Ha i cng-1 Bin son: V Hng Thi 1

Li ni u
Sau mt s nm dy mn ha i cng, ti c son phn gio khoa ca mn hc ny. Hin
nay cc trng i hc Vit Nam ang chuyn sang h tn ch, thi lng ln lp b bt i,
thi gian dnh sinh vin t hc nhiu hn. Ti ngh gio trnh ha i cng ny gip cc
bn sinh vin t hc d dng hn. Cc kin thc trong phn bi son ny khng phi ca ring
ngi son m ti ch nhim v thu thp ca nhiu Thy, C, th h i trc, cc sch v
xut bn v cc ti liu rt phong ph trn mng. V phn sch ting Vit ti tham kho ch
yu sch Ha i Cng ca Thy Chu Phm Ngc Sn, Thy Nguyn Hu Tnh, Thy
Nguyn Huy Ngc, xut bn rt lu (m ci ba mt, nn c th h, ch lt ca cc Thy
c th ti nh sai, xin qu Thy b qua). Ti chi tit ha, c th ha, chng minh nhng vn
c th chng minh c, gii thch r hn cc bn sinh vin d c v hiu c kt
qu c c v cp nht cc thng tin mi. Phn hnh nh v nhiu kin thc ti tham kho
trn mng. V khng lin h c trc tip cc tc gi, xin qu v th li. Ti ngh kin thc
cn c ph bin ngi i sau tham kho v b sung chnh sa, iu ny l c li ch cho
cng ng hn.
C g sai st, cha chnh xc, xin c gi gp sa i gio trnh c cp nht v chnh
xc hn.
Trn trng.

Chng 1
CU TO NGUYN T

I. Cc cu t chnh ca nguyn t

Quan nim v vt cht c t thi c Hy Lp, cch y khong 2 500 nm. Empedocles
(492 400 trc cng nguyn) kt hp kin ca cc trit gia trc , ng cho rng mi
vt cht u c to thnh t bn nguyn t l la, khng kh, nc v t v hai lc
tng tc l i lc (lc ht) v xung lc (lc y). Aristote (Aristotle, 384-322 trc cng
nguyn) dn u trng phi cho rng vt cht c tnh lin tc. Cn Leucippe (Leucippus,
Leucippos) v Democrite (Democristus, Democristos, l hc tr ca Leucippe) (sinh thi
hai ng ny trong khong 460-362 trc cng nguyn) th dn u trng phi cho rng
vt cht c tnh cht bt lin tc, n c to bi nhng n v v cng nh, khng th
chia ct c, gi l nguyn t (atomos, ting Hy Lp c ngha l khng chia ct c).

Tuy nhin v cha c thc nghim r rng nn cha c hc thuyt no c chp nhn
hn. Nm 1797, Joseph Louis Proust (1754 1826, nh ha hc ngi Php) vi nh
lut T l Xc nh (The Law of Definite Proportions) hay cn gi l nh lut Thnh
phn Khng i (The Law of Constant Composition). Ni dung ca nh lut ny l mt
hp cht d c iu ch bng no th cng c t l khi lng nguyn t cc nguyn t
trong cht khng i. Nm 1808, John Dalton (1766 1844, Anh) a ra Thuyt
Nguyn t (Daltons Atomic Theory) vi cc chnh nh sau:

- Vt cht c to bi cc ht, khng chia ct c, gi l nguyn t (atom).
- Mi nguyn t ha hc (chemical element) gm loi nguyn t c trng ca nguyn
t . Nh vy c bao nhiu loi nguyn t th c by nhiu nguyn t. Nhng nguyn
t ca cng mt nguyn t th hon ton ging nhau.
- Cc nguyn t khng thay i.
Ha i cng-1 Bin son: V Hng Thi 2
- Khi cc nguyn t kt hp to hp cht ha hc (chemical compound) th phn nh
nht ca hp cht l mt nhm gm cc nguyn t ca cc nguyn t vi s nguyn t
khng i. (M sau ny, phn nh nht ny c gi l phn t, molecule).
- Trong phn ng ha hc, cc nguyn t khng c to ra hay b ph hy, chng ch
c sp xp li m thi.

C ti liu cho rng thuyt nguyn t do William Higgins (1763 1825, nh ha hc ngi Ireland) a ra
trc Dalton.

Nm 1808, Thomas Thomson (1773 1852, ngi Scotland) v William Hyde Wollaston
(1766 1866, ngi Anh) a ra nh lut T l bi (The Law of Multiple
Proportions). nh lut ny cho rng t l s nguyn t gia hai nguyn t trong cc hp
cht khc nhau t l vi nhau bng cc s nguyn n gin. Th d gia hai nguyn t N
v O c cc hp cht l N
2
O, NO, N
2
O
3
, NO
2
, N
2
O
5
th c t l s nguyn t gia hai
nguyn t N v O ln lt l 2 : 1; 1 : 1; 2 : 3; 1 : 2; 2 : 5.

Amedeo Avogadro (1776 1856, ngi ), nm 1811, cho rng trong cng iu kin v
nhit v p sut th cc th tch kh bng nhau u cha s phn t kh bng nhau.

Cc thc nghim ny da vo thuyt nguyn t c th gii thch c. Nh vy quan nim
v vt cht kh r rng: Vt cht c tnh bt lin tc v c cu to bi s kt hp ca
nhng n v v cng nh, gi l nguyn t.

Cho n gia th k XIX, ngi ta vn ngh rng nguyn t l phn nh nht cu to nn
vt cht. Tuy nhin mt s ng hin tng c khm ph nh s in ly (Faraday,
1833), hiu ng quang in, v nht l s phng x (Becquerel, 1896),, chng t
nguyn t khng phi l cu t nh nht, m n c c cu phc tp, gm cc cu t khc
nh hn to nn.

Khi phng in qua kh long, Johann Wilhem Hittorf (vt l gia, ngi c, 1824-1914)
pht hin cc tia mang nng lng pht ra t cc m. William Crookes (1832-1919,
nh vt l v ha hc, ngi Anh) v Eugene Goldstein (1850- 1930, nh vt l, ngi
c) xc nh l nhng dng ht mang in tch m v Goldstein t tn dng ht
ny l tia m cc (Cathode rays, 1886). Nm 1891, George Johnstone Stoney (1826-1911,
nh vt l ngi i Nh Lan, Ireland) t tn cho n v in tch m ny l electron (in
t). Nm 1897, Joseph John Thomson (1856-1940, nh vt l ngi Anh) o c t s
gia khi lng v in tch ca ht to thnh tia m cc v l electron m Stoney
t tn trc . Nm 1910, Robert Andrews Millikan (1868-1953, nh vt l, ngi M)
lm th nghim git du v xc nh c in tch cng nh khi lng ca in
t. Nh vy coi nh n nm 1910, ngi ta xc nh trong nguyn t c cha in t
v bit c khi lng cng nh in tch ca cu t ny.

T 1906 n 1911, Ernest Rutherford (ngi Anh gc New Zealand, 1871 - 1937) thc
hin cc th nghim v pht hin ra nhn nguyn t. Nm 1919, cng Rutherford, tch
c proton (nhn ca nguyn t ng v hidrogen
1
1
H). n nm 1932, Chadwick (ngi
Anh) khm ph ra ht neutron (trung ha t).

Hin nay, ngi ta bit rng nguyn t gm c cc in t (electron) c khi lng khng
ng k so vi khi lng ca c nguyn t. in t mang in tch m di chuyn quanh
mt nhn. Nhn nguyn t c khi lng hu nh bng khi lng ca nguyn t. Nhn
Ha i cng-1 Bin son: V Hng Thi 3
c kch thc rt nh so vi kch thc ca c nguyn t. ng knh nguyn t khong
10
-10
m (1
o
A), cn ng knh ca nhn nguyn t khong 10
-14
m (10
-4
o
A). ng knh
nhn nguyn t nh hn ng knh nguyn t khong 10 000 ln. Trong nhn c hai cu
t chnh l proton v neutron.

