TILES

CERAMIC

ABOLI SHAH I.D 2.1 RAFFLES DESIGN INTERNATIONAL

Simply defined, ceramic tile is tile made of clay. What is cement tile?. Ceramic and cement based tile are similar in at least one respect, they both are often formed by similar means. That is where the similarity ends. After the formation of the tile body, ceramic tiles go through a firing process. Cement tiles are not fired. Raw materials are quarried and refined. In the case of ceramic tiles, this includes clays, talc, and other minerals. Great care is taken in the proper mixture of these materials, as each one is critical to the success, quality and characteristics of the product produced. Once the raw materials are quarried, prepared, and properly mixed, the tiles may now be formed

DUST PRESS This method is used for ceramic tile only. An almost dry mixture of clays, talc, and other ingredients are pressed into a mold at extremely high pressures. EXTRUSION This method can be used for ceramic or cement tiles. The ingredients are slightly wetter and are forced through a nozzle to form the desired tile shape. SLUSH MOLD or WET POUR This method can also be used for ceramic or cement tiles. A much wetter mixture of ingredients is poured into a mold to form the desired shape.

The raw materials used to form tile consist of clay minerals mined from the earth's crust, natural minerals such as feldspar that are used to lower the firing temperature, and chemical additives required for the shaping process. The minerals are often refined or beneficiated near the mine before shipment to the ceramic plant. The raw materials must be pulverized and classified according to particle size. Primary crushers are used to reduce large lumps of material. Either a jaw crusher or gyratory crusher is used, which operate using a horizontal

The initial step in ceramic tile manufacture involves mixing the ingredients. Sometimes, water is then added and the ingredients are wet milled or ground in a ball mill. If wet milling is used, the excess water is removed using filter pressing followed by spray drying. The resulting powder is then pressed into the desired tile body shape. squeezing motion between steel plates or rotating motion between steel cones, respectively.

Once the raw materials are processed, a number of steps take place to obtain the finished product. These steps include batching, mixing and grinding, spray-drying, forming, drying, glazing, and firing. Many of these steps are now accomplished using automated equipment. Batching For many ceramic products, including tile, the body composition is determined by the amount and type of raw materials. The raw materials also determine the color of the tile body, which can be red or white in color, depending on the amount of iron-containing raw materials used. Therefore, it is important to mix the right amounts together to achieve the desired properties. Batch calculations are thus required, which must take into consideration both physical properties and chemical compositions of the raw materials. Once the appropriate weight of each raw material is determined, the raw materials must be mixed together.

Mixing and grinding Once the ingredients are weighed, they are added together into a shell mixer, ribbon mixer, or intensive mixer. A shell mixer consists of two cylinders joined into a V, which rotates to tumble and mix the material. A ribbon mixer uses helical vanes, and an intensive mixer uses rapidly revolving plows. This step further grinds the ingredients, resulting in a finer particle size that improves the subsequent forming process (see step #4 below). Sometimes it is necessary to add water to improve the mixing of a multiple-ingredient batch as well as to achieve fine grinding. This process is called wet milling and is often performed using a ball mill. The resulting water-filled mixture is called a slurry or slip. The water is then removed from the slurry by filter pressing , followed by dry milling.

Spray drying
If wet milling is first used, the excess water is usually removed via spray drying. This involves pumping the slurry to an atomizer consisting of a rapidly rotating disk or nozzle. Droplets of the slip are dried as they are heated by a rising hot air column, forming small, free flowing granules that result in a powder suitable for forming. Tile bodies can also be prepared by dry grinding followed by granulation. Granulation uses a machine in which the mixture of previously dry-ground material is mixed with water in order to form the particles into granules, which again form a powder ready for forming.

Forming
Most tile is formed by dry pressing. In this method, the free flowing powdercontaining organic binder or a low percentage of moistureflows from a hopper into the forming die. The material is compressed in a steel cavity by steel plungers and is then ejected by the bottom plunger. Automated presses are used with operating pressures as high as 2,500 tons. Several other methods are also used where the tile body is in a wetter, more mouldable form. Extrusion plus punching is used to produce irregularly shaped tile and thinner tile faster and more economically. This involves compacting a plastic mass in a high-pressure cylinder and forcing the material to flow out of the cylinder into short slugs. These slugs are then punched into one or more tiles using hydraulic or pneumatic punching presses. Ram pressing is often used for heavily profiled tiles. With this method, extruded slugs of the tile body are pressed between two halves of a hard or porous mold mounted in a hydraulic press. The formed part is removed by first applying vacuum to the top half of the mold to free the part from the bottom half, followed by forcing air through the top half to free the top part. Excess material must be removed from the part and additional finishing may be needed. Another process, called pressure glazing, has recently been developed. This process combines glazing and shaping simultaneously by pressing the glaze (in spray-dried powder form) directly in the die filled with the tile body powder. Advantages include the elimination of glazing lines, as well as the glazing waste material (called sludge) that is produced with the conventional method.

Forming
Most tile is formed by dry pressing. In this method, the free flowing powdercontaining organic binder or a low percentage of moistureflows from a hopper into the forming die. The material is compressed in a steel cavity by steel plungers and is then ejected by the bottom plunger. Automated presses are used with operating pressures as high as 2,500 tons. Several other methods are also used where the tile body is in a wetter, more mouldable form. Extrusion plus punching is used to produce irregularly shaped tile and thinner tile faster and more economically. This involves compacting a plastic mass in a high-pressure cylinder and forcing the material to flow out of the cylinder into short slugs. These slugs are then punched into one or more tiles using hydraulic or pneumatic punching presses. Ram pressing is often used for heavily profiled tiles. With this method, extruded slugs of the tile body are pressed between two halves of a hard or porous mold mounted in a hydraulic press. The formed part is removed by first applying vacuum to the top half of the mold to free the part from the bottom half, followed by forcing air through the top half to free the top part. Excess material must be removed from the part and additional finishing may be needed. Another process, called pressure glazing, has recently been developed. This process combines glazing and shaping simultaneously by pressing the glaze (in spray-dried powder form) directly in the die filled with the tile body powder. Advantages include the elimination of glazing lines, as well as the glazing waste material (called sludge) that is produced with the conventional method.

Forming
Most tile is formed by dry pressing. In this method, the free flowing powdercontaining organic binder or a low percentage of moistureflows from a hopper into the forming die. The material is compressed in a steel cavity by steel plungers and is then ejected by the bottom plunger. Automated presses are used with operating pressures as high as 2,500 tons. Several other methods are also used where the tile body is in a wetter, more mouldable form. Extrusion plus punching is used to produce irregularly shaped tile and thinner tile faster and more economically. This involves compacting a plastic mass in a high-pressure cylinder and forcing the material to flow out of the cylinder into short slugs. These slugs are then punched into one or more tiles using hydraulic or pneumatic punching presses. Ram pressing is often used for heavily profiled tiles. With this method, extruded slugs of the tile body are pressed between two halves of a hard or porous mold mounted in a hydraulic press. The formed part is removed by first applying vacuum to the top half of the mold to free the part from the bottom half, followed by forcing air through the top half to free the top part. Excess material must be removed from the part and additional finishing may be needed. Another process, called pressure glazing, has recently been developed. This process combines glazing and shaping simultaneously by pressing the glaze (in spray-dried powder form) directly in the die filled with the tile body powder. Advantages include the elimination of glazing lines, as well as the glazing waste material (called sludge) that is produced with the conventional method.

Drying
Ceramic tile usually must be dried after forming, especially if a wet method is used. Drying, which can take several days, removes the water at a slow enough rate to prevent shrinkage cracks. Continuous or tunnel driers are used that are heated using gas or oil, infrared lamps, or microwave energy. Infrared drying is better suited for thin tile, whereas microwave drying works better for thicker tile. Another method, impulse drying, uses pulses of hot air flowing in the transverse direction instead of continuously in the material flow direction.

