PROCESS PIPING SYSTEMS 381 be supplied to the pressure vessels on the process unit for washing out orhydrostatiz testing These comnections should be fiom the cooling-watersystem if the pressure in the system is adequate to supply vater to the top of th: tallest tewer on the unit; otherwise the connections should be to the fire water :ystem, Nonally vessols neod not be permanently counected to 3 source of water. If Permazent connection is made, it shoud be at the bottom ol the vessel and should be blanked off wien the vessel. is in operation. Air Piping. Most process plants have a plant ar system mot oily for use in the procesies but Lo operate tools, equipment, and instruments. ‘Where necesscry, the intakes of air compressor: should be designed to minimize the nobe level. Fiters should be proviced in the intake piping to reciprocating anc rotary air compressors when they take suction fiom the atmosphere. Filters wil sometines be necessary for centrifugal ir compresiors. Whena filter is not providee for a centrifugal air compressor taking suction fom the atnosphere, the intake Piping should be provided with a bird screen. Fiters preferibly should be-of the ; Feplaceable-cartridge type. Such fiers should have an open area not less then three times the area of the intake pipe. The oil-bath-type filter should rot be used with centrifugal air compressors Low points in the discharge line fiom an air compressor should be avoided because it is possible for lube oil to be trapped nd subsequently ignited. If low points are unavoidable, they should be provided vith drains When condensed moisture in air lines is undesirable from a process standpoint (which typically is the case-for instrunent air ccnnections) or the possibilty of moistue freezing exists, consideration should be given to providing an air drier Grum in the supply line near the process unit. The drum should be loccted where it will rot be exposed to heat from other equipment. Based on estimated future air requirements, the size of the drum should be such that (I) the velocity in the drum does not excted 15 fpm (0.08 m/s) during shutdown periods when maintenance equipment is being used and (2) the capacity be equal to at keast 6 percent of the free air requirements per minute during normal operation, In clmates where freezing is possible, the botom 18 in '450 mm) of-the dry drum should be insulated and heat traced. The d-um drain (or blow-cff) should also be traced or insulated. All blow-off connections should be installed pointing downwird so that any rust or scale blova out will aot endanger personel, Air piping should slope downward to dry drums or moistire traps, cr be hori- zontal, Branch cornections to air headers should te to the tcp of the ppe. Block valves siould be provided in all branch lines. Wher an air lin: is connected to process piping, two block valves, a check valve, and a bieeder shotld be provided. A second bleec valve should also be provided upstream of the check valve to test for tackflow th-ough the check. Consideration should be given to also providing a removable secion of line or hose in order to guard against inadvertent opcration Air for operating instruments is normally a sepirate system from the plant air system, and backup compression systems are often provided 1 increase in-service reliability. For process units, a steam-deiven compressor shculd be fumished to supply instrument air in case of failure of the main supply. Where plant air is the primary source, ant! the possibility of a power failure is remot, electrically driven compresiors may te used. In exensive insirument air systems, tre piping siould be a-ranged with header and subjeaders, such that groups of instruments mey be isolated from the systems without affecting tke air supply to all instruments. Block valves should be providede382 DIPING SYSTEMS. atthe instrument air headers in all branch lines to instramenis, Leads to individual instruments should be NPS ¥%4 (DN 15) minimum. As a rule of thumb, headers serving from 1 to 25 instruments thould be NPS 1 (DN 25) pipe size, and headers serving from 26 to 75 instruments should be NPS 2 (DN 50) pipe size. Steam and Condensate Piping. Process plants usually have twe ox more steam systems and an exhaust steam condensate system. One of the stean systems gener- aly operatesin the range of 100 tc 150 psig (690 to 1035 kPa) (low-pressure stzam), and another operates 2t superheated conditions and significantly tigher pressures (tigh-pressuce steam). The exhaust steam system normally operates at a pressure of less than 50 psig (345 kPz). The design problems astociated with these systems aie not all sinilar to those encountered in a central pover station, consequently a biief discussion on process plant steam piping requirenents follovs. The prindpal concern is to supply clean, dry steam to the