II

, MSc
07/12/2010

ii
:

2 , 07/12/2010
[ Web Edition ]
Copyright 2009 2010
:

3.0
:
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/gr/

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iii

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:
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/gr/

XELaTEX.

mercurial repository.

:
http://diktia.chania-lug.gr
mirror site:
http://www.freebsdworld.gr/diktia/theBookII.pdf

iv
( )

,
.
, Richard Bach

vi
( )

vii

II
. 20102011. , ,

. , ,
.
Creative Commons
.

(2004)
, , .
. ,
, .
, ,
.
.
,
,
.
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, . , Buter , .
, .

viii


I
6
6.1 . . . . . .
6.2
6.5 ISDN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.8 xDSL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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7 Internet
7.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.1.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2 TCP/IP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2.1 TCP/IP . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2.2 OSI TCP/IP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2.2.1 . . . . . . . . . .
7.2.2.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2.2.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2.2.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2.3 TCP/IP
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3 TCP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3.1 TCP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.4 UDP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.5 IP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.6.1 (Media Access
Control, MAC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.6.2 IP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.6.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.6.3.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.7 ARP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3
3
4
6
11
17
17
17
22
22
25
27
28
29
30
31
36
42
45
48
55
56
57
62
64
67

7.8

, Domain Name System (DNS)

7.8.1 DNS . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.9.1 TCP/IP . . . . . . . . . . .
7.9.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.9.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.9.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.11.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.11.2 . . .

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72
78
81
85
89
90
92
96
96
98

8
117
8.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
8.1.1 (Configuration Management) . . . 118
8.1.2 (Performance Management)120
8.1.3 (Fault Management) . . . . . . . . 121
8.1.4 (Accounting Management) . . . . . . 123
8.1.5 (Security Management) . . . . . . . 123
8.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
8.3.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
8.3.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
8.3.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
8.3.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
8.3.4.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
8.3.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
8.3.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

II

145

147


PSTN . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ISDN . . . . . . . .
ISDN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SDSL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5
9
10

OSI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
OSI TCP/IP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
TCP/IP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
TCP/IP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SMTP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
TCP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
(Header) TCP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
TCP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
TCP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
TCP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
UDP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
UDP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
IP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fragments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fragments . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.23 IP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.24 IP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

18
19
21
26
26
31
32
33
35
37
38
38
41
42
44
47
47
48
50
54
57

6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7
7.8
7.9
7.10
7.11
7.12
7.13
7.14
7.15
7.16
7.17
7.18
7.19
7.20
7.21
7.22

13

59
59
61

xii

7.25
7.26
7.27
7.28
7.29
7.30
7.31
7.32
7.33
7.34
7.35
7.36
7.37

. . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
ARP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
TCP/IP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
DNS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
DNS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
TCP/IP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
TCP/IP TCP/IP . . . . . . 91
,, TCP/IP . . . . . . . . . . 93
,,, TCP/IP
94
browsers: Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, Apple Safari107
Skype . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7
8.8

OSI . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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. . . . . .

firewall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

118
119
121
122
134
136
138
141

( )
, ,
. , ,
. (). ,
.
,
( ) (xDSL).

6.1

.
, .
,
, .
Wide Area Networks (WAN).
,
. ( , modem, ..).

( ), , ,
.

.
.
( ) .
(.. )
. ( WAN)
:
:
( )

.25
:
Frame Relay
ISDN
ATM
xDSL
: 2001, .
. ,
( )
.

6.2
,
, .

6.2

PSTN, Public
Switched Telephone Network, ( ) .

, .
,
.
,
, .
:
, . , ( )
.
, , modem.
modems, ,

. modem . modem Internet
() . modem .

6.1: PSTN

6.1:
.

.
PSTN
56Kbps. ,
.
, ,
. Internet on-line
, (.. )
, -. ,
.

6.5 ISDN
(), ( ,
, video), ( )
. , Hellaspac
Hellascom . telex ( ), ..
, :

.

6.5 ISDN

, , .
, .
.
Integrated Services Digital Network, ISDN. ISDN , , video
.
: (
)
( POTS, Plain Old Telephone System, .
). ,
( , 300HZ 3400HZ). ,
ISDN , (;
).
ISDN,
, ( ), , , video.
, (
) , ( ) .
ISDN :
: ISDN . ( )
.
(common channel signaling).
(.. ,
...)
:

( ()).

,
.
(Basic Rate Interface, BRI) (2 -B) (1 -D).
64 KBps .
( ) 8000 HZ 8bit. D 16 KBps
( / ).

. , ,
. ISDN
. , 128 KBps.
D ( )
144 KBps.
(Primary Rate Interface, PRI) 30
( 64 Kbps) D ,
64 Kbps ( BRI
16 Kbps). 30 1 D,
64 Kbps (framing) .
B D.
framing ( ): , (.. )


. ,
,
.
3064 Kbps ( ) + 1
64 Kbps ( D) + 1 X 64 Kbps ( ) = 2048
Kbps = 2,048 Mbps.
1. ,
23B+D.
D 64 Kbps
( B D) 8 Kbps

6.5 ISDN

6.2: ISDN
.
23 64 Kbps ( ) + 1 64 Kbps ( D) + 1 X 8 Kbps (
) = 1544 Kbps = 1,544 Mbps.
ISDN (

),
. NT1.
ISDN (.. )
ISDN
. ( ) .
( ,
). NT1 8 -

10

150 .
ISDN ( ), .
, FAX 4, .
() ( ): ,
ISDN, . ; ISDN , . TA (ADC, Analog to Digital Converter)
, (DAC, Digital to Analog Converter) .

NT1 . Netmod .

ISDN . 30 30 . ISDN
.

6.3: ISDN
.
. -

6.8 xDSL

11

30 (23
). ISDN

, ,

6.2: ISDN
.
, ( ADSL
). (ADSL), ISDN
/ ,
.
ISDN , ISDN
(Narrow Band ISDN). (
) ISDN (Broadband ISDN) .