Proton c khi lng ln hn in t khong 1836 ln, proton mang in tch dng, c
tr s tuyt i bng in tch ca in t. Neutron (trung ha t) c khi lng xp x so
vi proton (hi ln hn so vi proton). Neutron c khi lng nhiu gp 1839 khi lng
in t. Neutron khng mang in tch. Ngoi ra trong nhn nguyn t cn c rt nhiu
cc cu t khc, nh neutrino, positron, pion, muon, gluon, lepton nhng cc cu t ny
khng bn.

Sau y l khi lng v in tch ca cc cu t chnh bn ca nguyn t:

Khi lng in tch Cu t chnh
gam vC (u, amu) Coulomb vtCGS
Electron (in t, e)
9,109390.10
-28
5,485799.10
-4
-1,6021773.10
-19
-4,8.10
-10
Proton (p)
1,672623.10
-24
1,007276 +1,6021773.10
-19
+4,8.10
-10
Neutron (Trung ha t, n)
1,674954.10
-24
1,00866490 0 0

vC: n v carbon (n v khi lng nguyn t)
u (universal atomic mass unit): n v khi lng nguyn t chung (quc t)
amu (atomic mass unit): n v khi lng nguyn t
vtCGS: n v tnh in CGS (chiu di: cm; khi lng: gam; thi gian: giy, second)
1 vC = 1 u = 1 amu = 1 n v khi lng nguyn t =
12
1
khi lng ca mt nguyn
t ng v C
12
6
= gam
23
10 . 022 , 6
1


II. Cch biu th nguyn t. Nguyn t ng v

II.1. Cch biu th nguyn t
bit c cc cu t chnh, bn, c trong mt nguyn t, ngui ta dng k hiu sau y
biu th nguyn t:
X
A
Z


X: K hiu nguyn t ca nguyn t ha hc (nh Na, H, Fe, Cl)
Z: s th t nguyn t (atomic number), bc s nguyn t, s hiu nguyn t, s in tch
ht nhn. C Z proton trong nhn nguyn t. C Z in t ngoi nhn (nu khng l
mt ion). Nguyn t X th Z trong bng phn loi tun hon.
A: S khi (S khi lng, mass number), c A proton v neutron trong nhn nguyn t.
C (A - Z) neutron trong nhn.

Do hin nay ngi ta sp xp cc nguyn t ha hc theo th t tng dn ca Z, v th
Z c gi l s th t nguyn t hay bc s nguyn t. Cc nguyn t ca cng mt
nguyn t th c cng s th t nguyn t Z, cn c vo Z ta bit l nguyn t ca
nguyn t no, nn Z cn c gi l s hiu (s nhn hiu, c hiu). in tch ca
Ha i cng-1 Bin son: V Hng Thi 4
mt proton l in tch nh nht c bit hin nay, nn Z cn c gi l in tch
ht nhn.

Do khi lung ca electron ngoi nhn v c khi lng khng ng k so vi khi
lung ca proton, neutron trong nhn nguyn t, nn khi lng nguyn t coi nh
bng khi lng ca nguyn t. Do nguyn t cha cng nhiu proton, neutron th
khi lng nguyn t cng ln. V th tng s s proton v neutron (A) c gi l s
khi ca nguyn t. Nguyn t no c s khi A cng ln th nguyn t cng nng.

Th d: Nguyn t carbon c 6 proton v 6 neutron trong nhn c biu th nh sau:
C
6
12


Natri (Natrium, Na) c biu th: Na
23
11
cho thy Na th 11 trong bng phn loi
tun hon, Na c 11 proton, 11 electron, A - p = 23 - 11 = 12 neutron. Nguyn t Na
ny coi nh c khi lng nguyn t bng 23 vC (hay 23 u).

Vi biu th: Cl
35
17
cho bit nguyn t clor th 17 trong bng phn loi tun hon,
nguyn t clor c 17 proton trong nhn, c 17 in t ngoi nhn. Nguyn t clor ny
c 35 - 17 = 18 neutron trong nhn. Nguyn t ny coi nh c khi lng nguyn t l
35 n v carbon (35 n v khi lng nguyn t, 35 u)

Ch :
- S in t ch bng s proton (Z) khi l nguyn t. Cn vi mt ion dng (cation) th
do nguyn t mt in t nn s in t ca ion dng bng s proton tr bt s
in t mt to ion dng. Vi ion m (anion) do nguyn t nhn thm in
t nn s in t ca ion m bng s proton cng thm s in t to ion m. Mt
in t mt s to mt ion dng mang mt in tch dng, 2 in t mt to ion
dng mang 2 in tch dng,; Mt in t nhn vo s to ion m mang mt in
tch m, 2 in t nhn vo s to ion m mang 2 in tch m,

- Do khi lng ca in t rt nh so vi khi lng ca proton v neutron nn c th
coi khi lng ca ion cng bng khi lng ca cc nguyn t to nn ion (khi
lng ca cc in t mt i hoc nhn vo, to ion, khng ng k so vi khi
lng nguyn t, nn c th b qua).

Th d: Na
23
11
: 11 proton; 11 electron; 23 vC (23 u)

+
Na
23
11
: 11 proton; 10 electron; 23 vC (23 u)
:
35
17
Cl 17 proton; 17 electron; 35 vC
:
35
17

Cl 17 proton; 18 electron; 35 vC
:
56
26
Fe 26 proton; 26 electron; 56 vC
:
3 56
26
+
Fe 26 proton; 23 electron; 56 vC
:
16
8
O 8 proton; 8 electron; 16 vC
:
2 16
6

O 8 proton; 10 electron; 16 vC

II.2. Nguyn t ng v (Isotope)
Ha i cng-1 Bin son: V Hng Thi 5
Nguyn t ng v l hin tng cc nguyn t ca cng nguyn t ha hc nhng c
khi lng khc nhau. Ni cch khc cc nguyn t ng v c cng s th t nguyn t
Z nhng khc s khi A. Ni cch khc, cc nguyn t ng v c cng s proton nhng
khc s neutron trong nhn.
ng v l cng v tr. Do cc nguyn t ng v c cng s th t nguyn t Z nn cng c sp cng mt
trong bng phn loi tun hon. Nm na, cc nguyn t ng v l cc nguyn t ca cng mt nguyn t
nhng nng nh khc nhau.

Th d: H
1
1
D hay H
2
1
2
1
T hay H
3
1
3
1

Hidrogen Deuterium Tritium
Z = 1 Z = 1 Z = 1
A = 1 A = 2 A = 3
1 proton, 0 neutron, 1 u 1 proton, 2 neutron, 2 u 1 proton, 2 neutron 3 u
Trn y l ba nguyn t ng v ca nguyn t hidrogen

Cl
35
17
Cl
37
17

Z = 17 Z = 17
A = 35 A = 37
17 proton, 18 neutron, 35 u 17 proton, 20 neutron, 37 u
Trn y l hai nguyn t ng v ca nguyn t clor

C
12
6
C
13
6
C
14
6

Z = 6, A = 12 Z = 6, A = 13 Z = 6, A = 14
6 proton, 6 neutron, 12 u 6 proton, 7 neutron, 13 u 6 proton, 8 neutron, 14 u
Trn y l ba nguyn t ng v ca nguyn t carbon

Hin nay c bit c 117 nguyn t ha hc, c Z = 1 n Z = 118 (nguyn t c Z = 117
cha c thng tin pht hin). Cc nguyn t c Z 92 hin din trong t nhin (trn tri t)
v c khong 300 nguyn t ng v t nhin. Cc nguyn t c Z 93 l nguyn t nhn to,
phng x khng bn, thng c to ra do cc phn ng ht nhn do con ngi thc hin.
Nh vy trung bnh mt nguyn t ha hc c khong 3 nguyn t ng v. Hin ngi ta
iu ch c nhiu nguyn t ng v nhn to (khong trn 1 000 ng v).

