Beautiful Trigonometry

c 20012004 Kevin Carmody

Copyright
The unit circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
The unit hyperbola . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
The trigonometric hexagon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Euler identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Exponential definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Inverse function log formulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Special values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6
Signs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Ranges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Product formulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Ratio formulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Inverse function reciprocal formulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Pythagorean identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Pythagorean conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Inverse function Pythagorean conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Imaginary angle formulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Inverse function imaginary angle formulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Negative angle formulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Inverse function negative angle formulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Double angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Half angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Multiple-value identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Straight-angle translations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Straight-angle reflections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Right-angle translations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Right-angle reflections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
Half-right-angle translations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Inverse function multiple-value identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Inverse function straight-angle identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Inverse function right-angle identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Angle sums and differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Function sums and differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Function products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Inverse function sums and differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Same-angle function sums and differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17
Linear combinations of functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Multiple angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Powers of two angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Powers of one angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Differential equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Inverse function derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Power series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Inverse function power series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Infinite products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Continued fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Inner transformation function definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Gudermannian transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Gudermannian transformations of inverses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23

Gudermannian special transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Gudermannian special transformations of inverses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Cogudermannian and coangle transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Cogudermannian and coangle transformations of inverses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Properties of inner transformation functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Inner transformation conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Alternative inner transformation conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
DeMoivre identites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Point on the complex plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Twice-applied formulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

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The equation x2 + y 2 = 1 is a circle of radius 1. This circle is called the unit circle.
For any point on the circle, twice the shaded area is the circular angle .
The indicated lengths are the circular trigonometric functions of .

The unit hyperbola

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. . . .... . .... ....................
...
..
.
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.
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.

.
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coth

.
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sinh

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x
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..... ...
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sech. .. . ...... .....
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The equation x2 y 2 = 1 is a hyperbola bounded by a square and asymptotes on the corners of the
square. This hyperbola is called the unit hyperbola.
For any point on the hyperbola, twice the shaded area is the hyperbolic angle .
The indicated lengths are the hyperbolic trigonometric functions of .

The trigonometric hexagon

co

gd......

.......

..
..
...
.
...
.
...
.
...
..
.
.................................................
.............. ..... ...............
.
.. .... .... .... ........ ...
.......
.
.
...
.... . .. . ....
......
....... .....
... .......
...... .... ......
...
... . ... . ...
.........
.
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...
.
....... ...... ....... ..... .....
...
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...
...
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...
..
...................................................
.
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.
..... .... ................
.... . . . . ......
.
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.
.......... . ... ... . ... ..... .... . ....
... . . . ...... . . ... .. ... . ........ . .......
........... ....... . ........ ....... ....
...... . ....... . ....... .........
..
... . . ... .......
.
....... ........ .......
..
...... ......
.......
..... .....
... . . ..
......
... ...
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...
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..............................................................
...
..
...
..
...
..
...
..
...
..

.......

tan

cg

.......

......

cos

sin

.......

.......

cg

cot

sec

.......

......

csc

.......

.......

.......

gd

co
The trigonometric hexagon relates elementary properties of the six circular and hyperbolic trigonometric functions. The points labelled sin, cos, tan, etc. are valid also for sinh, cosh, tanh, etc. The constant 1 at
the center is treated as a function.
Each function is the product of its two neighbors: e.g. sin = tan cos and sinh = tanh cosh .
Each function is the quotient of the two functions to the left and also of the two functions to the right:
cos tan
e.g. sin =
=
.
cot
sec
The product of two opposite functions is 1, which means that opposite functions are reciprocals: e.g.
1
sin csc = 1, or sin =
.
csc
The three shaded triangles give the Pythagorean identities. For circular functions, the sum of the
squares of the top two functions is equal to the square of the bottom function; for hyperbolic functions,
the sum of the squares of the left and the bottom functions is equal to the square of the right function. For
example, sin2 + cos2 = 1; sinh2 + 1 = cosh2 .
The three dashed axes give the inner transformations. Inner transformations reflect functions from one
side of the axis to the other as follows:
The circular functions, when reflected across the co axis, become the circular functions on the other
side, e.g. sin co = cos .
The hyperbolic functions, when reflected across the cg axis, become the hyperbolic functions on the
other side, e.g. sinh cg = csch .
Either circular or hyperbolic functions, when reflected across the gd axis, become the function on the
other side of the opposite type, i.e. circular becomes hyperbolic, and hyperbolic becomes circular. Examples:
sinh gd = tanh ; sin gd1 = tan .

Euler identities
e = cosh + sinh = exp
1
e = cosh sinh =
exp

ei = cos + i sin = cis

1
ei = cos i sin =
cis

Exponential definitions
e + e
2
e e
sinh =
2
e e
tanh =
e + e
e + e
coth =
e e
2
sech =
e + e
2
csch =
e e

ei + ei
2
ei ei
sin =
2i
ei ei
tan = i i
e + ei
i
e + ei
cot = i i
e ei
2
sec = i
e + ei
2i
csc = i
e ei

cosh =

cos =

Inverse function log formulae




cosh1 u = ln u + u2 1



sinh1 u = ln u + u2 + 1


1
1+u
tanh1 u = ln
2  1 u
1
u+1
1
coth u = ln
2
u1
!

1 + 1 u2
1
sech u = ln
u
!

1 + 1 + u2
1
csch u = ln
u




cos1 u = i ln u i 1 u2


sin1 u = i ln
1 u2 iu


i
1 iu
tan1 u = ln
2  1 + iu
i
iu + 1
cot1 u = ln
2
iu 1
!

21
1

i
u
sec1 u = i ln
u
!

u2 1 i
1
csc u = i ln
u

exp1 u = ln u

cis1 u = i ln u

Special values
0

cosh + +1 +

cos 1

sinh 0 +

sin 0

0 +

tanh 1 0 +1
coth 1 +1
sech 0 +1 0
csch 0 0
exp 1 +1 +

4
6

3
1
2 2
1
2

1
2

3
1
2

3
2

10

2+
2

1
2

2
3
2

10

3
2

q2

2
5
1
2
2+
2

p
p
3+4 p
3 7 4 7 + 4
3 + 4
5
q
p
p
1 p
3+4
7 + 4 7 4
cot 0 1 3 3 3 + 4
5
q
p
2
2+
2
sec 1 2 3 2 2 3 21
2
5
q
p

2+
2 2 23
2
2
21 2 3
csc 1
5
tan 0 1

1
3

Signs

(, 0) (0, +)
cosh
+
+
sinh

+
tanh

+
coth

+
sech
+
+
csch

+
exp
+
+

3
(0, 2 ) ( 2 , ) (, 3
2 ) ( 2 , 2)
cos +

+
sin
+
+

tan +

cot
+

sec
+

+
csc
+
+

Ranges
R
+1 cosh < +
< sinh < +
1 < tanh < +1
coth < 1 or +1 < coth
0 < sech +1
< csch < +, but csch 6= 0
0 < exp

R
1 cos +1
1 sin +1
< tan < +
< cot < +
sec 1 or +1 sec
csc 1 or +1 csc
| cis | = 1

Product formulae
cosh = sinh coth
sinh = cosh tanh
tanh = sinh sech
coth = cosh csch
sech = tanh csch
csch = coth sech
cosh sech = sinh csch
= tanh coth = exp exp() = 1

cos = sin cot

sin = cos tan
tan = sin sec
cot = cos csc
sec = tan csc
csc = cot sec
cos sec = sin csc
= tan cot = cis cis() = 1

