EMPATH

ANALYSIS MANUAL

Framatome ANP, Inc. 145 Whisperwood Lane Madison, AL 35758 Phone: 256-464-9813 Fax: 256-464-3045 Email: don.ferree@framatome-anp.com

TABLE OF CONTENTS SECTION PAGE NO. 3 7 10 12 13 14 22 30 31 34 34 39 39 40 41

1.0 INTRODUCTION .. 2.0 RUNNING SPEED . 3.0 ROTOR BAR HEALTH 4.0 UNBALANCE . 5.0 POWER ANALYSIS .. 6.0 AIR GAP, BEARINGS AND STATOR INDICATIONS 7.0 DRIVEN EQUIPMENT ANALYSIS 8.0 RECIPROCATING EQUIPMENT .. 9.0 MOTOR OPERATED VALVES .. 10.0 DC MOTORS 11.0 VARIABLE FREQUENCY DRIVES . 12.0 COST SAVINGS ... 13.0 TRANSFORMERS ... 14.0 SYNCRONOUS MOTORS AND GENERATORS 15.0 OUTPUT HORSEPOWER AND TORQUE ..

1.0

INTRODUCTION The EMPATH motor diagnostic tool provides several analysis techniques to address motor problems. This manual describes these techniques. Some of these techniques are pre-programmed into the EMPATH software; these techniques will only be given a cursory review. Other techniques need to be performed by the operator; these techniques will be given a thorough presentation. Operation of the EMPATH diagnostic tool, including data acquisition, is covered in the EMPATH Instruction Manual. Operating instructions are not repeated in the Analysis Manual. Further, in those cases where good reference books cover a subject, the reader will be referred to the reference.

1.1

TIME DOMAIN Data analysis using EMPATH is performed in both the time and frequency domain. Data is acquired and stored as time domain data. Some of the time domain data is converted to frequency domain data. Thus, when a data file is recalled for analysis, the data acquired and calculated during data acquisition is returned for user review and analysis. Time domain means that data is presented as amplitude on the ordinate (y-axis) and as time on the abscissa (x-axis). All of the EMPATH data is stored as digital data; thus, no analog data is available to the user. Time domain data is the normal presentation of data or events. For example, a childs height may be measured and recorded as a function of this age. A plot of height versus age would be a time domain graph. Two analyses that are performed in the time domain are cycle time analysis and inrush analysis. The cycle time is the time from one point on a repeating curve to an equivalent point in the next cycle. In the following figure, showing the inrush of a nuclear reactor coolant pump motor, the inrush time is seen to be about 11.3 s. From time t = 0 to time t = 2.57 s, the motor is off. At t = 2.57 s, the motor is energized. At time t = 13.8 s, the motor is at its constant value of operating current. In many cases, the inrush current peak will be many times higher than the normal operating current. If inrush data is to be taken, the EMPATH acquisition settings must be set to account for this inrush current peak and sufficient time duration to capture the complete cycle of interest, including enough time before the start of the event. Using a multiple of ten or twenty times operating current is a good choice, initially, if no other data is available.

Figure 1: Current inrush for a 9000 HP motor.

1.2 FREQUENCY DOMAIN Time domain data is converted into the frequency domain via Fourier Transforms or via Fast Fourier Transforms (FFT). Basically, an FFT shows the amplitude as ordinate and frequency as abscissa, and yields the amplitude and frequency of sine waves that need to be added together to create the time domain waveform, or just time waveform. Two examples follow. Case 1: Nearly pure 60 Hz sine wave. Figure 2: Spectrum and time domain graph for 60 Hz sine wave.

Case 2: 60 Hz sine wave modulated by 2 Hz wave. Figure 3: Spectrum and time domain graph of 60 Hz sine wave modulated by 2 Hz sine wave.

In Case 1, a pure 60 Hz sine wave runs from beginning to end of our data acquisition shown as 0 to 0.11 second. The FFT for a pure sine wave is just a single frequency peak at the sine wave frequency of 60 Hz, in this case. In Case 2, a modulated 60 Hz wave was acquired. For a modulated wave, it takes a number of sine waves added together to create the packet. Thus, the FFT is strong at 60 Hz but has side bands at approximately 2 Hz increments. Most of the traces look like Case 2 in the EMPATH data. The conversion from time domain to frequency domain and back is a unique mathematical relationship. The FFT merely answers the question, What number and amplitude of sine waves are necessary to create the given time trace? The time trace merely answers the question, What would the signal look like in the time domain if we added this number and amplitude of sine waves, assuming the signal has reached a steady state? 1.3 LINE FREQUENCY One of the very important parameters for many analyses is the line frequency (FL). In the U.S., line frequency is 60 Hz, while Europe runs on a line frequency of 50 Hz. But, the increasing use of variable frequency drives dictates a definition of line frequency as the frequency in Hz of the electrical power supplied to the motor during the period of data acquisition; alternately, it is the largest peak in the current or voltage spectrum. Line frequency is always measured by EMPATH, because of its ability to lock onto any line frequency so that the operator never needs to worry that he/she forgot to record it. But, whenever, a calculation is made, the actual line frequency measured by EMPATH must be used. 2.0 RUNNING SPEED The motor running speed (RS) is one of the most important parameters to be determined by EMPATH. Many variables are multiplied by RS to predict where a spectral peak should be. The remainder of this section addresses running speed determinations. 2.1 POLES AND SYNCHRONOUS SPEED Every motor is wound to create a number of magnetic pole pairs. If P is poles, then P / 2 is the number of pole pairs. The number of poles is always an even number since there must be both a north and a south pole. The minimum number for P is 2, the maximum is unlimited; but more than 72 are rare. Most motors have 2 or 4; some 6, 8 or 10; and only very large motors have more. In most industrial plants, about 50% of the induction motors will be 4-pole, about 24% will be 2-pole and about 24% will be 6-pole. The remaining 2% will be induction motors with more than 6 poles. (Note, this does not address DC, synchronous or other motor types that are not induction motors.) Motor synchronous speed (SS) is the speed the motor would run in Hz or RPM, if there were no slip. Slip is the difference between the motor SS and the motor 7

actual speed, also in Hz or RPM, and results because the load impressed on the motor keeps the driven and induced magnetic fields slightly separated. Mathematically, SS (Hz) = 2FL / P. true. P ___ 2 4 6 8 10 SS (Hz) 60 30 20 15 12 For FL = 60 Hz, the following table is

