Case Study - Unix: Lecture Series by

O.S. by Er. K.S.
Dhindsa © 2007
CASE STUDY – UNIX
Lecture Series By :
Er. Kanwalvir Singh Dhindsa
Deptt. of CSE & IT
www.dhindsa.info
1
UNIX -- HISTORY
◆ AT&T
Ritchie & Thompson’s “Unics”
{Uniplexed Operating & Computing system}
• 1965 – Bell and GE joined project MAC at MIT to develop
Multics.
• Goal: Multicomputing and data sharing for a large group
of users.
 YEAR - 1969
Thompson and Ken Ritchie implemented an earlier
designed file system on PDP-7.
This grew into UNIX.
File system design and idea of command interpreter
(shell) as a user process came from MULTICS
Fork idea came from Berkeley’s GENIE OS. 2
O.S. by Er. K.S.Dhindsa © 2007
UNIX -- HISTORY
 1971 – UNIX used in first real project: text processing

for BELL labs patent department
 1971 – UNIX required 16K bytes for system, 8K bytes
for user programs, 512K bytes of disk, and limit of 64K disk
bytes per file.
Thompson set out to write a new Fortran compiler but
developed a new programming language: B. B was based
on BCPL (a tool for compiler writing and systems
programming). He later improved on B and called it C
1973 – UNIX rewrittten in C (unheard of at the time)
 AT&T offered UNIX free to universities
3
UNIX -- HISTORY
1982 – First external distribution from USG – System III

UC Berkeley developed their version of UNIX (Berkeley
software Distributions).
 BSD introduced vi in 2BSD, demand-pages virtual
memory in 3BSD, TCP/IP networking protocol in 4.2BSD.
 Less than 3% of BSD written in assembly.
 YEAR 1991 – Finnish student Linus Torvalds wrote

Linux for 80386, 32 bit processor
4
BSD Layer Structure
5
SYSTEM CALL & FILE MANIPULATION
Three categories of system calls in UNIX :
 File manipulation (same system calls also support

device manipulation)
Process control & Information manipulation.
• A file is a sequence of bytes; the kernel does not impose a
structure on files.
• Files are organized in tree-structured directories
• Path name: identifies a file by specifying a path through the
directory structure to the file.
– Absolute path names start at root of file system
– Relative path names start at the current directory
• System calls for basic file manipulation: create, open, read, write,
6
close, unlink, trunc.
UNIX DIRECTORY STRUCTURE
7
Design Philosophy
• Simplicity
• C language
• Time-sharing
• Simple user interface (modular and may be
replaced)
• Device independence (treat files and devices
in same manner)
• Aimed for programming environment
• Flexibility
8
UNIX - Design Principles
• Designed to be a time-sharing system.

• Has a simple standard user interface (shell) that can
be replaced.
• File system with multilevel tree-structured directories.
• Files are supported by the kernel as unstructured
sequences of bytes.
• Supports multiple processes; a process can easily
create new processes.
• High priority given to making system interactive, and
providing facilities for program development.
9
Absolute & Relative Paths
• A pathname (or path) is a route from the

root to the file or directory in question
• Directory names are separated by /’s
• A path beginning with a / is an absolute
path
• What is a relative path ?????
10
SHELL
•Programs such as shell and vi interact with kernel using
well defined system call procedures.
 Most of what is considered the Unix
interface is really the SHELL INTERFACE
◆ The shell is equivalent to COMMAND.COM on DOS
• sh the Bourne shell (after its creator)
• ksh the Korn Shell: sh plus visual editing
• csh the C-shell: introduced C-style programming
features
• tcsh: csh plus visual editing
• bash the Bourne Again SHell: sh plus visual editing
11
Role of SHELLS
• Shells provide:
– Multiple commands on a single line
– Redirection of input and output (like >>)
– Expansion of wildcard filenames
– Background execution
– Pipelines
– Script-programming facility
• Normally the shell waits for a command to complete
before prompting for another command
• Can run a job in the background and not wait for it
12
PROCESS MANAGEMENT
• Process is program in execution

• Consists of machine instructions (text), data, and
stack regions.
• Separate stack for user and kernel mode.
• PID (Process ID)
• Processes are either user processes, daemon
processes, or kernel processes.
• Daemons are not associated with user, but do
system wide functions. Init may create daemons that
exist throughout the life of the system or as needed.
13
Process Management
• Initial boot process (0) forks a child (process 1) and

process 0 becomes the swapper. Process 1 is init
process and is ancestor of all other processes.
• Parent/Child/Sibling relationship indicated by pointers
in process table.
• Execve usually called to replace memory portion of
new process.
• Exit – process termination
• Wait – Parent waits for child to exit. Reclaims
process resources.
• Process group ID (GID) in process table
14
Process Management
 Round robin multilevel feedback queue
 At end of context switch, kernel executes algorithm to

schedule a process
 Highest priority process which is ready is scheduled.

