Acta Astronautica 56 (2005) 161 170 www.elsevier.

com/locate/actaastro

Micro-satellites thermal controlconcepts and components

Volodymyr Baturkin
National Technical University of Ukraine, Kyiv Polytechnic Institute, Peremogy Pr., 37, Kyiv 03056, Ukraine

Abstract The main idea of this paper is to present the survey of current tendencies in micro-satellites thermal control concepts that can be rational and useful for posterior missions due to intensive expansion of satellites of such type. For this purpose, the available references and lessons learned by the National Technical University of Ukraine during the elaboration of thermal control hardware for micro-satellites Magion 4, 5, BIRD and autonomous thermal control systems for interplanetary missions VEGA, PHOBOS have been used. The main parameters taken into consideration for analysis are the satellite sizes, mass, power consumption, orbit parameters, altitude control peculiarities and thermal control description. It was dened that passive thermal control concepts are widely used, excepting autonomous temperature regulation for sensitive components such as batteries, high-precision optics, and some types of sensors. The practical means for realization of passive thermal control design as multi-layer insulation, optical coatings, heat conductive elements, gaskets are briey described. 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Last years conferences on small satellites activities [1,2], the information about currently elaborated projects and future small-satellite missions planned [3] emphasized the actuality of satellites and active interest in them. The intensive expansion of small satellites could be explained by moderate enough cost, short time of elaboration and existing possibility to include the complicated devices like multifunctional equipment and optical systems as payload. According to small-satellite classication [3], there are the following conditional groups: nano- and picosatellites (< 10 kg), micro-satellites (10100 kg),
Tel./fax: +380 44 241 75 97.

E-mail address: baturkin@carrier.kiev.ua (V. Baturkin). 0094-5765/$ - see front matter 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.actaastro.2004.09.003

mini-satellites (100500 kg), interplanetary small missions (< 500 kg). Table 1 presents some technical data for the above considered small-satellite groups. Certain constraints originating in small-satellite designs due to limited mass and power denite available volume for payload and housekeeping systems produce the set of requirements for each of the satellite systems and for the thermal control system as well. The survey of thermal means used in practice in smallsatellite designs, visible perspectives and difculties can be useful to be more oriented in this topic. Main attention is devoted to small-satellite group with mass less and near 100 kg (micro-satellites), where compromise in the power/mass/volume distribution between mandatory housekeeping needs and the payload requirements is actual.

162 Table 1 Attributes of small-satellite groups Satellite class Mini Micro Nano

V. Baturkin / Acta Astronautica 56 (2005) 161 170

Mass (kg) 100500 10100 Less than 10

Bus linear sizes (m) More than 1 0.51 Less than 0.2

Power averaged (W) Up to 100 Tens Several

35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

number of micro satellites per year (by SSHP 2002)

2.1. External heat exchange Micro-satellites operate on low Earth circular orbits (4501200 km) with wide range of NASA angles and on high elliptical orbits. This means that satellite sides can be exposed to external disturbances as IR Earth radiation, Albedo, Sun. IR and Albedo can be negligible for highly elliptical orbits. The typical maximal incident uxes for 550 km orbit for at surface with normal to nadir are qIR 200 W/m2 , qALB,MAX 450 W/m2 (averaged over orbit < 150 W/m2 ). The eclipse time can reach 0.5 h (circular) up to several hours for elliptic orbits. Most often used attitude control systems (ACS) are spin attitude control, gravity and 3-axes stabilization. This means that the satellites external light disturbances can be predicted due to exact knowledge of its attitude. Spin attitude presumes the arrangement of rotation axes perpendicular or parallel to Sun direction; ACS for 3-axes stabilized satellites has to be designed to change, often enough, the satellite orientation along orbit movement to decide the intended tasks. 2.2. Thermal concepts

Fig. 1. Launches of micro-satellites in years [3]. Dash line is a trend linear approximation of ying micro-satellites.