SS (RPM) 3600 1800 1200 900 720

The motor nameplate normally shows the motor RPM at full load. This RPM may be a number like 1770 RPM, 3580 RPM or 1165 RPM. These numbers are close but not exactly the numbers listed above. To determine the number of poles for a motor using nameplate data and a line frequency of 60 Hz, divide 7200 RPM by the nameplate RPM and throw away all digits to the right of the decimal. For example, 7200 / 1770 = 4.068, so this is a 4-pole motor; 7200 / 3580 = 2.011, so this is a 2-pole motor; 7200 / 1165 = 6.180, so this is a 6-pole motor, etc. [If the line frequency were 50 Hz and the nameplate data were intended for the motor to be running at 50Hz, then divide 6000 RPM by the nameplate RPM and throw away all digits to the right of the decimal.] ABBREVIATIONS the following list of abbreviations are used throughout this manual. SS Synchronous speed P poles FL line frequency S slip PPF pole passing frequency SE EMPATH slip (also pole passing frequency) RS running speed, normally of the motor RB number of rotor bars N odd integer, 1,3,5,7, M any integer, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 2.2 SLIP Slip (S) is the difference between synchronous speed and running speed; or S = SS RS. The slip measured by EMPATH is the pole pass frequency (PPF), which is just the slip times the number of poles. Thus: Slip (S) = EMPATH Slip (SE) / P = PPF / P PPF = SE = P x S 8

2.3

RUNNING SPEED DETERMINATION FOR INDUCTION MOTORS EMPATH automatically calculates RS and is accurate more than 95% of the time. If the user wants to determine RS for himself/herself to verify EMPATH calculations, the following rules and procedure will help. First, here are three rules: (1) (2) (3) Running speed is always less than synchronous speed; or, RS < SS. Running speed is different from synchronous speed by the slip; or RS = SS S = SS SE /P = SS PPF / P Motor running speed is proportional to the load such that comparing motor load and running speed to nameplate data will give a good approximation.

Using these rules, here are the steps to determine both slip (S) and running speed (RS). Determine FL by measuring the predominant peak in the Current 1 spectrum. Calculate SS by, SS = (2 x FL) / P, (Hz). Go to the RMS demodulated spectrum and look for a peak at RS. This peak should be just to the left, lower frequency, of the SS. Note, there will be no peak in the spectrum at SS; physically no interaction produces a peak here. But, in most cases there will be a peak at RS. Once RS has been determined, slip is found by the formula: slip (S) = SS RS. There is no peak in the spectrum at the slip value. The peaks in the current spectrum show up at pole passing frequencies, PPF. To calculate PPF, multiply S by P, or: PPF = S x P. Again, in the RMS demodulated spectrum, look for a peak at PPF. The agreement between PPF and RS using this methodology should be within 0.25 Hz. The motor nameplate usually specifies motor running speed at 100% load. Your determination for RS should be similar to the nameplate value modified only to account for load. Normally, RS will be higher than or equal to the nameplate value, since nameplate is at full load. At low loads, the difference from SS will be smaller than at higher loads. Please remember that peaks will not show up in the current spectrum or the RMS demodulated spectrum unless there is a physical cause. For example, if there is no unbalance or misalignment, the motor will run very smoothly and the running speed peak may be very small. If there is a lot of unbalance or misalignment, then the running speed peak will be large. This principle also applies to pole passing frequency. If there is no rotor damage, then the pole passing peaks will be very small. Further, these are independent attributes; a smooth running motor could have bad rotor bars and an unbalanced motor can have no rotor bar damage. This same principle will apply to other parameters. Most are independent and so EMPATH looks for the various flaws without regard for their interactions.

3.0 ROTOR BAR HEALTH The condition of the rotor bar health is a very important factor. Determination of the rotor bar health index, which approximates the number of broken rotor bars, is done automatically by EMPATH; but, the user should understand the method of determination to permit the user to verify the EMPATH data. 3.1 CONVENTIONAL DETERMINATION The difference in dB between the FL peak and the pole passing sidebands has been used to predict broken rotor bars. Table 2 shows the conventional data for this prediction. EMPATH ALGORITHM Empirical results have indicated an under prediction of broken rotor bars using the measurement portrayed in Table 2. This has been corrected by EMPATH. By using the data from the RMS demodulated spectrum, it is possible to improve the accuracy of the number of broken rotor bars. This algorithm is programmed into the EMPATH software and is proprietary, but the user should always find the following relationship: Broken rotor bars (EMPATH) broken rotor bars by Table 2. The EMPATH algorithm takes into account five factors; namely, dB down between FL and PPF peaks, motor load, PPF amplitude in the RMS demodulated spectrum, whether there are PPF harmonics, and, whether there are PPF sidebands to running speed.

3.2

10

TABLE 2 Motor Current Analysis Severity and Recommended Corrective Action Chart1 Cat. No. 1 FL/FP FL/FP dB Ratio >60 >1000 FP/FL Ratio % <0.10 Rotor Condition(1) Assessment Excellent Recommended Corrective Action(1) None

2 3

54-60 501-100 0.100.20 48-54 251-501 0.200.40 42-48 126-251 0.400.79

Good Moderate

None Continue surveys, trend only Reduce survey intervals, trend closely

Rotor bar crack may be developing or problems with high resistance joint(s) Two rotor bars likely cracked or broken & problems with high resistance joints likely perform vibration Multiple cracked or broken rotor bars & end rings indicated; also slip ring & joint problems

36-42 63-126 0.790.58

Perform vibration tests to confirm problem source & severity

30-36 32-63

1.583.16

Overhaul ASAP

<30

<32

>3.16

Multiple broken rotor bars Overhaul or replace & end rings very likely; ASAP severe problems throughout

Notes: (1) Minimum induction motor load = 70% (2) Minimum motor size = 40 HP (3) FL = Amplitude at line frequency (dB or Amps) (4) FP = Amplitude of 1st pole pass sideband to left of line frequency (dB or Amps) (5) Pole pass frequency = #Poles x Slip Frequency (Hz or CPM) = FP (6) Slip frequency = Synchronous frequency Motor speed (Hz or CPM) = FS (7) CAT NO. = Category Number (or severity ranking)
1

P/PM Technology, Machine Condition Monitoring, (June 1996): 58.

11

4.0

UNBALANCE Voltage or current unbalances are good indicators of problems or impending problems with electric motors. Determination of unbalances and their meaning follow.

4.1

VOLTAGE UNBALANCE When the line voltages applied to a polyphase induction motor are not equal, unbalanced currents in the stator windings will result. A small percentage voltage unbalance will result in a much larger percentage current unbalance. Consequently, the temperature rise of the motor operating at a particular load and percentage voltage unbalance will be greater than for a motor operating under the same conditions with balanced voltages. [NEMA Std. MG 11998, para. 20.24.] Should voltages be unbalanced, the rated horsepower of the motor should be multiplied by the Voltage Derating Factor (VDF) to reduce the possibility of damage to the motor. Operation of the motor above a 5% voltage unbalanced condition is not recommended. AC polyphase motors should operate successfully under running conditions at rated load, when the voltage unbalance at the motor terminals does not exceed 1%. Voltage unbalance is calculated and presented on page 3 of the EMPATH report. The voltage unbalance is calculated in accordance with NEMA Std. MG 1-1998, para. 20.24.