Glazing
To prepare the glaze, similar methods are used as for the tile body. After a batch formulation is calculated, the raw materials are weighed, mixed and dry or wet milled. The milled glazes are then applied using one of the many methods available. In centrifugal glazing or discing, the glaze is fed through a rotating disc that flings or throws the glaze onto the tile. In the bell/waterfall method, a stream of glaze falls onto the tile as it passes on a conveyor underneath. Sometimes, the glaze is simply sprayed on. For multiple glaze applications, screen printing on, under, or between tile that have been wet glazed is used. In this process, glaze is forced through a screen by a rubber squeegee or other device. Dry glazing is also being used. This involves the application of powders, crushed frits (glass materials), and granulated glazes onto a wet-glazed tile surface. After firing, the glaze particles melt into each other to produce a surface like granite.

Firing
After glazing, the tile must be heated intensely to strengthen it and give it the desired porosity. Two types of ovens, or

After forming, the file is dried slowly (for several days) and at high humidity, to prevent cracking and shrinkage. Next, the glaze is applied, and then the tile is fired in a furnace or kiln. Although some types of tile require a two-step firing process, wet-milled tile is fired only once, at temperatures of 2,000 degrees Fahrenheit or more. After firing, the tile is packaged and shipped.

In this process, the tile goes through a low-temperature firing called bisque firing before glazing. This step removes the volatiles from the material and most or all of the shrinkage. The body and glaze are then fired together in a process called glost firing. Both firing processes take place in a tunnel or continuous kiln, which consists of a chamber through which the ware is slowly moved on a conveyor on refractory battsshelves built of materials that are resistant to high temperaturesor in containers called saggers. Firing in a tunnel kiln can take two to three days, with firing temperatures around 2,372 degrees Fahrenheit (1,300 degrees Celsius). For tile that only requires a single firingusually tile that is prepared by wet millingroller kilns are generally used. These kilns move the wares on a roller conveyor and do not require kiln furnitures such as batts or saggers. Firing times in roller kilns can be as low as 60 minutes, with firing temperatures around 2,102 degrees Fahrenheit (1,150 degrees Celsius) or more.

Installing Ceramic Floor Tile

Step 1: Surface Preparation Tile may be installed over most structurally sound substrates, if they are clean, smooth, dry and free of wax, soap scum and grease. Any damaged, loose or uneven areas must be repaired, patched and levelled. Remove any mouldings, trim, appliances, etc., which could interfere with installation. Door jambs may be undercut for tile to slip under. Step 2: Layout Begin by marking the centre point of all four walls. Snap chalk lines between the centre points of opposite walls, which will intersect at the centre of room. Make sure they're perfectly square, and adjust if necessary. Next, lay out a row of loose tiles along the centre lines in both directions, leaving spaces for uniform joints (use tile spacers). If this layout leaves cuts smaller than 1/2 tile at walls, adjust the centre line by snapping a new line 1/2 tile closer to the wall. Repeat along other centre line if necessary. Now divide the room into smaller grids by snapping additional lines parallel to centre lines. Step 3: Applying Adhesive Select the right adhesive for the substrate you're using. Carefully read and follow all instructions and precautions on the adhesive or mortar package. Mix only enough to be used within 30 minutes. Using the type trowel recommended on the adhesive package, spread a 1/4" coat on the surface of one grid area, using the flat side of the trowel. Do not cover guidelines. Next, use the notched side of trowel to comb adhesive into standing ridges by holding trowel at a 45degree angle. Then remove excess adhesive, leaving a uniform, ridged setting bed. Don't spread a larger area than can be set in 15 minutes.

Step 4: Cutting Tile Measure tiles to be cut carefully and mark with a pencil or felt-tip pen. Make straight or diagonal cuts with a tile cutter, curved cuts with a nipper, full-length curved cuts with a rod saw. Sharp-cut edges may be smoothed with a carborundum stone. Step 5: Setting Tile Variation of shades is an inherent characteristic of ceramic tile -- mix tiles from several cartons as you set, for a blended effect. Begin installing tiles in the center of the room, one grid at a time. Finish each grid before moving to the next. Start with the first tile in the corner of the grid and work outward. Set tiles one at a time using a slight twisting motion. Don't slide tiles into place. Insert tile spacers as each tile is set, or leave equal joints between tiles. Fit perimeter tiles in each grid last, leaving 1/4" gap between tile and wall. When grid is completely installed, tap in all tiles with a rubber mallet or hammer and wood block, to ensure a good bond and level plane. Remove excess adhesive from joints with a putty knife, and from tile with a damp sponge. Do not walk on tiles until they are set.

Step 6: Grouting Joints Generally, you should wait about 24 hours before grouting Make only enough to use in about 30 minutes. Remove tile spacers and spread grout on the tile surface, forcing down into joints with a rubber grout float or squeegee. Tilt the float at a 45-degree angle. Remove excess grout from surface immediately with the edge of float. Tilt it at a 90-degree angle and scrape it diagonally across tiles. Wait 15-20 minutes for grout to set slightly, then use a damp sponge to clean grout residue from surface and smooth the grout joints. Rinse sponge frequently and change water as needed. Let dry until grout is hard and haze forms on tile surface, then polish with a soft cloth. Rinse again with sponge and clean water if necessary. Wait 72 hours for heavy use. Don't apply sealers or polishes for three weeks, and then only in accordance with manufacturer's recommendations.

Ceramic Tile Physical Properties

Ceramic tiles come in various sized slabs , derived from mixes of clay, sand and other natural substances that are fired at very high temperatures. This mixture of raw materials determines the ceramic nature of tiles. Ceramic material is an ancient product, but it is still popular today used in most advanced and modern applications. The general properties of ceramic material are: hardness rigidity fragility inertia The ceramic hardness, resulting from reactions during the firing phase, is associated to the compact structure and the high level of internal cohesion, while the nature of the chemical bonds gives the ceramic tile very high resistance against breakage. They are able to support high loads without deforming or bending: they are therefore rigid. Another property connected with the ceramic nature of tiles is their fragility, which defines their behavior in the event of impacts. Moderately resistant to impact, the ceramic tile does not deform or bend, in contrast to ductile materials. Moreover, the high-temperature of the ceramic production process creates stable compounds, practically resistant to any kind of reaction with other substances. Ceramic tiles are therefore inert, that is, insoluble and unalterable in contact with water, and with most chemical substances. Even fire cannot alter their composition. It's important to bear in mind that the undisputed qualities of the ceramic tile, in particular its mechanical and chemical resistance, can only be fully exploited if the ceramic tiling has been designed and installed correctly.

Ceramic Tiles Care & Maintenance Routine Ceramic Tile Care

Wipe glazed wall tiles periodically using a cloth or sponge dampened with a non oil-based household cleaner. Vacuum glazed floor tiles regularly to remove dirt and other gritty particles, then damp mop or sponge with an all-purpose, non oil-based cleaner. Remember not to use ammonia, as it will discolor grout. Clean unglazed wall and floor tiles in a similar manner using a solution of water and soapless detergent instead of an all-purpose cleaner. Grout Care Once the tile has been cleaned and dried, grout joints should be treated with a silicone sealer. Grout, the material used to fill the spaces between tiles, is porous, and sealing it at this time will simplify maintenance in the future. We recommend you apply a sealer at least twice a year for maximum stain protection.

Heavy Duty Cleaning

Neglected or heavily trafficked tile may require more intensive cleaning. Clean glazed wall tiles with a scouring powder or all-purpose cleaner applied to a non-metallic pad. Rinse and wipe dry. For glazed floor tiles, use a commercial tile cleaner, or apply a strong solution of an all-purpose, non oil-based cleaner or scouring powder paste. Let stand for five minutes, brush and scrub. Then rinse with clean water and wipe dry. For heavy-duty cleaning of unglazed wall tiles, make a paste of scouring powder. Apply to surface and let stand for five minutes. Scour with brush, rinse and wipe dry. Unglazed floor tiles can be cleaned in the same manner. Though a small brush is suitable for most floors, you may want to use a scrubbing machine for large areas. To clean badly soiled countertops, apply a solution of scouring powder and very hot water. Let stand for five minutes, scrub with a stiff brush and rinse. Soap scum, mildew stains and hard-water deposits may be removed from ceramic tile using cleaning products that are commonly available at your local supermarket or home improvement store. With soft water, use an all-purpose, non oil-based cleaner. Allow to stand for five minutes before lightly scrubbing with a sponge. Rinse well.