The paper does not cover the analysis of all thermal control principles used and their technical embodiment, as according to [3] (Fig. 1) more than 250 micro-satellite launches have been realized during 19802000, and each of them has something specic. An additional difculty is the insufciency of available descriptions of thermal control details.

2. Typical micro-satellite thermal concepts Main principles of space thermal control design, software and hardware used are collected in [411] and many other works. Nevertheless, namely, the details of thermal control system (TCS) design are mostly important in the case when they are embodied in practically realized projects. The diverse information about thermal designs is collected by Surrey Satellite Technology Ltd., [2, p. 417], Technical University of Berlin [2, p. 347], by Design Bureau Pivdenne [1, p. 437] and other leading small-satellite space hardware manufacturers as well. Summarizing, it is possible to emphasize the following regularities. There are three conditional approaches in the thermal scheme designautonomous concept, centralized concept and combined concept (Fig. 2). Autonomous concept assumes the individual thermal control for each device or group of devices. The devices/equipment are thermally disconnected from each other. The centralized concept guesses the tight thermal coupling of all units and the use of one centralized radiator for external heat exchange. The most exploited concept is combined concept, where some group of equipments (for example, housekeeping equipment, satellite bus) has a common thermal control, several devices (some payload) are thermally disconnected from satellite bus and use autonomous

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003

V. Baturkin / Acta Astronautica 56 (2005) 161 170

163

Fig. 2. Conditional thermal concepts of micro-satellites.

thermal control. The thermal concept denes the way length of heat roaming between the device and the aimed radiator and effective thermal mass of satellite and units. Each of the concepts has its own peculiarities, depending on the satellite orientation and attitude control. For spinning satellite with perpendicular position of rotation and Sun light axes (Fig. 2) the external sides can be used as a thermal sink, as with a ratio s / < 1 the wall temperature will trend to the level of 1020 C. The solar cells have the similar optical characteristics, and they can also be used as a thermal sink. For coinciding longitudinal and Sun light axes (Fig. 2, spinning and 3-axes stabilized satellites) lateral satellite surfaces can be used for heat rejecting. The heat removing can be arranged through one centralized radiator (all thermal lines go to it) or several radiators distributed. The tight thermal connection of all components enlarges the thermal mass of satellite, reduces the temperature non-uniformity throughout the satellite. Estimating that at power 40 W the area of the radiator is only 0.150.2 m2 and the rest of the

lateral area should be covered with multi-layer insulation MLI (1), area 0.51 m2 . Satellite radiator temperature is sensitive to unsteadiness of the power rejected, and roughly 1 W in energy variation causes 11.5 K temperature change. The coating of the front satellite area with optical selective coating (OSC) with s 0.2, 0.85 allows to reach the radiator temperature level of 030 C. Predominant design assumes non-hermetic shell of satellites that requires conductive and radiative means for a heat transfer. 2.3. Inner thermal tasks Typical requirements of satellite inner components are collected in Table 2 [8]. The most delicate devices are batteries, optic instrumentation and individual payload. Requirements of average heat generation inside the satellite are in the range of 1540 W. This power is produced mainly by housekeeping equipment, peak heat generation coincides with payload operation and

164 Table 2 Typical thermal requirements Component name Electrical equipment Batteries Consumable gas Microprocessors Microprocessors Bearing mechanisms Solar cells Solid-state diodes Orientation sensors Optics Payload Satellite total Temperature ( C) 10 to +40 5 to +15 +9 to +50 5 to +40 5 to +40 5 to +40 60 to +55 60 to +90 5 to +45 21 Individually