On tie, picks the one which has waited the longest.
15
CPU SCHEDULING
• Every process has a scheduling priority associated with it;
larger numbers indicate lower priority.
• Negative feedback in CPU scheduling makes it difficult for a
single process to take all the CPU time.
• Process aging is employed to prevent starvation.
• When a process chooses to relinquish the CPU, it goes to
sleep on an event.
• When that event occurs, the system process that knows
about it calls wakeup with the address corresponding to the
event, and all processes that had done a sleep on the
same address are put in the ready queue to be run.
16
Memory Management
 The scheduler process (or swapper) decides which

processes to swap in or out, considering such factors as
time idle, time in or out of main memory, size, etc.
 If there is too much contention, processes are

swapped out until enough memory is available.
Allocation of both main memory and swap space is
done first-fit.
17
FILE SYSTEM COMMANDS
• pwd - report your current directory

• cd <to where> - change your current directory
• ls <directory> -list contents of directory
• cp <old file> <new file> - copy
• mv <old file> <new file> - move (or rename)
• rm <file> -delete a file
• mkdir <new directory name> -make a directory
• rmdir <directory> -remove an empty directory
18
UNIX through GENERATIONS
19
UNIX
20
UNIX Utility Programs
21
UNIX Kernel
22
PROCESS CONTROL -- UNIX
• Processes communicate via pipes; queues of bytes

between two processes that are accessed by a file
descriptor.
• All user processes are descendants of one original
process, init.
• init forks a getty process: initializes terminal line
parameters and passes the user’s login name to login.
– login sets the numeric user identifier of the process to
that of the user
– executes a shell which forks subprocesses for user
commands.
23
USER INTERFACE IN UNIX
• Programmers and users mainly deal with already existing

systems programs: the needed system calls are
embedded within the program and do not need to be
obvious to the user.
• The most common systems programs are file or directory
oriented.
– Directory: mkdir, rmdir, cd, pwd
– File: ls, cp, mv, rm
• Other programs relate to editors (e.g., emacs, vi) text
formatters (e.g., troff, TEX), and other activities.
24
PROCESS CONTROL BLOCKS
• The most basic data structure associated with processes is
the process structure.
– unique process identifier
– scheduling information (e.g., priority)
– pointers to other control blocks
• The virtual address space of a user process is divided into
text (program code), data, and stack segments.
• Every process with sharable text has a pointer form its
process structure to a text structure.
– always resident in main memory.
– records how many processes are using the text segment
– records were the page table for the text segment can be
found on disk when it is swapped. 25
PAGING
• Berkeley UNIX systems depend primarily on paging for

memory-contention management, and depend only
secondarily on swapping.
• Demand paging – When a process needs a page and the
page is not there, a page fault to the kernel occurs, a frame
of main memory is allocated, and the proper disk page is
read into the frame.
• If the scheduler decides that the paging system is
overloaded, processes will be swapped out whole until the
overload is relieved.
26
C-LISTS
• Terminal drivers use a character buffering system which

involves keeping small blocks of characters in linked lists.
• A write system call to a terminal enqueues characters on
a list for the device. An initial transfer is started, and
interrupts cause dequeueing of characters and further
transfers.
• Input is similarly interrupt driven.
• It is also possible to have the device driver bypass the
canonical queue and return characters directly form the
raw queue — raw mode (used by full-screen editors and
other programs that need to react to every keystroke).
27
System Calls for Process Management
A file is represented by an inode — a record that
stores information about a specific file on the disk.
s is an error code
pid is a process ID
residual is the remaining time from the previous alarm
28
Booting UNIX
The sequences of processes used to boot some systems

29
NETWORKING
Use of sockets for networking

30
UNIX I/O SYSTEM
31
INTERPROCESS COMMUNICATION
• The pipe is the IPC mechanism most

characteristic of UNIX
– Permits a reliable unidirectional byte stream

between two processes.
– A benefit of pipes small size is that pipe data
are seldom written to disk; they usually are
kept in memory by the normal block buffer
cache.
32
UNIX File System
Some important directories found in most UNIX systems
33
UNIX File System
(a) Before mounting. (b) After mounting

34
LOCKING FILES
(a) File with one lock

(b) Addition of a second lock
35
(c) A third lock O.S. by Er. K.S.Dhindsa © 2007
UNIX FILE SYSTEM
Disk layout in classical UNIX systems
Structure of the i-node 36

UNIX FILE SYSTEM
The relation between the file descriptor table, the open file
description 37
SECURITY IN UNIX
Some examples of file protection modes
38
CASE STUDY – UNIX
Lecture Series By :
Er. Kanwalvir Singh Dhindsa
Deptt. of CSE & IT
www.dhindsa.info
39

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O.S. by Er. K.S.

CASE STUDY – UNIX

Er. Kanwalvir Singh Dhindsa

Deptt. of CSE & IT

 1971 – UNIX used in first real project: text processing

1982 – First external distribution from USG – System III

 YEAR 1991 – Finnish student Linus Torvalds wrote

Three categories of system calls in UNIX :

 File manipulation (same system calls also support

• Designed to be a time-sharing system.

• A pathname (or path) is a route from the

• Process is program in execution

• Initial boot process (0) forks a child (process 1) and

 Round robin multilevel feedback queue

 At end of context switch, kernel executes algorithm to

 Highest priority process which is ready is scheduled.

 The scheduler process (or swapper) decides which

 If there is too much contention, processes are

• pwd - report your current directory

• Processes communicate via pipes; queues of bytes

• Programmers and users mainly deal with already existing

• Berkeley UNIX systems depend primarily on paging for

• Terminal drivers use a character buffering system which

The sequences of processes used to boot some systems

Use of sockets for networking

• The pipe is the IPC mechanism most

– Permits a reliable unidirectional byte stream

Some important directories found in most UNIX systems

(a) Before mounting. (b) After mounting

(a) File with one lock

Structure of the i-node 36

Some examples of file protection modes

CASE STUDY – UNIX

Er. Kanwalvir Singh Dhindsa

Deptt. of CSE & IT

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