6.8

xDSL

xDSL (Digital Subscriber Line)

ISDN .
, () (local loop). DSL
, x ADSL,
R-ADSL, HDSL, SDSL, VDSL. ISDN
(B) 64Kbps
16Kbps.

12

DSL
,
. , modem
PSTN 56Kbps ()
( video,
) Internet.
56Kbps ( modem V90)
email.
(Fiber to Home),
.
( ): (
)
(loading coils). , (300-3400Hz)
. , DSL.

DSL. -
( 6 )
, DSL.
xDSL Mbps. ( ).
, 1 (2,048
Mbps) 1 (1,544 Mbps) .
.
(baseband modem). modem,
.
( ) ().
:
. DSL
, .
,

6.8 xDSL

13

Internet. -
2-3 . , DSL .
(
;)
: (
, upstream), (
, downstream)
.

6.4:
SDSL
DSL (SDSL, upstream
downstream) DSL (ADSL, upstream /
downstream). xDSL
. , ,
downstream ( ,
).
(upstream)
(web server ) . DSL E1 1.
: DSL -

14

ADSL

Assymetric
DSL

ADSL
Lite
HDSL
SDSL
VDSL

1
1

High-bit-rate
DSL
Single Line
DSL
Very-high-bit
rate DSL

2
3
1
1

8 Mbps downstream
1,5 Mbps upstream
1 Mbps downstream
384 Kbps upstream
2 Mbps Full Duplex (E1)
1,5 Mbps Full Duplex (T1)
2 Mbps Full Duplex (E1)
1,5 Mbps Full Duplex (T1)
13 52 Mbps downstream
1,5 2,3 Mbps upstream

3 Km
6,6 7,5 Km

3,5 4,5 Km
3 Km

0,3 1,4 Km

6.3: xDSL
baseband modems ( )

. , , . 6.4 - -
SDSL.

128 Kbps
256 Kbps
384 Kbps
512 Kbps
768 Kbps
1152 Kbps
1536 Kbps
2048 Kbps
2304 Kbps

0.4 mm
6.5
5.5
5.1
4.7
4.4
3.8
3.3
2.5
2.2

0.5 mm
8.9
7.5
7.0
6.4
6.0
5.2
4.5
3.4
3.0

0.6 mm
12.7
10.8
10.0
9.2
8.6
7.4
6.5
4.9
4.3

0.8 mm
16.1
13.6
12.6
11.6
10.9
9.4
8.2
6.2
5.4

1.0 mm
22.5
19.0
17.6
16.3
15.2
13.1
11.4
8.7
7.6

1.2 mm
25.1
21.2
19.7
18.1
17.0
14.7
12.7
9.7
8.5

6.4: ( Km)
SDSL modem
6.3 ,
ADSL ADSL Lite.
.. (
). HDSL SDSL , (

6.8 xDSL

15

1 1) .
DSL .
DSL
online
, , video (video on demand),
, , IP telephony .. 6.5 .

Internet,
intranet,

IP (VoIP, Voice
Over IP)

,
1 1.
Video
(Video on Demand),

6.5: xDSL

16

 7
Internet

. OSI (
). OSI

. TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol,
) (Internet).
:

7.1
7.1.1

. -

18

Internet

,
. . 7.1
OSI
.
.

7.1: OSI

. ( ).
( 7.2)
OSI,

7.1

19

(. , ).
.
.
(
) (
OSI).

7.2:
.


.
: (
)
( ,

20

Internet

).
:


, :
(Virtual Circuit, VC)
(datagrams)
:
.
. ,
,
.
. ,

.
;
,

(
). ,

(
).
:

7.1

21

7.3:
,
, .


.
. ,

. -

22

Internet

( )
.
7.3 : 3,
2, 3 D V.
, .
. , ()
.
,
,
.

7.2 TCP/IP
7.2.1 TCP/IP
TCP/IP
,
.
:
.
. , (.. Windows
UNIX) ( ).
To TCP/IP Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol .
, TCP IP ( ,
).

7.2 TCP/IP

23

TCP/IP

.
: :
FTP (File Transfer Protocol, ), SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol, ) . .
TCP/IP . / . TCP/IP
, () .
TCP/IP :


TCP/IP
,
. TCP/IP,
(
, (hardware)
).
: TCP/IP
TCP IP.
TCP/IP
TCP/IP TCP/IP (Internet).
TCP/IP, TCP/IP (TCP/IP internets).
TCP/IP (Internet).

Internet I TCP/IP,
internet .

24

Internet

TCP/IP TCP/IP. (Internet)

.
TCP/IP ( ).
()
Internet. ..
(World Wide Web, WWW).
Internet, TCP intranet.
.
:
1960 (ARPA, Advanced Research Projects Agency).
DARPA (Defense Advanced Research Projects
Agency). 1960, , :
.

. ( ) .
,
, .
() .
ARPANET
.
ARPANET 1971,
(: FTP telnet). .
ARPANET ,
1974 TCP/IP -

7.2 TCP/IP

25

.
:

. ,
( ).
1982 TCP/IP . TCP/IP ARPANET
.
ARPANET
.
MILNET ARPANET
.
, ARPANET
, .
Internet.

7.2.2

OSI TCP/IP

TCP/IP OSI .
,
.
OSI . TCP/IP . OSI TCP/IP
.
. 7.4,
. , OSI
TCP/IP, .
TCP/IP , TCP/IP
.
, OSI
() .

26

Internet

7.4: OSI TCP/IP

7.5 TCP/IP
OSI . TCP/IP, .

TCP
, User Datagram Protocol, UDP . , IP
, Internet Control Message Protocol, ICMP.
()
.