Ratio formulae
sinh coth
1
=
=
sech tanh csch
1
cosh tanh
sinh =
=
=
csch coth
sech
1
sinh sech
tanh =
=
=
coth cosh csch
cosh csch
1
=
=
coth =
tanh sinh sech
1
tanh csch
sech =
=
=
cosh sinh coth
1
coth
sech
csch =
=
=
sinh cosh tanh
1
exp() =
exp
cosh =

1
sin cot
=
=
sec tan csc
1
cos tan
sin =
=
=
csc cot
sec
1
sin sec
tan =
=
=
cot cos csc
1
cos csc
cot =
=
=
tan sin sec
1
tan csc
sec =
=
=
cos sin cot
1
cot
sec
csc =
=
=
sin cos tan
1
cis() =
cis
cos =

Inverse function reciprocal formulae

1
u
1
sinh1 u = csch1
u
1
tanh1 u = coth1
u
1
coth1 u = tanh1
u
1
sech1 u = cosh1
u
1
1 1
csch u = sinh
u
1
1 1
exp u = exp
u

1
u
1
sin1 u = csc1
u
1
tan1 u = cot1
u
1
cot1 u = tan1
u
1
sec1 u = cos1
u
1 1
1
csc u = sin
u
1
1 1
cis u = cis
u

cosh1 u = sech1

cos1 u = sec1

Pythagorean identities
1 = cosh2 sinh2
= tanh2 + sech2 = coth2 csch2
cosh2 = sinh2 + 1
sinh2 = cosh2 1
tanh2 = 1 sech2
coth2 = csch2 + 1
sech2 = 1 tanh2
csch2 = coth2 1
(coth tanh )2 = sech2 csch2
coth tanh = sech csch
sech2 csch2 = sech2 csch2

1 = cos2 + sin2
= sec2 tanh2 = csc2 cot2
cos2 = 1 sin2
sin2 = 1 cos2
tan2 = sec2 1
cot2 = csc2 1
sec2 = 1 + tan2
csc2 = cot2 + 1
(cot + tan )2 = sec2 + csc2
cot + tan = sec csc
sec2 + csc2 = sec2 csc2

Pythagorean conversions
p
1
1 + sinh2 = p
2
p1 tanh
2
csch 1
coth
=p
=
2
csch
coth 1
exp2 + 1
=
2 exp
p
tanh
sinh = cosh2 1 = p
2
p1 tanh
1
1 sech2
=p
=
sech
coth2 1
2
exp 1
=
p2 exp
cosh =

cosh2 1
sinh
=p
cosh
1 + sinh2
p
1
= 1 sech2 = p
csch2 + 1
2
exp 1
=
exp2 + 1

tanh =

cos =

p
1 sin2 =

1 + tan2

csc2 1
cot
=
=
2
csc
1 + cot
cis2 + 1
=
2 cis

tan
sin = 1 cos2 =
1 + tan2

sec2 1
1
=
=
sec
1 + cot2
2
cis 1
=
2i cis

1 cos2
sin
tan =
=p
cos
1 sin2

1
= sec2 1 =
csc2 1
cis2 1
= i 2
cis + 1
8

coth = p

cosh
cosh2 1
1

=p
=
sech =
=
=
csch =
=
=

=
=

1 + sinh2
sinh

csch2 + 1

1 sech
exp2 + 1
exp2 1
p
1
p
= 1 tanh2
2
p1 + sinh
2
coth 1
csch
=p
coth
csch2 1
2 exp
exp2 + 1
p
1 tanh2
1
p
=
tanh
cosh2 1
1
sech
p
=p
coth2 1
1 sech2
2 exp
exp2 p
1

exp = p
cosh + cosh2 1
= sinh2 + 1 + sinh
coth + 1
1 + tanh
=p
=p
2
2
1p
tanh
coth
p 1
2
csch2 1 + 1
1 + 1 sech
=
=
sech
csch

p
1 sin2
cos
cot =
=
sin
1 cos2

1
= csc2 1
=
sec2 1
cis2 + 1
=i 2
cis 1

1
sec = p
= 1 + tan2
2
1 sin
1 + cot2
csc
=
=
cot
csc2 1
2 cis
=
cis2 + 1

1 + tan2
1
csc =
=
tan
1 cos2

sec

= 1 + cot2 =
sec2 1
2i cis
=
cis2 1

cis = p
cos + i 1 cos2

1 sin2 + i sin
1 + i tan
cot + i
=
=
2
1 + tan
1 + cot2

csc2 1 + i
1 + i sec2 1
=
=
sec
csc
=

Inverse function Pythagorean conversions

u2 1
u
u
1
1
1
= coth
= csch
2
2
1
u 1
 u

= exp1 u + u2 1

u
sinh1 u = cosh1 1 + u2 = tanh1
1 + u2

2
1+u
1
= coth1
= sech1
u
1 + u2



1
2
u+ 1+u
= exp
u
1
= sinh1
tanh1 u = cosh1
2
2
1u
1u
2

1u
= sech1 1 u2 = csch1
u
r
1
+
u
= exp1
1u
u
1
1
1
coth u = cosh
= sinh1
21
21
u
u

u2 1
1
= sech
= csch1 u2 1
u
r
u1
1
= exp
u+1

cosh u = sinh
u2 1 = tanh1
1

cos u = sin
1 u2 = tan1

1 u2
u
1 u
1 1
= cot
= csc
u2
1 u2
 1

1
= cis
u + i 1 u2

u
sin1 u = cos1 1 u2 = tan1
1 u2

2
1u
1
= cot1
= sec1
u
1
u2


1
2
= cis
1 u + iu
1
u
tan1 u = cos1
= sin1
2
2
1+u
1+u
2

1+u
= sec1 1 + u2 = csc1
u
r
1
+
iu
= cis1
1 iu
1
1
1 u
cot u = cos
= sin1
2
1
+
u
1
+ u2

1
+
u
= sec1
= csc1 1 + u2
r u
iu 1
= cis1
iu + 1
1

1 u2
sech u = sinh
= tanh1 1 u2
u
1
u
1
= coth
= csch1
2
1
u
1 u2
2
1+ u 1
= exp1
u
u2 + 1
1
1
1
csch u = cosh
= tanh1
2+1
u
u

u
= coth1 u2 + 1 = sech1
u2 + 1

2
1
+
1
+
u
= exp1
u
2
u2 1
1 u + 1
1
exp u = cosh
= sinh1
2u
2u
2
2
1 u 1
1 u + 1
= tanh
= coth
u2 + 1
u2 1
2u
2u
1
1
= sech
= csch
u2 + 1
u2 1
1

u2 1
sec u = sin
= tan1 u2 1
u
u
1 1
= cot
= csc1
2
u 1
u2 1
2
1+i u 1
= cis1
u
u2 1
1
csc1 u = cos1
= tan1
21
u
u

u
= cot1 u2 1 = sec1
u2 1

21+i
u
= cis1
u
2
u2 1
1
1 u + 1
cis u = cos
= sin1
2u
2iu
2
2
1 u 1
1 i(u + 1)
= tan
=
cot
i(u2 + 1)
u2 1
2u
2iu
= sec1 2
= csc1 2
u +1
u 1
1