equipment using it. In accomplishing this, itis desirable to connect all branch lines (except condensate ‘ellection.pcints) to the top of horizontal steam mains. However, if the line to a stam driveris at least one size smaller than the main apd the stesn has a consider able amount of superhzat, it may be permissible 1o make a cente‘line connection to the side of the steam main. With other steam contitiors it probably will be necessary to install a knockout pot or drum or 2 stean separatcr in addition to making the connection to the tor of the main. Pockets should be avoided in the line to the turbine. + Connections to exhiust headers should preferably 2¢ made to the top of the header so that the condensate in the header does not run back into the driver. In the steam line tc a steam criver, a block, valve(:) should be located at the diiver and be easily accessible for aperating purposes. A single gate valve is needed inthe exhaust line from each steam driver that does nct exhaust cirectly to atmo- sphere or ditectly into an individval condenser. However, valves reed not be.pro- viled where iwo or more drivers, which will never be shut down separately, exhaust to the same condenser. This exhasst gate valve should be installed at the driver so that the position ‘of the gate (ie., open or closed) will >e obviousto the operator whenever he is tequired to operace the inlet vaive. ‘Wherever steam is echausted to the atmosphere and could create such personnel hwzards as burns, freeziag of condensate on walkways, o- the blanketing of working area with a heavy fog, the line should be fitted with ar exhaust head and a drain toa sewer. Tae use of asilencer should be considered where noise misance is lkely. The fiexitility of steam piping should be attained through the tse of expansion bends and ebbow fittings. The use of expansion joints is discouraged except where the size and arrangement of exhaust lines prevent th: use of expansion. tends, which may be the case of certain steam exhaust connections to steam condensers. Particular attention shculd be given to the anchorage and support of the cornect- ‘ng piping. . ‘When recuired by the service, means should be available for purging process ecuipment with steam or inert gas. For example, each pressure vesse in hydrocurbon service should be provded with a steam-hose coanecton near the bottom £ not, permanently connected to the source of steam. However, where a permanent con- nection is made, it should be blinsed during operation of the unit ‘The stean supply for smothering, snuffing, service hoses, space heating, and auxiliary of 2rotective heating should be connected tc a source that will not be shut off during unit shatdowns or to a source thet wil not be shut off when the steam to a fiece of equipment sich as a turbine is stut off. For fire protection+ PROCESSPIPING SYSTEMS cata Purpcscs, smothering (or saultfing) steam usually is required for fied heaters and for relief valve cischarge lines Gondensate Renoval and Steam Treps. Concensate shuld preferably be di charged into an oil free drain system, but under no ‘circumstances should it be discherged into 2 sanitary sewer, Corsideration should be given to a condensate collce ion systemin installations whichinvolve a large numberof steam:raps. When Condensate is to 2¢ discharged to a cast iron or concrete sewer of a coreretn sewer box, tae hazard of vaporizing hydrocarbons which may exst in the sewer should pe cossidered. Also, to avoid damage to the coxcrete, the connection should be below the water level. If there is insuficient quantity of water for quenching, the condeasate should be first led to an atmospherepressure dain tank, Steam traps should be provided for the removal of condensate from collection Points in live anc exhaust steam systems, in partcular from condensate drip legs Grains on steam turbines, steam separztors, connectors, unit heaters, and termina fads of companion piping: Ail low points in steam lines, except steam companiot lines and the encs of long headers, shculd be prcvided with drip legs. It may alse be Recsssary to install drip legs at interniediate ponts on headers with long sestions at one elevation (ie., in addition to those low points at the end). When a valve’ installed in steam piping in such a manner that condensate can collect above the valve, a trapped drain should D2 provided above the valve seat Whenever posible, a steam trap siould be installed below end ciose to the cauipment pipelite being drained, but the trap should be easily accessible for Period inspectios. Each trap should serve only onc collection point. Where large Quantities of condensate are expected, cither condensate pots or condensate draive should be provided. : Drans from turbine shaft packing glinds and fom governor valve stem packing slands should preferably be connected to an open