Repairing & Replacing Ceramic Tile

In most cases, moisture is the cause of grout deterioration and tiles loosening. Check the floor (from underneath if possible) carefully to find the source of the moisture. Call a professional if necessary. If the tiles are loose, half the job of replacing the tiles is done otherwise removing them will likely be a challenge. The most important thing to keep in mind is to wear proper eye protection. A ceramic chip can cause serious eye damage. Step 1: Break the old tile wearing safety glasses, use a chisel and hammer to break out the damaged tile. Start by gently tapping the tile with the hammer to make small cracks. Then insert the chisel to widen the crack. Be careful not to use excessive force and damaging the subfloor. Work the chisel from the center to the outer edge.

Step 2: Scrape the surface Once the majority of the tile is chipped away by the chisel, use a stiffed putty knife to scrape away the remaining tile and adhesive. Take extra care not to damage the subfloor, use the putty knife to scrape away the grout from the joints. Fill any depressions with mortar and allow it to dry before applying any adhesive. Step 3: Apply adhesive For small tile repairs, use flooring adhesive. Otherwise, mix up enough thin-set mortar to attach the tile. Apply the adhesive with the appropriate size notched trowel. You can either apply the adhesive directly to the subfloor or to the back of the tile. If adhesive is used, let it set for 15 minutes before installing the tile. Step 4: Set the tile Careful to match any patterns, position the tile and drop it onto the adhesive. Press the file firmly into place and twist it slight to help spread the adhesive. If necessary, use a soft rubber mallet to help set the tile into the adhesive. Wait for the suggested number of days for the adhesive to dry before applying the grout. Step 5: Grout and seal Mix and apply the matching grout to the joints. Allow the grout to haze over and then wipe away the haze with a damp sponge. Make sure to match the depth of the new grout lines to the existing lines. Apply sealer onto the grout after the grout has dried. Wipe away any excess grout immediately with a clean soft cloth.

INDOOR USES OF CERAMIC TILES

Living room and kitchen

Bathroom and other indoor uses

OUTDOOR USES OF CERAMIC TILES

COSTING
Here are the basic Prices for tiles, 8x12 starts at Rs.18/- per sq.ft. 10x13 starts at Rs.23/- per sq.ft. 12x18 starts at Rs.38/- per sq.ft. Some of the brands which deal in TIles are: Krishna Sonora Kajaria Euro Somany Marbos Nitco Orient Suman Space Face Crystal Century

Dos
Sweep regularly with the vacuum cleaner, especially tiles with textured surfaces. To get the shining effect, damp mop the ceramic tiles. Clean the ceramic tile flooring only with grout and tile cleaners recommended by the tile manufacturer. Clean the stubborn dirty spots with sponge or clean cotton cloth with the help of recommended cleaners. Use mild electric polishers or scrubbers to clean the textured tiles. Use walk-off mats to avoid the dirt accumulation on the ceramic tile flooring.

DON'Ts
Avoid using cleaners that contain strong chemicals, as it causes scratches on the tile and reduces the shine. Do not use cleaners that contain bleach or ammonia, as the tiles can get discolored with frequent use of such cleaners. Avoid cleaning glazed ceramic tiles with oil based ceramic tile flooring cleaners. Avoid using vacuum cleaner with beating bar as it makes ceramic tiles dull and causes scratches.

ANUSHA SUBRAMANIAN I.D 2.1 Raffles Design International

Introduction
Concrete paver blocks were first introduced in Holland in the fifties as replacement of paver bricks which had become scarce due to the post-war building construction boom. These blocks were rectangular in shape and had more or less the same size as the bricks. During the past five decades, the block shape has steadily evolved from noninterlocking to partially interlocking to fully interlocking to multiply interlocking shapes. The pavements in which non-interlocking blocks are used are designated as Concrete Block Pavement (CBP) or non-interlocking CBP, and those in which partially, fully or multiply interlocking blocks are used are designated as 'Interlocking Concrete Block Pavement (ICBP).

CBP

ICBP

 CBP/ICBP consists of a surface layer of small-element, solid unreinforced pre-cast concrete paver blocks laid on a thin, compacted bedding material which is constructed over a properly profiled base course and is bounded by edge restraints/ kerb stones. The block joints are filled using suitable fine material. A properly designed and constructed CBP/ICBP gives excellent performance when applied at locations where conventional systems have lower service life due to a number of geological, traffic, environmental and operational constraints. Many number of such applications for light, medium, heavy and very heavy traffic conditions are currently in practice around the world

Raw Materials : The blocks are made in both single and double layers
to endure both beauty and strength of the product. Top layer consists of cement, marble powder, coarse powder, and amery powder for equivalent abrasion resistant materials & required pigments for color. The bottom layer consists of cement, sand & coarse aggregate of required mix. [The mix is decided as per the required specification]

Manufacturing Process :
The raw materials are mixed separately in required proportion in mixers and ball mills and filled into hoppers of the paving block machine. The block is cast automatically with vibration and compaction of 2000 psi/ sq.inch as per the design of the moulds. the blocks are then put into curing chambers and are ready for dispatch after 24 hrs of steam curing.

 Rubble Soiling : is required to be done on areas where the soil is loose and has a tendency to sink during monsoons. This is specially required where vehicles are going to ply, thus to avoid any sinking of the area. the border should be fixed to prevent the blocks from shifting and getting loosened Bedding Materials : the bedding materials consists of pure sand duly compacted with a surface vibrator(Compactor). This layer should be not less than 2" to provide sufficient cushion to the blocks. Layering of Blocks : The blocks can be directly palced on this bedding layer prepared. The blocks should be placed very close to each other to avoid any shifting. This special care has to be taken because the joints are not filled with cement. Compaction : The surface compactor is again plied on the blocks laid with a little sand rolled over it. This process helps the sand to fill any voids or air blocks in the joints if the blocks are laid. This process also helps to level any uneven laying of blocks. Cleaning : The floor laid now needs proper cleaning of unused sand on it and is ready for use.

Shapes and Classifications

There are four generic shapes of paver blocks corresponding to the four types of blocks as below [9 & 10]: Type A: Paver blocks with plain vertical faces, which do not key into each other when paved in any pattern, Type B: Paver blocks with alternating plain and curved/corrugated vertical faces, which key into each other along the curve/corrugated faces, when paved in any pattern, Type C: Paver blocks having all faces curved or corrugated, which key into each other along all the vertical faces when paved in any pattern and Type D: 'L' and 'X' shaped paver blocks which have all faces curved or corrugated and which key into each other along all the vertical faces when paved in any pattern.

HIGH STRENGTH PAVER BLOCKS

Normally one either has pavers with good finish or pavers with good strength. Thickness Available 45mm 60mm 80mm 100mm Finish Options Plain Coated Shot blasted Shot blasted and Coated

Applications Infrastructure applications of severe Loads like Public Roads, Internal Plotting Roads, Container Freight Stations, Industrial roads, Service lanes, Warehouses, all Landscaped areas, Promenades, Swimming Pool Decks, Foyers, Building Compounds, Drive-Ways, Porticoes, Car ramps, Foot-paths, Side-Ways, Garage, Parking, Corridors & Verandas, etc Benefits High Strength and longer life as compared to other paving materials. Less absorbent than asphalt and poured concrete More attractive than asphalt and poured concrete. Less maintenance Reusable after removal for changes to underground utilities. Cooler in summer, making it ideal for parks, patios and swimming pools etc. Stronger in winter and not prone to cracking etc. Easy to install and no curing required after laying Year round all weather installation possible Non slippery Major Cost savings Complete range for all applications Environment friendly as they allow rain water to flow back in to the ground through the sand joints.