Imaginary angle formulae

cosh i = cos
sinh i = i sin
tanh i = i tan
coth i = i cot
sech i = sec
csch i = i csc
exp i = cis
exp = (cis )i

cos i = cosh
sin i = i sinh
tan i = i tanh
cot i = i coth
sec i = sech
csc i = i csch
1
cis i =
exp

i
cis = exp

Inverse function imaginary angle formulae

i cosh1 u = cos1 u
i sinh1 u = sin1 iu
i tanh1 u = tan1 iu
i coth1 u = cot1 iu
i sech1 u = sec1 u
i csch1 u = csc1 iu

i cos1 u = cosh1 u
i sin1 u = sinh1 iu
i tan1 u = tanh1 iu
i cot1 u = coth1 iu
i sec1 u = sech1 u
i csc1 u = csch1 iu

Negative angle formulae

cosh() = cosh
sinh() = sinh
tanh() = tanh
coth() = coth
sech() = sech
csch() = csch
1
exp() =
exp

cos() = cos
sin() = sin
tan() = tan
cot() = cot
sec() = sec
csc() = csc
1
cis() =
cis

10

Inverse function negative angle formulae

cosh1 (u) = i cosh1 u
sinh1 (u) = sinh1 u
tanh1 (u) = tanh1 u
coth1 (u) = coth1 u
sech1 (u) = i sech1 u
csch1 (u) = csch1 u
exp1 (u) = i + exp1 u

cos1 (u) = cos1 u

sin1 (u) = sin1 u
tan1 (u) = tan1 u
cot1 (u) = cot1 u
sec1 (u) = sec1 u
csc1 (u) = csc1 u
cis1 (u) = + cis1 u

Double angles
cosh 2 = cosh2 + sinh2
= 2 cosh2 1 = 1 + 2 sinh2
sinh 2 = 2cosh sinh

= i 1 (cosh + i sinh )2
2 tanh
tanh 2 =
1 + tanh2
coth2 + 1
coth 2 =
2 coth
csch2 sech2
sech 2 =
csch2 + sech2
csch sech
csch 2 =
2
exp 2 = exp2

cos 2 = cos2 sin2

= 2 cos2 1 = 1 2 sin2
sin 2 = 2 cos sin
= (cos + sin )2 1
2 tan
tan 2 =
1 tan2
cot2 1
cot 2 =
2 cot
csc2 sec2
sec 2 =
csc2 sec2
csc sec
csc 2 =
2
cis 2 = cis2

Half angles
r
cosh + 1

cosh =
2 r
2
cosh 1

sinh =
2
2

sinh
cosh 1
tanh =
=
= coth csch
2 cosh + 1
sinh

sinh
cosh + 1
coth =
=
= coth + csch
2 cosh

1
sinh

2 sech

sech =
2
1 + sech
2 sech

csch =
2 1 sech
p
exp = exp
2

r
1 + cos

cos =
2 r
2
1 cos

sin =
2
2

sin
1 cos
tan =
=
= csc cot
2 1 + cos
sin

sin
1 + cos
cot =
=
= csc + cot
2 1 cos
sin
2 sec

sec =
2
sec + 1
2 sec

csc =
2 sec 1

cis = cis
2

Multiple-value identities
cosh( + 2i) = cosh
sinh( + 2i) = sinh
tanh( + 2i) = tanh
coth( + 2i) = coth
sech( + 2i) = sech
csch( + 2i) = csch
exp( + 2i) = exp

cos( + 2) = cos
sin( + 2) = sin
tan( + 2) = tan
cot( + 2) = cot
sec( + 2) = sec
csc( + 2) = csc
cis( + 2) = cis

11

Straight-angle translations
cosh( + i) = cosh( i) = cosh
sinh( + i) = sinh( i) = sinh
tanh( + i) = tanh( i) = tanh
coth( + i) = coth( i) = coth
sech( + i) = sech( i) = sech
csch( + i) = csch( i) = csch
exp( + i) = exp( i) = exp

cos( + ) = cos( ) = cos

sin( + ) = sin( ) = sin
tan( + ) = tan( ) = tan
cot( + ) = cot( ) = cot
sec( + ) = sec( ) = sec
csc( + ) = csc( ) = csc
cis( + ) = cis( ) = cis

Straight-angle reflections
cosh(i ) = cosh
sinh(i ) = sinh
tanh(i ) = tanh
coth(i ) = coth
sech(i ) = sech
csch(i ) = csch
1
exp(i ) =
exp

cos( ) = cos
sin( ) = sin
tan( ) = tan
cot( ) = cot
sec( ) = sec
csc( ) = csc
1
cis( ) =
cis

Right-angle translations
cosh( + i
2 ) = i sinh
sinh( + i
2 ) = i cosh
i
tanh( + 2 ) = coth
coth( + i
2 ) = tanh
sech( + i
2 ) = i csch
csch( + i
2 ) = i sech
i
exp( + 2 ) = i exp

cos( + 2 ) = sin
sin( + 2 ) = cos
tan( + 2 ) = cot
cot( + 2 ) = tan
sec( + 2 ) = csc
csc( + 2 ) = sec
cis( + 2 ) = i cis

cosh( i
2 ) = i sinh
sinh( i
2 ) = i cosh
i
tanh( 2 ) = coth
coth( i
2 ) = tanh
sech( i
2 ) = i csch
csch( i
2 ) = i sech
i
exp( 2 ) = i exp

cos( 2 ) = sin
sin( 2 ) = cos
tan( 2 ) = cot
cot( 2 ) = tan
sec( 2 ) = csc
csc( 2 ) = sec
cis( 2 ) = i cis

Right-angle reflections
cosh( i
2 ) = i sinh
i
sinh( 2 ) = i cosh
tanh( i
2 ) = coth
coth( i
2 ) = tanh
sech( i
2 ) = i csch
i
csch( 2 ) = i sech
i
exp( i
2 ) = exp

cos( 2 ) = sin
sin( 2 ) = cos
tan( 2 ) = cot
cot( 2 ) = tan
sec( 2 ) = csc
csc( 2 ) = sec
i
cis( 2 ) =
cis

12

Half-right-angle translations




i
i
cosh +
= i sinh

4
4
cosh + i sinh

=

2


i
i
= i cosh
sinh +

4
4
i cosh + sinh

=


 2

i
i
tanh +
= coth

4
4
i + tanh
=
1
+ i
tanh 


i
i
= tanh
coth +

4
4
coth + i
=
i
coth 
+1 


i
i
sech +
= i csch

4
4
2 2 csch 2
=


 csch + i sech
i
i
csch +
= i sech

4
4
2 2 csch 2
=
i
csch
+ sech


i
1


exp +
=
i
4
exp

4
(1 + i) exp

=
2





= sin
cos +

4
4
cos sin

=
2





= cos
sin +

4
4
cos + sin

=
2




= cot
tan +

4
4
1 + tan
=
1 tan





= tan
cot +

4
4
cot 1
=
cot + 1




= csc
sec +

4
4
2 2 csc 2
=
csc sec





= sec
csc +

4
4
2 2 csc 2
=
csc + sec


i



=
cis +
4
cis

4
(1 + i) cis

=
2

Inverse function multiple-value identities

cosh1 u = 2i + i cosh1 u
sinh1 u = 2i + i sinh1 u
tanh1 u = i + i tanh1 u
coth1 u = i + i coth1 u
sech1 u = 2i + i sech1 u
csch1 u = 2i + i csch1 u

cos1 u = 2 + cos1 u
sin1 u = 2 + sin1 u
tan1 u = + tan1 u
cot1 u = + cot1 u
sec1 u = 2 + sec1 u
csc1 u = 2 + csc1 u

