc s[5]. a s cc v vua u t phong l vua ca v tr hay vua v i. Mt ci tn khc cng thng c dng l "ngi chn dt", bi cc v vua phi trng nom thn dn ca mnh. Nebuchadrezzar II l v vua hng mnh nht ti Babylonia. ng cho rng mnh l con trai ca thn Nabu. ng ci con gi Cyaxeres, v th cc triu i Median v Babylonia c mi quan h gia nh vi nhau. Tn ca Nebuchadnezzar c ngha: Nabo, bo v vng triu! Belshedezzar l v vua cui cng ca Babylonia. ng l con trai ca Nabonidus v Nictoris, con gi Nebuchadnezzar. V vua u tin ca triu i Ur (khong nm 2560 TCN) l Mesanepada. ng bin Ur thnh thnh ph chnh ca Sumer. Triu i Ur khong 25632387 TCN

25632524: Mesannepadda 25232484: A'annepadda 24832448: Meskiagnunna 24472423: Elulu 24222387: Balulu

Triu i Lagash khong 24942342 TCN

24942465: Ur-Nanshe 24642455: Akurgal 24542425: Ennatum 24242405: Enannatum I 24022375: Entemena 23742365: Enannatum II 23642359: Enentarzi 23582352: Lugal-anda 23512342: Uru-inim-gina

Triu i Uruk khong 2340-2316 TCN

23402316: Lugal-zaggesi

Triu i Akkad khong 2334-2154 TCN

23342279: Sargon 22782270: Rimush

Quyn lc
Khi Assyria ln mnh thnh mt ch, n b chia thnh nhng phn nh hn, c gi l cc tnh. Mi tnh c t tn theo thnh ph chnh ti , nh Nineveh, Samaria, Damascus v Arpad. Tt c tnh u c th hin ring, th hin m nhim vai tr thu thu: ng cng gi nhim v tp trung binh s cho chin tranh, v cung cp nhn lc khi xy dng n miu. Th hin cng c trch nhim thc thi lut php. Nh vy h c th d dng kim sot c mt ch nh Assyria. D Babylon l mt thnh bang kh nh ca Sumer, v n ln mnh ln rt nhiu sau thi k cai tr ca Hammurabi. ng c gi l "ngi to lut php", v Babylon nhanh chng tr thnh mt trong nhng thnh ph chnh ca Lng H. Sau ny n c gi l Babylonia, c ngha "cng ng ca cc v thnh." N cng tr thnh trung tm hc vn ln nht thi i.

Chin tranh
Khi cc thnh bang bt u pht trin, vng nh hng ca chng chng ln ln nhau, to ra nhng cuc xung t, c bit v t ai v nhng con knh. Nhng cuc xung t c ghi li trn nhng bng ghi chp hng trm nm trc khi cuc chin ln n ra cuc chin u tin c ghi li xy ra vo khong nm 3200 TCN, nhng ch sau nm 2500 TCN nhng cuc chin tranh mi tr thnh iu thng nht. thi im ny chin tranh kt hp vo bn trong h thng chnh tr Lng H, mt thnh bang trung lp c th hnh ng nh mt trng ti cho hai bn tranh chp. iu gip hnh thnh cc lin minh gia cc thnh bang, dn ti vic thnh lp cc thnh bang theo vng[6]. Khi cc ch thnh hnh, chng tip tc tin hnh chin tranh vi nc ngoi. V d, vua Sargon, chinh phc tt c cc thnh ph ca Sumer, mt s thnh ph ti Mari, v sau gy chin vi Bc Syria. Nhiu bc tng cung in Babylonia c trang hong bng nhng bc tranh th hin nhng trn thng trc k th, binh lnh i ch hoc ang b chy trong tuyt vng, hoc ang trn trnh trong nhng m lau sy. Mt v vua Sumer, Gilgamesh, c cho l hai phn ba thn thnh v ch mt phn ba con ngi. C nhng cu chuyn huyn thoi v nhng bi th v ng, c truyn li qua nhiu th h, bi ng tin hnh nhiu cuc phiu lu mo him c cho l rt quan trng v ginh thng li trong nhiu cuc chin.