C nhng nguyn t ng v bn, khng b hy bin theo thi gian, l nhng ng v
khng phng x, nh
1
1
H,
2
1
H,
16
8
O,
18
8
O,
12
6
C,
13
6
C.
C nhng nguyn t ng v khng bn, b hy bin theo thi gian (mt dn theo thi gian
ra nguyn t ng v khc), l nhng nguyn t ng v phng x, nh
3
1
H,
14
6
C,
13
7
N,
238
92
U,
232
90
Th.

Mi ng v phng x c mt i lng c trng, l chu k bn r
1/2
(bn hy, bn sinh,
half life). y l thi gian mt na lng nguyn t ng v ny phn r (thnh cc nguyn
t ca nguyn t khc) v mt na cn li so vi lng ban u. Thi gian bn r ny khng
thay i i vi cng mt loi nguyn t ng v phng x ca nguyn t . Chu k bn r
ca mi ng v phng x khc nhau, c khi ch trong thi gian rt ngn, khng n 1 giy, c
khi di n hng ngn nm.

Th d:
212
84
Po
208
82
Pb +
4
2
He
1/2
= 0,3.10
-6
giy
(ht )

136
53
I
136
54
Xe +
0
1
e
1/2
= 86 giy
(ht , in t)
Ha i cng-1 Bin son: V Hng Thi 6

37
18
Ar +
0
1
e
37
17
Cl
1/2
= 35 ngy

14
6
C
14
7
N +
0
1
e
1/2
= 5580 nm

238
92
U
234
90
Th +
4
2
He
1/2
= 4,9.10
9
nm
Cc nguyn t ng v phng x cng nh khng phng x c rt nhiu ng dng trong cng
nghip, nng nghip, y hc, cng nh trong nghin cu khoa hc c bn. Cc nh ha hc
thng s dng cc nguyn t ng v khng phng x nh
13
C,
18
O,
15
N nh du nhng
phn t ha cht, nhm mc ch tm hiu c ch phn ng ha hc hay theo di s bin i
sinh ha ca ha cht trong c th ng, thc vt.

Th d: bit phn ng ester ha gia acid hu c RCOOH vi ru ROH to ra ester
RCOOR v H
2
O l do s ct t lin kt O-H ca acid hu c hoc C-O ca phn t acid
hu c, th ngi ta dng ru cha O c nh du
18
O (O
*
) (RO
*
H) v sau phn ng,
nhn thy O
*
c trong phn t ester. iu ny chng t trong phn ng ester ha ny c s ct
t lin kt C-O ca acid hu c, cn phn t ru th c s ct t lin kt O-H.


R C
O
O H
R' O H R C
O
O R' + H
2
O
+
Acid h u c
R u
Ester
N c


Nhng ng v phng x thng c dng tr bnh, cng nh theo di mt s bnh tt
trong c th, thay i gen (gene), to ging mi, hay c dng nh tui c vt...

Th d: Dng nguyn t ng v phng x
131
53
I o kh nng thu nhn iod ca tuyn gip
trng. ng v phng x
60
27
Co c dng iu tr tiu dit cc u c tnh (x tr trong tr
bnh ung th). Cn c vo lng nguyn t ng v
14
6
C cn li trong c vt xc nh tui
c vt...
Ch :
- V khi lng ca in t rt nh so vi khi lng ca proton, neutron v khi lng
1 proton khi lng 1 neutron 1 u, nn mt cch gn ng c th coi s khi A
ca mt nguyn t ng v nh l khi lng nguyn t ca nguyn t ng v .
Tht ra s khi A l tng s s proton v neutron c trong nhn, lun lun l mt s
nguyn cn khi lng nguyn t thng l mt s thp phn.
- Khi lng nguyn t ca mt nguyn t ha hc, c dng tnh ton trong ha
hc l khi lng nguyn t trung bnh ca nguyn t ng v nguyn t hin din
trong t nhin vi t l xc nh.

Th d:
Nguyn t clor (chlorine, Cl) c hai ng v bn trong t nhin l
35
17
Cl (chim 75% s
nguyn t) v
37
17
Cl (chim 25% s nguyn t). Do khi lng nguyn t ca clor l khi
lng nguyn t trung bnh ca hai nguyn t ng v clor ny trong t nhin:
M
Cl
= M
cc ng v ca Cl
=
100
) 25 ( 37 ) 75 ( 35 +
= 35,5 u
(Mt cch gn ng, coi khi lng nguyn t ng v bng s khi A ca n)

Ha i cng-1 Bin son: V Hng Thi 7
Cn nu theo s liu chnh xc hn th:
35
17
Cl chim 75,76% (
35
17
Cl c khi lng nguyn t 34,96885 u);
37
17
Cl
chim 24,24% (
37
17
Cl c khi lng nguyn t l 36,96590 u)
M
Cl
=
100
) 24 , 24 ( 96590 , 36 ) 76 , 75 ( 96885 , 34 +
= 35,45293 u 35,453 u

Silic (Silicium, Silicon, Si) hin din ba ng v bn trong t nhin l:
28
14
Si chim
92,23% s nguyn t (khi lng nguyn t ca ng v ny l 27,97693 u);
29
14
Si chim
4,67% s nguyn t (khi lng nguyn t ca ng v ny l 28,97649 u) v
30
14
Si chim
3,10% s nguyn t (khi lng nguyn t ca ng v ny l 29,97376 u)

M
Si
= M
Cc ng v ca Si
=
100
) 10 , 3 ( 97376 , 29 ) 67 , 4 ( 97649 , 28 ) 23 , 92 ( 97693 , 27 + +
28,0855 u

III. Mu nguyn t (Atomic model)
Sau khi bit nguyn t gm c cc cu t bn l proton, neutron nm trong nhn v in t
di chuyn bn ngoi nhn, ngi ta tm cch a ra mt kiu mu nguyn t m t cch sp
t in t ngoi nhn nh th no ph hp vi c tnh nhn thy c ca vt cht.

Thc nghim cho thy cc nguyn t ng v c tnh cht ha hc ging nhau. iu ny
chng t tnh cht ha hc ca nguyn t ch lin h n s in t ngoi nhn, m hnh nh
khng lin h n nhn nguyn t. S in t ngoi nhn bng nhau th s c tnh cht ha
hc ging nhau, khng lin h n nhn nguyn t nng hay nh.

Thc nghim cng cho thy c cc nguyn t ca cc nguyn t c s in t ngoi nhn rt
khc nhau, nhng li c tnh cht ha hc c bn ging nhau. Th d, cc nguyn t Li (3 in
t), Na (c 11 in t), K (c 19 in t), Rb (c 37 in t), Cs (c 55 in t) c tnh cht
ha hc ging nhau, nh chng u tc dng c d dng vi nc v ha tan trong nc
to kh H
2
, u thu c dung dch c tnh baz (base); Cc n cht ny u tc dng mnh
lit vi Cl
2
to mui clorur (clorua, chloride).... Hoc F (c 9 in t), Cl (c 17 in t),
Br (c 35 in t), I (c 53 in t) c tnh cht ha hc ging nhau, chng u c tnh oxid
ha mnh, u tc dng vi kim loi to mui,... iu ny chng t khng phi tt c in
t ngoi nhn u tham gia phn ng ha hc m hnh nh ch c mt s in t no m
thi. S in t ny bng nhau th s c tnh cht ha hc ging nhau (nh chng ta bit,
chnh l cc in t ha tr lp in t ngoi cng). Kiu mu nguyn t ph hp phi
th hin c iu ny.

