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Formulae
Formulae
Equations
Module 16.1
Module 16.1
Equations
16.1.1
Block 16 Equations
Equations
Module 16.1
Equations
Block 1: Introduction
Equation number Equation
UF = Urrhr8!&" $
Density of a material
2.1.2
2 2 W
Where: r = Density (kg/m) m = Mass (kg) V = Volume (m) vg = Specific volume (m /kg) Specific gravity of a material
2.1.3
R 2 pS U
2.1.4
Energy transfer equation Where: Q = Quantity of energy (kJ) m = Mass of the substance (kg) cp = Specific heat capacity of the substance (kJ /kg C ) DT= Temperature rise of the substance (C) Change in entropy
2.1.5
uJ 2uI uIJ
2.2.1 Where: hg = Total enthalpy of saturated steam (Total heat) (kJ/kg) hf = Liquid enthalpy (Sensible heat) (kJ /kg) hfg = Enthalpy of evaporation (Latent heat) (kJ /kg)
The Steam and Condensate Loop
16.1.2
Block 16 Equations
Equations
Module 16.1
Equation number
Equation
6phyruhysrhhv
u
IJ
Where: hfg = Enthalpy of evaporation (Latent heat) (kJ /kg) = Dryness fraction Total enthalpy of wet steam
6phyhyruhy
2.2.3
u u
I IJ
Where: hf = Liquid enthalpy (Sensible heat) (kJ /kg) hfg = Enthalpy of evaporation (Latent heat) (kJ /kg) = Dryness fraction Specific volume of wet steam
2.2.4
6phyrpvsvpyr
Where: vg = Specific volume of dry steam at same pressure = Dryness fraction Flash steam produced from hot water and condensate
Qvssyhurh
2.2.5
Where: P1 = Initial pressure P2 = Final pressure hf = Liquid enthalpy (kJ /kg) hfg = Enthalpy of evaporation (kJ /kg) Carnot efficiency
2.3.1
8hrssvpvrp =
&
U U U
L L
2.3.2
Shxvrrssvpvrp 2 C C C u
L 5 L
Rankine efficiency
Where: Hi = Heat at turbine inlet (kJ /kg) He = Heat at turbine exhaust (kJ /kg) he = Sensible heat in condensate (kJ /kg)
16.1.3
Block 16 Equations
Equations
Module 16.1
Equation number
Equation
= x6 eU
2.5.1 Where: Q = Heat transferred per unit time (W) k = Thermal conductivity of the material (W/m K or W/mC) A = Heat transfer area (m) T = Temperature difference across the material (K or C) = Material thickness (m) Heat transfer by convection (Newtons law of cooling)
= u6U
2.5.2
Where: Q = Heat transferred per unit time (W) h = Convective heat transfer coefficient of the process (W/m C) A = Heat transfer area of the surface (m) T = Temperature difference between the surface and the bulk fluid (K or C) General heat transfer
2 V6U
2.5.3
Where: Q = Heat transferred per unit time (W) U = Overall heat transfer coefficient (W/m C) A = Heat transfer area (m) T = Temperature difference between the primary and secondary fluid (K or C) Note: Q will be a mean heat transfer rate (QM) if DT is a mean temperature difference (DTLM or DTAM). Arithmetic mean temperature difference (AMTD or DTAM)
U U U$0 2UV ! Where: Ts = Steam temperature (C) T1 = Secondary fluid in temperature (C) T2 = Secondary fluid out temperature (C)
2.5.4
16.1.4
Block 16 Equations
Equations
Module 16.1
Equation number
Equation
2.5.5
Where: Ts = Steam temperature (C) T1 = Secondary fluid in temperature (C) T2 = Secondary fluid out temperature (C) ln = A mathematical function known as natural logarithm Rate of heat transfer across a barrier knowing the thickness and conductivity
= 6
2.5.6
Where: Q = Heat transferred per unit time (W / m2) A = Heat transfer area (m) T = Temperature difference across the barrier (C) / = Barrier thickness / material thermal conductivity k
P!& :
2.5.7
26 U S
Where: Q = Heat transferred per unit time (W ) A = Heat transfer area (m) T = Temperature difference across the barrier (C) R = Thermal resistance of the barrier (m2 C / W) Resistivity from conductivity
2
2.5.8
Where: r = Thermal resistivity (mC / W) k = Thermal conductivity (W / mC) Thermal transmittance (heat transfer coefficient) from thermal resistance
V2
2.5.9
Where: U = Thermal transmittance of the barrier (W / m2 C) R = Thermal resistance of the barrier (m2 C / W)
16.1.5
Block 16 Equations
Equations
Module 16.1
Equation number
Equation
V2
2.5.10
S S S S S S
Where: R1 = Resistance of the air film R2 = Resistance of the condensate film R3 = Resistance of the scale film on the steam side R4 = Resistance of the of the metal wall R5 = Resistance of the scale film on the water side R6 = Resistance of the product film Thermal transmittance (U) from the individual thicknesses and conductivities
V2
e
2.5.11
Xurr) Uuvpxrshvsvy e 2 x Uurhypqpvvshv Uuvpxrspqrhrsvy e 2 x Uurhypqpvvspqrhr e 2 Uuvpxrsphyrsvyrhvqr x Uurhypqpvvsphyr Uuvpxrsrhyhyy e 2 x Uurhypqpvvsrhy e 2 Uuvpxrsphyrsvyhrvqr x Uurhypqpvvsphyr Uuvpxrshrsvy e 2 x Uurhypqpvvshr