V. Baturkin / Acta Astronautica 56 (2005) 161 170

Peak power (W) Max 10 per unit Up to 20 Up to 20 Up to 20 Max 5 Max 10 < 150 250, average 3060

can reach 200 W; typical housekeeping heat generated components are board computer, transmitter, ACS, and batteries. If payload operates constantly, the power generation does not change abruptly. The most temperature sensitive units are battery sets, which should be used in the range of 5 +15 C. More details about satellite component exploitation temperatures are presented in [410]. Overwhelming majority of the satellites are built as non-sealing objects, and heat transfer inside is realized by conduction of structure elements and radiation (black surface coating 0.85). Heat pipes (HP) and high conductive carbon materials are effective means to improve the temperature uniformity. 2.4. Satellite structure concept Two tendencies are noticeable. The rst: payload and housekeeping are developed and arranged by one institution. In this case it will provide with the thermal solution for the whole satellite. The second tendency: the multimission satellite bus with changeable payload is proposed to the consumer. That means that payload should be accommodated into the satellite thermal surroundings. The solar arrays may cover the satellite outer surface or could be deployable. After opening they can not be re-oriented. The modern microsatellite will carry the high-precision optics, which is sensitive to satellite structure and geometrical stability, and this requirement can essentially inuence on the structure design. Sometimes interesting details about

Fig. 3. Predicted rate of heat ux density for space electronic components [16].

micro-satellite thermal arrangement can be found on web sites of satellite developers [1215]. 3. Potential thermal control future tasks The following tasks have been distinguished for satellite thermal control: to cool the high power generating components. The future problem is associated with growing heat dissipation of modern board computer processors reaching 1530 W with density up to 100 kW/m2 [16], as seen in Fig. 3; to provide thermal and geometrically stable mounting places for devices (illustration in Fig. 4 [17]); to ensure the conditions for operation of payloads with several temperature levels. The other important direction is miniaturization of space equipment that leads to reduction of sizes of all the components and increase in the heat ux densities of thermal control components. 4. Software for thermal design The wide set of the following products is available in the market: 1. Lumped parameter methods: ESATAN (ThermXL), SINDA/G/FLUINT, TRASSA,

V. Baturkin / Acta Astronautica 56 (2005) 161 170

165

5. the trace ability of mechanical and structural design changes in the course of project and adequate modication of thermal model.

5. Thermal hardware Main thermal control components did not vary abruptly. For micro-satellites they are mainly passive: multi-layer insulation, optical coating and nishing, thermal conductive lines, thermal isolators, heat storage, heat pipes, and electrical heaters. Conditional classication of hardware is presented in Table 3. Typical multi-layer insulation consists of 2030 inner layers of less than 0.006 mm aluminized Mylar and innermost and outermost layers 0.025 or 0.05 mm aluminized Kapton [7]. The effective emittance depends on discontinuity of MLI blankets, averaged temperature, pressure, and pressing of blankets. The summary on effective emittance is presented in Fig. 5 [7]. Recommended in [7] for draft estimation the value of effective emittance is 0.03 with tolerance 0.02. This value should be precised in the subsequent experiments. Optical coating and nishing, optical selecting coating can provide the value of ration emittance/solar absorptance 0.1 < / s < 10. Typical optical painting for low-temperature radiator has s 0.2, 0.85. Fig. 6 shows the optical properties for some nishing and coatings [7]. Heat transfer inside the satellite is realized by means of conduction through structural elements and special conductive lines. Aluminum alloys are used as bus and conductive lines and heat capacity storage ( = 2700 kg/m3 , = 150 W/mK, cp = 900 J/kg K), beryllium as heat transfer and heat storage ( =1850 kg/m3 , = 180 W/mK, cp = 1850 J/kg K). Conductive lines can be fabricated from exible copper strings [18,19] as geometrically adjustable thermal conductors (thermal resistance less than 2 K/W). They allow to conjugate the elements with unknown exact layout and permit to reduce the torque on clamping points. The other very effective heat conductance lines are the heat pipes. For space application they are mostly presented by ammonium axially grooved heat pipes produced by extrusion, though other types of structures (as metal felts, screens) are used as well.

Fig. 4. Thermo- and geometry stable payload baseplate of micro-satellite BIRD [17]: provides the geometrical stability of mounting places and supports, parallelprecise of optical axes ( arcmin); provides the comfortable temperature regime for optics (+15+20 C); provides heat removal. Courtesy of DLR.