III. 1. Mu nguyn t Thomson (1903)
y l mu nguyn t u tin. Sau khi Thomson xc nhn chm tia m cc gm cc electron
mang in tch m v xc nh c t l in tch trn khi lng ca in t (vo nm 1897)
th Thomson cho rng nguyn t trung ha in tch m trong c in t mang in tch
m nn cng phi c phn mang in tch dng trung ha va in tch m ca in
t. Thomson cho rng nguyn t l mt khi cu trong in t mang in tch m ri rc
trong khi cu ny v phn cn li ca khi cu l phn mang in tch dng, hai in tch
m dng ny trung ha va nhau. Thomson hnh tng nguyn t nh mt ci bnh
pudding, trong in t l cc ht nho kh ri rc trong bnh, rut bnh mang in tch
dng. Do mu nguyn t ca Thomson cn c gi l mu bnh m nho kh (the
raisin bread model) hay mu bnh pudding (a plum pudding model). Hoc c th hnh
tng, coi mu nguyn t ca Thomsom nh mt tri da hu m ht da l in t mang
Ha i cng-1 Bin son: V Hng Thi 8
in tch m, cn phn rut da mang in tch dng. Nh vy mu nguyn t ca
Thomsom l mt khi cu c rut. M hnh nguyn t c rut ny ca Thomson b bc b
bi th nghim ca Rutherford vi nm sau .


Hnh mu nguyn t theo Thomson
(Ngun: http://www2.kutl.kyushu-
u.ac.jp/seminar/MicroWorld1_E/Part2_E/P24_E/Thomson_model_E.htm)

III.2. Mu nguyn t theo Rutherford (1911)
III.2.1. Th nghim Rutherford v mu nguyn t theo Rutherford

Ernest Rutherford (1871 1937) cho bn mt s ht alpha () c mang in tch dng ( l
nhng nhn He
2+
) vo l kim loi vng rt mng (c b dy khong 6.10
-7
m = 6.10
-4
mm =
6000). V nguyn t vng c ng knh d 3 = 3.10
-10
m, cho nn l vng trn tuy mng
nhng cng cha ng khong 2 000 lp nguyn t vng. Vy nu nguyn t l mt khi c
lin tc th nhng ht d vi vn tc kh ln (khong 16 000 km/giy) cng khng th no
xuyn qua c 2 000 lp nguyn t vng ny.

Th nghim ca Rutherford cho thy hu ht nhng ht u xuyn thng qua l vng nh
ch trng khng v ch c mt s rt t b lch hng hoc di ngc tr li (t l ny khong
1/8 000)

Th nghim ny xc nhn hai im:
- Trong nguyn t c rt nhiu khong trng, do khi lng nguyn t phi c t
hi li, to thnh mt khi rt nng trong mt kch thc rt nh so vi kch thc ca
c nguyn t. Nu nguyn t l mt hnh cu ng knh 10 m th ht nhn nguyn t
ch bng mt mi kim. Bn knh nguyn t gp 10 000 bn knh ca nhn nguyn t.
Nu xp ht nhn cc nguyn t li vi nhau, ht n st ht kia th 1 cm
3
ht nhn c
khi lng 114 triu tn.
- V ht mang in tch dng nn khi ht ny b lch hng hoc b di ngc tr li
c ngha nhng ht tin gn n nhng khi cng mang in tch dng kh ln, v
th ht mi b y ra theo nh lut Coulomb (cng du th y nhau, khc du th
ht nhau).

Da vo nhng nhn xt y, Rutherford cho rng nguyn t gm mt nhn mang in tch
dng rt nng, c kch thc rt nh (so vi khi lng v kch thc ca c nguyn t) v
nhng in t mang in tch m di chuyn trn nhng qu o trn quanh nhn lm thnh
mt ngoi ca nguyn t. in tch dng ca nhn v in tch m ca in t trung ha
nhau. Gia nhn v cc in t l khong trng rt ln.
Ha i cng-1 Bin son: V Hng Thi 9


Hnh mu nguyn t theo Rutherford
(Ngun:http://www2.kutl.kyushu-
u.ac.jp/seminar/MicroWorld1_E/Part2_E/P25_E/Rutherford_model_E.htm)

III.2.2. Nng lng ca in t ca nguyn t hidrogen v cc ion ging hidrogen (ion
hidrogenoid, hydrogen-like ion) theo Rutherford
Nguyn t hidrogen v ion hidrogenoid (ion ging hidrogen) ging nhau ch ch c mt
in t duy nht ngoi nhn. in t ny c khi lng m, di chuyn vi vn tc v v cch
nhn mang in tch dng +Ze (Z = 1 cho H; Z = 2 cho He
+
; Z = 3 cho Li
2+
; Z = 4 cho
Be
3+
;...) mt khong r (bn knh qu o trn r).

Nng lng ton phn (c nng) ca in t bng ng nng E
C
cng th nng E
p
ca in t.
E = E
C
+ E
p

M ng nng ca in t: E
C
=
2
1
mv
2

Khi in t chy trn qu o trn c bn knh r th c s cn bng gia lc ly tm f
lt
v lc
hng tm f
ht
(th in t mi khng b vng ra xa nhn, cng nh khng b ht vo nhn)


v
+Ze r e
fht flt


Lc ly tm f
lt
ca in t c khi lng m chuyn ng trn u vn tc v trn qu o trn
bn knh r, gia tc a
f
lt
= ma = m
r
v
2

Lc hng tm f
ht
do in t c in tch e b nhn mang in tch +Ze ht khong cch r
(r: bn knh qu o trn) theo nh lut Coulomb:
f
ht
= K
2
' .
d
q q
=
2
.
r
e Ze
=
2
2
r
Ze

(B qua du. Hng s K = 1 trong h n v CGS)
f
lt
= f
ht

=> m
r
v
2
=
2
2
r
Ze

=> mv
2
=
r
Ze
2

Ha i cng-1 Bin son: V Hng Thi 10

ng nng E
C
=
2
1
mv
2
=
r
Ze
2
2
1
=> E
C
=
r
Ze
2
2
1
(I.1)

Trong ng E
C
tnh bng erg; in tch mt in t e = 4,8.10
-10
n v tnh in CGS (e
cng l in tch mt proton, nu khng xt du); Bn knh qu o trn r c tnh bng cm.

Cn th nng E
p
ca in t cch nhn mt khong r, theo nh ngha, l cng m in t c
c do lc ht ca nhn i vi in t khi in t di chuyn t mt ni rt xa () v n
cch nhn mt khong r.
Vi lc ht f = f
ht
=
2
2
r
Ze


Cng ng vi s di chuyn ca in t v nhn mt khong rt nh dr l: dW = fdr
=> E
p
= W =
r
Ze
r
Ze
r
Ze dr
r
Ze
fdr
r r r 2
2 2
2
2
1 1 1
=
(

\
|

=
(

= =




=> E
p
=
r
Ze
2
(I.2) (E
p
: erg; e = 4,8.10
-10
vt CGS; r: cm)

Nh vy th nng c tr s m. Ngha l th nng ln nht bng 0 khi in t xa v cc v
khi in t v gn nhn hn th th nng ca in t gim nn th nng ca in t c tr s
m.

Nng lng ton phn (c nng) E ca in t l:
E = E
C
+ E
p

=> E =
r
Ze
2
2
1
r
Ze
2
=
r
Ze
2
2
1


E =
r
Ze
2
2
1
(I.3)

Z = 1 (H); Z = 2 (He
+
); Z = 3 (Li
2+
); Z = 4 (Be
3+
)

Nh vy nng lng ca in t c tr s m, nng lng ca in t ln nht ca in t
bng 0 khi in t cch xa nhn v cc, cn khi in t v gn nhn hn th nng lng ca
in t gim nn nng lng ca in t c tr s m.