x
e
x
e
x
e
x +
e
x +
e
x
= pS U
2.6.1
Where: Q = Mean heat transfer rate (kW (kJ /s)) m = Mass of the fluid (kg) c p = Specific heat capacity of the fluid (kJ /kg C) T = Increase in fluid temperature (C) t = Time for the heating process (seconds) Quantity of heat transferred by condensing steam
R = u
V
IJ
2.6.2
Where: Q = Quantity of heat (kJ) ms = Mass of steam (kg) hfg = Specific enthalpy of evaporation of steam (kJ /kg)
16.1.6
Block 16 Equations
Equations
Module 16.1
Equation number
Equation
V uIJ
2.6.3
Where: Q = Mean heat transfer rate (kW or kJ /s) ms = Mean steam consumption (kg /s) hfg = Specific enthalpy of evaporation of steam (kJ /kg) Energy balance between steam and secondary fluid of a non-flow process
u
V
IJ
2.6.4
Where: ms = Mean steam consumption rate (kg /s) hfg = Specific enthalpy of evaporation of steam (kJ /kg) Q = Mean heat transfer rate (kW (kJ /s)) m = Mass of the secondary fluid (kg) c p = Specific heat capacity of the secondary fluid (kJ /kg C) T = Temperature rise of the secondary fluid (C) t = Time for the heating process (seconds)
= pS U
2 pS U
2.6.5
Energy requirement for a flow-type application (e.g heat exchanger) Where: Q = Mean heat transfer rate (kW) m = Mean secondary fluid flowrate (kg /s) c p = Specific heat capacity of the secondary fluid (kJ/kg K) or (kJ/kg C) DT= Temperature rise of the secondary fluid (K or C)
2.6.6
Where: ms = Mean steam consumption rate (kg /s) hfg = Specific enthalpy of evaporation of steam (kJ /kg) Q = Mean heat transfer rate (kW (kJ /s)) m = Mass flowrate of the secondary fluid (kg /s) c p = Specific heat capacity of the secondary fluid (kJ /kg C) T = Temperature rise of the secondary fluid (C) Mean steam consumption of a flow type application
2 pSU u
V IJ
2.6.7
Where: ms = Mean steam consumption rate (kg /s) m = Mass flowrate of the secondary fluid (kg /s) c p = Specific heat capacity of the secondary fluid (kJ /kg C) T = Temperature rise of the secondary fluid (C) hfg = Specific enthalpy of evaporation of steam (kJ /kg)
16.1.7
Block 16 Equations
Equations
Module 16.1
Equation number
Equation
2.6.8
K
V
IJ
Where: ms = Mean steam consumption rate (kg /s) Q = Mean heat transfer rate (kW) hfg = Specific enthalpy of evaporation of steam (kJ /kg) To determine the required steam flowrate from a kW rating
2.8.1
Trhsyhrxt u =
GhqvxX"% u hrhvtrr
IJ
2 u Up
V J S
2.11.1
Where: ms = Mean steam flowrate (kg /s) Q = Mean heat transfer rate (kW) hg = Specific total enthalpy of the steam upstream of the control valve (kJ /kg) T = Final temperature of the water c p = Specific heat capacity of the water (kJ /kg C) Steam consumption to provide tank heat losses
2.11.2
Where: ms = Mean steam flowrate to provide the heat losses from the tank (kg /s) Q = Q(sides) + Q(surface) (kW) 2256.7 = Enthalpy of evaporation at atmospheric pressure (kJ / kg) Mass and heat balance for steam injection into a tank
u
uJ 2
V )
u
2.11.3
Where: m = Initial mass of water in the tank (kg) ms = The mass of steam to be injected (kg) h1 = The heat in the water at the initial temperature (kJ /kg) h2 = The heat in the water at the final temperature (kJ /kg) hg = The total enthalpy of the steam upstream of the control valve (kJ /kg)
16.1.8
Block 16 Equations
Equations
Module 16.1
Equation number
Equation
V
2.11.4
u u
uJ u
Where: ms = The mass of steam to be injected (kg) m = Initial mass of water in the tank (kg) h1 = The heat in the water at the initial temperature (kJ /kg) h2 = The heat in the water at the final temperature (kJ /kg) hg = The total enthalpy of the steam upstream of the control valve (kJ /kg) Steam start-up load to bring steam pipework to operating temperature
2.12.1
Where: ms = Mean rate of condensation of steam (kg / h) W = Total weight of pipe plus flanges and fittings (kg) Ts = Steam temperature (C) Tamb = Ambient temperature (C) c p = Specific heat of pipe material (kJ / kg C) hfg = Enthalpy of evaporation at operating pressure (kJ / kg) t = Time for warming up (minutes) Steam running load to keep a steam main at operating temperature
V 2
2.12.2
"%Gs xt u u
IJ
Where: ms = Rate of condensation (kg /h) Q = Heat emission rate (W/m) L = Effective length of pipe allowing for flanges and fittings (m) f = Insulation factor (dimensionless) hfg = Enthalpy of evaporation at operating pressure (kJ / kg) Note: The constant 3.6 gives the answer in kg / h Steam condensing rate for air heating equipment