Lut php
Vua Hammurabi, nh c cp trn, l ngi ni ting vi B lut Hammurabi (c to ra khong nm 1780 TCN), y l mt trong nhng b lut sm nht c tm thy cng nh l mt v d c bo tn tt nht nht v kiu vn bn ny t thi Lng H c i. Xem Hammurabi v Lut Hammurabi.

Trong lut Hammurabi c 282 iu tn bo. V vy ngi dn s phi khip s m tun th.

Kin trc
Vic nghin cu kin trc Lng H c i da trn nhng bng chng kho c hc, nhng bc tranh th hin cc cng trnh v nhng vn bn miu t li vic xy dng. Nhng vn bn ca cc hc gi thi trc thng c lu gi trong cc n, trn nhng bc tng thnh ph, trn nhng cnh cng v trn nhng cng trnh lng m, nhng thnh thong chng cng xut hin trn cc cng trnh nh ca dn c.[7] Vic nghin cu b mt kin trc cng cho php c ci nhn v hnh thc thnh th ti cc thnh ph bui u lch s Lng H. Nhng tn tch ni ting nht t thi Lng H l cc t hp n ti Uruk t thin nin k th 4 trc Cng Nguyn, nhng n i v cung in t cc a im thuc Triu i sm ti thung lng Sng Diyala nh Khafajah v Tell Asmar, nhng tn tch ca Triu i Ur th 3 ti Nippur (in th Enlil) v Ur (in th Nanna), nhng tn tch gia Thi ng ti cc a im Syria v Th Nh K Ebla, Mari, Alalakh, Aleppo v Kultepe, nhng cung in giai on cui thi ng Bogazkoy (Hattusha), Ugarit, Ashur v Nuzi, cc cung in thi k st v cc n i ti Assyria (Kalhu/Nimrud, Khorsabad, Nineveh), Babylonian (Babylon), Urartian (Tushpa/Van Kalesi, Cavustepe, Ayanis, Armavir, Erebuni, Bastam) v cc da im Neo-Hittite (Karkamis, Tell Halaf, Karatepe). Cc ngi nh thng l tn tch cn st li ca Babylonia c ti Nippur v Ur. Trong s nhng vn bn v vic xy dng cng trnh v mc ch ca chng, Gudea t thin nin k th 3 trc Cng Nguyn l ng ch nht, cng nh nhng vn bn ghi chp hong gia Assyria v Babylonia t Thi st.

Nh ca
Nhng vt liu s dng xy dng nh ca ti Lng H tng t nh vt liu ta dng ngy nay: gch bn, va bn v ca g, tt c chng u c sn xung quanh thnh ph[8], d g c him hn. a s nh u c phng trung tm hnh vung v cc phng khc bao xung quanh, nhng nh ni chung khc bit nhau nhiu v kch thc v vt liu s dng ty theo gia nh [1]. Nhng phng nh khng ng ngha vi vic ch nh ngho kh; trn thc t nhng ngi ngho nht xy nh bng cc vt liu nhanh hng nh lau sy ly t bn ngoi thnh ph, nhng c rt t bng chng trc tip v iu ny[9].

Cung in
Cc cung in ca tng lp trn ti Lng H thi k u l nhng phc hp cng trnh ln, v thng c trang hong rc r. Nhng cng trnh nh vy cn c th thy ti cc di ch chu th Sng Diyala River nh Khafajah v Tell Asmar. Cc cung in c t thin nin k th 3 trc Cng Nguyn c dng cho nhng nh ch kinh t x hi bc cao, v th, ngoi chc nng v nh ring, chng cn l xng ch to th cng, kho thc phm, sn t chc nghi l, v thng c c cc in th. V d, ci gi l "giparu" (hay Gig-Par-Ku trong ting Sumer) ti Ur ni nhng v n tu ca thn Mt trng Nanna tr ng l mt phc hp ln vi nhiu sn, mt s in th, nhng phng