Shot blasted Pavers

This architectural finish imparts outstanding looks as a result of the textured surface and the exposed aggregates, efflorescence free surface and excellent preparation of surface to carry out further impregnation or sealing (coating) of surface.

Particularly interesting to Landscape Architects is the fact that, a lot of attention is given to developing a wide variety of colors which are combined with either matching or contrasting aggregates (which come in from all over the country).
Thickness Available 45mm 60mm 80mm 100mm Finish Options Shot blasted Shot blasted and Coated

Applications Exteriors and Open spaces like Foot-paths, Side-Ways, Garage, Parking, Open areas, Promenades, Swimming Pool Decks, Foyers, Building Compounds, Drive-Ways, Porticoes, Car ramps, Corridors & Verandas, etc.- where good finish, antiskid properties or textured look is desired. Benefits Very even efflorescence free looks and sharp colors. Exciting combinations with colored aggregates possible. Antique finish and effect Anti-Skid Surface Ready to use surface Enables very even Coating

Wet cast Pavers

Range of Lacquer Coated Pavers. Wet casting affords the brightest colors with finer and deeper texture on the paver face. This is an ideal range of product for fine detailing on paving face on one hand and shining and glamorous looking floorings on the other. The wet cast pavers are a labor intensively manufactured product, and so generally, very large volumes are a constraint with the range. Thickness Available 45mm 60mm 80mm Finish Options Coated Shot blasted Shot blasted and Coated

Applications Exteriors and Open spaces like Foot-paths, Side-Ways, Garage, Parking, Open areas, Promenades, Swimming Pool Decks, Foyers, Building Compounds, Drive-Ways, Porticoes, Car ramps, Corridors & Verandas, etc. Benefits Exceptional finish, Luster and Strength. Longer life as compared to other paving materials. More attractive than normal pavers and poured concrete. Less maintenance. Reusable after removal for changes to underground utilities. Cooler in summer, making it ideal for parks, patios and swimming pools etc. Stronger in winter and not prone to cracking etc. Easy to install and no curing required after laying . Year round all weather installation possible. Non slippery . Major Cost savings . Complete range for all applications. Environment friendly as they allow rain water to flow back in to the ground through the sand joints.

OTHERS:
HEAVY DUTY MONO LAYER PAVERS Heavy Duty Paver Block are technically well designed, stronger than application needs and are available in several design and finish options. Thickness Available 60mm 80mm 100mm Finish Options Plain Coated Shot blasted Shot blasted and Coated

Advantages
Less maintenance , Easy to install and no curing required after laying Year round all weather installation possible High Strength and longer life as compared to other paving materials. Major Cost savings Less absorbent than asphalt and poured concrete Reusable after removal for changes to underground utilities. Environment friendly as they allow rain water to flow back in to the ground through the sand joints. More attractive than asphalt and poured concrete. Stronger in winter and not prone to cracking etc. Non slippery

Applications:
loaded on Internal Plotting Roads, Promenades, Container Freight Stations, Public Roads, Industrial roads, Warehouses, Service lanes, all Landscaped areas, Side-Ways, Foyers, Building Compounds, Drive-Ways, Porticoes, Car ramps, Corridors & Verandas, Swimming Pool Decks, Foot-paths, Garage, Parking, etc infrastructural applications like Roads and Highways, Warehouses, Ports, industrial application, Container Yards, etc on one hand, to the value added paving surfaces for internal roads of real estate developments to all sorts of hardscaped surfaces on the other.

REFLECTIVE PAVERS
Markings on concrete block surfaces have been done using traditional paint or thermoplastic materials. Maintenance of these markings is difficult and costly. The frequency at which repainting has to be done is very high. Further more the visibility of these markings was poor during night due to lack of luminance factor. Reflective pavers are made with a reflective mix on the top surface of the pavers. ADVANTAGES OF REFLECTIVE PAVERS High strength units with integral reflective coloring Consistency in dimensional tolerances Consistency in color Provide permanent markings for traffic Clearly visible at night and in adverse weather conditions. Eliminates the need for re-painting. Practically maintenance free. Available in different colors. Generally self - cleansing. APPLICATIONS Road humps Road markings Zebra crossings. Demarcation lines Traffic safety sign

COMBI PAVERS
The charm of Concrete cobbles can be greatly enhanced by the possibilities afforded by certain designs (e.g. Modula), which allow endless arrangements in unique 'sets'. Thickness Available 60mm 65mm Finish Options Plain Coated Shot Blasted Shot blasted and Coated Rustic and Shot blasted Rustic, Shot blasted and Coated

Applications Exteriors and Open spaces like Foot-paths, Side-Ways, Garage, Parking, Open areas, Promenades, Swimming Pool Decks, Foyers, Building Compounds, Drive-Ways, Porticoes, Car ramps, Corridors & Verandas, etc. where good finish, antiskid properties or textured look is desired. Benefits Very even efflorescence free looks and sharp colors. Antique finish and effect Anti-Skid Surface Ready to use surface Enables very even Coating

HIGH DENSITY MATTE FINISH PAVER BLOCKS

available in 60mm and 80mm thickness. with m30 to m-50 strength as per clients requirement, in standard colors. These Pavers are highly resistance to wear and tear. These Pavers are suitable for parking areas, path ways, jogging tracks, roads junctions, restaurants, petrol pumps and Court Yards.

HIGH DENSITY DESIGNER (GLOSSY) PAVER BLOCKS : available in 60 mm and 80

mm thickness, made up with rock hard concrete. These Paver blocks are lacquer coated and it gives glossy finish top of the block. GUBBI designer Paver blocks are tailor-made strength of m-35 to m-50 available in standard color range.

Different Types of Pavers Available

* Stamped Concrete: These are pavers that have been imprinted with a pattern. For example, they can be made to remember brick, slate, or other natural items. * Concrete Staining: These are pavers that are colored in a variety of different natural hues. They are stained to look like natural material without being it. * Colored Concrete: These pavers are colored in a variety of bright to mellow colors. This gives the person a great opportunity to match their home or use a color that is an accent to the home. You can even mix and match colors for an interesting

1.Concrete Paver Block

Manufacturing Process for Concrete Paver Blocks
The manufacturing of high quality concrete paver blocks involves combining Portland cement, coarse and fine aggregates, and sufficient water to produce zero-slump concrete. Admixtures can be added to increase properties such as strength and density, and reduce the likelihood of efflorescence and water absorption. The concrete is then molded in Besser machines under vibration and extreme pressure. Usually, the concrete paver blocks are constructed with spacer bars to ensure uniform, properly spaced joints and the edges are beveled to prevent chipping. The basic steps in the manufacture of concrete paver blocks are: The raw materials are mixed in required proportion in cement mixers and ball mills. The mixture is then filled into hoppers of the concrete paver block machine. The blocks are cast with vibration and compaction as per design. They are dispatched after adequate curing.

Design: Concrete Paver blocks are available in a range of designs and colors (including multi-colored blocks). When selecting a design, apart from aesthetic appeal, the convenience of maintenance should also be consideration Base: Concrete Paver blocks can be installed on: Gravel which withstands wind and rain better than the other bases, and is especially suited for irregular arrangements. Concrete , which is more permanent than other bases, and works best when stones are arranged in patterns or laid close together. Sand which is not as permanent as other bases, but is easier to install.

Advantages of Concrete Paver Blocks

Low maintenance and replacement costs. Provide easy access underground services and utilities. Subsequent replacement of underground services does not require any visual or structural changes. Low installation costs because unskilled labor can be used to lay the blocks. Negligible noise and dust during installation/reinstallation. Compared to concrete, construction waste is low. Easy to install and available for immediate use, unlike concrete which must harden. Are available in a variety of aesthetic options; colors, patterns, shapes, etc.