4.2

CURRENT UNBALANCE In general, the voltage applied to a motor comes from the power supply and is less affected by the motor than the current, which is drawn more or less to meet the needs of the motor, or more specifically, which is drawn to satisfy the load or torque demands of the driven load. That is, the current draw of the motor will depend on the load the motor senses and this current draw will vary as the load varies. The voltage can be viewed as an infinite resource or the independent variable, and the current as the dependent variable or variable resource. Current unbalance is calculated and presented on page 3 of the EMPATH report. Current unbalance is calculated just like voltage unbalance. However, there is no standard for how much current unbalance is permissible. So, EMPATH imposes the same standard as for voltage; namely, current unbalances above 5% are not recommended. Current unbalances above 3% are cause for concern. Cessation of operation is recommended for current unbalances in excess of 10%. Assuming the voltages to be identical, current unbalance means one or more phases of the motor circuit are different. 12

Long term, unbalanced operation will result in motor damage, regardless whether voltage or current or both are unbalanced. Unbalances need to be addressed as soon as possible. 5.0 POWER ANALYSIS Since three phases of voltage and current are acquired by EMPATH, power calculations are used to further analyze motor problems. EMPATH provides data on power factor for all three phases, harmonic distortion, drawn horsepower, etc. The data may be seen on-screen using the Calculations button or in the printed report. Because there are several excellent books on this subject, no additional information will be offered here. Please consult the following book: Power Quality Measurement and Troubleshooting, by Glen A. Mazur, American Technical Publishers, Inc., Homewood, IL. 5.1 INPUT HORSEPOWER Total horsepower is also shown on the third page of the report. This is the real power (in kW) divided by (0.746 kW). also called input horsepower. It is related to output horsepower by internal losses. This is the drawn energy of the motor during the test presented in horsepower. 5.2 OUTPUT HORSEPOWER Actual output horsepower can only be measured on a dynamometer. Output horsepower can be estimated based on input horsepower by subtracting out losses that occur in the motor. These include windage losses, friction losses, etc. IEEE Std. 112 offers several methods to determine output horsepower and therefore motor efficiency. 5.3 HARMONIC ANALYSIS Losses occur in a motor when the input power includes harmonics of the line frequency. While one-third of these harmonics assist in the operation of the motor, one-third turns to heat, and one-third actually works to retard the motor rotation while generating heat. EMPATH presents harmonic analysis data on pages 3 and 4 of the report. Values of this total in excess of 5% total harmonic distortion are generally serious and should be corrected.

13

6.0

AIR GAP, BEARINGS AND STATOR INDICATIONS There are several indications of motor problems that show up in the high frequency spectrum. These include eccentricity, bearing degradation and stator problems. Each of these is addressed in this section.

6.1

ECCENTRICTY When a round rotor rotates in the center of the round stator, no eccentricity exists. When a rotor rotates on an axis parallel to the stator axis but offset from the axis of the stator, static eccentricity results. [Some other geometries create eccentricity also. These include non-round rotors or stators. Although not dealt with directly, the following could apply to these conditions, too.] When the rotor rotates on an axis that varies with the rotation, then dynamic eccentricity results. The following three sketches show these conditions. Looking at the end of the motor, Case 1 shows pictorially no eccentricity. Case 2 shows pictorially static eccentricity. Case 3 shows pictorially dynamic eccentricity.

Figure 4: Pictorial representation of three air gap cases looking at the end of the motor.

14

6.1.1

STATIC ECCENTRICITY Static eccentricity can be detected using EMPATH by looking for finger patterns at high frequencies in the current spectra. By definition, static eccentricity will result in peaks at: RS x number of rotor bars (RB) + N x FL; N is an odd integer. The number of rotor bars or stator slots is seldom known. Thus, making the RS x RB calculation would not be possible. But, there is an algorithm in EMPATH 2000 that permits the number of rotor bars to be determined and subsequently, the existence of static eccentricity. Static eccentricity is therefore sought in the peaks of the high frequency data and reported both on-screen and on the written report. The following figure shows static eccentricity. Figure 5: Current spectrum of motor with static eccentricity. Note the peaks near 3000 Hz.

15

6.2

DYNAMIC ECCENTRICITY Dynamic eccentricity differs from static by the presence of running speed sidebands around the static eccentricity peaks. The static eccentricity equation is modified to add a running speed sideband term. Thus, the equation for dynamic eccentricity peaks is: {RS x RB N x FL} (M x RS) where N is an odd integer, and M is any integer. The long equation above normally results in the following peaks: RS x RB + FL + RS RS x RB + FL - RS RS x RB - FL + RS and RS x RB - FL - RS, but more peaks may be generated, as shown in the following spectra.

The following figure shows dynamic eccentricity. The solid black lines show the multiples of 60 Hz. The green peak at 1100 Hz and the dashed blue lines show static eccentricity. The other solid, colored cursors show the dynamic eccentricity peaks. Most of the remaining peaks are bearing peaks; this motor had many problems. Figure 6: Current spectrum of a small motor showing static and dynamic eccentricity.

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6.3

BEARING PEAKS Roller element bearings (ball or roller) produce mechanical vibrations at characteristic frequencies as they fail. Journal or sleeve bearings do not produce mechanical vibrations at characteristic frequencies as they fail due to the fact that sleeve bearings have no metallic moving parts. The determination of problems in these two types of bearings is addressed separately in the following. For a complete review of roller element bearing indications, see The Vibration Analysis Handbook, James I. Taylor, published by Vibration Consultants, Inc., Tampa, FL, Chapter 5.

6.3.1

ROLLER ELEMENT BEARING DEFECTS Based on the geometry of a roller bearing, there are four numerical multipliers that describe the mechanical vibrations that will exist if the bearing fails. These multipliers are normally real numbers but not integers so that when they are multiplied times the running speed, peak frequencies are generated that are not integer multiples of running speed. This is the key diagnostic indicator. There are two methods EMPATH uses to identify bearing problems. If the bearing manufacturer and number are known, the multipliers can be found and EMPATH will search the high frequency spectrum looking specifically for the calculated peaks FL. If the bearing manufacturer and number are not known, then EMPATH looks for peaks in the high frequency spectrum that are not integer multiples of running speed. In either case, if peaks are identified, then EMPATH will identify the potential bearing problem and suggest that a vibration survey be performed.