V 2
2.12.3
"%UpS xt u uIJ
Where: ms = Rate of steam condensation (kg /h) V = Volumetric flowrate of air being heated (m/s) T = Air temperature rise (C) c p = Specific heat of air at constant pressure (kJ / m C) hfg = Enthalpy of evaporation of steam in the coils (kJ / kg) Note: The constant 3 600 gives the solution in kg / h
16.1.9
Block 16 Equations
Equations
Module 16.1
Equation number
Equation
2.12.4
"%G xt u uIJ
Where: ms = Rate of steam condensation (kg / h) Q = Heat emission from pipe (W/m) L = Effective length of pipes (m) hfg = Enthalpy of evaporation at the working pressure (kJ / kg) Note: The constant 3.6 gives the answer in kg / h Mean steam flowrate to a storage calorifier
2.13.1
V = pIJS U u
Where: ms = Mean rate of condensation (kg / h) m = Mass of water heated (kg) c p = Specific heat of water (kJ / kg C) T = Change in temperature of water (C) hfg = Enthalpy of evaporation of steam (kJ / kg) t = Recovery time to heat the water (hours) Steam consumption of drying cylinders
V
2.14.1
Where: ms = Mass flowrate of steam (kg / h) W d = Throughput of dry material (kg / h) W w = Throughput of wet material (kg / h) T1 = Temperature of material entering the machine (C) T2 = Temperature of material leaving the machine (C) hfg = Enthalpy of evaporation of steam in cylinders (kJ / kg) The kinetic energy in steam
Fvrvprrt@2 !tE
2.16.1
Where: E = Kinetic energy (kJ) m = Mass of the fluid (kg) u = Velocity of the fluid (m /s) g = Acceleration due to gravity (9.806 65 m /s) J = Joules mechanical equivalent of heat (101.972 m kg /kJ)
16.1.10
Block 16 Equations
Equations
Module 16.1
Equation number
Equation
2
2.16.2
!@tE
Where: u = Velocity of the fluid (m /s) E = Kinetic energy (kJ) g = Acceleration due to gravity (9.806 65 m /s) J = Joules mechanical equivalent of heat (101.972 m kg /kJ) m = Mass of the fluid (kg) Velocity of steam passing through an orifice in terms of heat drop
2 ##&! u
2.16.3 Where: u = Veolocity of the fluid (m/s) h = Heat drop per unit mass (kJ/kg) Mass flow of steam through an orifice 2.16.4
Uurhsy 2
WrypvPvsvprhrh xt Trpvsvpyr xt
2 !u
2.16.5 Where: u = Velocity of the fluid (m/s) h = Heat drop per unit mass (J/kg)
16.1.11
Block 16 Equations
Equations
Module 16.1
V 2
3.2.1
Q9 ! e
Where: s = Hoop stress (N /m) P = Boiler pressure (N /m = bar x 105) D = Diameter of cylinder (m) = Plate thickness (m) Relating boiler pressure to heat transfer rate
3.2.2
Q D
Where: P = Boiler pressure (N /m = bar x 105) Q = Heat transfer rate (kW) To determine the evaporation factor of a boiler from its From & At rating
3.5.1
@hhvshp =
6 78
Where: A = Specific enthalpy of evaporation at atmospheric pressure. B = Specific enthalpy of steam at operating pressure. C = Specific enthalpy of water at feedwater temperature. To determine the actual evaporation rate of a boiler from its kW rating and the energy required to be added to the feedwater to make steam
3.5.2
Crhhsrhrhs
3.5.3
&
2 7CQ
Where: A = Heat transfer (ft2) BoHP = Boiler horsepower Calculating boiler efficiency
3.6.1
16.1.12
Block 16 Equations
Equations
Module 16.1
Equation number
Equation
U9T2ryhvrqrvh $$8
To determine the TDS of a sample by the conductivity method
3.12.2
U9T2pqpvvvTp&
To correct the conductivity of a sample at a temperature from 25C
V7 2 V b
DU!$d
3.12.3
Where: sT = Conductivity at temperature T (S / cm) s25 = Conductivity at 25C (S / cm) a = Temperature coefficient, per C (Typically 0.02 / C or 2%C) T = Temperature (C) The electrical resistance of a conductivity probe
5
3.12.4
Where: R = Resistance (Ohm) K = Cell constant (cm-1) s = Conductivity (S / cm) To determine the blowdown rate of a boiler
7yqhr 2 AT 7A
3.12.5
Where: F = Feedwater TDS (ppm). S = Steam generation rate (kg / h) B = Required boiler water TDS (ppm) Ohms Law
D =
3.16.1
W S
8 = F
3.16.2
6 9
Where: C = Capacitance (farad) K = Dielectric constant (non-dimensional) A = Area (m) D = Distance between plates (m)
16.1.13
Block 16 Equations
Equations
Module 16.1
Equation number
Equation
V
2
3.21.1
Where: ms = Mass of steam to be injected (kg / h) m = Maximum boiler output at the initial feedwater temperature (kg / h) h1 = Enthalpy of water at the initial temperature (kJ / kg) h2 = Enthalpy of water at the required temperature (kJ / kg) hg = Enthalpy of steam supplying the control valve (kJ / kg) Sizing a control valve for saturated steam
2 !F Q
$%&#!
e!