Theo cng thc (I.3), r gim th Eln => E gim
r tng th E nh => E tng

Mu nguyn t ca Rutherford khng thch hp (b chng i) v nhng nhn xt sau:
- Theo in ng lc hc c in, th khi mt ht t mang in tch m di chuyn quanh
mt ht t mang in tch dng c nh th s c s phng thch nng lng di
dng bc x t ht t ang di chuyn. Nh vy, theo trn, in t s mt dn nng
lng di dng bc x. Ngha l khong cch r s gim v nng lng ca in t
gim. Do sau mt thi gian ngn, in t s ri vo nhn ca n v nh th nguyn
t s khng tn ti nh m hnh a ra.
Ha i cng-1 Bin son: V Hng Thi 11

- V nu nng lng ca in t gim mt cch lin tc khi in t i theo ng xon
c v gn nhn s a n hu qu l nhng bc x phng thch ra s c bc sng (,
di sng) hay tn s ( =

c
) thay i mt cch lin tc. Thc nghim cho thy ph
pht x ca nguyn t hidrogen l ph bt lin tc gm mt s vch cch qung m s
sng ( ) c cho bi cng thc thc nghim Rydberg:

|

\
|
= =
2 2
'
1 1 1
n n
R
H

: s sng, s bc sng trong mt n v chiu di, s trong 1cm
=

1
=
cT
1
=
c
c

=
1
=> = c
R
H
= 109 677,58 cm
-1
: hng s Rydberg
n, n: cc s nguyn, n < n


Hnh chui dy Lyman ca quang ph hidrogen
(Ngun: http://content.answers.com/main/content/wp/en/a/a8/LymanSeries1.gif)





Hnh chui dy Balmer (vng kh kin) ca quang ph hidrogen
(Ngun: http://dbhs.wvusd.k12.ca.us/webdocs/Electrons/Hydrogen-Spectrum.html )
Ha i cng-1 Bin son: V Hng Thi 12

III.3. Mu nguyn t Bohr (1911)
Bohr vn gi nguyn mu nguyn t nh Rutherford, nhng ng a ra hai nh , tc l
yu cu chp nhn, khng chng minh.

nh 1: Bohr cho rng in t di chuyn trn cc qu o trn n nh (bn, c bit, cho
php, stable orbits, special orbits, allowed orbits) m trn cc qu o ny in t
khng b mt nng lng do pht bc x. Bn knh qu o trn n nh ny nh
th no momen ng ( = mvr) ca in t l bi s nguyn ca h/2, vi h l
hng s Planck.
= mvr = n
2
h

(: momen ng; m: khi lng ca in t; v: vn tc ca in t; r: bn knh qu o trn
n nh; n: s nguyn = 1, 2, 3,...s th t qu o n nh; h: hng s Planck; : s pi
3,1416)
nh 1 ca Bohr gii thch s bn ca m hnh nguyn t ny. Ngha l khi in t di
chuyn trn cc qu o n nh (bn hay cho php) ny th in t khng b mt nng lng,
nn in t khng b ri vo nhn, nh s chng i lc by gi i vi mu nguyn t ca
Rutherford. V t nh ny c th xc nh c bn knh r cc qu o trn n nh, trn
in t di chuyn.

nh 2: Da vo thuyt lng t ca Planck, Borh cho rng khi in t nhy t qu o n
nh xa nhn n (c mc nng lng cao) v qu o n nh gn nhn n (c mc
nng lng thp hn) th c s phng thch nng lng di dng pht bc x; cn
ngc li nu in t nhy t qu o gn nhn (mc nng lng thp) ln qu o
xa nhn hn (mc nng lng cao) th in t cn hp thu nng lng di dng
cn chiu bc x. Bc x pht ra hay cn thu vo c tn s (c bc sng = cT
=

c
, hay s sng =

1
=
cT
1
=
c

) c cho bi:

hc
c
h h E E E
n n
= = = =
'

Tn s l s sng trong mt n v thi gian, nu n v thi gian l giy, th tn s l s chu k hay s sng
trong thi gian 1 giy (hertz); Chu k T l thi gian thc hin mt sng (s giy to 1 sng, thi gian
sng di chuyn mt on ng l mt di sng hay bc sng ); di sng (bc sng) l chiu di ca
mt sng; S sng l s bc sng c trong mt n v chiu di, nu n v chiu di l cm th s sng l
s bc sng trong 1 cm.

Nh vy nh 2 ca Borh gii thch c quang ph pht x bt lin tc ca hidrogen c
bit thi by gi. V cc qu o n nh n, n c mc nng lng khng lin tc v E khng
lin tc nn bc x pht ra c tn s hay bc sng khng lin tc.

V c bit t hai nh ny, Bohr chng minh c cng thc thc nghim ca Rydberg
a ra trc tnh ton bc sng ca quang ph pht x nguyn t hidrogen.

Cc tnh ton ny da vo kt qu mu nguyn t Rutherford, hai nh ca Bohr ca
nguyn t hidrogen v cc ion hidrogenoid, ngha l ch c 1 in t duy nht ngoi nhn.

ng nng E
C
=
2
1
mv
2
=
r
Ze
2
2
1
=> v
2
=
mr
Ze
2
(*)
Ha i cng-1 Bin son: V Hng Thi 13
Theo nh 1 ca Bohr: = mvr = n
2
h
=> v =
mr
nh
2
=> v
2
=
2 2 2
2 2
4 r m
h n

(**)
So snh (*), (**) =>
2 2 2
2 2
4 r m
h n

=
mr
Ze
2
=> r =
m Ze
h n
2 2
2 2
4
=
|
|

\
|
2 2
2 2
4 me
h
Z
n

t:
a
0
=
2 2
2
4 me
h

=
0
8
2 10 28 2
2 27
529 , 0 10 . 529 , 0
) 10 . 8 , 4 )( 10 . 10939 , 9 ( ) 1415923 , 3 ( 4
) . 10 . 626076 , 6 (
A cm
dvCGS g
s erg
=

r = ) (
0
2
a
Z
n
=> r = ) 529 , 0 (
0
2
A
Z
n


Vi H (Z = 1), khi in t qu o gn nhn nht (n = 1), c mc nng lng thp nht
(trng thi c bn) th:
r = ) (
1
1
0
2
a =
0
0
529 , 0 A a = . Vy a
0
= 0,529 l bn knh qu o n nh ca nguyn t
hidrogen khi n trng thi c bn (qu o gn nhn nht, c mc nng lng thp nht)
Nng lng E ca nguyn t H v ion ging H (ion hidrogenoid, hydrogen-like ions, ch c 1
in t):
E =
r
Ze
2
.
2
1
= )
2
(
2
)
4
(
.
2
1
2
4 2
2
2
2 2
4 2 2
2 2
2 2
2
h
me
n
Z
h n
me Z
me
h
Z
n
Ze

= =

t: K = erg
h
me
11
2 27
4 10 28 2
2
4 2
10 . 178 , 2
) 10 . 626 , 6 (
) 10 . 8 , 4 )( 10 . 109 , 9 ( ) 1416 , 3 ( 2 2

K = 2,178.10
-11
erg = 2,178.10
-18
Joule = 13,6 eV = 313,64 kcal/mol

Dng s lin h di y i n v trn:
1 eV = 1,6.10
-12
erg = 1,6.10
-19
Joule; 1 Joule = 10
7
erg; 1 cal = 4,184 Joule; 1 kcal = 10
3
cal
1 mol nguyn t (phn t, ion) = 6,022.10
23
nguyn t (phn t, ion)
1 = 10
-8
cm = 10
-10
m

) 10 . 178 , 2 ( ) 10 . 178 , 2 ( ) / 64 , 313 ( ) 6 , 13 (
18
2
2
11
2
2
2
2
2
2
Joule
n
Z
erg
n
Z
mol kcal
n
Z
eV
n
Z
E

= = = =

Ch l trong cng thc trn, trng hp 313,64 kcal/mol hiu l ng vi 1 mol nguyn t H
hay 1 mol ion ging H, cn cc trng hp khc hiu l ng vi 1 nguyn t H hay 1 ion
ging H (ch khng phi ca 1 mol)
Vi nguyn t H khi in t ca n trng thi c bn, c nng lng thp nht, in t qu
o gn nhn nht (n = 1), th:
mol kcal eV eV eV
n
Z
E / 64 , 313 6 , 13 ) 6 , 13 (
1
1
) 6 , 13 (
2
2
2
2
= = = =
Nh vy 13,6 eV hay 313,64 kcal/mol l nng lng ca H khi n trang thi c bn.