7.5: TCP/IP

7.5:
TCP . UDP . ,

7.2 TCP/IP

27

IP ICMP.
:
Telnet: Telecommunications Network (: Teletype Network) ( ) .
SSH (Secure Shell).
FTP: File Transfer Protocol
.
FTP.
SMTP: Simple Mail Transfer Protocol .
( email) Internet
.
TFTP: (Trivial
FTP) FTP

( )
FTP.

7.2.2.1

.

: ,
, . TCP/IP
( OSI),
, . TCP/IP
. TCP/IP
(Ethernet,
Token ring ).

28

Internet

7.2.2.2

TCP UDP ().
IP . IP
( IP)
( .
). (IP)
.
: ; IP (.. )
,
MAC
. Ethernet,
.
(
) - MAC (Media Access
Control) OSI. IP . ARP
(Address Resolution Protocol) RARP (Reverse Address Resolution Protocol).
ARP:
RARP:
ICMP, Internet Control
Message Protocol .
IP.
. TCP/IP
.
(.. ) -

7.2 TCP/IP

29

.

$ ping 10.14.28.11
Pinging 10.14.28.11 with 32 bytes of data:
Destination host unreachable.
Destination host unreachable.
Destination host unreachable.
Destination host unreachable.
Ping statistics for 10.14.28.11:
Packets: Sent = 4, Received = 0, Lost = 4 (100% loss)

, :
$ ping www.freebsdgr.org
PING www.freebsdgr.org (94.71.112.109):
64 bytes from 94.71.112.109: icmp_seq=0
64 bytes from 94.71.112.109: icmp_seq=1
64 bytes from 94.71.112.109: icmp_seq=2

7.2.2.3

56 data bytes
ttl=62 time=21.849 ms
ttl=62 time=21.325 ms
ttl=62 time=20.689 ms

. TCP ( ) UDP (
). TCP
.
TCP (..
). TCP
(). ,

TCP.

TCP
.
.

30

Internet

UDP .
,
TCP.
UDP: Internet UDP. .
.
UDP (
).
,
.

7.2.2.4
()
. ( , , ).
TCP/IP.
7.6
TCP/IP
. () ( server)
.
,
.
(
) .
.
, , (:
).
: Firefox
, .

7.2 TCP/IP

31

7.6:
(Web Server)
.
: :
Linux: netstat -npl |more
FreeBSD: sockstat -4l |more
.
FTP (..
ftp://ftp.otenet.gr) :
Linux: lsof -Pnl +M -i4 | more
FreeBSD: sockstat -4L | more

. Windows,
!

7.2.3

TCP/IP

TCP/IP,
7.7.
, () TCP/IP
,

32

Internet

7.7: TCP/IP
. , .

(

SMTP ).
. SMTP:
. SMTP
SMTP ( 7.8
SMTP).

TCP UDP .
SMTP TCP.

IP -

7.2 TCP/IP

33

.
,
(Ethernet, ADSL, token ring )
(.. )
.

7.8: SMTP
, .
( ) , SMTP.
SMTP (
TCP, ). (..
)
TCP.
: TCP/IP :
: .. SMTP, FTP, HTTP.
(TCP
UDP).
: TCP UDP. . .
: To IP
.

34

Internet
( ): (.. Ethernet).

TCP/IP . ,
. .
:
(.. Internet)
.

( ).
.
, IP .
,
IP ( DNS
). ,
IP .
TCP/IP . ,
.
: 15000
bytes ().
,
. 30 500 bytes.
15000 bytes.
, ( . ).

7.2 TCP/IP

35

, . ..
14 13.

: .
.
TCP. .
Internet
7.9. OSI
, OSI ( 7.1). ;

7.9:

36

Internet

.
.
IP .
IP ,
.
, :
:
,
. , .
Internet ( . ,
ADSL
).
( ) . ,
. ,
IP .
,
.
. ,
.

7.3 TCP
, Transmission Control Protocol TCP
TCP/IP ( UDP -

7.3 TCP

37

). TCP , ,
( 7.10).

7.10:
TCP
(). SMTP
. TCP

. , (
7.11). TCP
segments. TCP.
(Header) (Data).

38

Internet

TCP .
.

7.11: TCP
,
:
Sequence Number
Acknowledgment number
Window Size
(ports) TCP
TCP 7.12
(: Wikipedia). -

7.12: (Header) TCP

. .
.
,

7.3 TCP

39

. , 3,
.
, .

.
(bytes) . ,
1500 1500.
,
.
TCP
.
(Window size). , .
( ).
.
,

.
,
.
: 1000,
1000 .
12000,
12000 12000+1000=13000. .
12000.
: 1 byte . . byte
. , 12000
11999 bytes 12000
.
CP (TCP ports).
TCP ports

40

Internet

. TCP
(
)
TCP .
, TCP
.
(..
Internet , ), .
.
, Firefox , TCP
,
.
(
). ,
,
Firefox.
Firefox (.. tabs), TCP ,
. 7.13.
7-10 ;

: ,
(/)
. IP
. ,
/. (/, IP) ,
/ ( ).
, TCP

7.3 TCP

41

7.13: TCP
. , (.. ) TCP,
(: - (non-privileged)
1024). , ,
, ( , privileged)
1024.
, 80. Firefox, TCP 80
.
. .. FTP 21,
SMTP 25 ...
(:
, listening ports).

42

Internet

7.3.1 TCP
, TCP . TCP
. -

7.14: TCP
TCP
TCP .
( 7.14)
.
:
. .
. , IP
, ( ) . TCP ( ) .

7.3 TCP

43

TCP ,
:
: FTP
(File Transfer Protocol) .
FTP ( ) TCP.
FTP :
FTP .
. FTP .

FTP
.
() () FTP
( ) .
:
O FTP .
( ) FTP .
TCP FTP .
FTP
(port), .. 1234. , (-) , (
).
TCP FTP
21. To 21 ( )
FTP. ,
( server
).
,
1234 21

44

Internet
, TCP .