6.3.2

SLEEVED BEARING DEFECTS No bearing multipliers exist for sleeved bearings because there are no metallic parts to bang against each other. To identify problems with sleeved bearings, an inference method is used. By looking at static and dynamic eccentricity, a judgment can be made regarding whether there is looseness that might be caused by a defective bearing.

6.3.3

ROLLER ELEMENT BEARING EXAMPLE For bearing degradation to show up in the EMPATH data, the bearing must be damaged to the extent that it causes current modulation in the motor current draw. Typically, this implies severe bearing degradation that can be detected earlier and more readily with vibration or ultrasonic testing. Bearing indications do occur in EMPATH data, however, and are found as follows. 17

EMPATH has algorithms embedded in the software to do these analyses for the operator. But, if the operator prefers to do these himself, then the following methodology would apply. 1. Look up the bearing multipliers in a bearing database. 2. Multiply the bearing multipliers by the running speed or shaft speed on which the bearings are mounted. 3. Increase the potential peak population by including harmonics up to 20. 4. Search the current spectra to determine if the calculated peaks exist +/- 1%. The following example is offered for an SKF 6309 bearing. The table below shows a motor running speed of 26.78 Hz and bearing multipliers ranging from 0.3792 to 4.962. The table then shows where peaks would occur in a vibration spectrum and where they would appear in a current spectrum if the line frequency were 60 Hz. Data from this example will be used in subsequent sections on driven load evaluations. Only five harmonics are shown whereas normally twenty harmonics are calculated and used in the actual equipment analysis. Table 6.3 SKF Bearing 6309 Defect Peak Frequencies
Bearing Defect Frequencies Motor running speed (rs) SKF 6309 bearing multipliers (fd) BPIR BPOR 2 x BSF BSF FTF Fund. BPIR BPOR 2 x BSF BSF FTF 2x BPIR BPOR 2 x BSF BSF FTF 3x BPIR BPOR 2 x BSF BSF FTF 4x fd x rs 132.88 81.30 104.76 52.38 10.15 fd x rs 265.76 162.61 209.53 104.76 20.31 fd x rs 398.65 243.91 314.29 157.15 30.46 fd x rs 4.962 3.036 3.912 1.956 0.3792 Fd x rs + 60 192.88 141.30 164.76 112.38 70.15 Fd x rs + 60 325.76 222.61 269.53 164.76 80.31 fd x rs + 60 458.65 303.91 374.29 217.15 90.46 fd x rs + 60 fd x rs - 60 72.88 21.30 44.76 7.62 49.85 fd x rs - 60 205.76 102.61 149.53 44.76 39.69 fd x rs - 60 338.65 183.91 254.29 97.15 29.54 fd x rs - 60 26.78 Hz

(1) (1)

(1)

(1)

18

BPIR BPOR 2 x BSF BSF FTF 5x BPIR BPOR 2 x BSF BSF FTF

531.53 325.22 419.05 209.53 40.62 fd x rs 664.41 406.52 523.82 261.91 50.77

591.53 385.22 479.05 269.53 100.62 fd x rs + 60 724.41 466.52 583.82 321.91 110.77

471.53 265.22 359.05 149.53 19.38 fd x rs - 60 604.41 346.52 463.82 201.91 9.23

(1)

(1)

(1) Footnote: the calculation is negative but no negative frequencies exist. Any negative frequency is reflected around zero to become positive.

6.4

STATOR SLOT PASSING INDICATIONS Stator slot passing finger patterns can indicate stator mechanical problems. A two-finger pattern separated by 120 Hz is an indication of stator slot passing if, and only if, the center frequency between the two peaks is an integer divisible by the following formula: Center Frequency Running Speed x Poles x Phases x M Center frequency = lower peak frequency plus upper peak frequency divided by 2. Alternately, if the number of stator slots is known, then the stator mechanical call can be made if peaks exist in the high frequency spectrum at RS x number of stator slots FL. Only two peaks will appear in this pattern making it readily discernable from static eccentricity which may have many peaks. If stator slot passing peaks are large, stator mechanical damage has occurred. If running speed sidebands are found around stator slot passing frequencies, there is reason to believe that stator electrical degradation has occurred. The following spectra show both stator slot passing frequency and static eccentricity. The next figure shows the current spectrum from 0 to 5000 Hz. The area of interest is centered near 3000 Hz. The second figure is an expanded view of the area of interest.

19

Figures 7 & 8: Current spectra of 1750 HP motor showing static eccentricity, 0 to 5000 Hz and expanded around 2900 Hz.

20

The calculation follows: Peak 1 2433.6 Hz Peak 2 2436.7 Hz Peak 3 2554.1 Hz Peak 4 2557.2 Hz Peak 5 2793.5 Hz Peak 6 2914.0 Hz Peak 7 3153.5 Hz Peak 8 3274.0 Hz Note: Peaks 1 and 2, and 3 and 4 are very hard to discern on the spectra. The stator slot passing, two-finger pattern is formed by peaks 2 and 4. The center frequency is (2436.7 + 2557.2) / 2 = 2496.95 Hz. Now, 2496.95 Hz divided by 2 poles x 3 phases x 59.45 Hz (running speed) = 7.000 = M. Thus, the number of stator slots = 2 x 3 x 7 = 42, since RS x stator slots = center frequency. The static eccentricity finger pattern is formed by peaks 1, 3, 5, 6, 7 and 8. Thus, since RS = 59.45 and, Center frequency = 2853 between peaks 5 and 6, Then, 2853 = 48 bars. 59.45 In one segment of this spectra, both stator slots and rotor bars are determined in a pump where thermal expansion has caused the movement of the rotor relative to the stator and where soft foot has contributed to static eccentricity. 6.5 STATOR DEGRADATION If the insulation on the coils in the stator weaken or fail, electrical shorts can occur between coil wires or between coil wires and the lamination steel. The wire-to-wire shorts can be within one phase or between phases. In the case of a wire-to-wire short within one phase, also called a turn-to-turn short, there is a possibility of identifying the flaw before the motor completely fails. EMPATH tries to make this turn-to-turn call. For the phase-to-phase or phase-to-ground short, the motor will completely fail so quickly that no indication of impending failure can be detected.

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7.0

DRIVEN EQUIPMENT ANALYSIS One very clear advantage of EMPATH over conventional motor diagnostic tools is its ability to diagnose and/or monitor driven equipment. This section discusses how to analyze driven equipment. At present EMPATH does not do these analyses automatically, so the operator must perform them manually.