Khi in t di chuyn t qu o n xa nhn (c nng lng cao) v qu o n gn nhn hn
(c nng lng thp hn) th nng lng phng thch l:
Ha i cng-1 Bin son: V Hng Thi 14
E = E
n
E
n
= )
'
1 1
(
2
)
2
( )
2
(
'
2 2 2
4 2 2
2
4 2
2
2
2
4 2
2
2
n n h
me Z
h
me
n
Z
h
me
n
Z
=
|
|

\
|



M: E = h = h

hc
c
= => hc = )
'
1 1
(
2
2 2 2
4 2 2
n n h
me Z

=> )
'
1 1
(
2
2 2 3
4 2 2
n n c h
me Z
=


t: R
H
=
c h
me Z
3
4 2 2
2

Vi nguyn t H: th Z = 1; = 3,14159; m = 9,109.10
-28
gam (khi lng in t); e =
4,8.10
-10
vtCGS (in tch ca electron); h = 6,626.10
-27
erg.s (hng s Planck); c = 3.10
10
cm/s (vn tc bc x trong chn khng) vo biu thc tnh R
H
trn, ta c:
R
H
=
1
10 3 27
4 10 28 2 2
3
4 2 2
109737
10 . 3 . ) 10 . 626 , 6 (
) 10 . 8 , 4 .( 10 . 109 , 9 . ) 14159 , 3 .( 2 . 1 2

= cm
c h
me Z
: y chnh l hng
s Rydberg trong cng thc thc nghim tnh bc sng ca ph pht x nguyn t
hidrogen ca Rydberg. Hng s y hi khc vi hng s 109677,58 cm
-1
trong cng thc
Rydberg. Nu ta thay khi lng m ca in t bng khi lng thu gn ca h, ch n
khi lng ca in t m ln khi lng ca nhn nguyn t H m,
'
1 1 1
m m
+ =

, th:
R
H
=
1 1
3
4 2 2
58 , 109677
2

= cm cm
c h
e Z


= )
'
1 1
(
1
2 2
n n
R
H
=

R
H
= 109677,58 cm
-1

Nh vy, t hai nh ca Bohr, ta chng minh c cng thc thc nghim Rydberg.
L thuyt ca Bohr rt ph hp vi kt qu thc nghim v quang ph.
Nhng vch trong dy Lyman ca quang ph hidrogen c sinh ra khi in t nhy t cc
qu o n 2 v qu o n = 1; Dy Balmer do in t nhy t qu o n 3 v qu o n = 2;
Dy Paschen sinh ra khi in t t qu o n 4 v qu o n = 3; Dy Brackett do in t t
qu o n 4 v qu o n = 3; Dy Pfund c c l do in t t qu o n 5 nhy v qu
o n = 4.

(Ngun:http://metadatta.files.wordpress.com/2007/02/hspec.jpg) Cc chui dy bc x ca H.

Ha i cng-1 Bin son: V Hng Thi 15
III.4. Mu nguyn t Bohr-Sommerfeld (1916)
Khi dng quang ph k c nng sut phn gii cao hn, ngi ta thy rng nhiu vch quang
ph ca nguyn t hidrogen, th d cc vch ca chui Balmer, tht ra l mt tp hp nhiu
vch nh. C cu thanh ny ch c th gii thch c nu ng vi mt qu o n nh th n
c nhiu mc nng lng hn.
Nm 1916, Sommerfeld b tc thuyt ca Bohr, ng cho rng in t di chuyn trn nhng
qu o elip (ellipse) m mt trong hai tiu im ca elip l nhn nguyn t. Qu o trn ca
Bohr tr thnh mt trng hp c bit ca qu o elip khi di ca trc chnh (trc ln) v
trc ph (trc nh) bng nhau.

Cc elip ca mu nguyn t Bohr Sommerfeld c trc chnh di bng ng knh ca qu
o trn trng thi n. T s di gia trc ph vi trc chnh l
n
k
. ng vi mt tr s ca
n c n tr s ca k l: 1, 2, 3,..., n. Th d, n = 3 => k = 1, 2, 3 =>
n
k
=
3
3
;
3
2
;
3
1
. Nh vy ng
vi qu o n nh th 3 ca Bohr, c ba qu o theo Sommerfeld, gm 2 qu o elip v 1
qu o trn.


3
3
=
n
k


3
2
=
n
k

3
1
=
n
k



Hnh: Cc qu o ng vi n = 3 theo Sommerfeld

Nu n = 4 =>
4
4
;
4
3
;
4
2
;
4
1
=
n
k
=> c bn qu o, gm ba elip v mt hnh trn.

Nh vy, tuy c cng tr s n, nhng qu o c k nh nht (k = 1) len li ti gn c nhn
hn nn c nng lng hi thp hn. Do , mu nguyn t ny gii thch c c cu
thanh (tinh vi) ca cc vch trong quang ph nguyn t hidrogen, iu m mu Bohr khng
gii thch c.

Tuy nhin mu nguyn t Bohr Sommerfeld khng gii thch c mt cch nh lng
ph pht x ca nhng nguyn t phc tp hn, c nhiu in t quanh nhn, cng nh khng
gii thch c mt cch tha mn s to lin kt ha hc. V vy, mu nguyn t c chp
nhn hin ti v c dng lm cn bn gii thch c tnh ca ha cht l mu nguyn t
theo c hc lng t.

III.5. Mu nguyn t theo thuyt c hc lng t (c hc nguyn lng, c hc ba ng,
c hc sng, quantum mechanics)
III.5.1. Bn cht sng v ht ca cc ht vi m (1924)

Photon (Quang t) c bn cht sng, ngha l c tn s dao ng (nuy) v vn tc chuyn
ng c. Photon li c bn cht ht, ngha l coi nh n c khi lng m khi chuyn ng vi
vn tc c.
Theo h thc tung quan gia khi lng v nng lng ca Einstein:
E = mc
2

Ha i cng-1 Bin son: V Hng Thi 16
v theo thuyt lng t ca Planck:
E = h = h

c

=> h = mc
2

=> h

c
= mc
2
=>

h
= mc => `
mc
h
=

: bc sng ( di sng) ca photon (quang t, ht nh sng)
h : hng s Planck
m : coi nh khi lng ca photon khi di chuyn vn tc c
c : vn tc ca bc x (nh sng, c th hiu bc x l ni chung, cn ni nh sng l cc bc
x trong vng thy c hay kh kin) trong chn khng
H thc
mc
h
= cho thy bn cht sng v ht ca nh sng (bc x), mt bc x khi di
chuyn vi vn tc c, di sng (bc sng) , coi nh tng ng vi mt ht c khi
lng m.