Inverse function straight-angle identities

cosh1 u = i i cosh1 u
sinh1 u = i i sinh1 u
tanh1 u = i + i tanh1 u
coth1 u = i + i coth1 u
sech1 u = i i sech1 u
csch1 u = i i csch1 u

cos1 u = cos1 u
sin1 u = sin1 u
tan1 u = + tan1 u
cot1 u = + cot1 u
sec1 u = sec1 u
csc1 u = csc1 u

13

Inverse function right-angle identities

i
i sinh1 u
2
i
sinh1 u =
+ i cosh1 u
2
i
tanh1 u =
+ coth1 u
2
i
+ tanh1 u
coth1 u =
2
i
sech1 u =
i csch1 u
2
i
csch1 u =
i sech1 u
2

1
sin u =
2

tan1 u =
2

1
cot u =
2

1
sec u =
2

csc1 u =
2

cosh1 u =

cos1 u =

sin1 u
+ cos1 u
cot1 u
tan1 u
csc1 u
+ sec1 u

Angle sums and differences

cos(a + b) = cos a cos b sin a sin b
cos(a b) = cos a cos b + sin a sin b
sin(a + b) = sin a cos b + cos a sin b
sin(a b) = sin a cos b cos a sin b
tan a + tan b
tan(a + b) =
1 tan a tan b
tan a tan b
tan(a b) =
1 + tan a tan b
cot a cot b 1
cot(a + b) =
cot a + cot b
cot a cot b + 1
cot(a b) =
cot b cot a
csc a csc b sec a sec b
sec(a + b) =
csc a csc b sec a sec b
csc a csc b sec a sec b
sec(a b) =
csc a csc b + sec a sec b
sec a csc b csc a sec b
csc(a + b) =
sec a csc b + csc a sec b
sec a csc b csc a sec b
csc(a b) =
sec a csc b csc a sec b
cis(a + b) = cis a cis b
cis a
cis(a b) =
cis b

cosh(a + b) = cosh a cosh b + sinh a sinh b

cosh(a b) = cosh a cosh b sinh a sinh b
sinh(a + b) = sinh a cosh b + cosh a sinh b
sinh(a b) = sinh a cosh b cosh a sinh b
tanh a + tanh b
tanh(a + b) =
1 + tanh a tanh b
tanh a tanh b
tanh(a b) =
1 tanh a tanh b
coth a coth b + 1
coth(a + b) =
coth a + coth b
coth a coth b 1
coth(a b) =
coth b coth a
csch a csch b sech a sech b
sech(a + b) =
csch a csch b + sech a sech b
csch a csch b sech a sech b
sech(a b) =
csch a csch b sech a sech b
sech a csch b csch a sech b
csch(a + b) =
sech a csch b + csch a sech b
sech a csch b csch a sech b
csch(a b) =
sech a csch b csch a sech b
exp(a + b) = exp a exp b
exp a
exp(a b) =
exp b

Function sums and differences

a+b
ab
cosh
2
2
a+b
ab
cosh a cosh b = 2 sinh
sinh
2
2
a+b
ab
sinh a + sinh b = 2 sinh
cosh
2
2
ab
a+b
sinh
sinh a sinh b = 2 cosh
2
2
tanh a + tanh b = sinh(a + b) sech a sech b
tanh a tanh b = sinh(a b) sech a sech b
coth a + coth b = sinh(a + b) csch a csch b
coth a coth b = sinh(b a) csch a csch b
a+b
ab
sech a + sech b = 2 cosh
cosh
sech a sech b
2
2
cosh a + cosh b = 2 cosh

a+b
ab
cos
2
2
b+a
ba
cos a cos b = 2 sin
sin
2
2
a+b
ab
sin a + sin b = 2 sin
cos
2
2
a+b
ab
sin a sin b = 2 cos
sin
2
2
tan a + tan b = sin(a + b) sec a sec b
tan a tan b = sin(a b) sec a sec b
cot a + cot b = sin(a + b) csc a csc b
cot a cot b = sin(b a) csc a csc b
a+b
ab
sec a + sec b = 2 cos
cos
sec a sec b
2
2
cos a + cos b = 2 cos

14

b+a
ba
sinh
sech a sech b
2
2
a+b
ab
csch a + csch b = 2 sinh
cosh
csch a csch b
2
2
b+a
ba
csch a csch b = 2 cosh
sinh
csch a csch b
2
2
ab
a+b
exp a + exp b = 2 cosh
exp
2
2
a+b
ab
exp a exp b = 2 sinh
exp
2
2

a+b
ab
sin
sec a sec b
2
2
a+b
ab
csc a + csc b = 2 sin
cos
csc a csc b
2
2
b+a
ba
csc a csc b = 2 cos
sin
csc a csc b
2
2
ab
a+b
cis a + cis b = 2 cos
cis
2
2
ba
a+b
cis a cis b = 2i sin
cis
2
2

sech a sech b = 2 sinh

sec a sec b = 2 sin

cosh a + i sinh



 b
a + b i
a b i
sinh
= 2 sinh

+
2
4
2
4
cosh a i sinh



 b
a b i
a + b i
sinh
= 2 sinh

+
2
4
2
4
coth a + tanh b = cosh(a + b) csch a sech b
coth a tanh b = cosh(a b) csch a sech b
csch a +i sech b = 2 
csch a sech
 b

b + a i
b a i
sinh

+
sinh
2
4
2
4
csch a i sech b = 2 
csch a sech
 b

b a i
b + a i
sinh
sinh

+
2
4
2
4

cos a + sinb



ab
a+b
= 2 sin
sin

+
4
2
4
2
cos a sinb



a+b
ab
= 2 sin
sin

+
4
2
4
2
cot a + tan b = cos(a b) csc a sec b
cot a tan b = cos(a + b) csc a sec b
csc a +sec b = 2 csc
 a sec
b

ba
b+a
sin
sin

+
4
2
4
2
csc a +sec b = 2 csc
 a sec
b

b+a
ba
sin
sin

+
4
2
4
2

sinh a + sinh b
cosh a cosh b
a+b
=
= tanh
cosh a + cosh b
sinh a sinh b
2
sinh a sinh b
cosh a cosh b
ab
=
= tanh
cosh a + cosh b
sinh a + sinh b
2
tanh a + tanh b coth a + coth b
=
tanh a tanh b coth b coth a
= sinh(a + b) csch(a b)
sech a sech b
a+b
ba
= tanh
tanh
sech a + sech b
2
2
csch a + csch b
a+b
ba
= tanh
coth
csch a csch b
2
2
exp a exp b
ab
= 2 tanh
exp a + exp b
2

sin a + sin b
cos b cos a
a+b
=
= tan
cos a + cos b
sin a sin b
2
sin a sin b
cos b cos a
ab
=
= tan
cos a + cos b
sin a + sin b
2
tan a + tan b cot b + cot a
=
tan a tan b cot b cot a
= sin(a + b) csc(a b)
sec a sec b
a+b
ab
= tan
tan
sec a + sec b
2
2
csc a + csc b
a+b
ba
= tan
cot
csc a csc b
2
2
cis a cis b
ba
= 2i tan
cis a + cis b
2