2. nite element and nite difference methods: NASTRAN, COSMOS, ANSYS, FLOTHERM, TAS, TAK2000, 3. radiation heat exchange (internal and external): ESARAD, TERMICA, TRASYS, RadCAD, SSPTA, OAZIS, 4. specic software is very useful for the thermal contact conductance denition, thermoelectric cooler design, and heat pipe design. The following peculiarities and problems can be discovered during the thermal model preparation: 1. Retrieval information and denition of exact thermal properties: thermal conductivity, heat capacity, density, uniformity of properties, and temperature dependence of properties, 2. retrieval of information and denition of exact optical properties and their variation during exploitation emittance, diffuse reectivity, specular reectivity, and transmissivity in IR band, absorptance, diffuse reectivity, specular reectivity, and transmissivity in solar band, 3. denition of realistic values of thermal contacts in joints, 4. reasonable simplication of thermal structure of simulated object, preparation of the thermal loads functions, and choice of heat transfer process functionalities,

166

V. Baturkin / Acta Astronautica 56 (2005) 161 170

Table 3 Classication of thermal hardware for micro-satellites Name of hardware Passive means to regulate the satellite structure temperature level Radiating surfaces and nishing Multilayer insulation Heat transport means to manipulate with satellite integral heat capacity Semi-passive and active means to regulate the satellite structure temperature level Heaters; Louvers Heat storages; Variable conductance heat pipes Changes of satellite orientation; Change of on-off of device Hardware for individual devices installed on micro-satellite platform Passive means to regulate the device/equipment temperature level Radiating surfaces and nishing Multilayer insulation Heat conductive lines (exible lines, heat pipes) Low conductive supports and standsoff Contact conductance means Semi-passive and active means to regulate the device temperature level Heaters; Heat storages Thermal switches, Thermoelectric coolers, Stirling coolers Frequency of application

Often Often Not often Not often Very random Possible

Very often Often Often Very often Very often Often Random

Fig. 5. Effective emittance of MLI blankets as function of area and discontinuity by Stimpson & Jaworski [11]. AMLI -sizes of MLI area for microsatellites, rec -recommended range of effective emmitence.

Typical extruded prole has the diameter more than 8 mm, thermal resistance less than 0.1 K/W.

Selecting the type of capillary structure and liquid heat transfer medium one can match these heat transfer instruments over wide temperature range from 190 to +100 C. Dimensional congurations of heat pipes are presented in Fig. 7 [20]. The illustrations of heat pipe application in microsatellite thermal design are small-satellites Magion 4, Magion 5 [21] and BIRD [22]. The aim of heat pipes in both cases is to transport heat between remote satellite zones (front and back compartments for Magion satellites, distance 0.5 m; payload and main radiator for BIRD satellite, distance 0.3 m). Scheme of heat pipe conguration for BIRD satellite thermal control system is presented in Fig. 8. For future micro-satellite missions one of the heat pipe modications will be useful, namely, micro-heat pipes by circumcircle diameters 16 mm. They are constant conductance heat pipes, have wire wick or grooves as liquid transfer medium; material of shellcopper and silver; typical circumcircle diameter from 16 mm; length up to 100 mm, heat carrier: alcohol, water; maximum transfer heat ux 210 W/cm2 ; thermal resistance of HPs: less than 0.510 K/W. Micro-heat pipe array dimensions are: 2040 mm width, 110 mm length with thickness of 13 mm. The other type of new heat pipe technology, so-called

V. Baturkin / Acta Astronautica 56 (2005) 161 170

167

Fig. 8. Scheme of heat pipe arrangement in BIRD satellite. Heat moves from evaporator (payload)condensator (radiator) in measurement.

Fig. 6. Values of emittance and solar absorptance [7]. Zone 1selective blacks (solar absorbers); 2sandblasted metals and conversion coatings; 3white paints and second surface mirrors; 4bulk metals (unpolished); 5dielectric lms on polished metals. Ideal reector = 0; s = 0in left bottom corner; ideal painting = 1; s = 0in right bottom corner; ideal solar absorber = 0; s = 1in left upper corner; ideal black painting = 1; s = 1is in right upper corner.