drain system. The drain lines and betdors should be of sulfcient size to preven: a backpressure builiup. Also, untrapped drains chould be provided at the lowes: point of the steam ead of each reciprocating pump and compressor. _—— Drains not discharging into a closed drainage system shouilddischarge downward and sheuld be arrenged so that rising stzam does aot create « hazard or condense Sn cauipment, such as a turbine or pump. The condensation of rising steam.on such equipment can create lube oil contamination. One thing that can te done to help eliminate this problem is to quench the.condensate. principal cawe of steam traps freeing is improperly designed discharge lines. Steam tap dischaige lines should be sicped for drainage where possible. In cases where. freezing is likely, no part of the trap discharge header should be at aa clevatioa above that of the trap dischaige. Focke's in the diicharge lines should be avoiced. Long trap-discharge lines, itt in heated enclostres, should be inou Hiet, miaP-dlscharge lines in heated enclcsures needto be insulited only ifyecessary {for burt protection, To decrease further the posibility of teezing, stam trap bodies shoulé not be insulated unless the followng circumstances make doing s0 advisable: * The trap is installed downstream of auiomatic steim control: that coule shut the steam off for long periods of time. * The trap is installed in a location where operators might be burned by the bare metal surfaces, * The trap is part of a heat recovery system where retention cf heat is important,cm PIPING SYSTEMS + The trap is installed tohandle exkaust steam condensate that comains quantities cf cylinder oi Inverted-backet and -hermodymmic steam traps, whch are conmonly used in prccess plants, are generally installed without strainers. Steam taps should be selected for 2 continucus discharze rate, which is the actual condensate rate muitiplied by a safety factor. A safely factor of at least 3 siould be used for inverted bucket type traps and thermodynanic traps. A larger safety facto: is needed for ‘xaos draining jacketed :quipment, and trap manufacturers shoule be consuited. In borderline cases offering 2 choixe between two traps sizes; the smaller trep is ustally preferred ‘Steam Compenion Pipisg for Auxillary Heating. The most commonly encoun- tered situatioas requiring auxiliary heating are as follows: 1. Piping in waich the fluid temperaxure could drop below the pour point or freezing point, and piping in which the fitid is subject to coagulation, excessive viscosity, or salting cut 2. Hydrocarbon vapor ad ges pipng where condensate formatior and icing will affect the safety and operation of the equipment, such as might be caused by che reduction in pressure that tekes place through’a control, throttle, or relief valve and 3, Liibe and «eal-oil eysioms for compressors and turbines Auxiliary heating is a6rmally not needed for freeze preventios and viscesity maintenance a equiprrent in intermittent service if tie equipment is draixed, Aushed, blows, or steamed out when there is no flowing steam, or ifthe equipment is for enough unidergromd to provent freezing. When required, auxiliary heating is wsually furnished by external steam companion piping (steam tracing). Other acceptable methods of heating piping and other equipment are internal stam trasing, steamjacketing, hot-water tracing and jacketing, md electric!racing. Details of tarious hea: tracing techniques are covered in detail in Chap. B6 ofthis handbook. Ic is desirable that each steam compenion line be coatinuous from the header to a trap at the end of the line without any vents, drains, branches, or deadend extensions at intermediate points. Each companion line should hav» a block valve at the upstream end and be arranged so that flow is generally downward, avoiding pockets as mich as posible arid kaving no section of the companion line at a greater elevation than te companion header. Live steam is preferred for steam companion piping in colier climates unless a lower temperature is required. In the design of the companion piping system, provisions shoud be made for the differentis] expansion between the traced line and the tracer. When the piece of equipment which is tc he kept hot is irregular in shape (such as ‘Taps, strainers, valves, and pamps), tubing must te used. The item should be sprally wrap2ed, stacting at the top and working toward the bottom. Several lines tobe traced nay be grouped irside a single covering of insulation if ther are to be maintained at the same temperature. CASE HISTORIES: CHALLENGES/SOLUTIONS © Process plantsofferthe pping desigaer some uniqite challengesnot feund elsewtere. ‘The combinations of denanding service requirements. end mechasical needs willPROCESS PIPING SYSTEMS 6.385 necessitate innlovaiive designs and soluions. Included herein are a