Function products
cosh(a + b) + cosh(a b)
2
sinh(a + b) + sinh(a b)
sinh a cosh b =
2
cosh(a + b) cosh(a b)
sinh a sinh b =
2
tanh a tanh b = coth(a + b)(tanh a + tanh b) 1
tanh a coth b = tanh(a + b)(coth a + tanh b) 1
coth a coth b = coth(a + b)(coth a + coth b) 1
sech a sech b = sech(a + b)(1 + tanh a tanh b)
= csch(a + b)(tanh a + tanh b)
sech a csch b = sech(a + b)(coth b + tanh a)
= csch(a + b)(tanh a coth b + 1)

cosh a cosh b =

cos(a b) + cos(a + b)
2
sin(a b) + sin(a + b)
sin a cos b =
2
cos(a b) cos(a + b)
sin a sin b =
2
tan a tan b = 1 cot(a + b)(tan a + tan b)
tan a cot b = tan(a + b)(cot b tan a) 1
cot a cot b = cot(a + b)(cot a + cot b) + 1
sec a sec b = sec(a + b)(1 tan a tan b)
= csch(a + b)(tan a + tan b)
sec a csc b = sec(a + b)(cot b tan a)
= csch(a + b)(tan a cot b + 1)
cos a cos b =

15

csch a csch b = sech(a + b)(coth a coth b 1)

= csch(a + b)(coth a + coth b)
exp a exp b = exp(a + b)

csc a csc b = sec(a + b)(cot a cot b 1)

= csch(a + b)(cot a + cot b)
cis a cis b = cis(a + b)

Inverse function sums and differences

1
cosh1 u + cosh
 v


1
uv + u2 1 v2 1
= cosh



= sinh1 u v2 1 + v u2 1

cos1 u + cos1 v


= cos1 uv 1 u2 1 v2



= sin1 u 1 v2 + v 1 u2

1
cosh1 u cosh
 v


1
uv u2 1 v2 1
= cosh



= sinh1 v u2 1 u v2 1

cos1 u cos1 v


= cos1 uv + 1 u2 1 v2



= sin1 v 1 u2 u 1 v2

1
sinh1 u + sinh
 v


1
u v 2 + 1 + v u2 + 1
= sinh



= cosh1
u2 + 1 v2 + 1 + uv

1
sin1 u + sin
v


1
= sin
u 1 v 2 + v 1 u2



= cos1
1 u2 1 v2 uv

1
sinh1 u sinh
 v


1
u v 2 + 1 v u2 + 1
= sinh



u2 + 1 v2 + 1 uv
= cosh1
u+v
tanh1 u + tanh1 v = tanh1
1 + uv
uv
tanh1 u tanh1 v = tanh1
1 uv
1 + uv
coth1 u + coth1 v = coth1
u+v
1 uv
coth1 u coth1 v = coth1
uv
sech1 u + sech1 v

uv 1 u2 1 v2

= sech1
2 1 v2
uv + 1 u
uv 1 u2 1 v2

= csch1
u 1 v 2 + v 1 u2
1
1
sech u sech v

2 1 v2
1 uv 1 u

= sech
1 u2 1 v2 uv
uv 1 u2 1 v2

= csch1
u 1 v 2 v 1 u2
csch1 u + csch1 v

uv u2 + 1 v2 + 1

= csch1
2 + 1 + v u2 + 1
u v

uv u2 + 1 v2 + 1

= sech1
uv + u2 + 1 v2 + 1
csch1 u csch1 v

2
2
1 uv u + 1 v + 1

= csch
2
v u + 1 u v2 + 1
uv u2 + 1 v2 + 1

= sech1
uv u2 + 1 v2 + 1
exp1 u + exp1 v = exp1 uv
u
exp1 u exp1 v = exp1
v

1
sin1 u sin
v


1
= sin
u 1 v 2 v 1 u2



= cos1
1 u2 1 v2 + uv
u+v
tan1 u + tan1 v = tan1
1 uv
uv
tan1 u tan1 v = tan1
1 + uv
uv 1
cot1 u + cot1 v = cot1
u+v
vu 1
cot1 u cot1 v = cot1
vu
sec1 u + sec1 v

uv u2 1 v2 1

= sec1
u2 1 v2 1 uv
uv u2 1 v2 1

= csc1
u v 2 1 + v u2 1
sec1 u sec1 v

u2 1 v 2 1
1 uv

= sec
uv + u2
1 v2 1
uv u2 1 v2 1

= csc1
u v 2 1 v u2 1
csc1 u + csc1 v

uv u2 1 v2 1

= csc1
2 1 + v u2 1
u v

uv u2 1 v2 1

= sec1
uv u2 1 v2 1
csc1 u csc1 v

u2 1 v 2 1
1 uv

= csc
2 1 u v2 1
v u

uv u2 1 v2 1

= sec1
uv + u2 1 v2 1
cis1 u + cis1 v = cis1 uv
u
cis1 u cis1 v = cis1
v

16

Same-angle function sums and differences



2
i
cosh + i sinh =
sinh +
i
4


i
= 2 cosh

4


i
cosh i sinh = 2 cosh +
4



2
i
sinh

=
i
4
coth + tanh = 2 coth 2
coth tanh = 2 csch 2 


i
2 csch +
4
csch + i sech =
i csch
 2 

i
2 sech

4
=
csch
 2


i
2 sech +
4
csch i sech =
i csch
2



i
2 csch

4
=
csch 2



2 sin +
4



= 2 cos

4



cos sin = 2 cos +
4



= 2 sin

4
cot + tan = 2 csc 2
cot tan = 2 cot 2



2 csc +
4
csc + sec =
csc 2



2 sec

4
=
csc 2



2 sec +
4
csc sec =
csc 2



2 csc

4
=
csc 2
cos + sin =

Linear combinations of functions

A 6= B
A sinh + B cosh 


B
= A2 B2 sinh + tanh1
A


A
1
= B2 A2 cosh + tanh
B
A tanh
p + B coth
= A2 
sech2 B2
csch2 
B
coth
sinh + tanh1
A
p

2
B2 csch
A2 
sech2 

A
cosh + tanh1
tanh
B
A sech + B csch



B
= A2 B2 csch 2 sinh + tanh1
A


A
1
= B2 A2 csch 2 cosh + tanh
B
A 6= B and A, B 6= 0
B
A exp +
exp 


AB
= 2 AB sinh + tanh1
A+B 


1 A + B
= 2i AB cosh + tanh
AB

A 6= B
A sin + B cos 


B
= A2 + B2 sin + tan1
A


A
1
= A2 + B2 cos tan
B
A tan + B cot
2 sec2 + B 2 csc2
= A


B
sin + tan1
cot
A

2
2
2
= A sec + B csc2 
A
cos tan1
tan
B
A sec + B csc



B
= A2 + B2 csc 2 sin + tan1
A


A
1
= A2 + B2 csc 2 cos tan
B
A 6= B and A, B 6= 0
B
A cis +
cis 


AB
= 2 AB sin + tan1
A+B


1 A + B
= 2 AB cos tan
AB

17

Multiple angles
n
2


n
cosh n =
coshn2k sinh2k
2k
k=0
n1 

2
n
sinh n =
coshn2k1 sinh2k+1
2k
+
1
k=0

n
2


n
cos n = (1)
cosn2k sin2k
2k
k=0
n1


2
n
k
sin n = (1)
cosn2k1 sin2k+1
2k + 1
k=0
k

Powers of two angles

sinh2 a sinh2 b = cosh2 a cosh2 b
= sinh(a + b) sinh(a b)
cosh2 a + sinh2 b = cosh2 b + sinh2 a
= cosh(a + b) cosh(a b)
tanh2 a tanh2 b
= tanh(a + b) tanh(a b)(1 tanh2 a tanh2 b)
coth2 a coth2 b
= tanh(a + b) tanh(a b)(1 coth2 a coth2 b)
sech2 a sech2 b
= sinh(a + b) sinh(a b) sech2 a sech2 b
csch2 a csch2 b
= sinh(b + a) sinh(b a) csch2 a csch2 b

sin2 a sin2 b = cos2 b cos2 a

= sin(a + b) sin(a b)
cos2 a sin2 b = cos2 b sin2 a
= cos(a + b) cos(a b)
tan2 a tan2 b
= tan(a + b) tan(a b)(1 tan2 a tan2 b)
cot2 a cot2 b
= tan(a + b) tan(a b)(1 cot2 a cot2 b)
sec2 a sec2 b
= sin(a + b) sin(a b) sec2 a sec2 b
csc2 a csc2 b
= sin(b + a) sin(b a) csc2 a csc2 b