Nm 1924, Louis De Broglie (nh vt l ngi Php, 1892-1987) nu ln gi thuyt cho rng
khng phi ch c photon mi c bn cht sng m cc ht vi m, nh in t, cng c tnh
cht . Chuyn ng ca cc ht ny c th xem nh chuyn ng sng, m bc sng ca
chng tun theo h thc ging nh h thc ca photon v c gi l h thc De Broglie:

mv
h
=
hay
p
h
= vi p = mv
v: vn tc ca ht
p: ng lng (xung lng) ca ht
h: hng s Planck, h = 6,626.10
-27
erg.s = 6,626.10
-34
J.s
m: khi lng ca ht
Th d: in t c khi lng m = 9,109.10
-28
gam 27C (300K) chuyn ng vi vn tc v
=120 km/s = 1,2.10
7
cm/s s c bc sng l:
o
cm cm
mv
h
= = = =

61 10 . 61 10 . 606 , 0
10 . 2 , 1 . 10 . 109 , 9
10 . 626 , 6
8 6
7 28
27


Vi nhng ht v m, ngha l mt thng trng thy c, chng hn hn bi hay c n
nhng ht bi, do khi lng ca chng qu ln so vi in t nn bc sng ca chng nh
n mc khng th o c nn coi chng c chuyn ng thng ( 0).
Th d mt ht bi c khi lng m = 0,01 mg = 0,01.10
-3
gam, di chuyn vi vn tc v = 1
mm/s = 0,1 cm/s s c bc sng:
cm cm
mv
h
21 24
3
27
10 . 6 , 6 10 . 6626
1 , 0 . 10 . 01 , 0
10 . 626 , 6

= = =
=> bc sng qu nh (coi nh = 0)

Nm 1927, Davison v Germer kim chng thc nghim kin ca De Broglie bng cch
cho mt chm ht in t i qua tinh th Nickel (Ni) th thy c hin tng nhiu x
(diffraction) tng t nh tia X, iu ny chng minh c tnh cht sng ca in t.
Ha i cng-1 Bin son: V Hng Thi 17
Ngy nay, hin tng nhiu x ca chm in t tr thnh mt phng tin c dng
rng ri nghin cu cu trc cc cht. Hin tng nhiu x ca in t cng nh hin
tng giao thoa ca n ch c th gii thch c khi tha nhn bn cht sng ca in t.
Vy in t cng c bn cht sng - ht nh nh sng (photon).

Vi thuyt sng kt hp ca Louis De Broglie, ngi ta tm li c iu kin cho qu o n
nh ca Bohr.

Khi in t di chuyn trn qu o trn, mun sng kt hp khng b hy th chu vi ca qu
o trn phi l mt bi s nguyn ca bc sng .



.



Chu vi (qu o trn bn knh n nh r) = 2r = n (bi s nguyn ca di sng )
M: =
mv
h
=> 2r = n
mv
h

=> mvr = n
2
h

(tc l momen ng = mvr = bi s nguyn ca h/2, nh 1 ca Bohr)

(Ngun: http://www.chem.ufl.edu/~itl/2045_s00/lectures/lec_10.html)

III.5.2. Nguyn l bt nh Heisenberg (The Heisenberg uncertainty principle, 1927)
Heisenberg (nh vt l ngi c, 1901-1976) cho rng khng th xc nh chnh xc
ng thi vn tc v v tr ca mt vt, c bit l cc vt nh nh in t.
Ha i cng-1 Bin son: V Hng Thi 18

v
x
.x
m
h
4


v
x
: sai s tuyt i ca vn tc theo phng x
x: sai s tuyt i ca v tr trn phng x
h: hng s Planck = 6,62607095.10
-34
J.s
m: khi lng ca ht
: s pi ( 3,14159)

Hay: x.p
2
h
vi p = mv => p = m.v;
2
h
= h ; p: ng lng (xung lng)

Nguyn l trn c ngha nu sai s v vn tc cng nh (vn tc cng bit chnh xc,
v0) th sai s v v tr cng ln (tc cng khng xc nh chnh xc v tr ca ht, x) v
ngc li, nu bit chnh xc v tr th khng chnh xc vn tc.

Ngi ta c th xc nh c nng lng (ng lng p = mv) ca in t, tc bit c vn
tc ca in t, nn theo nguyn l bt nh Heisenberg ta khng th bit c chnh xc v
tr ca in t. Thc t in t c kch thc qu nh v di chuyn vi vn tc rt ln nn ta
kh xc nh c ng v tr ca in t trong nguyn t. Cc mu nguyn t ca
Rutherford, Bohr vi phm nguyn l bt nh Heisenberg v xc nh c c nng
lng ln v tr ca in t.

Tng qut, nguyn l bt nh Heisenberg ng cho mi vt chuyn ng. Tuy nhin i vi
nhng vt v m, c khi lng m ln, di chuyn khng qu nhanh, c th xc nh c vn
tc ca vt ln v tr ca vt.
x.v >
m
h
4
0, (do h c tr s nh v nu m c tr s ln th t s ny tin v zero) ngha
l sai s ca vt rt khng ng k so vi kch thc ca vt, c th b qua. Ngi c th xc
nh c ta ln vn tc ca vt, tc v c qu o chuyn ng ca vt. Nhng i
vi ht c kich thc qu nh v di chuyn rt nhanh nh in t th khng th xc nh c
chnh xc qu o ca in t.

III.5.3. Phng trnh sng Schrodinger (The Schrodinger wave equation, 1926)
Thuyt sng kt hp ca Loui De Broglie (1924) t nn mng cho mt mn c hc mi
gi l c hc lng t (quantum mechanics). C hc lng t nghin cu s chuyn ng ca
cc ht vi m, n khc vi mn c hc nghin cu s chuyn ng ca cc ht v m, c
gi l c hc c in (classical mechanics) hay c hc Newton. C s ca c hc c in l
cc nh lut Newton. Cn c s ca c hc lng t l phng trnh sng do Schrodinger
(nh vt l ngi o, 1887-1961) a ra nm 1926. Ton b l thuyt hin i v nguyn t
v phn t l gii phng trnh sng Schrodinger cho cc h . Phng trnh Schrodinger
m t chuyn ng ca mt ht trong khng gian c dng nh sau:

0 ) (
8
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
= +

V E
h
m
z y x


Hay thu gn li, n c dng: H = E

Ha i cng-1 Bin son: V Hng Thi 19
Vi: H =
m
h
2
2
8

2
+ V : Ton t Hamilton


2
=
2
2
2
2
2
2
z y x

: Ton t Laplace
h: hng s Planck
m: khi lng ca ht
V: th nng ca ht
E: nng lng ton phn ca ht
x, y, z: cc bin s ch v tr ca ht trong ta Descartes
: hm s sng (hm s xc sut)
khng c ngha vt l g, nhng
2
) , , ( z y x
c ngha l xc sut i qua ta (x,y,z).
d
z y x
2
) , , (
: cho bit xc sut tm thy ht trong vng khng gian d bao quanh im (x,y,z),
cng l xc sut ht i qua vng khng gian d bao quanh ta (x,y,z). Nu d , tc
tt c khng gian, th xc sut ny bng 1 (tc 100% tm thy ht).
Vi nguyn t hidrogen v cc ion hidrogenoid (ch c 1 in t), th phng trnh sng
Schrodinger m t s chuyn ng ca in t ny l:
0 ) (
8
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
= + +

r
Ze
E
h
m
z y x
Do th nng V = E
p
=
r
Ze
2

Hay dng thu gn ca phng trnh sng Schrodinger l:

H = E

H: ton t Hamilton
: hm s sng
E: nng lng ca in t
m: khi lng in t
E: nng lng ca in t
r: khong cch t in t n nhn
Z = 1 (nu l H); Z = 2 (nu l He
+
); Z = 3 (nu l Li
2+
);...