chn ct ca cc n tu, mt phng nghi l ln, vn vn. Mt phc hp tng t l mt cung in Lng H c khai qut ti Mari Syria, c nin i t giai on Babylonia C. Cc cung in Assyria t Thi st, c bit ti Kalhu/Nimrud, Dur Sharrukin/Khorsabad v Ninuwa/Nineveh, tr nn ni ting nh nhng hnh nh v nhng on vn miu t trn cc bc tng ca chng, tt c u c khc trn nhng phin . Nhng hnh nh hoc th hin cnh th cng hoc miu t v qun i ca nh vua hay cc thnh tu dn s. Nhng cnh cng v nhng li vo quan trng c trang tr bng nhiu hnh khc cc v thn trong thn thoi trnh iu khng may. B cc kin trc cc cung in thi st cng c t chc xung quanh mt sn nh. Thng phng thit triu ca vua c ca trng ra mt sn nghi l ln, ni nhng v triu thn gp g v t chc cc l nghi triu nh. S lng ln cc vt bng ng tm thy nhiu cung in Assyria cho thy mi quan h bun bn thng xuyn vi nhng quc gia Neo-Hittite Bc Syria thi k . Mt bng chng khc l nhng di hnh repousse ng trang tr trn nhng cnh cng g.

Kinh t
Tng c mt s khc bit ln gia tin bc v s giu c gia ngi giu v ngi dn thng. Ngi dn thng ph thuc nhiu vo Ma mng, v h c rt t tin. Ngi giu c nhiu n l v cng c nhiu tin bc. 1 talent =

60 mina 3,600 shekel 30 kg bc

1 mina =

60 shekel 500 gam bc

1 shekel =

8.333 gam bc 2 division 8 ming mng (slice) 12 ht ng cc (grain) 24 carat 24 cy u xanh (chickpea) 180 ht la mch (barleycorn)

Nhng ng xu bc khng phi lm hon ton bng bc. Bc nguyn cht ch chim khong 87%. Nhiu ng tin xu khc lm bng ng.

Lch s cn i

Lng H sau ny thuc quyn kim sot ca ch Achaemenid Ba T, tr thnh hai vng thuc quyn kim sot ca hai v ph vng, Babylonia pha nam v Athura (t Assyria) pha bc. Trong thi k ny, 500-330 TCN, Ba T, mt quc gia s dng ngn ng Indo-European, sp iu kin tr thnh mt ch hng mnh trn th gii. Sau khi v vua Hy Lp ha ca Macedonia l Alexandros i chinh phc ton b Ba T, cc vng t ca cc v ph vng tr thnh mt phn ca ch Seleucid, cho ti trc khi n b i Armenia tiu dit nm 42 TCN. a phn Lng H sau ny tr thnh mt phn ca ch Parthia ca Ba T, ko di ti nm 224. Ctesiphon tr thnh th ca ch Parthia. Tuy nhin, vng pha ty bc thuc Rome. thi Tetrarchy vng ny c chia thnh hai tnh: Osrhoene (xung quanh Edessa, l vng bin gii ngy nay gia Th Nh K v Syria) v Lng H (nm xa hn pha ng bc). thi ch Ba T ca ngi Sassanid, phn ln hn ca Lng H c gi l Del-e Iranshahr c ngha "Tri tim Iran" v th ph Ctesiphon (i din Seleukia bn kia sng Tigris), th ca Ba T, nm ti Lng H. u th k th 7, cc v hong Hi gio ca ch Rp ln nm quyn ti Damascus v sp nhp ton b ch Sassanid. V th Lng H c ti thng nht di quyn qun l ca ngi Rp, nhng c chia thnh hai tnh: pha bc vi Mosul (cng c gi l Nineveh) l th , v pha nam, vi th Bagdad. Sau ny Bagdad cng tr th ca v hong Hi gio. Bagdad tr thnh trung tm ca ch Rp cho ti tn nm 1258. Giai on 1508-1534, ngi nh Safavid Ba T nm quyn kim sot Lng H. Nm 1535, ngi Th Nh K Ottoman chim Baghdad. Trong thi ch Ottoman, Lng H c chia thnh ba khu vc hay ba lnh th ring bit: Mosul, Bagdad v Basra, gm c lnh th Kuwait hin nay. Cui Chin tranh th gii th nht Lng H thuc quyn qun l ca ngi Anh trong mt thi gian ngn, ngi Anh lp nn mt chnh ph ca ngi Hashemite Syria v Iraq hin nay. Nm 1920 quy ch quc gia cho Iraq c Anh Quc ng thun sau s gii tn ca ch Ottoman, vi nhng bin gii hin nay v c Kuwait. Kuwait, mt vng bo h ca Anh, nguyn tng l mt phn ca tnh Basra thi ch Ottoman, v c trao quyn c lp t Anh nm 1961. u thp k 1990 cc lc lng lin qun tung ra cuc tn cng vo Iraq c gi l Chin dch Bo to Sa mc, tr a vic Tng thng Saddam Hussein xm chim Kuwait.