TCP
(1234) (21).
: .. 21 FTP, 80
HTTP .
.
TCP ,
IP
: IP IP
.
:
IP .. 62.103.240.22.
.
. 1234.
IP .. 61.74.29.32.
, 21.

7.15: TCP

7.4 UDP

45

, TCP
(:
;).
.

;
. ( 7.15):
(FTP) .
(.. Firefox) site ( ) .

. (:
, UNIX
. ).
:
. :
, IP .
, IP .

, .
,

.

7.4

UDP

TCP .
TCP . .
. TCP:
FTP TCP , TCP
FTP .

46

Internet

TCP : (, ,
) TCP .
. , .
, TCP .
. :
.
TCP.
,
:
,

. .

.
, , UDP, User Datagram Protocol
.
UDP :
TCP: ,
UDP
UDP.
: . .
.
.
. UDP
, . .

7.4 UDP

47

.
TCP, UDP (ports), UDP
ports. TCP ( .
) 16 bits ( . 0 65535).
UDP .

7.16: UDP

7.17: UDP
UDP : UDP ports
.
, DNS ( www.sch.gr IP .. 194.63.238.40)
UDP 53 . SNMP (
) 161. , ( TCP) . UDP
, (
7.17, 7.16 - : Wikipedia).

48

Internet

IP TCP UDP
. UDP IP
UDP.

7.5 IP
TCP/IP, IP, Internet
Protocol. IP
datagram,
(
).
, TCP.
TCP UDP
( TCP UDP segments),
IP. IP (
)
. IP.
IP ( )
.
.

7.18: IP
, IP ( 7.18) -

7.5 IP

49

, IP .
64 Kbytes. ,
IP
.
,
( TCP/IP OSI .. Ethernet
, ).
64 Kbyte IP.
: MTU, Maximum
Transfer Unit.
(
, ). Ethernet MTU
1500 bytes.
MTU IP , IP
. , IP
fragments. IP
IP .
fragments
( 7.19).
.
IP.

.
IP IP
IP fragment
. ,
.
IP -

50

Internet

7.19: Fragments
IP fragment IP .
blocks 8 bytes ( ,
wikipedia).
IP

(fragment) .
More Fragments (MF) .
1, fragment
. 0
fragment .
, MF=1 . (:

0 1 flags )

. ,
Dont Fragment, (DF),
1.
IP
. ,
.
:

7.5 IP

51

: .

(: IPv4 IPv6.
IPv6).
:
32 bits.
5. 5*32=160 bits, 8, 160/8=20 bytes.
:
.
IP :
, .
; TOS, Type of Service
:
,
: IP ,
.
64 Kbytes = 64*1024 = 65536 bytes.
20 bytes.
65536-20=65516 bytes.
: 1
. ,
( ).

.
: IP
. ,
6, TCP. ( ,
IP)

52

Internet
: IP
() .
,

.
: IP .
.
: IP .
( ) .
IP : .
:
32 bits. ( IP )

: 1400 bytes
20 bytes,
620 bytes.
Dont Fragment (DF) 0,
. ,
MF
;
:
. .
1420 bytes.
DF=0, !

!
, MF fragments 1
0.
8 ( fragment
).

7.5 IP

53

:
fragment 620 bytes. : fragment. ,
600 bytes 20 bytes .
MF 1. .
0.
.
:
620 bytes. 600 bytes
20 bytes .
H MF 1. .
( )
600 bytes . 600/8=75.
:
200 bytes . 200 bytes + 20 bytes = 220 bytes.
H MF 0.
.
600+600=1200 bytes .
1200/8=150
:
20 bytes 20*8=160 bit.
5 (532=160).

.

IP .
,
. 1
. IP ,
.
.

54

Internet
20 bytes, IP .
.
.

( )
( MF=0).

7.20: Fragments
: ,
. , .
:
, .
100 ( 7.20).
. IP MF .
MF 1, ,
. 0 75,
.
.
. IP , MF=1 o .

7.6

55

IP
(100) IP .
.
. IP ,
MF 0.
IP
. IP
.
(.. TCP, UDP)
. IP
.

7.6

IP ,
IP . ,

.
,
.
(
). ,

(DNS).

IP .
, IP .
.

56

Internet

7.6.1 (Media Access

Control, MAC)
:
IP
(hardware address).
,
. (
)
.
OSI, - Media Access Control,
MAC.
- , MAC . MAC ,
. , . OSI


( IP ).
MAC (
). ( Ethernet) 48 bits.

.
, , IEEE, Institute
of Electrical and Electronic Engineers. 24 bits MAC . 24 bits
( 7.21).
24 bits , OUI, Organization
Unique Identifier. bit ( )
. 0 (Individual) (Group).
, .

7.6

57

7.21:
OUI 1, :

.
bit .
0, IEEE, 1
.
.
. bit (
).
22 bit
IEEE . 24 bit
. (OUI),
(.. Ethernet) .

24 bit ( 24 OUI ).
, IEEE OUI.

7.6.2

IP

TCP/IP IP 32 bit.
IP :

58

Internet

IP
() .

,
.
( DNS ).
IP .
() (
).

.
: , Internet
: 10.14.28.10
Ethernet 81.186.52.182
Internet .
IP , .
( 7.23). , IP . 7.22 :
22.
, 35, 45 55.
(1,2,3,4)
.
,
(octets) .
: octets 8 . byte.
0 255.
( )

7.6

59

7.22:

IP:
bytes = 3 * 8 = 24 bits.
byte = 8 bits
32 bits.
,
( , 254
) .

7.23: IP

60

Internet

( ) Internet,
.
Internet
.
.
,
, Network Information Center, NIC
InterNIC. , NIC

.
: ;
ADSL, IP
Internet ( ). NIC
, . ,
.