3.21.2
Where: ms = Steam mass flowrate (kg /h) K v = Valve coefficient required P1 = Pressure upstream of the control valve (bar a) P2 = Pressure downstream of the control valve (bar a)
e 2 Qrrqhv
(Q Q ) Q
2 F Y Q B
3.21.3 Where: V = Volumetric flowrate (m3 /h) K v = Valve coefficient required DP= Pressure drop across the valve (bar) G = Relative density of fluid (water = 1) Steam storage capacity of an accumulator 3.22.1
16.1.14
Block 16 Equations
Equations
Module 16.1
Block 4: Flowmetering
Equation number Equation
To determine the Absolute or Dynamic viscosity of a fluid by dropping a sphere through a fluid
9hvpvpv 2
4.1.1
!' t (
Where: = Absolute (or dynamic) viscosity (Pa s (1 cP = 10-3 Pa s)) Dr = Difference in density between the sphere and the liquid (kg / m3) g = Acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m / s2) r = Radius of sphere (m) u
4.1.2
Where: v = Kinematic viscosity (centistokes) = Dynamic viscosity (Pa s) r = Density (kg / m3) To determine the Reynolds number of a fluid in a circular pipe
SryqirS H 2
4.1.3
Where: R e = Reynolds number (dimensionless) r = Density (kg /m3) u = Mean velocity in the pipe (m /s) D = Internal pipe diameter (m) = Dynamic viscosity (Pa s) To determine volumetric flowrate from velocity
4.1.4
Y = 6
Where: qv = Volume flow (m3/s) A = Cross sectional area of the pipe (m2) u = Velocity (m / s) To determine mass flowrate from volumetric flowrate
TP =
4.1.5
YJ
TY
Where: qm = Mass flow (kg / s) qv = Volume flow (m3/s) v g = Specific volume (m3/ kg)
16.1.15
Block 16 Equations
Equations
Module 16.1
Equation number
Equation
P
4.1.6
6
YJ
Where: qm = Mass flow (kg / s) A = Cross sectional area (m2) u = Velocity (m /s) v g = Specific volume (kg/m3) To determine the turndown ratio of a steam flowmeter
4.2.1
Uq = Hhvsy Hvvsy
Q Q + + u = + + u t t !t !t
4.2.2
= = = = =
Pressure at points within a system (Pa) Velocities at corresponding points within a system (m /s) Relative vertical heights within a system (m) Density (kg / m3) Gravitational constant (9.81 m /s)
Q tu
4.2.3
2Q tu !
= = = = =
Pressure at points within a system (Pa) Velocities at corresponding points within a system (m /s) Relative vertical heights within a system (m) Density (kg / m3) Gravitational constant (9.81 m /s)
Q
2Q ! !
Where: P1 and P2 = Pressure at points within a system (Pa) u1 and u2 = Velocities at corresponding points within a system (m /s) r = Density (kg / m3) Bernoullis Equation with constant potential energy terms and frictional losses
Q 2Q uI ! !
4.2.5
= = = =
Pressure at points within a system (Pa) Velocities at corresponding points within a system (m /s) Density (kg / m3) Friction loss (Pa)
16.1.16
Block 16 Equations
Equations
Module 16.1
Equation number
Equation
Q Q 2uI
4.2.6
Where: P1 = Upstream pressure (Pa) P2 = Downstream pressure (Pa) hf = Friction loss (Pa) Potential energy
Qrvhyrrt2tu
4.2.7 Where: m = Mass of all the molecules above hole g = Gravitational constant (9.81 m/s2) h = Cumulative height of molecules above the hole Kinetic energy 4.2.8
Fvrvprrt2 !
Where: m = Mass of the object (kg) u = Velocity of the object at any point (m/s) Potential energy at Kinetic energy at = the start of process the end of process
4.2.9
tu2 !
Where: m = Mass of the object (kg) g = Gravitational constant (9.81 m/s2) h = Height of the object above a reference point (m) Velocity of liquid through an orifice
4.2.10
2 !tu
Where: u = Velocity (m / s) g = Gravitational constant (9.81 m/s2) h = Pressure head (m) Volumetric flowrate of liquid through an orifice
Y = 86 !tu
4.2.11 Where: qv = Volumetric flowrate (m3/s) C = Coefficient of discharge (dimensionless) A = Area of orifice (m2) g = Gravitational constant (9.8 m/s2) h = Differential pressure (m)
16.1.17
Block 16 Equations
Equations
Module 16.1
Equation number
Equation
Volumetric flowrate of liquid is proportional to the square root of pressure drop 4.2.12
Where: qv = Volumetric flowrate (m3 / s) Dp= Pressure drop (m) The liquid velocity measured by a Pitot tube
4.2.13
=
!Q
Where: u1 = The fluid velocity in the pipe DP= Static pressure - dynamic pressure r = The fluid density To determine the b ratio for an orifice plate
