Logic Logic: True conclusions should be drawn from true premises by acceptable rules of resoning . (OR) It is never the case that false conclusiuons is drawn from true premises. Sentences to which it is meaningful to assign one and only one of the truth values ‘true’ or ‘false’ we call such sentences as propositions. { Assumptions about propositions: 1)The law of excluded middle For every proposition p either p is true or p is false. 2)The law of contradiction: For every proposition p, it is not the case that p is both true and false.} * A proposition with out any connectives is called atomic or primary or simple sentence. On the other hand those statements which contain one or more primary statements and some connectives are called molecular or composite or compound statements. Five basic connectives: Propositions are connected by means such connectives and, or, if... then and if and only if and they are modified by the word not. These five main types of connectives can be defined in terms of the three and. or, not Not: if p is proposition, then “ p is not true” is a proposition represented by ~p refer to it as not p. negation of p or denial of p. Not p is true when p is false. Note: while negation changes one proposition to another other connectives combine two propositions to form the third. Conjunction (AND): The conjunction of p and q is true only when both p and q are true. Denoted by pAq Disjunction (OR) : The disjunction of p and q is false only when both p and q are false. It is denoted by pVq. Implication (if then): The proposition p implies q (if p then q) is represented as pq and is called implication or a conditional. P is called premise , hypothesis or antecendent qis called conclusion or consequent of the implication. p—q is a proposition that is false only when the antecedent is true and consequent is false. Converse of pq is q>p Contrapositive of pq is | q4 P Inverse of pq is] p > 74 ‘Two valid principles of implication: 1) A false antecedent p implies any consequent q. 2) A true consequent q implies any premise p. pq =7p Vq ( Law of implication). By conditional: It is denoted by pq is the conjunction of conditionals p +q and q—p. It is true when both p &q have same truth values.Statement formula: Statement formula is an expression which is a string consisting of variables (Capital letters with or without subscripts) parentheses and connective symbols. (Not every string of these symbols is a formula) wif 1) Astatement variable standing alone is wf. 2) If Ais wifthen 5 A is wif 3) A & Bare wif then (AvB), (A4 B) (AB) (A B) are wif 4) A string of symbols containing the statement variables and parenthesis is wff iff it is obtained by finitely May applications of rules 1,2,and 3. Precedence of logical operaters: Operator _| Not And Or Implies _| iff Precedence 2 3 4 5 Truth table: A table displaying truth-values of propositions. [If we think p and q not as sentences but as v variables taking the value T or F then there are 16 possible functions from {T, F} X {T, F} > {T, F} (except ~ {T, F} {T, F})] Formula: Is a function whose variables are propositions. There are 16 propositional functions of two variables. [Any formula involving one variable will have one of following form P, +p. p04 p, pA p. Like that n variables implies 2?" possible truth tables. Tautology:A statement formula which is true regardless of the truth values of the statements which replace variables in it is called a universally valid formula or a tautology or a logical truth.( Is a prepositional function whose truth-value is true for all possible values of prepositional variable.) Contradiction: (or absurdity) is a prepositional function whose truth-value is always false. Contingency: neither a tautology nor a contradiction. Equivalence formula: A and B are two statement formulas are said to be equivalent if the truth value of A is equal to the truth value of B. Compound propostions that have same truth values in all possible cases are called logically equivalent. * Two statements A and B are equivalent iff A < B isa Tautology. If A is equivalent to B then it is denoted by A@B or A= Note: 1) It is not necessary that two equivalent formulas contain same variables. Ex: p Aq p= 9A149 a 2) Two formulas are equivalent and a particular variable occurs only in one of them, then the truth-value of this formula is independent of this variable. Ex: (p Aq p) vq = 3) or Sisnotaconnectiveor A¢>B or A =B is nota statement formula. Ex: 1) 77 P=p 2) pVp =p 3) (p Aq P) Va=q.[ Bugivalence formula [Name Equivalence formula Name pAT=p Identity Domination laws. pvF=p laws Idempotent | Pvq =qvp Commutative or laws pAQ=qAp Abilion laws | Pv(qvr) = (pvqyvr Assosiative | py(q ar) =(pvq) A(pvn) Distributive laws = laws | PAGAN) = Agar A(qvr) = (pAg)v (par) 11P=P (law of double negation) | Demorgan” | p,q = pyq(law of Laws on (ova) = pAq 4 | laws implleation) conditionals 7AM) =1PY4 pyar pa PAQG= (P79) (Pq) P= Pat) Lawson | p>q=(P—q)A (q—>p) (Pq)v (P1)= P(qvr) conditionals | pq =4 p44 (PA qn (pyq)>r pq = (pv) v(pAq) (P1)v(g—1)= (pq) Prove the following equivalences DG PA @ a2) v(gAt)v(pAr)= 2)9 (Aa) ( PVG Pva)) = G pva) 3) prove that (pq)—r and p (qr) are not equivalent. Tautological implications: A statement A is said to tautologically imply a statement B if and only if A — B is a tautolology. In this case, we write A> B Note : 1) = is not a connective. 2)A=> B is not a statement formula. 4) we can prove A=> B in three different ways a. Bis true whenever A is true ( by truth table) b. A— Bisa tautolology ( By truth table) c. By using rules of inferences. An Argument is a pair of things © Asst of sentences , the premises © Asentence the conclusion. All arguments have conclusions , but may not have premises