. 24 bits,
. ,
24 bits
.
IP 24 + 24 = 48 bits. 32 bits.
, ( ) .
, A, B, C D ( 7.24).
, .
: 0.
octet 00000000 01111111 . 0 127.

7.6

61

7.24: IP
7 bits 24 . : 128
16 .
: B 10.
16 bits ( octets)
14 bits. , octet
10000000 10111111 . 128 191. octets
0 255.
. 16384
65536 .
C: C 110.
21 bits, 8 bits.
2
256 . octet 11000000
11011111 . 192 223. octets
0 255.
D: D :
(multicast). . D
octet 1110.
, IP
8 bits (octets ) .
.. :
10.14.28.32

62

Internet

.
,
. ,
:
...
C, :
...
, C 192.168.2.34.
192.168.2 , 34 .


.

7.6.3
,
(subnets) bits.
,
IP. ,
.
.
:
: , 128.6... ,

. , Ethernet.
128.6.5. 128.6.4..
().
.
(.. 7.25) , 128.6.. (

7.6

63

7.25:
) .
, : 128.6.4 128.6.5,
.

128.6...
, B
C.
B, .
C , . NIC Class
B,
, Class B
Class C.
Class B
NIC, Class C; .
.
, ,
. Class C ,
. -

64

Internet

128.6
, 128.6.4 128.6.5.
.
,
( )

.
7.6.3.1
(subnet mask) bit, IP
.
32 bit IP.
.
IP:
10.14.28.10
, :
00001010.00001110.00011100.00001010
:
255.255.255.0
:
11111111.11111111.111111111.00000000
, AND
. AND 1
1:
00001010.00001110.00011100.00001010
11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000
AND
00001010.00001110.00011100.00000000
, 10.14.28.0
.
:
1, IP . -

7.6

65

7.26:
0, IP
. 7.26.
(MAC) , IP bits 1 (
255.255.255.255 )

.

1
.
: 10.14.28..
:
10.14.28.0
, 0 .
1,
11111111=255.
:
10.14.28.255
IP 176.44.25.19 255.255.0.0 ;

(Internet). , 32 bit -

66

Internet

(
). ,
.
. 70000 ,
B ,
.
300 .
C , 65000 !
, - (Classless InterDomain Routing) CIDR.
, . .
(/) IP .
IP ( ) . , :
10.14.28.10/24
24 . 24 bit (. 3 bytes, )
8 bit .
255.255.255.0.
8. :
10.14.28.10/27
27 , 5 .
32 .
CIDR ( ISP,
Internet Service Providers).

7.7 ARP

67

.
ISP.
,
() ISP.
: IP
Windows . TCP/IP . , :
ipconfig /all |more
UNIX
:
ifconfig

7.7

ARP

:
(MAC) (.. ).
, IEEE.
IP TCP/IP .
Internet, NIC, .

. ( Ethernet)
ARP, Address Resolution Protocol,
. ARP
( ) TCP/IP.
ARP; Ethernet, , ( Ethernet

68

Internet

). .
ARP,

IP . ARP,

.
ARP IP
.
(IP , ).
, ,
( ). .
ARP IP
.
IP MAC
( ).
ARP (IP , ).
. . ARP :
IP
223.1.2.1
223.1.2.3
223.1.2.4

Ethernet
08-00-39-00-2F-C3
08-00-5A-21-A7-22
08-00-10-99-AC-54

ARP IP,
ARP :
ARP,
.
, ARP.

. IP .
IP ,

.

7.7 ARP

69

,
ARP, IP
.
,
ARP.
, , ARP , . ,
. ARP
, (
). .
,
.
,
IP . ARP
IP.
. RARP,
Reverse Address Resolution Protocol, ARP. .
IP . ( ARP)
,
RARP.
;
IP ; / NIC
IP !
: , Internet
(..
ADSL ).
Internet.
.
:
. . - ,
.

70

Internet

, IP.

ARP . ,
IP.

RARP. IP ,
RARP (: IP
!). ARP
IP
.
, RARP . BOOTP DHCP
, ( IP)
.

: IP 128.6.4.194
128.6.4.7:
128.6.4.194
128.6.4.7
(Ethernet). ( ).
ARP
128.6.4.7.
.
128.6.4.7 ARP,

. ARP
Ethernet 128.6.4.7.


128.6.4.7 08:00:20:01:56:34 ( Ethernet 48 bit, . 6 ).
, 128.6.4.194
128.6.4.7.

7.7 ARP

71

ARP ,
.
ARP , IP
( .
IP
NIC,
IEEE).
(.. , Telnet)
.
TCP ( telnet
TCP). TCP
IP IP .
, (Ethernet)
.
ARP, IP
ARP ( 7.27). Ethernet .
.
, ARP

.
. ARP
IP ARP, . IP
, IP (Ethernet)
ARP , Ethernet
.
, :
ARP .
IP .
ARP
ARP.
, IP Ethernet.

72

Internet

7.27: ARP
IP ,
Ethernet .
ARP,
ARP IP IP
.

7.8 , Domain Name System (DNS)

,
IP . IP 32 bit
(
octets) .
IP :
94.69.78.90

7.8 , Domain Name System (DNS)

73

..
. ,
.
: :
10.14.28.10
,
:
aquarius64.lab1.local

PC1, PC2, PC3
,
IP . DNS .
, IP .
.
, .
IP . IP
.
IP (
), ,
IP.

() .
,
. ,

, ,
( ).

74

Internet

: ,
.:
accounting-pc01
:
(accounting, )
(pc, )
(01)
.
pc ,
()
, .
:
accounting-lpr01
(To lpr line printer, )

,
.
,
IP .
( ),
IP .