Powers of one angle

cosh2n  
1 2n
= n
4
n 

2n
1 n
+ 2n1
cosh [2k]
2
n+k
k=1

cos2n  
1 2n
= n
4
n 

1 n
2n
+ 2n1
cos [2k]
2
n+k
k=1

sinh2n
 
1
n 2n
= n (1)
n 
4

2n
1 n
n+k
cosh [2k]
+ 2n1 (1)
2
n+k
k=1

sin2n  
1 2n
= n
4
n


1 n
2n
k
+ 2n1 (1)
cos [2k]
2
n+k
k=1

cosh2n+1 

1 n
2n + 1
= n1
cosh [(2k + 1)]
4 k=0 n + k + 1

cos2n+1 

1 n
2n + 1
= n1
cos [(2k + 1)]
4 k=0 n + k + 1

sinh2n+1


1 n
2n + 1
k+1
= n1 (1)
sinh [(2k + 1)]
4 k=0
n+k+1
coshn r
sinhn
n
4ki
= 1 exp

n
k=1


4ki
sinh tanh1 exp
n
coshn r
+ sinhn
n
2(2k + 1)i
= 1 exp

n
k=1


2(2k + 1)i
1
sinh tanh exp
n

sin2n+1


1 n
2n + 1
k
= n1 (1)
sin [(2k + 1)]
4 k=0
n+k+1
cosn rsinn
n
4k
= 1 + cis

n
k=1


4k
sin tan1 cis
n
cosn +rsinn
n
2(2k + 1)
= 1 + cis

n
k=1


2(2k + 1)
1
sin tanh cis
n
18

cosh2n sinh2n  
2n
1
1
+ n1
= 2n1 (1 (1)n )
2
n
4
n 

2
2n
n + 2k + (1)n cosh [(2k + (1)n ) 2]
k=1

cos2n sin2n
1
= n1
4
n+1 

2
2n
n + 2k 1 cos [(2k 1) 2]
k=1

cosh2n + sinh2n  
1
2n
1
= 2n1 (1 + (1)n )
+ n1
2
n
4
n+1 

2
2n
n + 2k (1)n cosh [(2k (1)n ) 2]
k=1

2n
cos2n + sin
 
1
2n
1
= 2n1
+ n1
2
n
4
n 

2
2n
n + 2k cos [4k]
k=1

cosh2n+1 i sinh2n+1
1
= 2n3
2



n
2n + 1
i
k
cosh
+
(1)
(2k
+
1)
n+k+1
4
k=0

cos2n+1 sin2n+1
1
= 2n3
2

h
i
n
2n + 1
k
cos
+
(1)
(2k
+
1)
n+k+1
4
k=0

cosh2n+1 + i sinh2n+1
1
= i 2n3
2



n 
2n + 1
i
k
sinh
+
(1)
(2k
+
1)
n+k+1
4
k=0

cos2n+1 + sin2n+1
1
= 2n3
2

h
i
n
2n + 1
k
sin
+
(1)
(2k
+
1)
n+k+1
4
k=0

cosh2n+1 + sinh2n+1
1
= n1
4

h
i
n
2n + 1
k+1
exp
(1)
(2k
+
1)
n+k+1
k=0

cos2n+1 + i sin2n+1
1
= n1
4
 h
i
n
2n + 1
k
cis
(1)
(2k
+
1)
n+k+1
k=0

Differential equations
f 00 () = f()

f() = A cosh + B sinh

f 00 () = f()

Derivatives
(cosh )0 = sinh
(sinh )0 = cosh
(tanh )0 = sech2
(coth )0 = csch2
(sech )0 = tanh sech
(csch )0 = coth csch
(exp )0 = exp

(cos )0 = sin
(sin )0 = cos
(tan )0 = sec2
(cot )0 = csc2
(sec )0 = tan sec
(csc )0 = cot csc
(cis )0 = i cis

19

f() = A cos + B sin

Inverse function derivatives

0
1
cos1 u =
1 u2


1
0
sin1 u =
1 u2


1
0
tan1 u =
1 + u2

0
1
cot1 u =
1 + u2

0
1
1
sec u =
u u2 1

0
1
csc1 u =
u u2 1

0 i
cis1 u =
u

0
1
cosh1 u =
2
u 1

0
1
1
sinh u =
2
u +1

0
1
tanh1 u =
1

u2

0
1
coth1 u =
2

0 1 u1
1
sech u =
2

0 u 11 u
1
csch u =
u 1 + u2

0 1
1
exp u =
u


Power series

exp =

k=0

cosh =

cis =

sinh =

2k

(2k)!

k=0

(i)k
k!
k=0

(1)k 2k
cos =
(2k)!
k=0

(1)k 2k+1
sin =
(2k + 1)!
k=0
k+1
4 (2k)! (1)j+1
Ek =
(2j 1)2k+1
2k+1 j=0

k!

2k+1

(2k + 1)!

k=0

1
2(2k)!
Bk = k
(2j + 1)2k
(4 1) 2k j=0

(1)k 4k (4k 1)Bk 2k1

(2k)!
k=1
|| < 2

k+1 k
(1) 4 Bk 2k1
1
coth =

,
k=1
(2k)!
0 < || <

(1)k Ek 2k
sech =
,
(2k)!
k=0
|| < 2
1 (1)k 2(22k1 1)Bk 2k1
csch = +

,
k=1
(2k)!
|| <
tanh =

tan =

4k (4k 1)Bk 2k1

(2k)! ,
k=1
|| <

cot =

4 Bk 2k1
1

,
k=1 (2k)!
0 < || <

Ek 2k
sec =
,
(2k)!
k=0
|| <
csc =

1 2(22k 1)Bk 2k1

+

,
k=1
(2k)!

|| <

20

Inverse function power series

sinh1 u =

(1)k (2k)!

4k (k!)2 (2k + 1) u2k+1 ,

sin1 u =

k=0

|u| < 1

(2k)!
cosh u = ln 2u k
u2k ,
2 2k
4
(k!)
k=1
|u| > 1

2k+1
u
, |u| < 1
tanh1 u =
2k + 1
k=0
2k1
u
coth1 u =
, |u| > 1
2k + 1
k=0
2 (2k)!
u2k ,
sech1 u = ln k
u k=1 4 (k!)2 2k
|u| < 1

(1)k (2k)!
1
2k1
csch u = k
u
,
4 (k!)2 (2k + 1)
k=0
|u| > 1
1

(2k)!