4.3.1
E =
qvsvprqvhrr 9vrqvhrr
Note: Diameters must be in the same unit of measurement To determine the vortex shedding frequency around a bluff body
s T q
4.3.2
Where: f = Shedding frequency (Hz) Sr = Strouhal number (dimensionless) u = Mean pipe flow velocity (m/s) d = Bluff body diameter (m) The volumetric flowrate from the shedding frequency
4.3.3
= 6
s x
Where: qv = Volumetric flowrate (m3/s) A = Cross sectional area of the orifice (m2) f = Shedding frequency (Hz) k = A constant for all fluids for a given design of meter
16.1.18
Block 16 Equations
Equations
Module 16.1
Equation number
Equation
Percentage error when using a velocity sensing meter which is not pressure compensated
H = 6phy
Trpvsvrq
4.4.1
Where: e = Flow error expressed as a percentage of the actual flow Specified r = Density of steam at the specified steam line pressure Actual r = Density of steam at the actual line pressure Percentage error when using a pressure difference meter which is not pressure compensate
rH) = Where: e = Actual r = Specified r =
Trpvsvrq U 6phy U
4.4.2
Percentage flow error Density of steam at actual pressure (kg /m3) Density of steam at specified pressure (kg /m3)
9rvsrh =
4.4.3
J F
Where: r = Density of steam with dryness fraction c n g = Specific volume of dry steam c = Dryness fraction Approximation of relationship between indicated and actual flowrate with a deviation in dryness fraction
4.4.4
Dqvphrqhsyhr 6physyhr
qrvhphyvihrqqrshpv qrvhhphyqrshpv
Actual value of superheated steam flowing through a flowmeter calibrated for saturated steam 4.4.5
6phyhyr
9vyhrqhyr r
16.1.19
Block 16 Equations
Equations
Module 16.1
Closing force to close a valve (A x P) + Friction allowance = F 6.1.1 Where: A = Valve seating area (m2) P = Differential pressure (kPa) F = Closing force required (kN) Calculate valve Kv for liquids
.Y
6.3.1
* '3
Where: K v = Flow of liquid that will create a pressure drop of 1 bar (m/ h bar) V = Flowrate (m/h) G = Relative density /specific gravity of the liquid (dimensionless). DP = Pressure drop across the valve (bar) Volumetric flow of water through a valve
= .Y '3
6.3.2
Where: V = Flowrate (m /h) K v = Flow of liquid to create a pressure drop of 1 bar (m /h bar) DP = Pressure drop across a valve (bar) The flow of liquid through a constant bore pipe relative to pressure loss
6.3.3
3 3
I2
6.3.4
Valve authority Pressure drop across a fully open control valve Pressure drop across the remainder of the circuit Pressure drop across the whole circuit
16.1.20
Block 16 Equations
Equations
Module 16.1
Equation number
Equation
82" % SU
6.4.2 Where: C = Speed of sound in steam (m / s) 31.6 = Constant of proportionality g = Steam isentropic exponent (1.135 : saturated, 1.3 : superheated) R = 0.461 5 the gas constant for steam (kJ / kg) T = Absolute steam temperature (K) Steam flow through a valve under critical flow conditions
2 !F Q
V Y
6.4.3
Where: ms = Mass flow through a valve (kg/h) K v = Valve capacity (m3/h bar) P1 = Upstream pressure (bar a) Volumetric flow through an equal pecentage valve
2r PD[
[
6.5.1
Where: V = Volumetric flow through the valve at lift H e = Exponential constant 2.7183 x = (ln t) H (where: In = Natural logarithm) t = Valve rangeability H = Valve lift (0 = closed, 1 = fully open) V max = Maximum volumetric flow through the valve Required capacity of a water control valve
FYU 2 'Q
6.5.2 Where: Kvr = The actual valve capacity required by the installation (m/h bar) V = Flowrate through the valve (m3/h) DP = The differential pressure across the valve (bar)
16.1.21
Block 16 Equations
Equations
Module 16.1
Equation number
Equation
6.5.3
Where: H% = In = V = t = V max =
PD[ D
Percentage lift Natural logarithm Flow through the valve at lift H (m3/h) Valve rangeability Maximum flow through the valve at full lift (m3/h)
C =
6.5.4
Where: H% = Percentage lift In = Natural logarithm K vr = Required capacity at lift H (m3/h bar) t = Valve rangeability Kvs = Valve capacity full open (m3/h bar) The required capacity for a steam valve under sub-sonic flow
FYU FYV D
FYU 2
!Q
$%&#!