Giai on 4000 nm trc Cng nguyn

Cc cng trnh sm nht c tm thy ti cc a im nh Mureybet v Abu Hureyra Syria vo khong 8000 nm trc Cng nguyn l cc nh bn ngm (semisubterranean dwellings) hnh trn. Mt phn tng hnh trn c tm thy Zagros khong 8000 nm trc Cng nguyn c xem nh di tch kin trc u tin ca vng pha bc Lng H. Cng trnh kin trc u tin c ghi nhn vng H Iraq c tm thy vng Maghzaliyah, gn Yarim Tepe vo khong 7000 nm trc Cng nguyn vi cc thnh c tr (megalithic settlement wall) v cc kt hnh vung c lm t cc khi bn (tauf), trn nn .

Kin trc ca ngi Sumer

Cc c dn ngi Sumer u tin nh c Lng H v xy dng nn nn vn minh y vo khong 3500 nm trc Cng nguyn cho n thi i Babylon. Kin trc ca vng Lng H thng c xem nh bt u vi s hnh thnh cc thnh ph ca ngi Sumer v s sng to nn ch vit v khong 3100 nm trc Cng nguyn. Cc cng trnh kin trc c xy dng trong thi k Protoliterate l ch yu l cc n i tn gio. Ngi Sumer s dng vt liu ch yu xy dng bng gch-bn, vi th loi cng trnh ni ting l cc i chim tinh Ziggurat, cn c gi l b ni, ra i trn c s sng bi i ni, sng bi thin th v tc l xem sao, cc v tinh t trn tri. Ziggurat l loi hnh kin trc kiu tng bc, b cao n t trn b cao kia, cng ln cao th thu dn li, c ng dc trt hoc bc thang thng gc hoc men theo khi xy i ln nh, trn nh c mt n th nh. Bc thang c khi i ln t bn phi v bn tri khi xy, cng c kiu bc thang xoy trn c. Mi thnh ph u c mt hoc mt s Ziggurat. Du vt cn li chng minh l nhng cng trnh kin trc bng t nn, bn ngoi c xy mt lp gch. Ziggurat cn li thnh ph Ur l chng tch ni ting nht ca loi hnh kin trc ny, c nin i khong nm 2125 TCN, c kch thc y 65 x 43 m, tng mt cao 9,75 m, tng hai c kch thc 347 x 23 m, cao 2,5 m, chiu cao tng trn cng khong 21 m. Ngoi Ziggurat Ur, ngi ta cn tm thy du vt cc Ziggurat khc Uruk, Eridou, Ninive v to dng li c hnh nh Ziggurat Babilon. Nhn chung, cc Ziggurat c t ba n by bc, mi tng c trang tr mt mu khc nhau, tng trng cho mt ngi sao th. Cc ngi n in hnh ca thi k Protoliterate, bt k dng nn bng hoc dng nn nng cao c xy dng t m hn trong mt bng v cc chi tit trang tr. Tng ni tht thng c trang tr bng cc ha tit hoc hnh mu khm bng t nung mu sng hoc c m ng. cng vo cc thnh ph ca ngi Sume Uruk (ngy nay l Tall al-Warka, Iraq) thng c cc ct c trang tr theo cch . Trong ni tht cc tng nn bng c trang tr vi cc tranh tng miu t cc s tch thn thnh nh Uqair

