PREFACE PARTI PART IT PART IL CONTENTS Prologue 1 Basic Properties of Numbers 3 2 Numbers of Various Sorts 21 Foundations 3. Functions 39 Appendix. Ordered Pairs 54 Graphs 56 Appendix. Polar Coordinates 75 Limits 78 Continuous Functions 101 ‘Three Hard Theorems 108 Least Upper Bounds 119 Appendix. Uniform Continuity 130 Derivatives and Integrals 9 Derivatives 135 10 Differentiation 154 11 Significance of the Derivative 173 Appendix. Convexity and Concavity 204 12. Inverse Functions 215 Appendix. Parametric Representation of Curves 229 13° Integrals 233 Appendix: 1. Riemann Sums 262 Appendix 2. The Cosmopolitan Integral 265 ‘The Fundamental Theorem of Caleulus 268 The Trigonometric Functions 286 zis Irrational 307 ‘The Logarithm and Exponential Functions 313 Integration in Elementary Terms 336xii Contents PART IV PART V Infinite Sequences and Infinite Series 19 Approximation by Polynomial Functions 379 *20 eis Transcendental 409 21 Infinite Sequences 419 22. Infinite Series 438 23. Uniform Convergence and Power Series 465 24 Complex Numbers 491 25 Complex Functions 506 26 Complex Power Series 520 Epilogue 27 Fields 547 28 Construction of the Real Numbers $54 29 Uniqueness of the Real Numbers 567 Suggested Reading 575 Answers (to selected problems) 585 Glossary of Symbols 633 Index” 637CHAPTER BASIC PROPERTIES OF NUMBERS ‘The title of this chapter expresses in a few words the mathematical knowledge required to read this book. In fact, this short chapter is simply an explanation of what is meant by the “basic properties of numbers,” all of which—addition and multiplication, subtraction and division, solutions of equations and inequalities, factoring and other algebraic manipulations—are already familiar to us. Nevertheless, this chapter is not a review. Despite the familiarity of the subject, the survey we are about to undertake will probably seem quite novel; it does not aim to present an extended review of old material, but to condense this knowledge into a few simple and obvious properties of numbers. Some may even seem too obvious to mention, but a surprising number of iverse and important facts turn out to be consequences of the ones we shall emphasize. Of the twelve properties which we shall study in this chapter, the first nine are concerned with the fundamental operations of addition and multiplica- tion. For the moment we consider only addition: this operation is performed on a pair of numbers—the sum a + b exists for any two given numbers a and } (which may possibly be the same number, of course). It might seem reason- able to regard addition as an operation which can be performed on several numbers at once, and consider the sum a; +: + +a, of n numbers a1, «aq 28 a basic concept. It is more convenient, however, to consider addition of pairs of numbers only, and to define other sums in terms of sums of this type. For the sum of three numbers a, 5, and ¢, this may be done in two different ways. One can first add 4 and c, obtaining 5 + ¢ and then add a to this number, obtaining a + (b +); or one can first add @ and 5, and then add the sum a + 6 to ¢, obtaining (a + 6) + ¢. Of course, the two compound sums obtained are equal, and this fact is the very first property we shall list: (Pl) Ifa, 4, and care any numbers, then at+)=latte ‘The statement of this property clearly renders a separate concept of the sum of three numbers superfluous; we simply agree that a + 6 + ¢ denotes the number a+ (6-+c) = (a+4)-+c Addition of four numbers requires similar, though slightly more involved, considerations. The symbol a+ } ¢ + dis defined to mean Q) (@+N4+0+¢4 o 2) @+ +0) +4 or 3) at((b+e +4), or 4) atG+C+d), or 6) @tH)+e+d.