6.5.5
Where: K vr = Required capacity at lift H (m3/h bar) ms = Steam mass flowrate (kg/h) P1 = Upstream pressure (bar a) P2 = Downstream pressure (bar a) x = (P1 - P2) / P1
q
#
7.1.1
16.1.22
Block 16 Equations
Equations
Module 16.1
= q
#
Where: d = The area of the inlet port at its narrowest point Curtain area of a safety valve
8hvhrh
9.1.2
= q G
Where: d1 = Minimum area of opening between the valve and seat L = Maximum lift from seat to valve Required opening force for a safety valve with the spring housing vented via the discharge vent pipe
Q9 612A6 Q% 61
9.2.1
Where: PV = Fluid inlet pressure AN = Nozzle area FS = Spring force PB = Backpressure Required opening force for a safety valve with the spring housing vented to atmosphere
9.2.2
Where: PV = Fluid inlet pressure AN = Nozzle area FS = Spring force PB = Backpressure A D = Disc area Required opening force for a safety valve with the spring housing vented via the discharge vent pipe and taking into effect the build-up backpressure
9.2.3
Where: PS = Set pressure of safety valves AN = Nozzle area FS = Spring force PB = Backpressure PO = Overpressure
16.1.23
Block 16 Equations
Equations
Module 16.1
Equation number
Equation
Q9 61 2A6
9.2.4
Where: PV = Fluid inlet pressure AN = Nozzle area FS = Spring force Cold differential pressure
89TQ2SDTQ87Q
9.3.1 Where: CDSP = Cold differential set pressure RISP = Required installed set pressure CBP = Constant backpressure Coefficient of discharge 9.4.1
Q% 2 ! Q x
9.4.2
)(
N N
Where: PB = Critical backpressure (bar a) P1 = Actual relieving pressure (bar a) k = Isentropic coefficient of the gas or vapour at the relieving conditions AD-Merkblatt valves - Minimum flow area for steam
6
22
Z Q5
9.4.3
Where: AO = Minimum cross sectional flow area (mm2) c = Pressure medium coefficient m = Mass flow to be discharged (kg / h) a W = Outflow coefficient PR = Absolute relieving pressure (bar a) AD-Merkblatt valves - Minimum flow area for dry gases and air
622 &( Ua H Z Q5
9.4.4
Where: AO = Minimum cross sectional flow area (mm2) m = Mass flow to be discharged (kg / h) Y = Outflow function a W = Outflow coefficient PR = Absolute relieving pressure (bar a) T = Inlet temperature (K) M = Molar mass (kg / kmol) Z = Compressibility factor
The Steam and Condensate Loop
16.1.24
Block 16 Equations
Equations
Module 16.1
Equation number
Equation
62 2 %! Z 'Q
9.4.5
Where: AO = Minimum cross sectional flow area (mm2) m = Mass flow to be discharged (kg / h) a W = Outflow coefficient r = Density (kg / m3) DP = PR - PB PR = Absolute relieving pressure (bar a) PB = Absolute backpressure (bar a) Compressibility factor for compressible steam and dry gases
a2 Q5 H SX U
9.4.6
Where: Z = Compressibility factor PR = Safety valve relieving pressure (bar a) M = Molar mass (kg / kmol) n = Specific volume (m3/kg) R u = Universal gas constant (8 314 Nm / kmol K) T = Actual relieving temperature (K) Proportion of vapour in two phase discharge
2 u u u
I IJ
I
9.4.7
Where: n = The proportion of discharge fluid which is vapour hf1 = Enthalpy of liquid before the valve (kJ / kg) hf2 = Enthalpy of liquid after the valve (kJ / kg) hfg2 = Enthalpy of evaporation after the valve (kJ / kg) ASME (API RP 520) valves - Minimum flow area for steam
622 $ $Q F 5 FG 6+
9.4.8
Where: AO = Required effective discharge area (in2) m = Required mass flow through the valve (lb / h) PR = Upstream relieving pressure (psi a) K d = Effective coefficient of discharge K SH = Superheat correction factor ASME (API RP 520) valves - Minimum flow area for dry gases and air
6
2 2
UaB
&$8 F Q F
9.4.9
Where: AO = Required effective discharge area (in2) V = Required volume flow through the valve (ft3 / min) T = Relieving temperature (R) Z = Compressibility factor G = Specific gravity of the air or gas Cg = Nozzle gas constant K d = Effective coefficient of discharge PR = Upstream relieving pressure (bar a) K B = Backpressure correction factor for gas and vapour 16.1.25
J G 5 %
Block 16 Equations
Equations
Module 16.1
Equation number
Equation
9.4.10
Where: AO = Required effective discharge area (mm2) V1 = Required volume flow through the valve (U.S. gal / min) K d = Effective coefficient of discharge K = Viscosity factor K W = Backpressure correction factor for liquids G = Specific gravity of the liquid PR = Upstream relieving pressure (bar a) PB = Backpressure (psi a) ASME (API RP 520) valves - Nozzle gas constant
N ! ( N ) sx3 8J 2$! x x
9.4.11
8J 2" $sx2
Where: C g = Nozzle gas constant k = Isentropic coefficient of the gas or vapour at the relieving conditions ASME (API RP 520) valves - Backpressure correction factor
9.4.12
Where: K B = Backpressure correction factor C1 = Capacity of valve with backpressure applied C2 = Capacity of valve when discharging to atmosphere ASME (API RP 520) valves - Bellows balanced valves
8 F%2 8
9.4.13
sthtrihpxrr2 Q% Q6
9.4.14
sthtrihpxrr2 Q% Q5
Where: PB = Backpressure (psi g) PR = Relieving pressure (psi g) ASME (API RP 520) valves - Reynolds number: Metric units
SH 2"# #
9.4.15
62