Paver Bricks
There are two types of paving brick The traditional paving brick is made from clay products. They come in various shades, however, reds, oranges and browns are most common. They can also come in different thicknesses. Some can be as thick as 2 5/8" while many are available in 1 1/2" thickness. During the past 25 to 30 years, concrete paving bricks have been gaining widespread popularity. These bricks are made using concrete with small aggregate. These bricks often come in different interlocking patterns. They are also available in different colors. Because they are concrete, they can be extremely durable.

Paver Stone
Stone pavers are found already existing in the earth and have been formed by natural forces during millions of years. Stone pavers are obtained either by being mined at a natural stone deposit, called a quarry, or collected from a rock outcrop. Stone pavers are not made by humans and are not manufactured in terms of being fired at a manufacturing plant.

Installing Stone Pavers

The great thing about Stone Pavers is that you can simply install them dry, on sand bedding. It really is that easy to create attractive paved flooring, with minimal hassle! The advantage of dry-laid paving installations is that if you happen to make a mistake, you can easily make adjustments. This is not so simple when youre setting pavers in mortar or concrete. The sand that swept between the pavers is what holds them in place, and prevents them from shifting over time. The most important step in laying your Stone Pavers is preparing the bed in which they will sit. The sand bed should be planned out, and the appropriate depth should be considered. You may need to add a layer of filter fabric, to hold down the growth of weeds. You may also need a layer of crushed gravel or stone, if you think that your soil will not drain well.

Natural Stone Paver Material

The use of natural stone creates a rustic, natural appeal. There are many of types of natural stone, quarried all over the world, which have been used for thousands of years. Natural stone can vary in density, from softer to harder types of stone. The textures available can range from smooth to glossy to quite rough surfaces. Natural stone is commonly applied to garden steps, pathways and garden borders. With a variety of colors, sizes and shapes available, there is bound to be something to suit your needs. There is a large range of natural stone products: Sandstone Bluestone Limestone Granite Marble Cantera Stone Mexican Stone Travertine

Poured and Stamped Concrete

Poured concrete slabs can be stamped with a pattern, resulting in an imitation of brick or flagstone paver stones. Colors can be achieved with the use of dyes and pigmentation but the colors may fade over time. Poured and stamped concrete is a commonly used paver material applied to driveways and walkways. The reason why it is so popular is mainly due to the low costs involved compared to other types of materials. The costs may be quite low to start off with; however, the costs involved when it comes to maintenance can be considerable. Maintaining poured and stamped concrete involves, cleaning and regular sealing. The real costs occur if you need repairs done. Concrete is difficult to repair, for it is sometimes necessary to re-pour from start to finish.

Clay Pavers
Clay pavers have proven to be one of the most durable types of paver material. It is a material that has been used for thousands of years, and continues to be popular today. The process begins by drying clay and shale, then firing them at over 200 degrees Fahrenheit. The end result is a very strong, durable clay paver. The standout benefit of using clay pavers is their long-lasting vibrant color. Because clay is a natural material, it maintains its natural bright color, and will never fade. The colors range from dark charcoals, browns, reds and even pink shades. Clay pavers are also available in a wide variety of shapes from the traditional rectangle to bull nose, boardwalk and interlocking octagonal ones. There is a variety to suit any individual taste

Permeable Paver Materials

The idea of permeable pavers is that water is able to seep through the material, in order to penetrate through to the ground. The water is absorbed by the soil, rather than becoming storm water runoff and entering our waterways. They can also help cut the costs of drainage systems development, curbs, pipes, gutters and culverts.

Here areGrid System Permeable Pavers Plastic three types of permeable paver materials: This permeable paver involves the use of a plastic grid-like system, commonly made using 100% recycled plastic. The plastic grid is laid, and then vegetation is planted in each grid hole. The grid is strong enough for heavy vehicles and heavy weather. The grids can hold water, after a storm, and gradually the water will absorb into the soil. These grid systems are often used for parking lots and recreational fields.

Block Pavers
Block pavers are used to permeate water while maintaining the look of bricks or stone paver materials. By inserting channels in-between the joints of each block paver, the water will flow down and gradually permeate into the soil beneath. These permeable pavers are often used for driveways, walkways and terraces. Some manufacturers produce pavers in various shapes and patterns, which allows water to filter down slowly.

Porous Concrete
Concrete can become porous, if in the production process, pea gravel is used and a lower percentage of water to cement ratio is implemented. The result will be a much more pebble-like consistency in the concrete. By implementing a porous concrete paver surface, you will save on drainage system costs, while helping the environment.

Step-by Step Block Paving

Preparation Mark out the area of the planned paving using sand , a spray marker or string and stakes, allowing approx 300mm over at each free edge to make handling materials and haunching of edgings or kerbs that much easier . Make sure you know the approximate location of any services such as electricity, gas, cable TV etc

Excavation
Dig off as required, and dispose of spoil. Dig depth for a typical domestic driveway is 200mm below finished paving level, based on 100mm subbase, 40mm sand bed and 60mm block. Typical builders' skips hold approximately 4.5 m of excavated material, which, assuming a 200mm dig depth, works out that each 20-25 m of paving will require 1 skip to dispose of spoil. Remember that excavated material bulks up by 20-30%, so each 1m dug out will become 1.3m for disposal. Make sure any soft spots are excavated and backfilled with compacted sub-base material. Remember, it's better to dig too deeply than too shallow.Install any drainage that's required and haunch with concrete.

Edge Courses Set up taut string lines to guide line and level of edge courses. Lay edging bricks on concrete bed. Once you are satisfied that the straight lines are indeed straight, and that the curves are 'sweet', the edgings should be solidly haunched with concrete at least 75mm thick. Sub-base Spread, level and compact a minimum 100mm thick layer of sub-base material. This sub-base should be profiled or graded to match the planned profile of the finished paving and should be accurate to 10mm. Make sure there are no voids within the sub-base - any such voids should be filled with stone dust or grit sand and compacted before laying the bedding course.

Block laying Continue to lay all full blocks, making sure you work from a section of already laid paving, not from the screened bedding course. When all the full blocks are laid, check for alignment by checking the lines with a taut string line and adjusting as necessary, then cut in at the edges. Finishing off Fix Recess Trays and gully covers, if necessary. Check paving for compliance and compact the paving with a vibrating plate compactor (wacker plate). Make 4-6 passes over each section of paving, alternating passes at 90 to the previous pass. With clay pavers and some of the more decorative concrete blocks, you may need to use a mat attached to the base of the plate compactor to prevent spalling damage to the edges of the bricks. Brush-in dry jointing sand and make final compaction.

Maintenance
Medium level maintenance is required once laid. Sweep occasionally to remove dust and detritus. If you find green algae building up on them, it can be safely removed by cleaning or, we are told, by swilling the area with Jeyes Fluid to kill the algae, which can then be swept away after a couple of days. Use of a pressure washer should be limited to very dirty pavements and no more than once a year, as the high-power water jet loosens jointing and can damage some pavings. We recommend that block or brick paving be treated twice a year with a general weedkiller such as Sodium Chlorate, to deter mosses and weeds from setting up residence in the sand joints. The clay pavers can prone to algal build-up on the surface, more than the concrete blocks. Should this occur, it should be removed regularly (Spring and Autumn) by cleaning, as it can become quite slippery. This phenomenon can be turned to your adavantage in a garden setting, where the clay bricks can 'age' dramatically with the appearance of mosses over a single season. There is significantly less algae/moss build-up on regularly trafficked areas. Algae and moss on clay pavers can be attractive in the right setting Concrete blocks can be prone to weed growing into the joints It's worth noting that, generally speaking, weeds grow INTO paving, not through it, unless it has been really badly laid. The claims made regarding the necessity or value of "weed barriers" beneath block paving are spurious and should be treated with caution. Read more about the use of membranes and geo-textiles beneath paving

WOODEN FLOORING

Anusha Subramanian I.D 2.1 Raffles Design International

wood

HARDWOOD from deciduous trees

SOFTWOOD from coniferous trees

SOURCE of HARDWOOD
Tropical Monsoon Deciduous Forests in India: The tropical monsoon deciduous forests are found in areas receiving annual rainfall of 100 to 200 cms in India, with a distinct dry and rainy seasons and a small range of temperature. They occur on the wetter western side of the Deccan Plateau, the north-eastern part of the Deccan Plateau and the lower slopes of the Himalayas, on the Siwalik Hills from Jammu in the west to West Bengal in the east. They cover parts of Chhattisgarh, Orissa, Bihar, Jharkand, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu. The principal trees of these forests are teak, sal, sandalwood, wattle and bamboo,, myrobalan, arjun and the banyan tree. They shed their leaves for six to eight weeks during the dry season, usually from March to May, to prevent the loss of moisture through evapo-transpiration.

CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMONLY USED WOODS::

.

AROMATIC CEDAR
Color: Mostly red heart wood, thin whitish sapwood

Density: Hard texture Grain: fine grain, very knotty-grain varies around knot
Machinability : Good Finishing: Use oil finishes that display natural colors. Distinctive Characteristics: Highly aromatic, natural resistance to insect damage Common Uses: Cedar chests, closet interiors, furniture interiors.

ASH WOOD Color: Creamy white to light brown heartwood, light sapwood

Density: Very hard, excellent shock resistance

Grain: Distinctive wide-open grain, has occasional brown streaks Machinability: Very good Finishing: Takes all finishes well, pigmented stains will bring out the grain nicely. Distinctive Characteristics: excellent Oak substitute, Golden Oak Common Uses: Furniture, mouldings, flooring, baseball bats.

BIRCH WOOD Color: Cinnamon, light reddish brown to pink heartwood, sapwood is creamywhite to yellowish Density: Hard, medium weight Grain: Uniform, fine grain, small pores Machinability: Generally good, some swirled grain will chip out if tooling is not sharp Finishing: Takes finish very well. Distinctive Characteristics: very durable and strong Common Uses: cabinets, seating, millwork, furniture, interior doors.

Hickory
Color: Tan to reddish brown heartwood, cream to yellowish sapwood (variable mixture of heart and sap) Density: Very hard, strong, stiff and heavy Grain: Moderately coarse open grain Machinability: Excellent machinability, but very abrasive on tooling Finishing: Will take stains. Distinctive Characteristics: The combination of its hardness, strength, toughness, and stiffness are unmatched by any other hardwood. Common Uses: cabinets, flooring, tool handles, paneling. Cost: Rs 120-130 /SF

CHERRY
Color: Red to deep reddish brown heartwood, white to yellowish sapwood
Density: Medium weight, moderately hard, stiff and strong Grain: Fine, closed grain Machinability: Excellent Finishing: Takes a finish well, however light to natural finishes are recommended. Distinctive Characteristics: Beautiful markings (gum streaks, pin knots sometimes) and red color will darken to a rich reddish brown with age. Common Uses: High end furniture, cabinets, interior millwork, musical instruments, paneling, flooring. Cost : Rs 120-130/SF

WHITE OAK Color: Light tan to brown heartwood, sapwood, sapwood is creamy white to gray

Density: Very hard, shock resistant, and very dense, heavy

Grain: Moderately open grain on plain sawn, Quartered and Rift is straight grain Machinability: Fairly well, can be tough on tooling Finishing: Takes a finish well. Distinctive Characteristics: Highly resistant to the environment, very hard, may be a bit more color consistent than Red Oak. Quartered and Rift sawn have a striking grain appearance. Common Uses: Bent chair backs, some furniture, flooring, paneling, some cabinets.

MAPLE Color: Creamy white to off white sapwood-tinged occasionally with slight red brown heartwood Density: Hard, heavy and strong, very resistant to shock and abrasive wear Grain: Closed grain, uniform texture. Some of the figured Hard Maple is available (Curly, Birdseye, and Quilted) Machinability: Excellent, will tear out with dull tooling. Finishing: Finishes very well. Some of the figured woods will show variable levels of penetration.

Distinctive Characteristics: Great wood for applications requiring hardness. Birdseye and curly patterns are available. Common Uses: Furniture, handles, cabinets, woodenware, flooring, paneling, millwork and mouldings.

Cost: Rs 130-140 /SF

WALNUT

Color: Brown to deep purple brown heartwood, sap is brilliant white to cream colorgray. Density: Fairly light weight, medium texture Grain: Moderately open grain Machinability: Excellent machining characteristics, turns, sands, and carves well Finishing: Unsurpassed in finishing! Clear finishes and oils will bring out satiny grain. Distinctive Characteristics: The dark heartwood makes this very distinctive. Common Uses: High end furniture, carving, flooring accents, musical instruments, gun stocks.

Cost : Rs.135-150 /SF

RED OAK

Color: pinkish red to blonde in color

Density: very hard and strong Grain: Openly porous and with dramatic grain patterns. Like White Oak, it is offered in Quartered and Rift grains also. Machinability: excellent Finishing: Due to porous nature it will soak up stains but also offers a wide variety of finish tones. Distinctive Characteristics: This is probably the most popular hardwood used in modern woodworking. Broad grains give this a pronounced appearance. Common Uses: furniture, cabinets, moulding, trim, flooring, paneling, turning. Cost- Rs 130-180/SF

WHY WOOD FLOORS??

Affordable : Wood floors add value to your residence at resale time, not to
mention it is a lifetime product. They increase in value as your home does Ecological Sound: Unlike most floor coverings, wood floors come from a natural resource that is sustainable. . Today most timber is cut from forests that are carefully managed to ensure continued resources in the future Healthy : Hard surface flooring such as hardwood floors does not rap or harbor dust mites or molds. That creates better air quality for all inhabitants. The hard surface of wood floors also helps avoid artificial substances such as pesticides that can accumulate on some floor coverings Selection and Variety : With today's technologically advanced manufacturing, stains and finishes, hardwood floors come in many sizes, styles, colors, finishes and species

Other Woods Commonly used for Flooring There are many other types of wood that are made by wooden sheeting. These various types are available in thickness ranging from 4 mm to 24 mm.

MDF (Medium Density Fiber Board): is made from powdered wood bonded with glue and compressed to form the sheets. It is quite soft and very easy to work with. It cuts, sands and finishes very easily. COST: Rs 200-5000/SF
Chipboard: is made like MDF but from actual wood chips.. It is also used widely for low cost flooring. Plywood: is made from thin laminates of wood glued together. Each layer is at right angle to the grain of the other. It is very strong but also quite flexible, especially if there are thinner sheets.

TYPES OF HARDWOOD FLOORS 1. Solid hardwood floors come in a wide range of

dimensions and styles, with each plank made of solid wood and milled from a single piece of timber. Solid hardwood floors were originally used for structural purposes, being installed perpendicular to the wooden support beams of a building. Modern construction techniques now rarely use wood building frames and solid hardwood floors are used almost exclusively for their appearance. For flooring, solid wood has many limitations due to the natural characteristics of wood. Expansion and contraction of wood from moisture and temperature fluctuation puts many dimensional restrictions on solid wood floors. Typically, 5" wide and 3/4" thick boards are the largest that can be manufactured from solid wood without compromising the structure of the flooring (some manufacturers produce wider boards using proprietary milling techniques). There is, however, no standard size which will perform well in every environment. For contemporary construction techniques, the most significant characteristic of solid wood floors is that they are not recommended to be installed directly over concrete.