4k (k!)2 (2k + 1) u2k+1 ,

k=0

|u| < 1

(2k)!

cos u = k
u2k+1 ,
2 k=0 4 (k!)2 (2k + 1)
|u| < 1

k 2k+1
(1)
u
tan1 u =
, |u| 1
2k + 1
k=0

(1)k u2k1
cot1 u =
, |u| 1
2k + 1
k=0

(2k)!
sec1 u = k
u2k1 ,
2 k=0 4 (k!)2 (2k + 1)
|u| > 1

(2k)!
2k1
1
csc u = k
u
,
4 (k!)2 (2k + 1)
k=0
|u| > 1
1

Infinite products

(k
21 )
k=1


2

sinh = 1 +
k
k=1
cosh = 1 +

2

 2

2
k +

1

tanh = 1
 2
2k

k=1
1 2
(k 2 ) +

 2


2 (k 21 )2 +
1
2k

coth =
 2
k=1 2k 1

2
k +

(k 21 )2
sech =
 2

k=1
(k 21 )2 +

k2
csch =
 2

k=1 2
k +




1
2
exp
=
e
2k(2k + 1)
k=1
2

(k
21 )
k=1


2

sin = 1
k
k=1
cos = 1

2

 2

2
k

1

tan = 1
 2
2k

k=1
1 2
(k 2 )

 2


2 (k 21 )2
1
2k

cot =
 2
k=1 2k 1

2
k

(k 21 )2
sec =
 2

k=1
(k 21 )2

k2
csc =
 2

k=1 2
k

 

2
= cos k
k=2
2
2

21

Continued fractions
exp =

1
1

cis =

1+

i+

..

11 +

2
7

..

.
1
coth = +

2
3+
2
5+
2
7+
2
9+
2
11 +
2
13 +
..
.
u
1
exp u =
u
1+
u
2+
4u
3+
4u
4+
9u
5+
9u
6+
16u
7+
..
.
u
tanh1 u =
u2
1
4u2
3
9u2
5
16u2
7
25u2
9
36u2
11
..
.

2
11

13 +

2
9

2
5

..

2
3

9+

2i +

tan =

7+

5i

2i +

5+

3i

5+

3+

2i +

1+

3+

tanh =

2
13

2
..
.

2
3
2
5
2
7
2
9
2
11
2
13
..
.
u
1
cis u =
u
i
u
2i
4u
3i
4u
4i
9u
5i
9u
6i
16u
7i
..
.
u
tan1 u =
u2
1+
4u2
3+
9u2
5+
16u2
7+
25u2
9+
36u2
11 +
..
.
cot =

22

coth1 u =

1
u

cot1 u =

1
3u

1
u+

4
5u

1
3u +

9
7u

4
5u +

16
9u

9
7u +

25

16
9u +

36
11u
..
.

25
11u +

36
..
.

Inner transformation function definitions

gd = 2 tan e = 2 cot1 e
2
2
1

cg = 2 coth1 e = 2 tanh1 e
= ln(csch + coth )
gd 2
gs =
2






= ln cot
gd = ln tan
+

2 4
4 2
= ln(sec + tan )

co = = + 2n, n N
2
2
1

gs1 =

gd1 2
2

Gudermannian transformations
cosh gd1 = sec
sinh gd1 = tan
tanh gd1 = sin
coth gd1 = csc
sech gd1 = cos
csch gd1 = cot

cos gd = sech
sin gd = tanh
tan gd = sinh
cot gd = csch
sec gd = cosh
csc gd = coth

Gudermannian transformations of inverses

gd cosh1 u = sec1 u
gd sinh1 u = tan1 u
gd tanh1 u = sin1 u
gd coth1 u = csc1 u
gd sech1 u = cos1 u
gd csch1 u = cot1 u

gd1 cos1 u = sech1 u

gd1 sin1 u = tanh1 u
gd1 tan1 u = sinh1 u
gd1 cot1 u = csch1 u
gd1 sec1 u = cosh1 u
gd1 csc1 u = coth1 u

Gudermannian special transformations

tanh gs1 = tan

tan gs = tanh

coth gs1 = cot

cot gs = coth

Gudermannian special transformations of inverses

gs tanh1 u = tan1 u
gs coth1 u = cot1 u

gs1 tan1 u = tanh1 u

gs1 cot1 u = coth1 u

23

Cogudermannian and coangle transformations

cosh cg = coth
sinh cg = csch
tanh cg = sech
coth cg = cosh
sech cg = tanh
csch cg = sinh

cos co = sin
sin co = cos
tan co = cot
cot co = tan
sec co = csc
csc co = sec

Cogudermannian and coangle transformations of inverses

cg cosh1 u = coth1 u
cg sinh1 u = csch1 u
cg tanh1 u = sech1 u
cg coth1 u = cosh1 u
cg sech1 u = tanh1 u
cg csch1 u = sinh1 u

co cos1 u = sin1 u
co sin1 u = cos1 u
co tan1 u = cot1 u
co cot1 u = tan1 u
co sec1 u = csc1 u
co csc1 u = sec1 u

Properties of inner transformation functions

gd1 () = gd1
co() = co
gs1 () = gs1
(gd1 )0 = sec
(co )0 =
(gs1 )0 = sec 2
gd1 (i) = i gd
co1 = co
gs1 (i) = i gs

gd() = gd
cg() = cg i
2
gs() = gs
(gd )0 = sech
(cg )0 = csch
(gs )0 = sech 2
gd(i) = i gd1
cg1 = cg
gs(i) = i gs1
gd(a + b) = tan1
gd(a b) = tan1

sinh a
+ tan1
cosh b
sinh a
tan1
cosh b

sinh b
cosh a
sinh b
cosh a

cg(a + b) =
cosh b sinh a
cosh a sinh b
tanh1
+ tanh1
cosh b + sinh a
cosh a + sinh b
cg(a b) =
cosh b sinh a
cosh a + sinh b
tanh1
+ tanh1
cosh b + sinh a
cosh a sinh b
2 cosh a sinh a
gs(a + b) = 12 tan1
cosh2 b + sinh2 b
2 cosh b sinh b
+ 21 tan1
cosh2 a + sinh2 a
2 cosh a sinh a
gs(a b) = 12 tan1
cosh2 b + sinh2 b
2 cosh b sinh b
21 tan1
cosh2 a + sinh2 a
1
gd 2 = 2 tan tanh
cg 2 = 2 coth1 exp 2
2 tanh
gs 2 = tan1
1 + tanh2

gd = csc1 (csch + coth )

2

gd1 (a + b) = tanh1
gd1 (a b) = tanh1
co(a + b) =
co 2a co 2b
+
2
2
co(a b) =

sin a
+ tanh1
cos b
sin a
tanh1
cos b

sin b
cos a
sin b
cos a

co a + b
2 cos a sin a
cos2 b + sin2 b
2 cos b sin b
+ 21 tanh1
cos2 a + sin2 a
2 cos a sin a
1
gs1 (a b) = 21 tanh
cos2 b + sin2 b
2 cos b sin b
21 tanh1
cos2 a + sin2 a
gd1 2 = 2 tanh1 tan
co 2 = 2 co 2
2 tan
gs1 2 = tanh1
1 tan2

gd1 = csch1 (csc + cot )

2
gs1 (a + b) =

24

1
2

tanh1


= cosh1 (csch + coth )
2
tan1 sin
gs =
2
2
 a

e + eb
1
gd a + gd b = 2 tan

ea+b
 1a+b

e +1
gd a gd b = 2 tan1

b
a
 e a e b 
e +e
cg a + cg b = 2 tanh1
a+b
 1 a e b 
e e
cg a cg b = 2 tanh1
a+b
1
 2a e2b 
e +e

gs a + gs b = tan1

2a+2b
2
1

e
 2a+2b

e
+1

gs a gs b = tan1

2
e2b e2a

E2k 2k+1
gd =
(2k + 1)!
k=0
2k+1
k
(1) tanh
2
= 2
2k
+
1
k=0
cg

= tan1 (csc + cot )