IP .
,
,
.
,

IP .
7.28.
, , , (
).
:

7.8 , Domain Name System (DNS)

75

7.28: TCP/IP

192.168.0.1
192.168.0.2
192.168.0.3
192.168.0.4

,
.
,
192.168.0.3. :
IP .
:
hosts. , hosts
:
127.0.0.1
10.14.28.10
10.14.28.11
10.14.28.12
10.14.28.13
10.14.28.14

localhost localhost.lab1.local
aquarius64.lab1.local aquarius64
PC1.lab1.local PC1
PC2.lab1.local PC2
PC3.lab1.local PC3
PC4.lab1.local PC4

IP
.
hosts .
, Windows :
C:\Windows\System32\Drivers\etc\hosts
UNIX :
\etc\hosts

76

Internet

.

.
:
.

. , .
.
,
(ASCII) .
.
.

, .
DNS, Domain Name System. DNS . DNS
.
,
. DNS
Internet, :
. Internet.
DNS . ,
, :
joshua.freebsdgr.org
joshua freebsdgr.org. DNS

7.8 , Domain Name System (DNS)

77

freebsdgr.org.
joshua .

7.29:

DNS, . .
( ).
, DNS
,
( 7.29). DNS
.

.
(..
).
DNS DNS . DNS
( ).
( ) .

78

Internet

:
joshua.freebsdgr.org
:
DNS .org.
DNS joshua
DNS freebsdgr.org
org.
joshua.
joshua.freebsdgr.org = 94.71.69.206
.
. : DNS .org
joshua.freebsdgr.org freebsdgr.org
DNS 204.13.248.75. .
.
DNS, :
nslookup
dig
.

7.8.1 DNS
DNS . . 7.30.

.
,

7.8 , Domain Name System (DNS)

79

7.30: DNS
.
:
- .arpa:
- .com:
- .edu:
- .gov:
- .mil:
- .net:
- .org:
( - )
(
.. .com
) .
( ) . , .gr,
.de .uk.

domain. ,
(
). . (domain names)

. domain names .
, ntua.gr . domain ntua

80

Internet

.gr
(NTUA=National Technical University of Athens).
, freebsdgr.org domain freebsdgr
.org.
.
domain name . ,
() .
subdomain. , domain name
. :
telecom.ntua.gr
telecom subdomain domain ntua
.gr ().
(
) ( 7.31).

7.31: DNS

. , subdomain:
telecom.ntua.gr
pc01 , :

7.9

81
pc01.telecom.ntua.gr

, . . subdomain
. :
www.freebsdgr.org
www domain freebsdgr.org.
.

() .
,
:
: pc01.telecom.ntua.gr
- gr: ( , )
- ntua: .
.gr
- telecom:
. ntua.
- pc01: .
: (
) domain, whois
UNIX. :
whois freebsdgr.org
freebsdgr.org (
). .gr.

7.9

82

Internet

. , ( Internet)

.


. ( ),
.
.

.
,

( ). , , .
,
. , ,
, .
, :
: - .
: .
: - .. .
: .
.

7.9

83

.
:
. .


OSI TCP/IP (.. ). ,
.
:

.

.

. .

:
(. )
( . )
,
.
. . ,
.
. , .
() . .
, .
. .

84

Internet

,
.
:



.

.
(CPU, Central Processing Unit)
.
. ,
(..
, ).

.
.

.

. ,
,
.
,
(
).
:
:
:

7.9

85

( )


. : ,
, .

7.9.1

TCP/IP

TCP/IP
IP
( ),
.
TCP/IP
.
:
- hosts: . ,
.
- routers:
.
: . (routers).
, ( ). ,

.
. IP

86

Internet

.
, . IP,
. , .
,
.
: . ...

.
IP
:
(direct routing):
. , . .
(indirect routing): . .
.
IP
, . ,
192.168.0.42 192.168.0.31, ,
192.168.0.
. ,
.
(Internet)
, .
.

7.9

87

.
( ,
rack
).
.
,
,
.
,
.
: default gateway.
.
( Windows / Linux / FreeBSD):
netstat -rn
:
Routing tables
Internet:
Destination
default
127.0.0.1

Gateway
192.168.0.250
127.0.0.1

Flags
UGS
UH

Refs Use Netif Expire

0
325353 rl0
0
13404
lo0

192.168.0.250.
, ,
Flags G.

.

.
,
:
. ICMP.
.

88

Internet

: 128.6.4 ,
128.6.4.59 128.6.4.1. 128.6.4.59
, 128.6.4.1 .
128.6.4.59
.
;
1. ,
, 128.6.4.59.
.
2. , 128.6.4.1 .
. ICMP
: ,
128.6.4.1.
3. ICMP,
. ,
,
128.6.4.1.
(:
).

IP:
= . 128.6.3.2, = .. 128.6.3

7.9

89

7.9.2

, 7.32. Ethernet.
,
, .
Ethernet ( MAC Address).
IP .

7.32: TCP/IP

90

Internet

IP ,
IP IP
. , Ethernet
Ethernet

B, :
IP
Ethernet

, IP Ethernet. ,
, IP. Ethernet (
), Ethernet
.

IP
.
IP B IP ,
IP (
, Ethernet ). ,
.
.

7.9.3
7.33 TCP/IP
().
. Ethernet .
() IP ,
. IP (
, )
Ethernet.

7.9

91

7.33: TCP/IP TCP/IP

, . ,
,

.

.
.
, (). ()
, .
, ().
.
, IP IP .
Ethernet , .
() (
, Ethernet ).
Ethernet (), ( ) .

92

Internet

E .
,

Ethernet . , Ethernet
.
IP
Ethernet

()

IP () IP
IP , .
E, Ethernet . ,
, :
IP
Ethernet

7.9.4
,
. IP
,
. IP
. () . :
IP -
IP . .. IP 223.1.2.3 255.255.255.0,
223.1.2
/ - (.
) ( )
IP - IP
- ,
.

7.9

93

- ,
.
,
. ,
. ,
.. 1
: .
.
, IP .
, ( )
.

7.34: ,, TCP/IP
7.34.
IP , . 223.1.2.2.