Solid wood flooring is completely lumber. It is available in unfinished and pre-finished. Solid wood flooring is produced in: Strip - in thicknesses of 1/2" or 3/4" in widths of 1-1/2, 2" and 2-1/4" Plank - in thicknesses of 1/2" or 3/4" and widths of 3" to 8" Parquet - geometrical patterns composed of individual wood slats held in place by mechanical fastening or an adhesive Cost : Rs 100-200/SF

Engineered/Laminate wood flooring

Engineered wood flooring is composed of two or more layers of wood in the form of a plank. The top layer (lamella) is the wood that is visible when the flooring is installed, and is adhered to the core (or substrate) which provides the stability. Engineered wood flooring has several benefits over solid wood, beyond dimensional stability and universal use. Engineered wood also allows a 'floating' installation (where the planks are not fastened to the floor below or to each other), further increasing ease of repair and reducing installation time. Cost: RS 110-250 /SF

Laminate wood flooring is produced by bonding layers of veneer and lumber with an adhesive. Laminate flooring is a high density fiberboard using either synthetic materials or mixed with natural materials and covered with a decorative layer of hardwood, protected with a film of melanin resin. Laminated flooring is made up of a high-density fibreboard (HDF) core, a melamine-impregnated decor layer which is a photographic reproduction of a real wood or tile floor, and on top of that, a highly resistant protective overlay to give the floor the protection and durability required. Underneath is what's called a balancing laminate which not only ensures the stability of the board during the production process but also because of its non-porosity, helps to prevent moisture from getting into the HDF core once the floor has been laid.

Laminate wood flooring is available in pre-finished and unfinished. These products are more dimensionally stable and are ideal for glue-down installation or float-in installation above grade, on grade or below grade, including basements in:
Strip - thicknesses of 5/16", 3/8", 1/2" or 5/8" and in widths of 2" and 2-1/4" Plank - thicknesses of 5/16", 3/8", 1/2" or 5/8" and in widths of 3" to 8" Parquet - one-piece wood tile available in 9" x 9" or 8" x 8" and other patterns

Cost: Rs 25-150/SF Laminate, vinyl and veneer floors are often confused with engineered wood floors laminate uses an image of wood on its surface vinyl is plastic formed to look like wood, and veneer uses a thin layer of wood with a core that could be one of a number of different composite wood products (most commonly, high density fiberboard).

Pre-finished wood flooring Pre-finished flooring is factory sanded and finished flooring that only needs installation. Comes in many colors, species and sizes. Unfinished wood flooring Unfinished flooring is a product that must be job-site sanded, stained if desired, and finished after installation. This has been the American staple in hardwood floors for many years. Commonly called "Strip flooring", this product has not changed for many years as to size, cuts & grades. A 3/4" thick unfinished strip floor can be sanded from four(4) to six(6) times in it's lifetime

PRE-FINISHED

UNFINISHED

Acrylic Impregnated/DYED wood A pre-finished product that through a high pressure treatment, acrylic and color are forced in the pores throughout the thickness of the wood. The "finish" is inside the wood, creating an extremely hard surface. These floors are highly resistant to abrasion and moisture and appeal most often to commercial installations, but can be used residentially. The many styles available are the same as laminated floors.

Dimensions Thickness: 3/8" Width: 2 2/3" or 4" Length: random 15 1/2" to 47" Sawn or rotary peeled wear layer Advantages : Minimizes or eliminates: shrinking, cracking, checking, expanding, warping, will not absorb water, impervious to salt water, oils, stains, dyes and chemicals, sanding does not raise the grain, takes a very high polish, stands up to temperature changes.

Each Category having 3 Sub-Categories of:

Parquet wood pieces forming a pattern/design-thicknesses of 1/4"- 5/16" 1/2" & 3/4" mostly glue down. This kind of flooring normally comes in standard patterns of 66. Sensational geometric effects can be achieved with special parquet design patterns

Plank board face widths 3" & up to 12" with thicknesses from 1/4", 5/16", 3/8",5/8", 9/16" and 3/4", glue or nail down. Difference between this hardwood floor is that flooring boards are at least 3 inches wide. Installation method is by screwing the plank floor to the sub floor as well as nailed. Screw holes can be covered with wooden plugs

Strip usually considered the "hardwood floor", face width sizes of 1 1/2", 2 1/2" and 2 1/4", with 1/2" and 3/4" thicknesses, glue or nail down NOTE: As a rule 3/4" products are mostly nailed (larger parquet patterns are both nailed and glued)

Comparison of solid wood and engineered wood

It is very difficult to compare a solid wood floor to engineered wood floors, as there is a wide range of engineered wood floor qualities. There are several limitations on solid hardwood that give it a more limited scope of use: solid wood should not be installed directly over concrete, should not be installed below grade (basements) and it should not be used with radiant floor heating. Solid hardwood is also typically limited in plank width and is more prone to "gapping" (excessive space between planks) and "cupping" (a concave or "dished" appearance of the plank, with the height of the plank along its longer edges being higher than the centre) with increased plank size. Solid wood products, on average, have a thicker 'sandable area' (the wood that is above the tongue), and can be installed using nails. Lastly, solid wood tends to be less expensive than engineered wood, but this, as with the 'sandable area,' depends on the quality of the engineered wood (most inexpensive engineered wood products are 'veneer' wood floors, and not 'engineered'). Engineered wood flooring has several benefits over solid wood, beyond dimensional stability and universal use. Patented installation systems (such as "click" or "G6") allow for faster installation and easy replacement of boards. Engineered wood also allows a 'floating' installation (where the planks are not fastened to the floor below or to each other), further increasing ease of repair and reducing installation time

Manufacturing process
Rotary Peel Manufacturing There are three major ways in which hardwood flooring is manufactured. The most common of these types is called rotary peel manufacturing. It is characterized by the wood being treated by being boiled in water. After this has been done, the wood is peeled away from the log by a blade working in circular fashion. It peels away layers of the bark, working its way from the outside in. The veneer that is left is then given an enormous amount of pressure in order to create a flattened finished product. Rotary peeled flooring is commonly known to have a plywood appearance running though the grain of the floor. Veneer peeling lathe

Sliced Peel Manufacturing

This type of manufacturing differs very little from rotary peeling. Rather than slicing the wood from the log in a circular fashion, however, sliced peel manufacturing involves slicing the wood off the end of the log. This is the only change in the manufacturing process, but it has been shown to decrease some of the problems inherent in rotary peel manufacturing, notably the tendency for the wood veneer to curl back into its previous state. It does not eliminate this defect entirely, however.

Dry Solid Sawn Manufacturing

The last type of hardwood floor manufacturing does not involve boiling the logs. Instead, the logs are stored in a low humidity warehouse and dried out, extracting moisture from within the log. After cutting, it goes through the same flattening process as the previous two manufacturing styles. The benefits of dry solid sawn include the elimination of wood curling, as there has been no added moisture.

Wood can be manufactured with a variety of different installation systems:

1) Tongue-and-groove: One side and one end of the plank have a groove,

the other side and end have a tongue (protruding wood along an edge's center). The tongue and groove fit snugly together, thus joining the planks, and are not visible once joined. Tongue-and-groove flooring can be installed by glue-down (both engineered and solid), floating (engineered only), or nail-down (not recommended for engineered).

2) "Click" systems: there are a number of patented "click" systems that now exist. A "click" floor is similar to tongue-and-groove, but instead of fitting directly into the groove, the board must be angled in to make the curved tongue fit into the groove. No adhesive is used when installing a "click" floor, making board replacement easier. This system only exists for engineered wood floors and is designed to be used for floating installations. It is beneficial for the Do-It-Yourself market.

3) Floor connection system: There are a wide range of connection systems, as most of them are mill-specific manufacturing techniques. The general principle is to have grooves on all four sides of the plank with a separate, unconnected, piece that is inserted into the grooves of two planks to join them. The piece used for the connection can be made from wood, rubber, or plastic. This installation system allows for different materials (i.e. wood and metal) to be installed together if they have the same connection system.

There are Three INSTALLATION METHODS for Laminated/Engineered Wood Floors:: Nailed down method:(all 3/4" material) - as per manufacturers specifications of nailing schedule. This installation method is performed by nailing the individual pieces of a wood flooring product to a wooden sub-floor with 1 1/4- to 2-inch cleats in a wood flooring nailer and mallet. The nailing pattern needs to start no less than 1 inch from the beginning of each row of planks and every 8 to 10 inches along each piece thereafter. It is most commonly used when installing a solid wood flooring product because solid wood floor strips or planks are typically thicker (usually 3/4 inch) than engineered wood floor products and solid wood flooring expands and contacts more than engineered flooring.