2
tanh1 sinh
gs1 =
2
2
co


eia + eib
gd a + gd b = 2i tanh
i
1 eia+ib
 ia+ib

e
+1
gd1 a gd1 b = 2i tanh1
i
eia eib
a+b
co a + co b = 2 co
2
1

co a co b =

ba


e2ia + e2ib

gs a + gs b = i tanh
e2ia+2ib
 12ia+2ib

e
+1
gs1 a gs1 b = i tanh1

e2ia e2ib

(1)k E2k 2k+1

gd1 =
(2k + 1)!
k=0
2k+1
tan
2
= 2
2k
+
1
k=0
1

i
2
i
2

(2k)! sech2k+1
k
2 k=0 4 (n!)2 (2k + 1)

(1)k+1 2(22k1 1)Bk 2k

cg = ln +
2k(2k)!
k=1

(1)k (2k)! csch2k+1

4k (n!)2 (2k + 1)
k=0

co gd = gd cg = cg co(i)
cg = gd1 co gd
= co gd i co = co(i gd1 co )

gd1 co = cg gd1 = i co cg
co = gd cg gd1

Inner transformation conversions

cosh
= i sinh i co i
= tanh gd1 co i
= coth cg
= sech gd1 i
= i csch i co gd
sinh = i cosh i co i
= i tanh gd1 i
= i coth i co gd
= i sech gd1 co i
= csch cg
tanh = cosh i co gd
= i sinh gd1 i
= coth i co i
= sech cg

= cos i
= sin co i
= i tan i gd1 co i
= i cot i cg
= sec gd
= csc co gd
= i cos co i
= i sin i
= tan gd
= cot co gd
= i sec i gd1 co i
= i csc i cg
= cos co gd
= sin gd
= i tan i
= i cot co i
= sec i cg

cos = cosh i
= i sinh i co
= tanh gd1 co
= coth cg i
= sech gd1
= i csch i co gd i
sin = cosh i co
= i sinh i
= tanh gd1
= coth i co gd1 i
= sech gd1 co
= i csch cg i
tan = i cosh i co gd i
= sinh gd1
= i tanh i
= i coth i co
= i sech cg i
25

= sin co
= i tan i gd1 co
= i cot i cg i
= sec gd i
= csc co gd i
= cos co
= i tan gd1 i
= i cot co gd1 i
= sec i gd1 co
= csc i cg i
= i cos co gd1 i
= i sin gd i
= cot co
= i sec i cg i

= i csch gd1 co i
coth = cosh cg
= i sinh gd1 co i

= csc i gd1 co i
= cos i cg
= sin i gd1 co i

= tanh i co i
= sech i co gd
= i csch gd1 i
sech = cosh gd1 i

= csch gd1 co
= i cosh cg i
= sinh gd1 co

= i csc i gd1 co
= i cos i gd1 i
= i sin i gd1 co

= i tan co i

= i tanh i co

= tan co

= i cot i

= i coth i

= sec co gd
= csc gd
= cos gd

= i sech i co gd i
= csch gd1
= cosh gd1

= i sec co gd i
= i csc gd i
= cos gd i

cot

sec

= i sinh i co gd

= sin co gd

= i sinh i co gd i

= sin co gd i

= tanh cg
= coth gd1 co i

= i tan i cg
= i cot i gd1 co i

= tanh cg i
= coth gd1 co

= i tan i cg i
= i cot i gd1 co

= sec i

= sech i

= i csch i co i

= csc co i

= i csch i co
1

csch = i cosh gd co i

= i cos i gd co i

csc

= csc co

= cosh gd co

= cos i gd1 co

= sinh cg
= i tanh i co gd
= i coth gd1 i

= i sin i cg
= tan co gd
= cot gd

= i sinh cg i
= tanh i co gd i
= coth gd1

= sin i cg i
= i tan co gd1 i
= i cot gd i

= i sech i co i

= i sec co i

= sech i co

= sec co

= i csc i

= i csch i

Alternative inner transformation conversions

cosh = sinh gd1 co gs cg
= csch gd1 gs cg
sinh = cosh cg gs1 co gd
= tanh gs1 gd
= coth gs1 co gd
= sech cg gs1 gd
tanh = sinh gd1 gs
= csch gd1 co gs

coth = sinh gd co gs
= csch gd1 gs

sech = sinh gd gs cg
= csch gd1 co gs cg
csch = cosh cg gs1 gd
= tanh gs1 co gd
= coth gs1 gd

= tan co gs cg
= cot gs cg
= cos co gd gs1 gd
= sin gd1 gs1 gd

cos = sinh gd1 gs gd co

= csch gd1 co gs gd1 co
sin = sinh gd1 gs gd
= csch gd1 co gs gd1

= tan gs gd1 co
= cot co gs gd1 co
= tan gs gd1
= cot gs cg

tan = cosh cg gs1 co

= tanh gs1

= cos co gd gs1
= sin gd gs1

= sec co gd gs1 co gd
= csc gd gs1 co gd
= tan gs
= cot co gs

= tan co gs
= cot gs

cot

= tan gs cg
= cot co gs cg
= cos co gd gs1 co gd
= sin gd gs1 co gd

sec
csc

= sec co gd gs1 gd

= sech cg gs1 co gd = csc gd gs1 gd

26

= coth gs1 co

= sec co gd gs1 co

= sech cg gs1
= cosh cg gs1
= tanh gs1 co

= csc gd gs1 co
= cos co gd gs1 co
= sin gd gs1 co

= coth gs1

= sec co gd gs1

= sech cg gs1 co
= sinh gd1 co gs gd1 co
= csch gd1 gs gd1 co
= sinh gd1 co gs gd1
= csch gd1 gs gd1

= csc gd gs1
= tan co gs gd1 co
= cot gs gd1 co
= tan co gs gd1
= cot gs gd1

DeMoivre identites
expn = exp(n)
1
= exp(n)
expn
p

n
exp = exp
n
expm+in = exp(m) cis(n)

cisn = cis(n)
1
= cis(n)
cisn

n
cis = cis
n
cism+in = cis(m) exp(n)
(exp t cis )m+in = exp ((m n)t) cis ((m + n))

Point on the complex plane

a + bi = et+i = exp t cis

= cosh t cos + sinh t cos + i cosh t sin + i sinh t sin
m
a = exp t cos = cosh t cos + sinh t cos
b = exp t sin = cosh t sin + sinh t sin
m
p
p
a2 + b 2 1
t = exp1 a2 + b2 = exp1 (a + bi)(a bi) = tanh1 2
a + b2 + 1
r
a + bi
a + bi
b
= cis1
= cis1
= tan1
2
2
a bi
a
a +b
m
a2 + b 2 + 1
cosh t =
a2 + b 2
a2 + b 2 1
sinh t =
a2 + b 2

cos =
sin =

a
a2 + b 2
b

a2 + b 2

Twice-applied formulae

ee = exp exp = (cosh cosh + sinh cosh )(cosh sinh + sinh sinh )
i

ee = exp cis = (cosh cos + sinh cos )(cos sin + i sin sin )

eie = cis exp = (cos cosh + sin sinh )(cos sinh + i sin sinh )
i

eie = cis cis = (cos cos + i sin cos )(cosh sin sinh sin )

27