Where: R e = Reynolds number m = Mass flow to be discharged (kg / h) = Dynamic viscosity (Pa s) AO = Discharge area (mm2)
The Steam and Condensate Loop
16.1.26
Block 16 Equations
Equations
Module 16.1
Equation number
Equation
SH 2 !'B 62
9.4.16 Where: Re = Reynolds number G = Specific gravity V = Volume flow to be discharged (U.S. gal / min) = Dynamic viscosity (cP) AO = Discharge area (in2) BS 6759 valves - Minimum orifice area for steam
622 $!$QF F 5 GU 6+
9.4.17
Where: AO = Flow area (mm2) m = Mass flow to be discharged (kg / h) PR = Absolute relieving pressure (bar a) K dr = Derated coefficient of discharge K SH = Superheat correction factor BS 6759 valves - Minimum orifice area for air
622 Q 8 F aU H 5 J GU
9.4.19
Where: AO = Flow area (mm2) m = Mass flow to be discharged (kg / h) PR = Absolute relieving pressure (bar a) Cg = Nozzle gas constant K dr = Derated coefficient of discharge Z = Compressibility factor T = Inlet temperature (K) M = Molar mass (molecular weight) (kg / kmol)
16.1.27
Block 16 Equations
Equations
Module 16.1
Equation number
Equation
62 2
9.4.20
Where: AO = Flow area (mm2) m = Mass flow to be discharged (kg / h) K dr = Derated coefficient of discharge K = Viscosity correction factor r = Density (kg / m3) DP = PR - PB PR = Absolute relieving pressure (bar a) PB = Absolute backpressure (bar a) BS 6759 valves - Minimum orifice area for hot water
% FGU F P 'Q
9.4.21
Where: AO = Flow area (mm2) Q = Hot water heating capacity (kW) PR = Absolute relieving pressure (bar a) K dr = Derated coefficient of discharge BS 6759 valves - Nozzle gas constant
622 "!(Q F 5 GU
9.4.22
8J 2"(#' x
! x
(NN )
Where: k = Isentropic coefficient of gas or vapour BS EN 4126 valves - Minimum orifice area for steam, air and dry gas at critical flow
62
9.4.23
Where: A = Flow area (not curtain area) (mm2) m = Mass flowrate (kg / h) C = Function of the isentropic exponent K dr = Certified derated coefficient of discharge P o = Relieving pressure (bar a) n = Specific volume at relieving pressure and temperature (m/kg) BS EN 4126 valves - Minimum orifice area for wet steam at critical flow
!'' "8FGU QR
62
9.4.24
Where: A = Flow area (not curtain area) (mm2) m = Mass flowrate (kg / h) C = Function of the isentropic exponent K dr = Certified derated coefficient of discharge P o = Relieving pressure (bar a) n = Specific volume at relieving pressure and temperature (m/kg) x = Dryness fraction of wet steam
R !'' "8FGU Q
16.1.28
Block 16 Equations
Equations
Module 16.1
Equation number
Equation
BS EN 4126 valves - Minimum orifice area for air and dry gas at sub-critical flow
62
9.4.25
!'' "8FGU FE QR
Where: A = Flow area (not curtain area) (mm2) m = Mass flowrate (kg / h) C = Function of the isentropic exponent K dr = Certified derated coefficient of discharge K b = Theoretical correction factor for sub-critical flow P o = Relieving pressure (bar a) n = Specific volume at relieving pressure and temperature (m/kg) BS EN 4126 valves - Minimum orifice area for liquids
62
% FGU FY QR QE
9.4.26
Where: A = Flow area (not curtain area) (mm2) m = Mass flowrate (kg / h) K dr = Certified derated coefficient of discharge K v = Viscosity correction factor P o = Relieving pressure (bar a) Pb = Backpressure (bar a) n = Specific volume at relieving pressure and temperature (m/kg) Safety valve vent pipe diameter
q2
9.5.1
GH J 'Q
Where: d = Pipe diameter (mm) Le = Equivalent length of pipe (m) m = Discharge capacity (kg / h) Thsr hyr Sr vrqrprhtr P = rrq r rr ih t 3 / kg) vg = Specific volume of steam at the pressure (P) (m Reaction force at the end of a safety valve vent pipe
A2 !(
xU 6Q x H
9.5.2
Where: F = Reaction force at the point of discharge to atmosphere (newtons) m = Discharge mass flowrate (kg / s) k = Isentropic coefficient of the fluid T = Fluid temperature (K) M = Molar mass of the fluid (kg / kmol) A = Area of the outlet at the point of discharge (mm2) P = Static pressure at the outlet at the point of discharge (bar g) 16.1.29
Block 16 Equations
Equations
Module 16.1
Equation number
Equation
$
%&
9.5.3
Where: LP = Sound power level in dB (A) m = Mass flow (kg / h) xSX U u = Speed of sound in an ideal gas (m / s), 2 H k = Isentropic coefficient of the gas R u = Universal gas constant (8 314 J / kmol K) T = Absolute gas temperature at the safety valve outlet (K) M = Molar mass (kg / kmol) Sound pressure level at the safety valve outlet
G2GQ yt
! ! S
9.5.4
Where: L = Sound pressure level in dB (A) LP = Sound power level in dB (A) R = Distance from the source (m)
Block 10:
Equation number
Steam distribution
Equation
The SI based DArcy equation for determining pressure drop due to frictional resistance
u = #sG !t9
I
10.2.1
Where: hf = Head loss to friction (m) f = Friction factor (dimensionless) L = Length (m) u = Flow velocity (m /s) g = Gravitational constant (9.81 m /s) D = Pipe diameter (m) The Imperial based DArcy equation for determining pressure drop due to frictional resistance
uI
sG !t9
10.2.2
Where: hf = Head loss to friction (m) f = Friction factor (dimensionless) L = Length (m) u = Flow velocity (m /s) g = Gravitational constant (9.81 m /s) D = Pipe diameter (m)