Fig. 7. Examples of heat pipe congurations with metal belt wick.

loop-heat pipes (LHPs), allows to operate independently of gravity forces. Distance between heat input and output zones can reach several meters at transfer power up to 100 W. Also, the connecting lines in LHP are exible (thin wall tubes with diameter of 23 mm) that allows to apply this device for thermal coupling of moveable parts. Alternative solution for heat transport at a distance less than 0.3 m and for heat spreading is based on the use of variety of graphite materials, with effective conductivity more than copper [23]. Thermal contacts between satellite structural elements, thermal contact of high power generating components with cooling means or substrates could be improved by application of different types of interface pads, greases, gap llers and encapsulates. Typically, these means are placed between contacting surfaces that is presented in Fig. 9 [24]. Typical conductivity of pads is 16 W/mK, they cannot be applied with high pressure (typically 1030 psi or 0.72 bar), and allow to reduce the contact resistance in coupling joint [25]. Other variant to cool the power-generated micro-elements is to use the conformable gap llers, which allow to connect the heat generated component with thermal shield and rearrange the heat ux. Scheme of conformable pad application is shown in Fig. 10. Potential problems in space application of interface pads, gap llers, greases, encapsulates and adhesives are associated with risk of mass losses and subsequent spacecraft and payload contamination. The

168

V. Baturkin / Acta Astronautica 56 (2005) 161 170

Fig. 11. Scheme of low-conductance standoff [19]. Insulating materialglass bers with epoxy, attachment elements made of stainless steel.

Fig. 9. Scheme of interface pad application to improve the contact conductance [25].

Fig. 10. Cooling of electronic components of different sizes: 1printed card; 2electromagnetic and thermal shield; 3electronic components; 4conformble pad; 5ways of heat movement to heat sink.

other important task is to verify the stability of the component characteristics under space environment factors and preliminary estimation of technical efciency of selected application. Important passive thermal control means are the low conductive supports and standoffs. They are exploited for thermal isolation of the device (part of the device) from the satellite. Mainly such a measure is necessary for devices with autonomous thermal control either for devices or their parts, which have other temperature levels, different from interior of the satellite. Typical materials for these supports are a wide variety of lowconductivity materials, including berglass, stainless steel, titanium or plastics. The choice of material is dic-

tated by the conductivity, temperature range, thermal expansion and mechanical properties. Typical variant of support design, used many times in space for the temperature range of 170350 K for thermal isolation of 2 kg device is shown in Fig. 11. Four such supports provide the thermal resistance higher than 400 K/W and thermally disconnect the device from satellite bus [19]. Such effective thermal control means as the louvers, radiators with changeable optical properties, unfolded radiators, radiators-variable conductance heat pipes, heat storage, thermal switches, controlled electrical heaters have not been considered in this paper. The louvers and radiators with variable emitting ability are more typical for larger satellite with mass more than 100 kg. Heat storage, thermal switches, thermoelectric cooling and controlled electrical heaters are the attributes of autonomous thermal control technology. More details concerning the above-mentioned instruments can be found in special literature [7]. Among advanced thermal technologies one can note the following means, which are very soon going to be used in practice [7]: 1. Variable emittance coating technology (variation of emittance 0.20.8), 2. micro-louvers (change of effective emittance in 2 times), 3. mini two-phase heat transfer devices mini heat pipes: diameters 12 mm, length 60100 mm, heat power transferred 110 W, mini capillary pump loops: diameter 12 mm, length 3001000 mm, heat power transferred 3100 W, 4. mechanical thermal mini-switches (thermal resistance change 100:1),

V. Baturkin / Acta Astronautica 56 (2005) 161 170

169

5. high performance CC composites with conductivity 4001100 W/mK, which can be used either for the structure elements or heat transport elements.