fev practical approaches to proslem resolution: Challenge Installed Type 304, stainless steel piping and mating vessel nozzle NPS 8 (DN 200) Class 300 flanges were found to be inadequate for the specified 750°F (400°C) design tempersture and 440 psig (2760 kPa) design pressure hydrofining reactor service. ‘The reactor shell material and its other principal nozzles were constructed from low-alloy material weld overlayed with Type 304L stuinless sted. The reaccor flanges were allspecified with Class 300 flanges, vhichis acceptable forthe low-alloy flanges but not for the solid alloy Type 304L Manges. ASME B16.5 maximum working pressure for Type 304L SS Class 300 flanges is only 335 psig et 750°F (2510 kPa at 400°C) and clearly inadequate for the specified resctor design pressure. Solution ASME B16.5 downrates flanges in Type 304L miterial in elevated temperature service in comparison to the low-chrome ‘eactor Ranges and otter non-low tempera- ture grates of stainless steel. Attempts te rerate theinstalled Class 300 fiange based on the provisions of B31.3 for 10 percemt metal design temperature reductions for ‘uninsulzted flanges and the design procedures of ASME BPX&V Code Sec. VIII, Divisior 1 proved to be unsuccessful. It was ultimately decided to replace the existing Type 3041, flanges with Type 347 stainless steel Class 300 flanges, which permit ¢ maximum working pressure of 490 psig (6380 kPa), and as such, clearly acceptable for, the specified system design pressure Challenge ‘Two recent experisnees with installed spiral-wound gaskets with flexible graphite filler hare led to different but related ins ability proslems with these gaskets, which raised questions atout the standard ASME B16.20 covering these gaskets. The first experience involved Class 1500 and 250 spiral-wound (SW) gaskets fitted with inner retaining rings that suffered severe inward buckling at initial beltup. The second experience pertains to the gross iaward buckling of the inner spirals of Class 600 and ower rating gaskets supplied without inner “ings. Everts led to the ultimate removalof some 2(00 gaskets supplied bs 3 different manufactarers, which revealed that severe inward buckling bad occurred on about 12 percen: of installed gaskets actoss a wide rang: of sizes, Solutior Geskets supplied in both cases complied fully with ASME 516.20 requirements, which hghlighted inadequacies in this tandard fo: spiral wound gaskess. Efforts have betn initiated to work with manufacturers in their assessment of furdamental design considerations and with appropriate code committees to address apparent deficiencies discovered with this type of gasket. The buckling in both experiences386 >IPING SYSTEMS had occurred during the initial compression of the gasket, before :he flanges were pit into service While the root cause of the problem has yet to be identified, the buckling plenomenor is clearly related 1 the incompressible progertics of the flexible gaphite andthe tightness of the sriral windings. The experiences heve also revealed tnt the inner ring wieths specifizcd by ASME B16.20 for many gasket sizes are inadequate t> effective y resist buckling. Interim meastres have teen adopted by ASME B16.20, and it is recommended that users specify inner rings for all NPS 6 (DN 150) and larger SW gaskets with flexible graphite filer until more definitive measures ate identified to resolve the root cause of the bisckling phenonena Reference 1' provides more information on this industrywide coneern and overall cansiderations for gasket performance testing protocol: Challenge ‘Severe acoustically induced piping vibrations generated by high-caoacity presure- Jekdown valves have ledto fatigue failures at downstream piping braich conneaions wihin days o' their initial operation. One suck experienes involved « safety le control valve within an LNG treet gas unit to a flare reader sysem. The initial operation of this system ed to cracks at an NPS 10 (DN 250) branch connextion toan NPS 28 (DN 700) fiare header. The failure occurred after about 5 to 10 hours ofits inital startup and eventually kd to the branch connection completely brecking ‘axay from the run header. The Ietdowa valve was designed for amass flow rate ‘of about 383,000 Ib/r (-75,000 kar), with an upstream pressure of 620 psia (4278 KPa) letting cown to 30 psia (207 kPa) flare header back-pressure, ‘This and other experiences in the gas production, petrochemical, and other industries have demonsxrated that acoustic energy in high-capacity, gas pressure- reducing systems can case severe piping vibrations thatin extreme cases have led topiping fatigue failures within a few hours of commencing operation. ‘Sdlution Based on a statistical approach, criteria were generated to reflect maximum levels of acoustic power genezated by the pressure letdown valve before fatigue falure ‘was experienced (see Ref. 5). The ultituate solution involved the -eplacement of the installed pressure letdown valves with low-noise producing valves with labyrinth multistaged pressure reducing trimto avoid choked sonieflow condiions generated by the valve. Challenge Screre vibrations were found with the initial start-up of an NPS 2 (EN 50) nitrogen utiity line comected to an NPS 10 (DN 250) suction line cf a reciprocating compres- sor in make-gas service The nitrogen line was relatively flexible, and had ong lengths of supported piping. Detailed acoustical analyses were concucted with the man suction and discharge piping of this reciprocating compresscr, but this did not include the subject utility connection.PROCESS PING SYSTEMS C387 Solution Additional pipe sipports were installed to the nitrogen line, changing the natural frequeacy of the piping geometry and reducing ‘he response to the compressor pressure pulsation excitations. ‘Challenge An erosive slurry vas causing material loss at charges of direction in a convention- ally coxstructed piping system with elbows and tee:. Space coastraits did not allow for long-sweep turns. Solution ‘Dead-end tees were installed where the solids filled the impact area of tke tee, The abrasiv: solids then wore on themselves thereby p-otecting tte presstireboundary. Challenge Aheater outlet line was expected to ope-ate at about 1500°F (£16°C). The attendant expansion and stress analysis difficulties were magnified, since the process piping material was well into the creep range, Premature failure was expected Solution ‘The hot metal heater line was transitioned into an internally refractory-lired system near the heater outlet. The lower shell temperature eliminated the prosability of creep rapture failure, simplified the exsansion and stress analysis protlems, and reduoec system maintenance. ‘The previous discussion only touches on the multitude of challenges/solutions encountered in th: area of process piping. Reference literaure has documented some of the many valuable experiences encountered in this regard. REFERENCES 1. ASME Code forPressure Piring, B31.3, Process Pipitg, Americas Society of wfechanical Enghteors, New York, 1996 edition, including ASME B31.34-1996 addenda, 2. ASVE Standard B16.5, Pipe Flanges and Hanged Fiings, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York, 1996. 3. WEF. Bland, R.L Davidson, eds., Petrolum Frocessing Handbook, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1967. 4, J. Hirschhorn, Dynamics of Machinery, Barnes & Noble, Ine., New York, 1958. 5. V.A.Carucei andR.T. Mueller, “Acoustically Inducec Piping Vibmtionsin High Capacity Pressure Reducing Sysiems,” American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 82 WA/PVP- 8, New York, 1992.368 PIPING SYSTEMS 5. ASME/ANSI Standard B1.20.1, Fipe Threads, General Purpose (Inch) American Society of Mechanical Engincers, New York, 1992. 7. ASME Boiler and Pessure Vesel Code, Section VIM Division 1, Pressure Vessels, Americar Society of Mechanical Engincers, New York, 1996. 8. ASME Sandard B1C9, Factory-Made Wrought Steel Butt-Welding Fittings, Ancerican Socicty 0! Mechanica! Engineers, New York, 1993, 4. ASME Stindard B16.11, Forged Fuings, Socket-Welding aid Threaded American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York, 1996 18. ASME Standard 81648, Steel Line Blanks, American So:iety of Mecianical Engneers, New Yort, 1997, 1. ASME Stndard B3610M, Welded and Seamless Wrought Steel Pipe, American Society of Mechanical Enginests, New Yark, 1996. 1:, ASME Stindard B1647, Large Diameter Steel Flanges, American Socety of Mectenical Engineers, New York. 1996 HL Bicklord, ed., Gaskets and Gaskered Joints, Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, 1997. ASME Stundard 816.22, Nonmetdlic Flat Gaskets for Pipe Flanges, Axerican Socety of Mechanical Engineers New York, 1992. 1 LR. Payn:, RT. Mueller, and A. Bazergui, “A Gesket Qualifcatior Test Schene for Petrochenieal Plants: Parts 1 & 2” pp, 53-79, ASME PVP Vol. No. 158, June 1589. 16 LR. Payne, RT, Mueler, M. Derenne, “Specifying Flexibe Graphite 3ased Gaskets for High Tenperature Service (Qualfication Testing Protocols to Verily Performance),” resented at ASME PV&P Conference. Montreal, Quebec, Canada, july 1996. 17. RIT. Mueler, “Recent Buckling Experiences with Spiral Wound Fexitle GraphiteFilled Gaskets." pp. 23-34, ASME PVP Vol. No. 326, presented at ASME FV&P Confecencs, Montreal, Quebec, Canada, July 1996. 18 ASME Stindard B1620, Metallic Gaskets for Pipe Flanges: Ring Jon, Spiral Wound, tnd Jacked Ameian Society of Mechanical Eagineen, Nev Yor, 1986, incing ‘ASME B16.20b-1997 addenda. 19 ANSI Stardard B1.1, Unified Inch screw Threads (UN and UNR Thread Form), Amesican Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York, 1989. 