7.1

PHYSICAL CONFIGURATION The analysis of driven equipment mandates a knowledge of the configuration of the equipment. Normally, the analyst knows less instead of more about the mechanical system. Obtaining this information is many times very difficult, and your analysis may suffer from lack of detail. Several general configurations will be discussed. These include: Belt Driven Fan Direct Drive Fan Gear Driven Fan

7.2

BELT DRIVEN FAN Consider figure 7.2. In figure 7.2: B =Bearing M = Motor PM = Motor Pulley Belt = Vee Belt PF = Fan Pulley F = Fan PF PF

22

For this analysis, assume that the motor is a four-pole motor running at RS = 29.5 Hz (1770 RPM). Assume PM has a diameter of 3, and that PF has a diameter of 12. Let the distance from the axis of the fan shaft to the motor shaft be 30. Let the fan have six blades. The fan shaft speed (FS) is related to RS by the pulley diameters; or, Diameter (PF) x FS = RS x Diameter (PM) FS = (29.5 Hz) x 3 /12 = 7.375 Hz = 442.5 RPM. Belt speed (BS) is found as follows:

First, belt length (BL) = 60+1/2 ( x 3 + x 12) = 60 + x (15) /2 = 60 + 23.55 = 83.55

30 x 2 + 1/2 (CIR[PF + PM]) =

BL x BS = RS x CIR(PM) = CIR(PF) x Fan Shaft Speed (FSP) Now, using the conveyor rotational speed of either pulley, one can calculate the belt speed. Using the motor pulley speed of 1770 RPM, we have: CIR = x D = x 3 3 x x 1770 RPM inches/second = 16,673.4 inches/minute = 277.89

alternately, V = R R1 = l.5 R2 = 6 2 = 442.rpm 1 = 1770 23

If the fan pulley had been used, then: CIR = DPF = 12 12 x 442.5 RPM = 16,673.4 inches/minute = 277.89 inches/second Since the belt length = 83.55, then the belt rotates: BS = RS x 3 = 199.66rpm 83.55 BS = 222.89 inches/second = 3.326 RPS = 199.56 RPM = 3.326 Hz A fixed point sees all six blades once during a revolution, so blade passing frequency is 6 x FS = 6 x 442.5 = 2655 RPM. Peaks for blade passing will be seen at + 3600 RPM in the current spectrum or at 6 x 442.5/60 = 44.25 Hz in the demodulated spectrum The bearing frequencies are calculated per section 6.3. Assuming all four bearings are SKF 6309, the Table from section 6.3 can be used. These calculations permit the following data to be tabulated about this fan. Parameter Motor speed Belt speed Fan shaft speed Fan blade passing Speed (Hz) 29.5 3.326 7.375 44.25 Speed (RPM) 1770 199.56 442.5 2655

For the bearings on the motor shaft, turning at motor running speed, the following table shows where peaks would occur for defective bearings.

Bearing Defect Frequencies motor running speed (rs) SKF 6309 bearing multipliers (fd) BPIR BPOR 4.962 3.036 29.5 Hz

24

2 x BSF BSF FTF Fund. BPIR BPOR 2 x BSF BSF FTF 2x BPIR BPOR 2 x BSF BSF FTF 3x BPIR BPOR 2 x BSF BSF FTF 4x BPIR BPOR 2 x BSF BSF FTF 5x BPIR BPOR 2 x BSF BSF FTF fd x rs 146.38 89.56 115.40 57.70 11.19 fd x rs 292.76 179.12 230.81 115.40 22.37 fd x rs 439.14 268.69 346.21 173.11 33.56 fd x rs 585.52 358.25 461.62 230.81 44.75 fd x rs 731.90 447.81 577.02 288.51 55.93

3.912 1.956 0.3792 fd x rs + 60 206.38 149.56 175.40 117.70 71.19 fd x rs + 60 352.76 239.12 290.81 175.40 82.37 fd x rs + 60 499.14 328.69 406.21 233.11 93.56 fd x rs + 60 645.52 418.25 521.62 290.81 104.75 fd x rs + 60 791.90 507.81 637.02 348.51 115.93 fd x rs - 60 86.38 29.56 55.40 7.62 49.85 fd x rs - 60 232.76 119.12 170.81 55.40 39.69 fd x rs - 60 379.14 208.69 286.21 113.11 29.54 fd x rs - 60 525.52 298.25 401.62 170.81 19.38 fd x rs - 60 671.90 387.81 517.02 228.51 9.23

For the bearings on the fan shaft, turning at fan shaft speed, the following table shows where peaks would occur for defective bearings.
Bearing Defect Frequencies motor running speed (rs) SKF 6309 bearing multipliers (fd) BPIR BPOR 2 x BSF BSF FTF Fund. BPIR BPOR 2 x BSF fd x rs 36.59 22.39 28.85 4.962 3.036 3.912 1.956 0.3792 fd x rs + 60 96.59 82.39 88.85 fd x rs - 60 23.41 37.61 31.15 7.375 Hz

25

BSF FTF 2x BPIR BPOR 2 x BSF BSF FTF 3x BPIR BPOR 2 x BSF BSF FTF 4x BPIR BPOR 2 x BSF BSF FTF 5x BPIR BPOR 2 x BSF BSF FTF

14.43 2.80 fd x rs 73.19 44.78 57.70 28.85 5.59 fd x rs 109.78 67.17 86.55 43.28 8.39 fd x rs 146.38 89.56 115.40 57.70 11.19 fd x rs 182.97 111.95 144.26 72.13 13.98

74.43 62.80 fd x rs + 60 133.19 104.78 117.70 88.85 65.59 fd x rs + 60 169.78 127.17 146.55 103.28 68.39 fd x rs + 60 206.38 149.56 175.40 117.70 71.19 fd x rs + 60 242.97 171.95 204.26 132.13 73.98

45.57 57.20 fd x rs - 60 13.19 15.22 2.30 31.15 54.41 fd x rs - 60 49.78 7.17 26.55 16.72 51.61 fd x rs - 60 86.38 29.56 55.40 2.30 48.81 fd x rs - 60 122.97 51.95 84.26 12.13 46.02

Now, to analyze this fan, search through the several current and demodulated spectra to locate the peaks tabulated in the previous tables. Many of these peaks are normal and indicate no problem. Sidebands around BS indicate belt flapping. The actual belt flapping frequency will be seen at its true value, in the demodulated spectrum. Belt flapping robs energy from the fan and should be minimized. Bearing indications are covered in section 6.3. Otherwise, trend the data to determine changes that could be indicative of deteriorating conditions. 7.3 DIRECT DRIVE FAN Consider figure 7.3.