94

Internet

223.1.2 (:
,
).
. :

(223.1.2)

,
. , . ( )
. Ethernet,
Ethernet ARP
1. 7.35

7.35: ,,, TCP/IP

. , ( )
.

7.9

95

.

IP
:

(223.1.2)
(223.1.3)
(223.1.4)

1
1
1

( ):
1. IP
IP .
2. ( )
.
3. .
4. ARP Ethernet
( ,
IP -
. Ethernet ,
)
5. To 1 ( )
.
.
, IP
.
6. O .

.
.

96

Internet

(223.1.2)
(223.1.3)
(223.1.4)

1
3
2

1. IP
, IP .
223.1.3
2. ,
.
3. IP 3.
IP Ethernet
. E , IP . .

7.11
7.11.1

TCP/IP. :




,

.
TCP, IP
, ().
.

7.11

97

.

. :





.

,
.
( )
TCP/IP, .
: , .
get, put, send.
( )
.
.
.
. (.. ), .
.
.
,
.
:

98

Internet
.
ASCII EBCDIC.
/
.
.

. .. Windows
UNIX.

( ) .
TCP IP .

7.11.2
TCP/IP:

email
() .
. e-mail . email .
, , e-mail
. , .
,
,
, , ...

7.11

99

, .

.
.
, . (.. ) .

e-mail ( Fax ).
.
.

.
.

: email
email . :

.
, .. ( ).

email.
spam.
(phishing)
/ ( ).

100

Internet

() ,
. TCP/IP
- Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (: -
). SMTP :
SMTP (DNS).
. , email
user1@otenet.gr, SMTP otenet.gr , .
SMTP , TCP 25. 25 .
SMTP
.
, SMTP

. (.. ).
, (DATA)
. ,

.

(FTP, File Transfer Protocol)

, FTP
TCP/IP. -.
(
).
. FTP
TCP . TCP ,

7.11

101

. FTP
.
FTP - .
.. ,
.
,
.
.
FTP . FTP ,
,
( , FTP
/
UNIX -
).
,
. FTP
() (). ( ,
).
: To FTP , ,
. . FTP

(
).
.
FTP
SMTP . FTP . ( ) FTP . ,

102

Internet

.
,
. - :

[13:56:31][pulstar]$ ftp www.freebsdworld.gr

Connected to freebsdworld.gr.
220---------- Welcome to Pure-FTPd [privsep] [TLS] ---------220-You are user number 2 of 50 allowed.
220-Local time is now 05:56. Server port: 21.
220 You will be disconnected after 15 minutes of inactivity.
Name (www.freebsdworld.gr:user1): user1
331 User user1 OK. Password required
Password:
230-User user1 has group access to: user1
230 OK. Current restricted directory is /
Remote system type is UNIX.
Using binary mode to transfer files.
ftp> ls
drwxr-x--- 12 user1 user1 4096 Nov 9 16:01 .
drwx--x--x 12 user1 user1 4096 Feb 12 15:54 ..
drwxr-xr-x 2 user1 user1 4096 Oct 26 08:53 etc
drwxr-x--- 8 user1 user1 4096 Dec 17 00:20 mail
-rw-r--r-- 1 user1 user1 39228 Oct 27 16:41 php.ini
drwxr-x--- 3 user1 user1 4096 Oct 26 08:53 public_ftp
drwxr-x--- 12 user1 user1 4096 Nov 9 16:01 public_html
226 7 matches total
ftp> cd public_html
250 OK. Current directory is /public_html
drwxr-x--- 12 user1 user1 4096 Nov 9 16:01 .
drwx--x--x 12 user1 user1 4096 Feb 12 15:54 ..
drwxr-xr-x 2 user1 user1 4096 Sep 16 13:40 scripts
-rw-r--r-- 1 user1 user1 31877 Oct 26 11:10 site-logo.png
226 4 matches total
ftp> get site-logo.png
local: site-logo.png remote: site-logo.png
229 Extended Passive mode OK (|||11932|)
150-Accepted data connection
150 31.1 kbytes to download
100% |***********************************| 31877 40.25 KiB/s
226-File successfully transferred

7.11

103

226 0.004 seconds (measured here), 7.90 Mbytes per second

31877 bytes received in 00:00 (40.23 KiB/s)
ftp> bye
221-Goodbye. You uploaded 0 and downloaded 32 kbytes.
221 Logout.

,
. FTP 150-Accepted
data connection.
. FTP,
( email ),
. ,
(..
) () .
, TCP port 21 (command channel)
TCP port 20 (data channel).
: FTP , passive mode.
, 229 Extended Passive mode
OK.
FTP, TFTP,
Trivial File Transfer Protocol .
FTP

. TFTP UDP
.
- Telnet (Telecommunications Network Teletype
Network)
Telnet , . telnet

104

Internet

, ,
.

, ( Telnet
UNIX). ,
telnet,
Internet.
Telnet , (
) .

.
: FTP, telnet
( ) .

.
telnet
SSH, Secure Shell
.
,

.
: UNIX

, .
UNIX
. , . ,
-

7.11

105

Telnet. telnet
.
Telnet
TCP/IP. telnet.
. .. Telnet

.
Telnet FTP SMTP
.
Telnet . ,
Telnet TCP
TCP port 23.
, .
Telnet.
() ,
.
.
.