20 ASME StmdardB16.4, Valves—Hanged. Threaded, and Welding Find, American Society (of Mecharical Engineers, New York, 19%, 24 APLStandird 600, Stee Gate Valves—Flanged and Buit-Wetting Ends, Bolted and Prssure Seal Bonns, American Petroleum Institute, Washington,DC, 1997. = 22 MSS Stancard SP-45, Bypass and Drain Connections, Manttacturer StandardizationSoci- ety, Vienm, VA, 1992 23 API Standard 607, Fire Test for Soft-Sected Quarter-Turn Valves, American Petrcleum Institute, Washington, DC, 1993. 24 APIStandird 394, Check Valves: Wafer, Wafer-Lug, and Double Flangec Types, American Petroleum Institute, Washington, DC, 1997 25, API Standard 598, Valve Inspection and Testing, American Petroleum lastitute, Washing ton, DC, 1996. 26. P.A. Schweitzer, Handbook of Corrosion Resistant Piping, Industrial Fress Tne., 1669. 21, ASSE Stardard A 1264, 1, Safety Bequirements for Workphce Floor ard Wall Openings, ‘Siatrs ana Xailing Systons, American Society of Safety Engineers, Des Plaines, IL. 1992, 28. D, Burgrem, Principles of Piping Analysis (Fst ed), C.P Press, Jamica, NY, 1977. 29. M.W. Kellogg Co., Design of Pipirg Sysiems, John Wiley & Sons Inc. New York, 1967. 30. ASME Boiler and Presure Vessel Code, Section IX, Qualtication Stardard for Walding ‘and Brazing, Americar Society of Mechanical Engincers, New York, '995.PROCESS PING SYSTEMS C389 31, ASME Standard B16.25, But Welding Exds, Americin Society o! Mechanical Engineers, New York, 1997 32, PFIStahdard BS-7, Minimum Length and Spacing of Welded Nozzles, Piping Fabrication Instkute, Springiale, PA, 1994. 33, PFIStandard E3-24, Pipe Bending Methods, Tolerasces, Procest and Material Require- ‘men's, Piping Febrication Kastitute, Springdale, PA, 1992. 34, PFIStandard ESS, Cleaning of Fabricated Piping, Pipng Fabrication Institute, Springdale, PA, 1993, 35, J.H.Bickford, As Introduction to the Design and Behavior of Boltet Joints, Maxcel Dekker, New York, 1997, 36, ASME Boiler ard Pressure Vessel Coda, Section V, Nondestructive Exeminaion, Amori- can Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York, 1995. 31, LH.Gary, and C.E, Hendwerk, Peiroleun Refining—Technologyand Econonics, Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, 1975, 38 RE Johnson, “Specifying Plastic-Lined Piping.” Chemical Engineering, May 1982. 39, J.C. Wachel, anc C.L. Bates."‘Esceping Fiping Vibrations while Designing,” Bydrocarbon Processing, Vol.55, October 1976. 40, APIStandard 618, Reciprocating Comprassors for Peroleum, Chemical, and Gas Industry Sendce, American Petroleum Institute, Washington, DC, 1995, 41 APIStandard 6:7, Centrifugal Compresiors for Petwoleum, Chenical, and Cas Industry Senice, American Petroleum Institute, Washington, DC, 1995. 42, API Standard 610, Centrifugal Pumps jor Pevoleun, Heavy Duty Chemical, and Gas Indistry Service, American Petroleum fastitute, Wachington, DC, 1955, 43, APIStandard 614, Positive Displacemest Pumps—zeciprocating, Americas Petroleum Institute, Washiagion, DC, 1995. 44, APIStancard 6(1, Air Cooled Heat Excsangers for General Refirery Services, American Petraleum Institute, Washington, DC, 1997 45, APIStandard 60, Atmospheric Storage Tanks, American Petrobum Institute, Washing- ton, DC, 1994, vith 1996 addenda 46, APIRecommented Practice RP 520, Stzng, Selection, and Installuion of Pressure-Rellev- ing Devices, American Petroleum Institte, Washington, DC, 19. 47, APIRecommonied Practice RP S21, Guide for Pressure Relief are Depressurig Systems, ‘American Petrocum Institute, Weshingon, DC, 19°7.CHAPTER C8 CRYOGENIC PIPING SYSTEMS INTRODUCTION Nicholas P. Theophilos, Ph.D., PE. Manager Standards and Quality Ascurance Praxiir, Ine: Cryogenics (from the Greek “kryo-genikos,” meaniag cold generation) is the science and technology astociated with very lov temperatires. Depeading on one’s point of view, any temperature below ~20°F san be set fo establish such a demarcation. Here the ~20°F point has been selected because it normally represents the onset of embrittlement for ordinary carbon steels in typical structural applications, Cryegenics is not a separate branch of physics, snce it obeys all laws of ordinary physics. In fact, crfogenics is low-temperature physics. The reasons for its special treatment, therefore, are not because of its uniqueness as 2 science but rather because of the very special problems it creates: as a technology. These problems relate to embrittlenent of materials, lavge displacements (exoansion and contrac- tion), repid change of phase due to large heat fluxes (big delte T), and small latent heats of the fluids involved. In order to obtain a better appreciacion of the special cossideration: involved in cryogenic piping system applications, it was fek that it would be nezessary to review ‘he behavior of materials at cryogenic temperatures and the physical and thermodynamic properties of cryogenic luids. These