Phng trnh Schrodinger ch c th gii c mt cch chnh xc cho trng hp nguyn t
hidrogen v cc ion hidrogenoid, ngha l ch c 1 in t v 1 ht nhn. Cn i vi cc
nguyn t v phn t c nhiu in t, phng trnh Schrondinger tr nn rt phc tp (v
ngoi tng tc ht gia in t vi ht nhn, cn c lc y gia in t vi in t) v
ngi ta ch c th gii mt cch gn ng. Cc kt qu tm c u kh ph hp vi thc
nghim. V y l u im ca m hnh ny i vi cc m hnh nguyn t khc trc .
Gii phng trnh sng trn, tm cc hm s thch hp v tr s nng lng E tng ng.
Vi h mt in t, ngi ta gii c phng trnh sng Schrodinger v c bit tm li
c biu thc tnh nng lng E nh mu nguyn t Bohr:

) / 64 , 313 ( ) 10 . 178 , 2 ( ) 6 , 13 (
2
2
18
2
2
2
2
mol kcal
n
Z
J
n
Z
eV
n
Z
E = = =



Tuy nhin trong cng thc trn, n c ngha l s lng t chnh hay s nguyn lng chnh
(principal quantum number); cn n trong cng thc ca Bobr c ngha l s th t qu o n
nh. Nh vy, nng lng ca nguyn t H v cc ion ging H ch ph thuc vo s lng t
Ha i cng-1 Bin son: V Hng Thi 20
chnh n (ch khng ph thuc vo cc s lng t khc). S lng t chnh n nh th nng
lng thp, n ln th nng lng cao.

c th hiu xc sut ni trn, gi s ta c th thc hin th nghim theo chp c nh
v tr ca in t nhiu thi im khc nhau. Trn mi nh, v tr in t c ch nh bng
mt chm. Chp cc nh li vi nhau, cc v tr in t s c dng nh mt m my, ch no
dy c th ch xc sut hin din in t ln. Nguyn t khng c bn knh xc nh, v
m my in t khng c gii hn xc nh. Hnh nh nh th kh s dng gii thch s
hin din ca phn t do s ha hp ca cc nguyn t. Do ngi ta chn mt gii hn qui
c cho s di chuyn ca in t quanh nhn. Gii hn l nhng ng cong gii hn mt
vng khng gian bao quanh nhn nguyn t m trong vng khng gian ny cha khong 90%
mt in t (90% in t kho st ca nguyn t nm trong vng khng gian ny).
ng cong ny c ngha nh sau: nu ta thc hin c th nghim theo c th xc nh
v tr ca in t v trong 100 ln tm in t th 90 ln tm thy in t trong vng khng
gian .,
Nh vy c th xem in t hu nh di chuyn trong vng khng gian gii hn quanh nhn
trn. Vng khng gian gii hn bao quanh nhn ny cng nh hm s xc sut hin din
in t c gi l orbital nguyn t (atomic orbital, obitan nguyn t, vn o nguyn t).

Mt orbital nguyn t:
- V phng din ton hc c biu din bng mt hm s xc sut .
- V phng din hnh nh c biu din bng mt vng khng gian bao quanh nhn
nguyn t, trong xc sut tm thy in t khong 90%

Hnh: orbital (Ngun: http://images.google.com.vn/imgres?imgurl=http://www.chem.ufl.edu)

Nghim s tm c ca phng trnh H = E cn ph thuc vo 3 thng s (tham s,
parameter) l cc s nguyn, c gi l s lng t hay s nguyn lng (quantum number)

n, l, m
.

Ha i cng-1 Bin son: V Hng Thi 21
ngha ca cc s lng t:
- S lng t chnh n (principal quantum number, primary quantum number): n l cc
s nguyn dng khc 0. n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,..S lng t chnh xc nh mc nng lng
v kch thc ca orbital. S lng t chnh n cng ln, nng lng orbital cng cao,
kch thc orbital cng ln. S lng t chnh xc nh s lp in t (tng in t,
main shell of electrons, electron shell)

S lng t chnh n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7...
Tn lp in t K L M N O P Q...

- S lng t ph l (azimuthal quantum number, orbital angular mementum quantum
number, second quantum number): s lng t ph ph thuc vo s lng t chnh n.
ng vi s lng t chnh n, s lng t ph l c tr s: 0, 1, 2,...(n-1). Ngha l ng
vi s lng chnh n th c n tr s s lng t ph l, bin thin t 0,1, 2,... n (n-1).
S lng t ph l xc nh dng ca hm s sng (dng ca orbital) v cho bit ng
vi lp in t th n ta c n phn lp (ph tng, subshell) c l bin thin t 0...n (n-
1)

S lng t ph l 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7...
Tn phn lp s p d f g h i j....

Th d: n = 1 => l = 0 ( lp 1, lp K, ch c mt phn lp, l phn lp s)
n = 2 => l = 0, 1 ( lp 2, lp L, c hai phn lp, l phn lp s v phn lp p)
n = 3 => l = 0,1, 2 (lp 3 c 3 phn lp: s, p, d)
n = 4 => l = 0,1, 2, 3 (lp 4 c 4 phn lp: s, p, d, f)
n = 5 => l = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 (lp 5 c 5 phn lp: s, p, d, f, g)

- S lng t t m (magnetic quantum number): s lng t t m ph thuc vo s
lng t ph l. ng vi s lng t ph l, ta c cc tr s ca s lng t t m l:
l ; -(l-1); -(l-2);...;0; +1;...+(l-1); +l. Nh vy ng vi s lng t ph l ta c (2l+1)
tr s ca m. S lng t m cho bit hng ca orbital, n cng cho bit c (2l + 1)
orbital trong mt phn lp. Tng qut c bao nhiu tr s ca m l c by nhiu
orbital.
Th d:
l = 0 => m
s
= 0 (phn lp s c 1 orbital)
l = 1 => m
s
= -1; 0; +1 (phn lp p c 3 orbital)
l = 2 => m
s
= -2; -1; 0; +1; +2 (phn lp d c 5 orbital)
l = 3 => m
s
= -3; -2; -1; 0; +1; +2; +3 (phn lp f c 7 orbital)
n = 2; l = 1; m = +1 =>
2,1,+1
= 2p
x

n = 2; l = 1; m = 0 =>
2,1,0
= 2p
z

n = 2; l = 1; m = -1 =>
2,1,-1
= 2p
y

n = 3; l = 2; m = +2 =>
3,2,+2
= 3d
2 2
y x

- S lng t spin m
s
(spin quantum number): Trong nghim ca phng trnh
Schrodinger khng c s lng t ny. gii thch s phc tp ca ph pht x
nguyn t di tc dng ca t trng, Ulenbeck v Goudsmit cn pht biu nh
cho rng in t cn t quay quanh n (spin) v gy ra mt momen gc spin. Monen
gc cng c lng t ha v ch c tr s )
2
(
2
1

h
. Momen gc spin c th cng
Ha i cng-1 Bin son: V Hng Thi 22
chiu hay ngc chiu vi t trng nh hng bn ngoi, do s lng t spin m
s

c hai tr s l
2
1
+ v
2
1
.
Nh vy xc nh mt orbital ta cn phi xc nh b ba s lng t (n, l, m), mt ba s
lng t thch hp ny xc nh mt orbital (mt
n,l,m
). Cn xc nh mt in t ta cn
bit b bn s lng t (n, l, m, m
s
).

Sau y l dng ca mt s orbital nguyn t:

Ni no mi n rng th ni xc sut hin din t cao.

Th d:
cc orbital s hnh cu, tm l nhn nguyn t, th i theo bt c hng no xc sut gp in
t l nh nhau.

Cn orbital 2p
x
: th dc theo trc x hin din in t nhiu nht, i theo trc y, trc z th s
khng gp in t ca orbital ny.

Vi orbital 3d
xy
th dc theo ng phn gic ca trc x vi trc y xc sut hin din t nhiu
nht, nu i dc theo trc x, trc y s khng gp in t trong orbital ny hoc nu i theo cc
hng khc cng khng gp in t ti a.


Hnh orbital s, p
x
, p
y
, p
z

(Ngun: http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/orbitals.gif)










Ha i cng-1 Bin son: V Hng Thi 23


Hnh ca cc orbital nguyn t: 1s, 2s, 3s, p
z
, p
x
, p
y
, d
yz
, d
xz
, d
xy
, d
2 2
y x
, d
2
z

(ngun: Trch t sch: Chemistry Foundation And Applications ca J.J. Lagowski)

(Cn tip)