6. Ground testing and verication of thermal control design Verication of the thermal design should be conducted prior to the launch. For micro-satellites the vacuum chamber with inner sizes of about 2 m length and 1.5 m in diameter is often enough for arbitrary satellite layout inside the chamber. The vacuum chamber with pressure of 0.0013 Pa (105 Torr) or less, cooled by liquid nitrogen screen simulates the thermal condition of the outer space (Figs. 12 and 13). The Earth, Sun heat uxes are simulated by aiding heaters, installed on the back side of radiating surfaces, on the base of the absorbed uxes knowledge. Sometimes the Earth radiation is simulated by radiative heat sinks with regulated temperature. The thermal balance test of the satellite system, for cold and hot cases of exploitation, should conrm or precise the accepted parameters of most of the thermal control components and approve used thermal concept. Exploitation temperature boundary for satellite components should be enlarged by 11 C [7] to compensate the uncertainty connecting with calculations, design and environmental conditions. Among possible recommendations, based on satellite design and ight performance experience, the following ones could be useful: Keep in mind the possibility of unpredictable situation with satellite orientation with respect to sun light and with variation of power generation value inside the satellite. They can shift satellite temperature level essentially. Maintain the battery in comfortable temperature range during chargerecharge mode during the satellites shadow period. Degradation of optical surfaces is the real process, which is important especially for the front direction toward the Sun surfaces. Not all the factors can be simulated and estimated in the ground tests and by calculations. Design your equipment for wider temperature range.

Fig. 12. Space simulation chamber of DLRs Space Center in Berlin with volume of 3.2 m3 [26].

Fig. 13. Installation of micro-satellite BIRD into vacuum chamber for thermo-vacuum testing. Courtesy of DLR [27,28].

7. Conclusion Summary of the information concerning presentday thermal control concepts conformably to microsatellite group (mass less than 100 kg) is surveyed and analyzed. The description of the conventional thermal hardware used in micro-satellite design is briey presented. The base for the survey was the lessons learned by the National Technical University of Ukraine Kyiv Polytechnic Institute during the elaboration of thermal control hardware for micro-satellites Magion 4, 5 (launched in 1995 and 1996), BIRD (launched in 2001), autonomous thermal control systems for interplanetary missions VEGA (launched in 1984), PHOBOS (launched in 1986) and other public data.

170

V. Baturkin / Acta Astronautica 56 (2005) 161 170 [16] Kaveh Azar, History of power dissipation, http://electronicscooling.com/html/2000_jan_a2.html. [17] I. Walter, B. Heym, W. Stadthaus, Microsatellite structure solutions: highly integrated, modular design of BIRD, Proceedings of the Fourth International Symposium, Small Satellites Systems and Services, 1418 September, AntibesJuan les PINS/France, CNES, 1998. [18] G. Avanesov, Ya. Ziman, V. Tarnopolsky, et al., TV Survey of Comet Halley, Nauka, Moscow, p. 295, ISBN 5-02-000093-0, 1989. [19] V. Kostenko, V. Baturkin, N. Grechina, et al., Cryogenic System for the Videospectrometric Complex (VSC) Cooling in Project PHOBOS, preprint, Space Research Institute, Academy of Sciences of the USSR, Pr-1409, 1988, p. 39. [20] V. Baturkin, S. Zhuk et al., Autonomous heat pipe systems for electronic components thermostating at near-earth orbit exploitation, Proceedings of the 24th International Conference on Environmental Systems, Friedrichshafen, Germany, June 2023, Rep. No. 941302, 1994. [21] J. Vojta, S. Zhuk, V. Baturkin, Thermocontrol system concept of Magion small subsatellites of Intreball Mission, Digest of the First International Symposium of the International Academy of Astronautics (IAA), Berlin, November 48, 1996, pp. 380383. [22] F. Lura, B. Biering, V. Baturkin, et al., Heat pipe application for thermal stable bench arrangement in small satellite design, Proceedings of the 30th International Conference on Environmental Systems (ICES) and Seventh European Symposium on Space Environmental Control Systems, Toulouse, France, July 1013, Rep. No. 2000-01-2460, 2000. [23] Material TC1050, Website http://www.Advceramic.com. [24] Journal Electronics Cooling 5 (1) (1999) 38. [25] C. Latham, Technical brief, thermal resistance of interface materials as a function of pressure, Journal Electronics Cooling 2 (3) (1996) 35. [26] F. Lura, D. Hagelschuer, System conditioningour ways and testing tools for the development of reliability for spaceborne components and small satellites, Digest of the First International Symposium of the International Academy of Astronautics (IAA), Berlin, November 48, pp. 365368, 1996. [27] B. Biering, F. Lura, H.G. Lotzke, I. Walter, et al., TCS design of the microsatellite BIRD for infrared Earth observation, Proceedings of the 28th International Conference on Environmental Systems, Dancers, Massachusetts, USA, July 1316, Rep. No. 981639, 1998. [28] K. Brie, W. Brwald, F. Lura, et al., The BIRD mission is completed for launch with the PSLV-C3 in 2001, in: H. Rser, R. Sandau, A. Valenzuela (Eds.), Digest of the Third International Symposium of IAA, Small Satellites for Earth Observation, Berlin, April 26, Wissenschaft und Technic Verl., Berlin, 2001, ISBN 3-89685-566-2, 2001, pp. 323326.