26

In a direct drive fan, the fan shaft speed equals the motor shaft speed; so, RS = FS. So, if a six-pole motor drives a ten blade fan, and, if the RS = 19.5 Hz = 1170 RPM, then FS= 1170 RPM. The following data are obtained. Parameter Motor speed Fan shaft speed Fan blade passing Speed (Hz) 19.5 19.5 195 Speed (RPM) 1170 1170 11700 [ 10 blades x FS ]

With SKF 6309 bearings, then the following table is calculated.

Bearing Defect Frequencies motor running speed (rs) SKF 6309 bearing multipliers (fd) BPIR BPOR 2 x BSF BSF FTF Fund. BPIR BPOR 2 x BSF BSF FTF 2x BPIR BPOR 2 x BSF BSF FTF 3x BPIR BPOR 2 x BSF BSF FTF 4x BPIR BPOR 2 x BSF BSF FTF 5x BPIR fd x rs 96.76 59.20 76.28 38.14 7.39 fd x rs 193.52 118.40 152.57 76.28 14.79 fd x rs 290.28 177.61 228.85 114.43 22.18 fd x rs 387.04 236.81 305.14 152.57 29.58 fd x rs 483.80 4.962 3.036 3.912 1.956 0.3792 fd x rs + 60 156.76 119.20 136.28 98.14 67.39 fd x rs + 60 253.52 178.40 212.57 136.28 74.79 fd x rs + 60 350.28 237.61 288.85 174.43 82.18 fd x rs + 60 447.04 296.81 365.14 212.57 89.58 fd x rs + 60 543.80 fd x rs - 60 36.76 0.80 16.28 21.86 52.61 fd x rs - 60 133.52 58.40 92.57 16.28 45.21 fd x rs - 60 230.28 117.61 168.85 54.43 37.82 fd x rs - 60 327.04 176.81 245.14 92.57 30.42 fd x rs - 60 423.80 19.5 Hz

27

BPOR 2 x BSF BSF FTF

296.01 381.42 190.71 36.97

356.01 441.42 250.71 96.97

236.01 321.42 130.71 23.03

Analyzing this fan will be similar to the belt-driven fan, except there are no belt or belt associated peaks; but there could be peaks associated with blade passing or passing of coupling segments, depending on construction. 7.4 GEAR DRIVEN FAN Consider Figure 7.4.

Here GM is the gear attached to the motor shaft, and GF is the gear attached to the fan. If a two-pole motor running at 59.5 Hz = 3570 RPM drives a 10-tooth drive gear that meshes with a 100-tooth fan gear, and the fan has nine blades, then the fan speed (FS) is just the gear tooth ratio times the motor speed (RS); or, FS = RS x GM = 3570 RPM x 10 GF 100 FS = 357 RPM = 5.95 Hz The gear tooth meshing frequency (GTMF) is: GTMF = RS x gear teeth= 10 x 3570 = 35,700 RPM or GTMF = 595 Hz. To analyze the data, look for peaks in the spectra at the calculated frequencies. Sidebands on calculated peaks are cause for concern; otherwise trend the data.

28

These data are listed in the following table. Parameter Motor speed Fan shaft speed Fan blade passing Gear tooth meshing Speed (Hz) 59.5 5.95 53.55 595 Speed (RPM) 3570 357 3213 [ 9 blades x FS ] 35700 [ 10 teeth x RS ]

If SKF 6309 bearings are on the motor shaft and on the fan shaft, then the following two tables show the bearing fault peaks.
Bearing Defect Frequencies motor running speed (rs) SKF 6309 bearing multipliers (fd) BPIR BPOR 2 x BSF BSF FTF Fund. BPIR BPOR 2 x BSF BSF FTF 2x BPIR BPOR 2 x BSF BSF FTF 3x BPIR BPOR 2 x BSF BSF FTF 4x BPIR BPOR 2 x BSF BSF FTF 5x BPIR BPOR 2 x BSF fd x rs 295.24 180.64 232.76 116.38 22.56 fd x rs 590.48 361.28 465.53 232.76 45.12 fd x rs 885.72 541.93 698.29 349.15 67.69 fd x rs 1180.96 722.57 931.06 465.53 90.25 fd x rs 1476.20 903.21 1163.82 4.962 3.036 3.912 1.956 0.3792 fd x rs + 60 355.24 240.64 292.76 176.38 82.56 fd x rs + 60 650.48 421.28 525.53 292.76 105.12 fd x rs + 60 945.72 601.93 758.29 409.15 127.69 fd x rs + 60 1240.96 782.57 991.06 525.53 150.25 fd x rs + 60 1536.20 963.21 1223.82 fd x rs - 60 235.24 120.64 172.76 56.38 37.44 fd x rs - 60 530.48 301.28 405.53 172.76 14.88 fd x rs - 60 825.72 481.93 638.29 289.15 7.69 fd x rs - 60 1120.96 662.57 871.06 405.53 30.25 fd x rs - 60 1416.20 843.21 1103.82 59.5 Hz

29

BSF FTF

581.91 112.81

641.91 172.81

521.91 52.81

Bearing Defect Frequencies motor running speed (rs) SKF 6309 bearing multipliers (fd) BPIR BPOR 2 x BSF BSF FTF Fund. BPIR BPOR 2 x BSF BSF FTF 2x BPIR BPOR 2 x BSF BSF FTF 3x BPIR BPOR 2 x BSF BSF FTF 4x BPIR BPOR 2 x BSF BSF FTF 5x BPIR BPOR 2 x BSF BSF FTF fd x rs 29.52 18.06 23.28 11.64 2.26 fd x rs 59.05 36.13 46.55 23.28 4.51 fd x rs 88.57 54.19 69.83 34.91 6.77 fd x rs 118.10 72.26 93.11 46.55 9.02 fd x rs 147.62 90.32 116.38 58.19 11.28 4.962 3.036 3.912 1.956 0.3792 fd x rs + 60 89.52 78.06 83.28 71.64 62.26 fd x rs + 60 119.05 96.13 106.55 83.28 64.51 fd x rs + 60 148.57 114.19 129.83 94.91 66.77 fd x rs + 60 178.10 132.26 153.11 106.55 69.02 fd x rs + 60 207.62 150.32 176.38 118.19 71.28 fd x rs - 60 30.48 41.94 36.72 48.36 57.74 fd x rs - 60 0.95 23.87 13.45 36.72 55.49 fd x rs - 60 28.57 5.81 9.83 25.09 53.23 fd x rs - 60 58.10 12.26 33.11 13.45 50.98 fd x rs - 60 87.62 30.32 56.38 1.81 48.72 5.95 Hz

8.0

RECIPROCATING EQUIPMENT The major difference between reciprocating equipment and nonreciprocating is that reciprocating equipment has a non-uniform current draw, because the cycle demands more energy during some parts of the operating cycle than during other parts. The following 30

graph shows a reciprocating compressor running at 11.9 Hz = 714 RPM, and cycling about every 13 seconds. The analysis of reciprocating equipment is somewhat more difficult, unless a time period of steady state current can be acquired, such as between t1 to t2, or t3 to t4, below. Figure 9: Time domain graph of reciprocating compressor.