considerations are covered in the sections “Progerties of Cryogenic Fluids” and “Materiab. Used in Cryogenic Piping Systems.” additionally, cryogenc piping system design is discussed in the sections “Piping Systems Design—Huids” and “Piping Systems Design— Mecharical.” From the strictly heuristic point of view of fundemental applications of scientific principles there ar> hardly any differences between cold box piping and all other types. Nevertheless, we are making a svecial topi¢ of cold box piping tecause of the conined spaces involved and the ccncepiual arrangements required to satisfy logisticelly workable and economically feasible process considerations. Such piping is discussed in the section “Cold Box Piping.” “The 2overage on cryogenic distribution systems as provided under the sections “Liguid Storage aud Conversion Systenss” and “Mobile Equizment System,” con- siders more than jest piping; it covers the functiona design philosophy ofcryogenic fluid stcrage and dstribution and provides quite an insight in-o the logistics of the entire operation, ‘With the advert of chip making, the need for ultra-high-urity inort gases has come isto clear focus, and industry hus responded to this need by developing suitablestorage and distribution systems These aspects of cryogenic piping systems are discussed in the last section. Naturally, the drive behind most tectnologies iseconomicin nature, ind in this 391ca92 HPING SYSTEMS respect cryogenics is no exception. This is certainly much ‘more so when it comes toliquid distribution because there is no other motive. Industrial gaies can certainly bedistributed in the compressed gaseous form. even in sulk quantties, if cosis are ct a consideration. Such economic aspects are discussed in the next section References for each section are at the end of each ection. ECONOMIC PARAMETERS OF CRYOGENIC FLUID DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS Norman H. White, Engneering Associate Praxair Inc. Cryogenic processes are typically applied to commodity chemicds that exist as gaies at normal ambients, Such gaws are liquefied at rediced temperatures and are nomally maiatained at saturated conditions. The processing techriques generally involve both the liquid and gaseous phases and explo: the dramatic changes in physical and thermodynamic properties that occur with dranges of sate. Cryogenic ‘tenperatures are applied at cach step in the process of bringing these gases to the final consumer, including production, distribution, and storage. . ‘Typically, industrial gases ere found in mixtures in which some of the comporents: have commerzial value. Two of the most important examples of such mixtures are gates from certain hydrocarbon wels and the Earth's atmosphere. Tie feed streams are separated by liquefaction and subsequent fractiona’ distillatioa with the pro- duced stream: deliveredin either tie gaseous or liguid sate, Cryogenic distillation allows a wide choice In he degree of separation, ranging trom crude to extremely fine. It is a hghly efficient process with power consumed chiefly n refrigerstion lostto the envronment and pressure lost in the product streams, Ecoxomic consder- ations in the liquefaction and distillation process involve trade-offs between op- ‘erating efficiency and capital expenditure. No other method is as versatile or as effective as cryogenic separation of industrial gas mixtu-es for conmodity usage. The key toindustrial gas distribution and storage ope-ations is tke use of a cost- effective mettod that increases the product density. The -ransport or storage vessel is educed to manageatle dimensions in this way, The historical solution to this prcblem is elevated pressures at ambient temperatures. Indeed, high pressure cyl des and reo:ivers made to a variety of US. Department of Transportation (U3DOT) and ASME specifications are widely used today to store gases at pressures exceeding 2000 psig: (138 bar). These vessels are typicilly of singe-piece forged corstruction involving fabricetion and inspection procedures that enable then to safely operate at ultimate to desiga stress ratios of 3:1. In spite of these measures to achieve an efficient oackage, the ratio of vessel weight 10 preduct weigat is extremely hig. Therefore, the cost of storing and transrorting these gases in such vessels is very high relative to the value of the product ‘hey contain. Some of the characteristics of typical high-pressure receivers and cylinders are summarized in Table C8.1a and Table €8.Lb.(CRYOGENIC TIPING SYSTEMS e393 TABLE G8.1a -Typbal Speciations or Seumless Forged Pressure Vesses ay ASME Pressure Veseel Code. Sizes, capacitis, and design pressures 1 508 | 610 | 610 | 610 | 610 Min vall* in| 125 | 1.25 |1.303 | 1313 mm | 318 | 318 | 331 | 331 Max length r| so] 30] 23] a] 24] 24 mm | 9144 | 9144 | 7010 | 7010" | 7315 | 7315, Max water volume cut | 27] 27 | 342 | 342 | 602 | 602 liter'| 76 | 765°|969 "|, 969°] 41765 | 1705, Matera] 65:2) 70 [265] 70 | 65°] 70° asst ss : z. [F re Weight _ e _ - Unit weight thre | 232.4 | 222.4 | 2944 | 2944 | 2202 | 230.1 kgim | 331 | 331 |438.1-| 4381 | 343.9 | 343.9) Max vessel weight .