Acknowledgements The author thanks the BIRD team of the Institute of Space Sensor Technology and Planet Exploration (DLR, Berlin, Germany) for the permission to use illustrations and technical data. Exchange of information in related elds can be realized via email: Baturkin@carrier.kiev.ua and fax: (38044) 241-75-97. References
[1] Small satellites for Earth observation, Digest of the First International Symposium of the IAA, Berlin, November 48, Copyright 1996 by Walter de Gruyter & Co., 1996. [2] H.P. Roser, R. Sandau, A. Valenzuela (Eds.), Small satellites for Earth observation, Digest of the Second International Symposium of the International Academy of Astronautics (IAA), Berlin, April 1216, Wissenschaft und Technic Verl., Berlin, ISBN 3-89685-561-1, 1999. [3] Website of Surrey Space Center, Small Satellite Home Page, http://www.ee.surrey.ac.uk/SSC/SSHP . [4] O. Favorsky, Ya. Kadaner, Questions of Heat Transfer in Space, Vyschya shkola, Moscow, 1972. [5] V. Andreanov, V. Artamonov, et al., Autonomous Planet Stations, Nauka, Moscow, 1973. [6] V. Zaletaev, Yu. Karpinos, O. Surguchev, Spacecraft Heat Transfer Calculation, Mashinostroenie, Moscow, 1979. [7] D. Gilmore (Ed.), Satellite Thermal Control Handbook, The Aerospace Corporation Press, El Segundo, CA, 2002. [8] P. Fortescue, J. Stark (Eds.), Spacecraft System Engineering, third ed., ISBN 0 471 95220 6, Copyright John Wiley, 1995. [9] Vincent L. Pisacane, Robert C. More (Eds.), Fundamental of Space Systems, ISBN 0-10-507497-1, Copyright Oxford University Press Inc., Oxford, 1994. [10] P. Zemlianoy, C. Combes, Thermal control of space electronics, http://www.electronic-cooling.com/Resources/ EC-articles/SEPT96/Sep96_03.htm, 2000. [11] C. Jilla, D. Miller, Satellite design: past, present and future, International Journal of Small Satellite Engineering, http://www.ee.surrey.ac.uk/EE/CSER/OUSAT/IJSSE/IJSSC/ issue1/cjilla/cjilla.html. [12] Website of Institute of Atmospheric Physics of Czech Academy of Science, http://www.ufa.cz, 2000. [13] Website of Institute for Space Research Russian Academy of Science, http://www.iki.rssi.ru, 2000. [14] Website of OHB System, http://www.fuchs-gruppe.com/ ohb-system, 2000. [15] Website of Institute of Space Sensor Technology and Planet Exploration, http://www.ba.dlr.de/ne/ws.