9.0

MOTOR OPERATED VALVES More data has probably been taken on Motor Operated Valves (MOV) than on any other product type. The original work by Oak Ridge National Laboratories (ORNL) was to address problems with MOVs. Therefore, the following is the most detailed of the analyses in this manual. The detection capabilities of EMPATH can be seen in the following. This allows recommendations to be made for adjustments or modifications, in order to bring the MOVs back to their specified performance range.

9.1

VALVE STEM TAPER Variations in stem taper can be detected by changes in the motor running current, in both the open-to-close and close- to-open directions. Confirmation can be obtained by disassembly and checking the stem with a micrometer. Stem taper, per se, may not be harmful, but trending its change over time will provide a means to determine its effect.

9.2

STEM-NUT WEAR 31

Detailed examination of the initial portion of the valve stroke time waveform can reveal abnormalities present in the stem-nut by virtue of peaks and delays in the time between initial motor startup and stem movement. If the delays increase or the peaks increase over time, stem-nut galling and changes in stem-nut-to-valve-stem clearance would be suspect, and merit further inspection. The motor current frequency spectrum analysis can also provide additional evidence of stem-nut wear. Sidebands, located around the worm gear tooth meshing frequency at spacings equal to the stem-nut rotation speed will change in amplitude during periods of stem-nut wear because of added stresses that manifest themselves in increased levels. 9.3 DEGRADED VOLTAGE The impact of line voltage changes on motor current signature characteristics can be readily detected from changes in running current and stroke times or, line voltage can be measured directly using EMPATH. Motor slip vs. motor current can be used to determine if local reduced voltage conditions exist at the MOV. The cause of a change in motor current level can be determined as due either to a mechanical load change or a line voltage variation, by comparing the results with the normal characteristics. 9.4 DEGRADED VALVE STEM LUBRICATION Loss of lubrication may be indicated by changes in current draw and/or slip frequency for a constant torque switch trip setting. As the friction load increases, due to lubricant drying, the valve seating margin, reflected in the difference between average running current and the current at torque switch trip, will change, such that as the margin decreases there is less available force to properly seat the valve gate before motor stall would occur. 9.5 WORM GEAR TOOTH WEAR The effect of worn gear teeth becomes evident in the time waveform display of motor current, as large transients appear with a period equivalent to the gear meshing frequencies. This deficiency can sometimes correct itself by operation over time, thus making the wear surfaces become more even. However, the analysis is used to trend this occurrence to provide assurance that the wear-out process is not getting worse. 9.6 OBSTRUCTIONS IN THE VALVE SEAT AREA Examination of the motor current time waveform during the end of the open-to-close stroke can indicate the presence of an obstruction blocking fill seating of the gate. The obstruction is identified as the first departure from the normal cyclic running current 32

pattern. When no obstruction is present, the waveform retains its cyclic character completely to the end of the stroke, prior to torque switch trip. 9.7 MOTOR PINION DISENGAGEMENT Improper motor pinion orientation will generally result in limited contact between the motor pinion and the worm shaft clutch gear. This may, in turn, result in total disengagement between the two gears and the loss of ability to actuate the valve, electrically. When the motor pinion looses contact with the worm shaft clutch gear, it becomes completely unloaded. An increase in motor speed is seen, decrease in current level, and a much longer valve operation cycle. This is then confirmed by examining the frequency spectrum which will show a lack of worm gear tooth meshing and a lower slip frequency, corresponding to a no-load condition, and a higher amplitude peak of motor running speed.

9.8

DEGRADED WORM AND WORM GEAR LUBRICATION When an MOV is actuated the torque switch does not trip, even though the current exceeds that normally associated with torque switch trip, then the motor current increase comes from other than high packing loads. Abnormally high loads that originate within the drive train between the motor and the torque switch would be sensed by EMPATH but not by the torque switch. The lack of lubricant in this region can result in unusually high friction loads sufficient to stall the motor. Proper lubrication will result in time waveform displays that will show a slightly higher current at tighter packing conditions, but the torque switch will trip at the normal peak current value.

9.9

STEM PACKING ADJUSTMENTS Valve stem loads are produced as a result of packing tightness and contribute to the running loads seen by EMPATH. Running current levels (both minimum and maximum) will increase as the stem packing tightness is increased. The motor current level associated with the no-load portion of the stroke does not change, because the stem does not move during this portion of the stroke. As motor current increases, motor speed decreases and slip will increase. In addition, an increase in worm gear tooth meshing frequency amplitude will be observed, as a result of increased packing 33

tightness. If the packing is too tight, the stem friction loads can exceed the stem piston load resulting from valve internal pressure, and can prevent closure. 9.10 SWITCH ACTUATIONS Limit switch and torque bypass switch actuations can be detected by monitoring the current through the valve position indication lamps. These lamps can be monitored remotely, in the same manner as the motor current. Depending on the switch convention for the particular valve, lamp indication will show when the switches actuate and when the bypass occurs. This is then related to the point at which the valve moves so that the margin for bypass can be established relative to the valve unseating, and the torque switch activation point set beyond the valve unseating load. 9.11 SELECTIVE WAVEFORM INSPECTION METHOD (SWIM) By selective filtering of the recorded motor current signal optimized for frequency analysis, a unique signature is developed which reflects the time dependency of a specific periodic load. When the frequency around the worm gear tooth mesh frequency is investigated, a reflection of the worm gear loads is obtained, on a tooth-by-tooth basis. This is then plotted in both rectangular form and polar form, and a modulating index is defined that characterizes the stress distribution of the gear. The closer to zero this index is means that the teeth are taking a more equal share of the load, and less likely to become overstressed, leading to tooth failure. 10.0 DC MOTORS The analysis of DC motors is different from the analysis of AC motors and so is the data acquisition. First, data is acquired using one Hall-Effect probe versus three CTs. Second, voltage may or may not be taken. Finally, the analysis of the acquired data is very straightforward and follows the work of Simoncic and Berry. See Sections 6 and 10 of the Instruction Manual. 11.0 VARIABLE FREOUENCY DRIVES The energy savings possible through the use of Variable Frequency Drives (VFD) are causing VFDs to be increasingly used. The VFD converts 60 Hz AC to DC and then back to AC at the frequency determined by the motor speed need. Unfortunately, the process of converting from AC to DC to AC may generate significant harmonics--not only of the drive frequency, but also much higher frequencies between 1200 Hz and 3500 Hz, and higher, depending on the drive manufacturer. These very high frequencies are related to the VFD electronics. A very clear example of this is shown in 34