M phng mt Ziggurat Do vng bnh nguyn Tigris-Euphrates khng c khong vt v cy ci ln, cc cu trc ca ngi Sumer thng l t gch bn dng li (plano-convex mudbrick). Gch li ny c sn xut t t nung hoc phi kh di nh nng mt tri. Vin gch c hnh dng vi mt di phng, mt trn c dng chm cu. Ngi ta s dng s dng bn lm va kt dnh trong kt cu xy dng m khng dng n xi mng. to c n nh cho kt cu, ngi ta t mt hng gch phng xung y ca mi hng gch. Phn l thng gia cc vin gch c trt bng nha cy, rm, sy v c di. Do xy dng bng bn t, cc cng trnh bng cui cng s b h hng, do vy ngi Sumer phi ph hy nh k, san phng v xy dng li trn cng mt a im. Chu k ti xy dng cc cng trnh trn cng mt a im dn dn nng cao ct nn chung ca ton thnh ph hn vng bnh nguyn xung quanh thnh cc i. Cc i ny c tm thy khp vng Cn ng. Cc cun sch Sumer c i (cylinder seals) cng miu t qu trnh xy dng t cy sy, khng ging vi nhng cng trnh c xy dng vng m ly rp pha nam Iraq ngy nay. Cc ngi n v cung in ca ngi Sumer c xy dng bng cc vt liu v k thut tin tin hn, v d nh tr tng, hm tng, bn ct v nn t st.

Ziggurat

Kin trc Babylon

Cui thin nin k th III trc Cng Nguyn, li dng s suy sp ca Lng H, hai tc ngi Elam v ngi Amorites xm lc tn ph v cp bc. Ngi Amorites xy dng hai quc gia v pha Nam ca Lng H l Ixine v Laxa; pha Bc ca Lng H cng hnh thnh cc quc gia Esnunna v Marie. n lt cc quc gia trn tranh ginh v gy chin vi nhau lin min, gy nn cnh nt hoang tn. Vo khong u th k XIX trc Cng Nguyn, ngi Amorites thng nht Bc Lng H v hnh thnh quc gia c Babylon (khc vi Tn Babylon sau ny) v h thng nht c khu vc Lng H. Quc gia Babylon c nm trn ng giao lu quan trng ni chu rng ln sang a Trung Hi, chu Phi v chu u. S cng thnh v hng mnh t n cao im vo thi k 1792-1750 trc Cng Nguyn, di triu i vua Hammourabi. Nh nc c Babylon thng nht trn mt din tch lnh th ton b Lng H v b suy sp vo khong cui thin nin k th II trc Cng Nguyn bi ngi Catsites ni dy v lm ch hu ht lnh th ca Babylon.

Cng vn treo babylon

Kinh t Babylon c nhng sc thi c bit do giao im ca cc con ng ng Ty cng nh s tr ph ca ng bng Lng H. Nng nghip pht trin nh vo cc yu t thun li cng nh thnh tu thy li ca thi k ny. Ngi Babylon khng nhng t cung cp c lng thc m cn c mt lng di do thng thng bun bn vi cc khu vc khc. Vua Hammourabi ra lnh o mt con sng ti cho c vng rng ln Akkad.

Th cng nghip c ngh lm gch, luyn kim, trang sc, t, da, ng thuyn, xy dng... bn cnh mt nn thng mi pht trin gip cho vng Babylon cng thm giu c v pht trin.

X hi ni bt bi s ra i ca b lut Hammorabi chia c dn thnh ba hng ngi: dn t do, tin dn v n l. Ngun n l ch yu c cp t ngun t binh chin tranh, mua bn.

