828 Solution of Equilibrium Equations in Dynamic Analysis Chap. 9 effect of inertia, i.e., convergence is reached when the following conditions are satisfied: rag — etanger) a yer —— .111) . and aum _ (9.112) AUTOR — FM in which RTOL is a force tolerance and ETOL is an energy tolerance. Figure 9.9 demon- strates the importance of iterating and doing sa with a sufficiently tight convergence tolerance. In this analysis energy is lost if the convergence tolerance is not tight enough, but depending on the problem being considered, the predicted response may also blow up if iteration is not used. In practice, it is frequently the case that only a few iterations per time step are required to obtain a stable solution. Therefore, in summary, for a nonlinear dynamic analysis using implicit time integra- tion, the analyst should employ an operator that is unconditionally stable in linear analysis (a good choice is the trapezoidal rule), use equilibrium iterations with tight enough conver- gence tolerances, and select the time step size based on the guidelines given in Section 9.4.4 and on the fact that convergence in the equilibrium iterations must be achieved. 9.5.3 Solution Using Mode Superposition In considering linear analysis, we discussed in Section 9.3 that the essence of mode super- position is a transformation from the element nodal point degrees of freedom to the gener- alized degrees of freedom of the vibration mode shapes. Since the dynamic cquilibr equations in the basis of the mode shape vectors decouple (assuming proportional damp- ing), mode superposition analysis can be very effective in linear analysis if only some vibration modes are excited by the loading. The same basic principles are also applicable in nonlinear analysis; however, in this case the vibration mode shapes and frequencies change, and to transform the coefficient matrix in (9.109) into diagonal form the free- vibration mode shapes of the system at time f need to be used in the transformation. The calculation of the vibration mode shapes and frequencies at time 1, when these quantities have been calculated at a previous time, could be achieved economically using the subspace iteration method (see Section 11.6). However, the complete mode superposition analysis of nonlinear dynamic response is generally effective only when the solution can be obtained without updating the stiffness matrix too frequently. In this case, the governing finite element equilibrium equations for the solution of the response at time ¢ + Ar are M80 + 7K AU® = eR — arp) k-12.. (9.113) where ’K is the stiffness matrix corresponding to the configuration at some previous time . In the mode superposition analysis we now use way = > by xy (9.114) where ‘x; is the ith generalized modal displacement at time + Ar and "Kd, = «Mb; a (9.115)Sec.9.5 Solution of Nonlinear Equations in Dynamic Analysis 829 that is, a, «are free-vibration frequencies (radians/second) and mode shape vectors of the system at time 7. Using (9.114) in the usual way, the equations in (9.113) are transformed to Heater 4 02 AX = @TCR — eABU-D) = (9.116) where wo bts, fF wet on omx=} S] oun v= @} tebe, The relations in (9.116) are the equilibrium equations at time t + Ar in the generalized modal displacements of time 7; the corresponding mass matrix is an identity matrix, the stiffness matrix is 02, the external load vector is 7 ‘*“'R, and the force vector correspond- ing to the element stresses at the end of iteration (k — 1) is ®” ‘*“"F*~”. The solution of (9.116) can be obtained using, for example, the trapezoidal rule of time integration (see Section 9.5.2). In general, the use of mode superposition in nonlincar dynamic analysis can be effective if only a relatively few mode shapes need to be considered in the analysis. Such conditions may be encountered, for example, in the analysis of earthquake response and vibration excitation, and it is in these areas that the technique has been employed. 9.5.4 Exercises 9.21. Consider the simple pendulum idealization shown. Use a finite element program to solve for the response of the system (see Fig. 9.9). EA= 10" (kg-cm)/sec? Length = 304.43.em Tip mass = 10 kg Initial conditions: = 90° 20 One truss element with tip concentrated mass is emploved 9.22. Consider the cantilever beam shown. The beam is initially at rest when the tip load P is suddenly applied. Use a finite element program to solve for the dynamic response of the beam, allowing for the large displacement effects. Use the trapezoidal rule, the central difference method and, if available, also mode superposition to solve for the response, P y Y { 0.5 Ib 0.1 in 10in Time Young's modulus E= 1.2 x 10° Ibyin? Poisson's ratio v = 0.2 Mass density p = 1.0 x 10° (Ib-sec2vin* Width = 1 in830 Solution of Equilibrium Equations in Dynamic Analysis Chap. 9 9.23, Use a computer program to solve for the dynamic buckling load of the arch considered in Fig. 6.23. 9.24, Use a computer program to analyze the pipe whip problem described in the figure. You can perform a direct integration solution or a mode superposition solution. (These types of problems are of importance in the analysis of postulated accident conditions; see, for example, S. N. Ma and K. J. Bathe [A].) y L | > 4 _ PUA 657 10%Ib t a Diameter d : b 7 D,=30.0in a= 3.0in 7 D)=27.78in b= 21.0in L =360.0in d=5.75in Pipe material: E = 2.698 x 10’ psi v=03 y= 2.914 x 10" psi p= 7.18 x 10 slug/in® e Restraint material: wo, £=2,99x 10? psi ’ = 3.80» 10° pel 9.6 SOLUTION OF NONSTRUCTURAL PROBLEMS; HEAT TRANSFER AND FLUID FLOWS Although we considered in the previous sections the solution of the dynamic response of structures and solids, it should be recognized that many of the basic concepts discussed are also directly applicable to the analysis of other types of problems, Namely, in the solution of a nonstructural problem, the choice lies again between the use of explicit or implicit time integration, mode superposition analysis needs to be considered, and it may also be advan- tageous to use different time integration schemes for different domains of the complete element assemblage (see Section 9.2.5). The stability and accuracy properties of the time integration schemes used are analyzed in basically the same way as in structural analysis, and the important basic observations made concerning nonlinear structural analysis are also applicable to the analysis of nonlinear nonstructural problems. 9.6.1 The a-Method of Time Integration The nonstructural problems that we have in mind are heat transfer, field problems, and Quid flow (see Chapter 7). The major difference in the time integration of the governing equa- tions of these problems, when compared to structural analysis, is that we now deal only with first derivatives in time. Therefore, time integration operators different from those discussed in the previous sections are employed.