« tb | 6672 | 6672 | 6670 | e710 | 5537 | 5537 kg | 3026 | 3026 | 3071.| 30:1 | 2516"| 2516 Design agit, ,ssc0-|, 2450, 332] 39 | 169 eis | aia" 184i. 249 | “2ea [327C394 PING SYSTEMS TABLE C8.1b_ Typical Specifications for Seamless Forged Pressure Vesstls USDOT speciication. Dimensions ana data for typical vessel sizes. —— vsbor i Speciation’ pei | 3442400 | 3AAx2400 | 344x-2900 | arax-aess | 2r-2400 | a7 2890 bar | 3AA465 | 3AACI65 | 3AAX.200 | 34AX-256 | TT-166 | 37197 Dimensions oD m) om 2 2 18 2 2 mm} 6) 39 559 457 39 | 58 Min wal = in | ost 086 ase 07s | ons | oun mm | 143 136 164 179 sos | ns Max engi? ein | 6-125 a 36 40 40 a m] 2a rig 097 wig | s219 | ais Max averoge Ib | Ue 5616 05s, sos | ass | sia veight kg | 5 2597 ma 262 | ro | ret Yom water me | 157 o 96 568 ns | oe volume titer | 44 2m D4 1609 | 262 | 200 2 Specifications areas defited in United States Code of Federal Regulations Tite 9 2 Length canbe varied to meet spec equiroments > Ipeiodes ent fing. Sours” CPladua Liquefaction is another approach that has been widely used for efficient stcrage and transportation of industrial gases. Gases typically errerge from ‘he liquefaction process saturated at approximatelr atmospheric pressure and from this poin: are transported and stored in eryogeni: vessels. These are typically double-walled ves- se with an ianer container design:d for the working pressure and temperatu:e of the product and an outer casing designed for ambient emperaturss and external pressure. In between the two vessels is a high-performance insulatien system which is wsually evacuated for the purpose of further enhancing thermal protection. Sruc- tual members to support the inner container and pipingto provide access to it are also located in the insulation space. Heatis continuously entering the vessel through the insulation, supports, and internal piping. This heat wil make the liquid contents bol, and the resultant zas must te removed from the tank if the pressure and tenperature of the contents ate tobe held steady. For tais reason, heat leak must be minimized The thernal efficicacy of the tank desiga is expressed in terns of the percentage of full expacity thot will be lost per day when the tank is hed at atmospheric fressure. This parameter is termed the nornsal evaporaion rate (NER) ‘and is produc: specific. Table C8.2 summarizes the specifications of typical tancage applied in vatious prodvction and distribution funetions Gaseous sate storage at high pressures and liquid state storage at cryogenic temperatures both have their placc in industry today. Therefore, itis important 10 Compare theit relative exonomics. The primary costs to be compared are those for storage vessel constructian, transpertation, power to acheve the storage stateand product loss. The constriction metiods used in forged high-pressure receiver: are very different from thove used in high thermal efficiency eryogeric temperature vesels. However, the resultant costs per unit weight may be considered equal for(RYOGENICPIPING SYSTEMS 0398 TABLEC8.Z Typical Specifications for Crrogenic Stonge Vessels 3 Model © DM- | DM | DM- | DM- | Dé- DM- | DM- 900°} 150% | 3000 | ooo | sao | 1100 | 13000 Capacty Warm Water git 960 | 1585 | 100 | 6020 | 9:80 | 1130¢ | 12300 liter 3634 | 6000 | 11734 | 22788 | 34°49 | 42771 | 50345 Net Liquid gel 900 | 1490 | 3000] 5880) 8900 | “11000 | 13000 titer or | sow | rise | 22058 | sse9 | snose | 42209 | Oxygen 1€00 cuft | 1040 | 171.0 |:3453 | 76 | r0a.4 | 12560 | 14960 | em oA 17790 | 2626:| 33277 | 39322 | Nivogn acoveue | s38'| i384] ams [ser | exxr | aoost [anion com 2203 | 36363] -t3ar_| 14301 | aui82 | 26916'| 31805 | 2 92s 71000 eu ft }-401.2 | 167.6-}°3375%p6615 | 108.3 | 1237.0.|-14620 | “um 2660-408 |~ 8871 ~) 17388 | 26e19-|-32515 | 38429 | nin 159 | 15-9 | 1540 | 262 | 297 | 315, | 360 a 48 | 48 |-433 |-20:| 99.|-96 | x0 | ftin 66° | 66°) 80 80 bs | 102° | 102 | em | 19°] a9-[-24-[-26 Weight ‘Tare 1000 Ib 95 | 105 | 155 | 27.9 f 10k | 43 | 48} 70 | 127 | we] 213 | m7 Orvgen: >, 100%.) 184.) 248] 44a} 999 | s24s | 1520,] 1700, vie wins 1 10 KB, | 82 | 112"); 200 | 38.0; | sea") | Nitrogen 1056 15 |) 156 [20:6') 357 -| 672.7] 910 *]> 1000 kg, Ta} °93'| 162° | 307° |) 439 “Argon 1000 Ib 20.0."}: 28.0: | $04 >| 96.3.) 1405 =}175.0.4.:201.0- so kg | 69.4 | t27-}-229 | 423 |. a7. |. 794.|.< 912 Design parameters . * ele NER (oxygen % per day}. 04 04 05, 03 0.5 0.25. 0.23, MAWE sia 250.,} 280} 20 } 50 :|--25) | 250 | “so bar 172} 172} 172 |. 172 172 172, 17.2" ‘Source Tayior-Wharton Div Harsco Corp.