Chnh tr t thi Hammorabi, cc vua Babylon t coi mnh l hin thn ca thn thnh. Vua t ng nht mnh vi vic k v cc v thn cho nn vng quyn v thn quyn ha quyn vi nhau, to thnh mt ch c on chuyn ch v thn b. Vn ho ca Babylon c l s giao ha gia hai yu t Sumer v Akkad. S ra i b lut Hammorabi v c khc trn mt tm bazan cao 2,25 mt, ng knh y gn 2 mt. Pha trn mt trc ca tm c khc hnh thn Mt Tri ngi trn ngai trao b lut cho vua Hammorabi ng n mt cch trnh trng. Phin ny c ngi Php tm thy kinh o ca x Elam c, hin nay ang c lu gi bo tng Louvre. Ngh thut ca Babylon c t n trnh iu luyn trn nn tng ca hai yu t Sumer v Akkad. Ngh thut hi ha gn cht vi ngh thut kin trc. Kin trc Ca ngi Rp c nhiu thnh tu ng trng. Huyn thoi cc cung in nguy nga trng l v nhng cu truyn c tch thn tin t im cho th gii Rp thn b v l nhng tuyt tc ca nhn loi.

Kin trc Rp l tinh hoa pha trn v sng to ca cc lung kin trc a Trung Hi v vn minh sng Hng xa xi. Thnh ph Babylon c bao quanh bi mt bc tng mu vng di 13 km v c 300 thp canh. nh cao v chim v mc v i l mt trong by k quan c ca ngi Babylon: Vn treo Babylon. K quan th gii ny c NebuchADnezzar xy dng vo khong nm 605-562 TCN. ng coi nh mt mn qu dnh cho ngi v, mt ngi trng thnh trong vng t quanh Media, khao kht cnh ni rng hng v. Nhng ng rnh hng v cng cc vi phun nc theo phong cch boroque treo l lng trn cc mi vm an xen nhau, iu tuyt diu trong phong cch ni rng ca t nc Iran c chuyn v vng ng bng Mesopotamia m m - Vn treo Babylon kt hp trnh bc thy v k thut vi gic mng tr tnh. S gia c uy tn, ngi u tin cp n vn treo l Berossus, mt ngi dn thnh Babylon vit v vn treo vo khong nm 270 TCN. ng k

rng, NebuchADnezzar (605-562 TCN) xy mt cung in mi trong 15 ngy, nn mng bng hay cc bi t c hnh bc thang ta nh phong cnh ni rng. Theo li Berossus, cy ci c trng ti y, ci c gi l vn treo, nhm lm vui lng mt v hong hu. Mt trong s nhng thnh tch ca NebuchADnezzar, theo Berossus bit, m t cung in mi ca nh vua nh sau: cung in cao nh ni, mt phn xy dng bng , nghe ni ch trong 15 ngy l hon tt. Khng nu c th mt khu vn no c, nhng cc cung in ch chm sc c mt khu vn. Ngi Hy Lp v sau b sung thm nhiu chi tit. Mt gi thuyt k rng khu vn rng 120 m2, chiu cao ca bc tng thnh cao khong 25 m. Khu vn c bi t to hnh bc thang nh mt nh ht, vi cc cng trnh nh ha quyn bn trong. Phn nn xy nhiu vch tng, mi vch rng khong 7m v cch nhau 3m, cc dm bng . Pha trn dm l ba lp ring bit - sy t trong lp nha ng, hai lp xy bng gch, v lp v ngoi cng lm bng ch. t trong khu vn t trn cng, nc ti cy ly t cc c my ngy trang ht nc t con sng chy bn di. Mt gi thuyt th hai cho rng, c n 20 vch tng chng. Mt gi thuyt th ba li k khu vn nm trn cc mi cong dng vm xy bng gch v nha ng: cc inh vt kiu Archimede nm dc theo cu thang cung cp nc. Mt m t khc cho rng c mt cng trnh ph gm cc ct bng cc dm bng g: dm lm bng thn cy c. Thay v b mc ra, mang cht b n nui dng r cy trng trong khu vc treo pha trn, ton b khun vin c ti tiu bng mt h thng gm cc vi phun nc v mng dn thit k tht ti tnh.