the following case study. Waste Water Treatment Plant A local engineering consultant supplied four identical blowers to a municipal waste water treatment plant. These blowers are powered by 100 HP motors and three of the four were connected to a 480 volt bus and were working as expected. The fourth blower motor was driven by a variable frequency drive. The consultants project manager could not figure out why this new motor was degrading so rapidly. He requested that ESA data be taken to determine the cause of the increase in vibration readings. ESA data were acquired at the variable frequency drive (VFD) on the conductors going to the motor. The initial data showed that voltages were being generated by the VFD that were 252 volts higher than normal for the motor. The VFD was set at 50.7 Hz but had begun to fibrillate at 2975 Hz. This high frequency, high amplitude voltage was degrading the motor and had caused permanent damage to the motor by the time the ESA data were taken. A short time later, the high voltage excursion had terminated and the motor was operating normally. However, vibration data taken at this time showed higher than normal levels and levels higher than taken earlier in the month. A trip test was conducted where the power to the motor was stopped instantaneously. Vibration readings were taken during the trip. The vibration stopped almost immediately when the power was cut proving that the electric power was causing the high vibration levels also corroborating the ESA data. Four figures follow. The first figure is a single cycle of the voltage waveform from the VFD. The second figure shows several cyles of all three currents. The third figure shows the voltage spectrum from 0 to 5000 Hz. The final figure shows the current spectrum from 0 to 5000 Hz. All figures are when the VFD was set at 50.7 Hz during the over-voltage event that caused fibrillation. On the fourth figure notice the two large peaks centered at about 1200 Hz, with colored cursors. These are the stator slot passing peaks indicative of stator mechanical damage. Note that significant peaks are not evident in the voltage spectrum, third figure, near 1200 Hz. This supports one major claim of Motor Current Signature Analysis; namely, when peaks are evident in the current that are not evident in the voltage, then the peaks represent a mechanical modulation of the current draw. 35

Figures 10 and 11: VFD voltage time trace for one cycle on top and three phases of current in the time domain, below.

36

Figures 12 and 13: VFD voltage spectrum on top and current spectrum on bottom both from 0 to 5000 Hz.

37

12.0

COST SAVINGS The push by all businesses today to reduce cost and increase profits demands that the cost side of motor analysis be addressed. Besides the obvious savings in maintaining equipment via early diagnostics, there are also the energy costs and the impact on these costs the utility contract imposes. For example, most utility contracts impose a fee or premium if the power factor of a facility falls below a value like 0.85 or even 0.9. Using EMPATHs power factor analysis, it is possible to determine each motors contribution to total facility power factor. At a large printing company, three chillers were used to cool the plant. During the hottest, most humid times in the summer, all three are needed to operate the plant. During the winter, only 50% of the total is necessary. The plant normally ran all three all the time. Thus, in the summer, high power factors like 0.90 to 0.95 were measured on all three. In the winter, the power factors were as low as 0.50. To save energy dollars and to improve the life of the equipment, one or two units should be turned off in the winter. Significant savings will result. The second example applies to the contribution one large motor might make to a plants total power factor. Using EMPATHs power measurements, a plant could decide to add capacitance to the circuitry for incoming power to the motor. The capacitance causes the current to lead the voltage and improves the motors power factor. Alternately, a plant can add capacitance to the incoming power to the entire plant to improve energy usage. Finally, many utility contracts include a penalty fee that addresses the peak energy the utility must provide to a plant. This premium applies when, for example, several high power pieces of equipment are started in a short time. EMPATH does not measure this directly, but these issues are addressed when Framatome ANP engineers discuss power usage with plant personnel. The key to cost savings is to know your utility contract and to take action to improve efficient energy usage. The EMPATH power analysis is a useful tool to help identify motors that are not being operated efficiently.

13.0

TRANSFORMERS Simply put, transformers act like motors with no mechanical/moving parts. Measuring three phases of current and voltage, several analyses can be performed with EMPATH. These include three-phase imbalances in either voltage or current; power factor analysis, and harmonic analysis. These techniques 38

have been discussed in earlier sections. There is no limit to the size of transformers EMPATH can analyze, remembering that maximum voltage into the unit is 600 volts, and maximum output from the current sensor is + 10 volts. 14.0 14.1 SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS AND GENERATORS SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS A synchronous motor is very similar in design and construction to an AC induction motor, except that the rotor is termed an armature and has a set of mortiser windings with it. These mortiser windings are actually powered by DC, while the stator is powered by AC. These motors are also similar to DC machines in operation, but the DC machine has DC on both the armature and stator. Increases to the DC current level through the mortiser windings increases the magnetic field, which forces the rotor to go faster. With the rotor actually ahead of the stator the motor produces a leading power factor. Thus, the use of the synchronous motor for power factor correction is possible. EMPATH could be used to take both AC and DC readings, with the stator being AC and the rotor (armature) DC. EMPATH diagnostics should be performed in the same manner as for any induction motor, with the understanding that the slip will not be apparent, even when fully loaded. All other diagnostic characteristics would be accessible and the performance of the machine can readily be ascertained by acquisition of current and voltage, as would normally be done. 14.2 AC GENERATOR An AC generator is essentially the same as an AC induction motor, with the major exception that its rotation speed is, by definition, the synchronous speed of the machine. Thus, slip is neither defined nor visible. For example, if a 2-pole generator is rotating at 3,575 rpm, the output frequency would just be the rpm converted into Hertz, multiplied by the number of pole pairs, which in this case would be 59.5833 Hz. For a 1,200 rpm, 6-pole machine, the output frequency would be 60 Hz; and the 1,200 rpm would be the synchronous speed. All of the previously identified motor diagnostic characteristics are accessible and available for examination. Furthermore, one of the primary indicators of generator performance is to verify the quality of the output signal and the generated frequency of that signal. Power quality is determined by viewing both the time waveform and spectra for sinusoidal characteristics and harmonic distortion. 39

The mechanical and electrical performance properties would be obtained in the same manner as for induction motors, except that any diagnostics relying on slip would, of course, not be available. 15.0 OUTPUT HORSEPOWER AND TORQUE Specification IEEE 112 describes several dynamic tests for estimating output horsepower and torque. These various methods provide accuracies from a few to several percent of what a dynamometer would yield. As soon as an algorithm can be shown to be accurate to 2 or 3 %, then EMPATH will incorporate that algorithm to estimate output horsepower and torque.

40