16.1.30
Block 16 Equations
Equations
Module 16.1
Equation number
Equation
Friction factor for turbulent fluids (Colebrook-White formula) !xV (" = "#' &#D 9 s SH s 10.2.3 Where: f = Friction factor (Relates to the SI Moody chart) kS = Absolute pipe roughness (m) D = Pipe bore (m) Re = Reynolds number (dimensionless) SI based friction factors - f 10.2.4
s ' SH
Where: f = Friction factor Re = Reynolds number Imperial based friction factors - f
10.2.5
s " SH
Where: f = Friction factor Re = Reynolds number Reynolds number
SH
U 9
10.2.6
Where: Re = Reynolds number r = Density of water (kg /m3) u = Velocity of water (m /s) D = Pipe diameter (m) m = Dynamic viscosity of water (kg /m s) Relative pipe roughness
Sryhvrvrtur xV 2QvrturQvrir 9
10.2.7
( )
10.2.8
A = Q Q G
Where: F = Pressure factor P1 = Factor based on the inlet pressure P2 = Factor based on the pressure at a distance of L metres of pipe
16.1.31
Block 16 Equations
Equations
Module 16.1
Equation number
Equation
9
10.2.9
Where: P1 = Upstream pressure (bar a) P2 = Downstream pressure (bar a) L = Length of pipe (m) m = Mass flowrate (kg /h) D = Pipe diameter (mm) Pressure drop formula 2 (Maximum pipe length: 200 metres)
Q 2
10.2.10
G J '9
Where: P = Pressure drop (bar) L = Length of pipe (m) n g = Specific volume of steam (m /kg) m = Mass flowrate (kg /h) D = Pipe diameter (mm) Thermal expansion of pipe
@hv ( ) 2 GU
10.4.1 Where: L = Length of pipe between anchors (m) T = Temperature difference between ambient temperature and operating temperatures (C) = Expansion coefficient (mm /m C x 10-3)
Block 11:
Equation number
Steam trapping
Equation
16.1.32
Block 16 Equations
Equations
Module 16.1
Block 12:
Equation number
Pipeline ancillaries
Equation
'Q2B F
12.2.1
Where: DP = Pressure drop across the valve (bar) G = Specific gravity of the liquid (non-dimensional) V = Flowrate of liquid (m / h) Kv = Valve flow coefficient (m/h bar) Equivalent water flowrate through a check valve
2
12.3.1
Where: Vw = Equivalent water volume flowrate (m / h) r = Density of the liquid (kg / m) V = Volume flowrate of liquid (m / h) Converting water mass flow to volumetric flow
= Q
12.3.2 Where: V = Volume flowrate (m / h) m = Mass flowrate (kg / h) n = Specific volume (m / kg) Largest particle size through a strainer screen
F = D + E
12.4.1
Where: c = Length of particle (mm) a = Length of mesh hole (mm) b = Width of mesh hole (mm) Pressure drop across a steam valve
V #! 'Q2Q $%& !F Y Q
12.4.2
Where: DP = Pressure drop across the valve (bar) P1 = Upstream pressure (bar a) ms = Mass flowrate through the valve (kg / h) Kv = Valve flow coefficient (m / h bar)
16.1.33
Block 16 Equations
Equations
Module 16.1
Block 13:
Equation number
Condensate removal
Equation
62
13.2.1
VU0
Where: A = Area of heating surface (m) Q = Mean heat transfer rate (W) U = Heat transfer coefficient (W / m C) DT M = Mean temperature difference. The heat exchanger temperature design constant
U982
13.2.2
UV U UV U
Where: TDC = Temperature design constant of the heat exchanger = Steam temperature (C) Ts T1 = Secondary fluid inlet temperature (C) T2 = Secondary fluid outlet temperature (C) The steam temperature at any load
UV 2 U U98U U98
13.2.3
Where: TDC = Temperature design constant of the heat exchanger Ts = Steam temperature (C) T1 = Secondary fluid inlet temperature (C) T2 = Secondary fluid outlet temperature (C) The secondary fluid inlet temperature at any load
U 2U6
13.2.5
U6 U U98
Where: TDC = Temperature design constant of the heat exchanger Ts = Steam temperature (C) T1 = Secondary fluid inlet temperature (C) T2 = Secondary fluid outlet temperature (C)
16.1.34
Block 16 Equations
Equations
Module 16.1
Equation number
Equation
V6
13.3.1
Where: DT M = Mean temperature difference (C) Q = Mean heat transfer rate (W) U = Heat transfer coefficient (W / m C) A = Heating area (m) The secondary inlet temperature at any load
13.6.1
Where: A = Steam temperature at full-load (C) B = Secondary fluid outlet temperature at full-load (C) C = Secondary fluid inlet temperature at full-load (C) D = Equivalent backpressure steam temperature (C)
7 + 8 ! Thyyyhq2 7 + 8 6 ! 9
16.1.35
Block 16 Equations
Equations
Module 16.1
Block 14:
Equation number
Condensate recovery
Equation
Aryhvt rh2
14.1.1
Y6789 @
Where: X = Expected improvement in condensate return expressed as a percentage A = Cost of fuel to provide 1 GJ of energy B = Energy required per kilogram of make-up water to reach condensate temperature (kJ/kg). C = Average boiler evaporation rate (kg / h) D = Operational hours per year (h / year) E = Boiler efficiency (%) Cost of water saved by returning condensate
14.1.2
Thvtvhrp rh2
Thvtvrssyrp rh2
Calculating pump delivery head
Block 15:
Equation number
15.1.1
FZ
V uV uG
uG uFZ
Where: mcw = Mass flowrate of cooling water (kg / h) ms = Mass flowrate of superheated steam (kg / h) hs = Enthalpy at superheat condition (kJ / kg) h d = Enthalpy at desuperheated condition (kJ / kg) hcw = Enthalpy of cooling water at inlet connection (kJ / kg)
The Steam and Condensate Loop
16.1.36