V c nhng m t tri ngc nhau, mt s t ra ng vc liu vn treo c tht hay khng. Tuy khng c mt cp n bt c c im kin trc no, ngoi tr cc thn cy khng b mc ra, qu ng ngc nhin. Du khch Hy Lp chc hn chng kin vic a cy ci ln cao, v chng ta c th tm kim nhng g cn li trong ng nt hin ti theo cch hp php. Nhng tht khng may, cc cung in Babylon b nhng ngi ho hc tn dng nhng vin gch nung trng l tn ph hng ngn nm trc. Ngy nay ch cn li phn nn mng m thi. Nhng ngi thm him ban u tm kim cc khu vn trong Cung in ma h trn cao, din tch khong 180 m2, cng vi vic kt hp cc ging nc cng phu, nhng vn khng khng gian dnh cho cc bi t hnh bc thang v cy ci. Mt nh kho c xc nh v tr ca khu vn nm pha trn mt s mi cong dng vm m ng pht hin nm Cung in pha Nam, li mt ln na cng c cc ging nc, ci mi dng vm cn l nn mng ca mt khu vc hnh chnh, cng c th l mt nh lao. Bt k ai tm kim mt bng tng trt thuc khu vc cung in s nhn thy cc cung in pha Bc v pha Nam nm bn sn hng Bc v Ty, gn vi Euphrates, bng cc cng trnh no trong s ny cng u c cc khu vn to hnh bc thang, c l gy n tng nht l cng trnh ph pha Ty. Phn bao quanh ny, c din tch khong 190 x 80 m, vi cc tng ngoi rng khong 20 m, lm bng gch t trong lp nha ng. C nhiu cn phng u pha Bc, trong khi u pha Nam c mt gc hnh vung, c l cu thang t trong mt gc. Trong cng trnh c o ny, c th ngi ta to hnh mt khu vn hnh vung, gn bng vi kch thc yu cu, vi cc ngi nh ngh trong ma h cng mt khu ni non b to hnh bc thang. Nhng vn ny ch c gii quyt qua nhng cuc khai qut gn y hoc bng mt s t liu cha tm thy t thi vng triu Nebuchadnezzar. Cho n lc ny, chng ta c th hnh dung Vn treo c cc mi dng vm v vi nc hoc bng bt c hnh nh no trong tr tng tng.

Vn treo Babylon

Kin trc Assyri Ngh thut trang tr

n 3000 nm trc Cng nguyn tr i, cc hnh thc trang tr cng trnh rt pht trin. Gch p lt lu ly l nh cao ca ngh thut trang tr mt tng kin trc Lng H c i. Gch c mu men ng nh khc nhau, c bn vng tt. Nn ca nhng din tch ln trang tr bng gch lu ly c mu lam m, ph iu mu trng hoc mu vng kim nh, ton b to thnh nhng "tm thm" rt n tng. Lch s pht trin loi gch lu ly gn b vi vic xy dng ln ca Babilon thi i Tn Babilon th k 6 TCN. Triu i Nabucodonosor 2 cn li cho nhn loi hai chng tch ln v kin trc c s dng gch lu ly t th k 6. Chng tch th nht l ca thnh Ishtar, c b cc trang tr cc mng tng ln, phn b u cc hnh ng vt, lp di lp li mt cch n gin nhng n tng v nhp iu rt mnh. Chng tch th hai l bc tng pha sau ng in trong cung in ca nh vua Nabucodonosor. Ton b mt tng l bc tranh ln, c mt lot con s t chn tng, bng gia ca tng c bn cy, mi cy li nhng b hoa hai tng, bng trn cng l di hoa c

Gch p lt lu ly

Cng thnh Ishtar