Glued - using Manufacturers recommended adhesive The glue down wood floor installation method is performed by troweling mastic or adhesive onto a properly cured and level concrete or plywood sub-floor and placing the individual pieces on the glue. Glued down wood floors are very stable but this method does require an extensive knowledge of sub-floor preparation methods. Improper bonding on an uneven sub-floor will cause the new wood flooring product to break loose and need repair. It is most commonly utilized on engineered wood flooring but it can also be utilized for solid wood flooring.

Floated - usually 1/8" urethane foam sheeting or may be glued directly to subfloor The free-float installation method is performed by laying an 1/8-inch underlayment of foam or plastic on the sub-floor, existing vinyl or ceramic tile floor and then tapping the tongue and groove flooring product together with a tapping block on the underlayment with a bead of water-based adhesive between the tongues and grooves of the individual planks. The new wood flooring is not attached to the subfloor at all. This installation method is most commonly used when installing 8-inch by 96-inch engineered long-strip wood floors and other engineered flooring products including laminate, which is not real hardwood but is sometimes used to create the look of wood flooring

Staple down method : The staple down installation method is performed using a pneumatic staple gun to drive 1- to 2-inch staples through the wood flooring into a plywood or wood sub-floor. The stapling pattern is the same as the nail down pattern but this method is often easier for do-it-yourselfers because the special stapler required is easy to operate and it can be rented rather than purchased. It is most commonly utilized on engineered wood flooring that is not as thick as solid wood flooring.

Finishing, refinishing, and sanding Floor finishes

The two most popular finishes for wood flooring are oil and polyurethane. Within both categories there are many variations and other names used to describe the finish. Oil and polyurethane also have very different refinishing and maintenance regimes. Oil - Oiled floors have existed for several thousand years and is the most common floor finish used globally. Oil finished floors are made from naturally derived oils, and are not to be confused with petroleum based oils. Pre-finished oil floors can be UV cured. Most vegetable based oils are 100% natural and contain no VOCs. Polyurethane - Polyurethane floors were first introduced around 1940. There are several types of polyurethane finishes that exist, but the two most common are straight polyurethane and oil-modified polyurethane. Both products are sold under various names including: urethane, lacquer, and varnish. Many finish manufacturers and wood flooring manufacturers create a brand name for their finish.

Penetrating Sealers are probably the most common finish on residential floors.
Sealers are usually thinned varnishes which, when applied to wood, penetrate into the wood pores on the surface. The result is usually a low gloss or satin finish that wears only as the wood wears. The eventual effects of traffic are far less apparent than with other finishes that only coat the surface. Scratching and chipping of this finish is not a serious problem. One coat of a penetrating sealer can give satisfactory performance, but two coats are generally better. Varnishes can also give satisfactory performance. However, varnishes do have a greater tendency to scratch, and worn spots are difficult to patch without showing lines between the old and new finish. Varnishes specifically designated for floors tend to be more durable. A glossy or matte finish is available. Varnishes may be based on phenolic, alkyd, epoxy or polyurethane resins. Shellac and lacquer are sometimes used as floor finishes. These finishes will dry rapidly, and more than one coat can often be applied in the same day. However, shellac and lacquer are not as resistant to moisture, spills and mechanical wear as are the penetrating sealers, polyurethane and varnish. Surface finishes will usually give a longer life than penetrating sealers without any attention other than regular sweeping or dry mopping. However, when surface finishes must be renewed, it is usually necessary to refinish the entire room.

Sanding
Sanding provides a method for smoothing an installed floor, compensating for unevenness of the subfloor. Additionally, sanding is used to renew the appearance of older floors. Sanding using successively finer grades of sandpaper is required to ensure even stain penetration when stains are used, as well as to eliminate visible scratches from coarser sandpaper grades used initially. Prior to modern polyurethanes, oils and waxes were used in addition to stains to provide finishes. Beeswax and linseed oil, for example, are both natural crosslinking polymers are hardened over time. Modern polyurethanes, and polyester resins, used occasionally, are superior in toughness and durability.

APPLICATIONS
Entry / Foyer - Foyers tend to be more formal than not. Making a design statement in this area has most recently become a new wood flooring trend. Custom One-Of-AKind designs like Accents, Borders, Inlays, and Medallions are very popular. Always use outside walk-off mats and if there is no design, area carpets inside will help in keeping wear down.

 Kitchens/Family rooms: These are most common spaces for wood floor installation in new construction and remolding. The ease of care, open floor plans, and the flow of traffic make this a very popular area for wood floors. Dark and white/bleached wood floors do NOT fare well in this area because of the high traffic, food & water continuously being on the floor. In some very grainy species, the direction of the wood floor can add to the wear of the product. NOTE: Kitchen wood floors should be screened (lightly sanded) and recoated as needed, say every 6-18 months, depending on the amount of traffic and cleaning habits. Make sure the finish used is recommended by the manufacturer and/or is a compatible with what you have. Good cleaning habits are very important part of maintaining a wood floor, high traffic or not. Clean regularly, and always wipe food & water spillage immediately.

 Formal Living and Dining Rooms- Most often a more traditional formal setting, darker in color with the combination of oriental carpets. This area also often receives border inlays, with turning blocks or corner accents to add a Custom-One-of-A-Kind floor. Design considerations for this area often will be compatible with the furniture being used. Not matching the exact color but a darker or lighter color in the same family of the floor color, thus complimenting each other. Remember the darker the floor, the smaller the space will appear, and maintenance consideration will increase.

 Bathrooms - A bathroom that receives daily use would not fare well
with wood floors, due to continued moisture exposure. On the other hand a guest bathroom not used on a day to day basis could be considered. Make sure to use area carpets/mats, and always immediately wipe up any water.

 Home offices, Bedrooms - Wood Floors work well in bedrooms, often with area carpets being used. Office settings lean toward the traditional darker colors, and bedroom are a 50/50 tossup on colors used. NOTE: Rolling furniture, chairs, TV stands etc., can damage the finish very quickly, if used day to day. Make sure the floor is protected and/or the rollers are not made of metal or other damaging materials. Regular maintenance is required.

MAINTENANCE
Solid hardwood floors are among the easiest to keep clean. Protect their warmth and character with simple, everyday cleaning techniques. Its important to know how to prevent damage to your solid hardwood floors. Dirt & Grit - Dirt, grit and sand are your hardwood floors worst enemies. They act like sandpaper on the finish, causing scratches, dents and dulling. Place floor mats at entrances to trap dirt and prevent damage. Water & Other Spills - Standing water can warp a poorly finished hardwood floor and can damage the finish. Simply wipe up all spills as they happen.

Hard Cleaners - Avoid oil soaps. They can build up and create problems when its time to put a maintenance coat on the floor. Instead, neutral pH cleaners made specifically for wood floors are recommended. Furniture - Lift the furniture to move it avoid dragging. Felt contacts under the legs will help prevent scratches. Dents - Vacuum with a brush attachment dont use vacuums with beater bars. Sun - Direct sun can discolor your hardwood floor. Close curtains and blinds or add sheer drapes to protect from the suns intense UV rays.

Regular Care
Sweep - Brooms with fine, exploded ends trap dust and grit effectively. Vacuum - Canister vacuums with special bare floor attachments are the surest way to get rid of all the dirt and dust. Dust Mop - Use a good dust mop one with a 12- to 18- inch cotton head - and a special dust mop treatment. Spray the treatment onto the mop head 12 to 24 hours before dust mopping.

PROS AND CONS

Pros Beautiful, warm, soft on the feet, fairly durable, long-lasting if properly sealed and maintained, can be refinished, many wood types and hues to choose from, can be painted or stained for more color options, helps tie kitchen to other rooms in an open floor plan. Cons Susceptible to water damage, darkens with age, expensive to very expensive, softer woods can dent easily, harder to keep clean than vinyl or laminate water and spills need to be cleaned immediately. Dust everywhere with refinishing or new installation of unsealed wood.