Telnet (..
) ( )

Telnet.
telnet:

[15:39:25][sonic@pulstar:~]$ telnet pegasus

Trying 62.71.35.221...
Connected to pegasus.chania-lug.gr.
Escape character is ^].
FreeBSD/amd64 (pegasus.dyndns.org) (pts/3)

106

Internet

login: sonic
Password:
Last login: Mon Feb 15 15:39:14 from localhost
Copyright (c) 1992-2009 The FreeBSD Project.
Copyright (c) 1979, 1980, 1983, 1986, 1988, 1989, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994
The Regents of the University of California. All rights reserved.
FreeBSD 8.0-RELEASE-p2 (PEGASUS) #1: Sat Jan 30 22:05:14 EET 2010
Welcome to FreeBSD!
[15:40:45][sonic@pegasus:~]$ ls -d */
Desktop/
data/
html/
GNUstep/
diktia-new/
logos/
UNIX/
external/
logs/
bin/
fonts/
multimedia/
books/
freebsd-book/ nethome/

notes/
original/
page/
some/
tarballs/

logout
Connection closed by foreign host.

(World Wide Web, WWW)

World Wide Web WWW .

.
- hypermedia .
, video . .
, . links .

7.11

107

.
. , .
(links).
, / ,
() .

,
(highlighted).
, , browsers.


.

7.36: browsers: Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, Apple Safari

,
, -

108

Internet

, (video).

(hypermedia).
WWW () FTP,
, HTTP, Hypertext Transfer Protocol. . ( Web Servers)
.

, .
,

browsers. browsers . browsers Mozilla Firefox, MS Internet
Explorer Opera.
,
. , .

(ISPs, Internet
Service Providers).
.

. ( WWW).
(web site) (home page) www.
, .

.
Internet

. -

7.11

109

.
,
. Google, Google,
Google, Google, Bing, Yahoo .
: 1993 130 Web
sites, 1994 10000, 1996 100000 1997 650000.
2009 200000000 ( !)
sites. , 1994 6%
Internet 1995 24%.
5 1996, 22 1996
1.5 . 2009!
: Netcraft, http://www.netcraft.com

, WAP, Wireless Application
Protocol ()
,
Internet. , :
Internet

email
( )
()
: WAP (3G, GPRS).
TCP/IP (Intranets)

110

Internet

. TCP/IP Intranets.
, Intranets Web. . (browsers).

.
, Intranet Internet .
. Intranet :
, .
( , Internet ,
).
Intranet :

Web ( , )

Intranets ( WWW clients, browsers).

.

,
. . . ,
( ).
half-duplex . . .
(full-duplex).

7.11

111

(
).

7.37: Skype
half full duplex,
.
( ) (.. ).
(
, ). .

,

.

112

Internet

: . TCP/IP VoIP, Voice Over IP.

,
.
video (video ).
.

,
. , video
(streaming),
.
video ,
, (bitrate)
. ,
video .

( ) video .
MPEG1 MPEG2
,
H.323. 12-15 , (25-30 ).


.
. ,

. ,
Internet 64Kbps.

7.11

113

, CU SeeMee Cornell University.

8-12 , . ,
. ( )
.
,
: , ,
. ,
( )
.
: ,

.
, .

, . ,
.
,
. ()
.
TCP/IP video. , :
.
,
.

.
.

114

Internet
.

.
UNIX, talk Windows, wintalk.
. ( ) IRC, Internet Relay Chat.
. IRC
XChat, IRCII, miRC ..
: MSN messenger, Google Talk,
.

.
, ,
! , ,
Internet.
,
.
, EDI, Electronic Data Interchange .
email.

:
(web site) ,
.
, . email ,
, Shopping
Basket.
,
.

7.11

115

,
.
, browser
() . .
, ( .. )
.

( , ,
, ), , , , . , , .

116

Internet

, .
WAN
VLAN.
.
,
. ,
.

/ . , .
.
.
, . ,
. .

118

8.1
(ISO, International Standards Organization)
(framework)
OSI. :
(Configuration Management)
(Performance Management)
(Fault Management)
(Accounting Management)
(Security Management)

8.1: OSI
.

8.1.1 (Configuration Management)

.
,

8.1

119

. , ( OSI)
. (, ) ,
. ,
.
,
(documentation).
.
, .
switch
. ,
firewall ( ), (TCP ports) .
,
.

8.2:

120

(inventory database) .
(..
, , switches ). ( ethernet, token ring )
WAN ( PPP, dial-up / isdn,
X.25, Frame Relay ). , ,
.
( ) .

8.1.2 (Performance Management)

,
.
.
, :
WAN
.
.. TCP/IP, IPX, Netbios
.
.
.
.
( ).
, (alarms).

. .
.
,

8.1

121

8.3:
. ,
.
( 8.3).

8.1.3

(Fault Management)

. , .
,
(
. ) .
,

122

, .
,
.

8.4:

( ).
.

.

(alarms) (log files). ,
. ,

.

8.3

8.1.4

123

(Accounting Management)

.
.
.

8.1.5

(Security Management)

, - (
).
.
.
,
,
. ,
.
:
-
.
.
. ( ,
).
.

8.3

Internet (
),

124

. . , ,
.

8.3.1
, . . , . (
).
.
() , . ,
.
,
, () .
, , .
,
. ,
, .
, .
:

.
: UNIX (daemons). , Windows (services). ,
.

8.3

125

.
() ,

. , (web server)
(. html ).

.
,
. () / .
.

.
,
:
(authentication):
. / (username/password).
(integrity):
.
(confidentiality): .
(non-repudiation): () . ,
.
:
(validity): . .

126

(Information Availability):
. ,
. .

:
(security): ,
.
(information security): , .
(security violation): , ,
.
.
.
(threats)
.
(, ) ( ).
(vulnerabilities) ( )
. .
,
.
.

. , ,
.
,

.

8.3

127

.

, .

8.3.2

,
.
, .
:
(Encryption):
( plaintext)
() . ,
.
.
(Decryption):
. () (
) .
.
(Key): ,
( bits) .
.
(Public Key): , , . ,
. () . , .

128

.
, . (

, )
(Private Key):
. :
- .
( ) . .
(Secret Key):

/ .
() (Hash Function):
( )
.
,
, (digests).
(Message Digest):
() .
( )
, .
(..
bit)
( ).
.. Internet. downloads, CHECKSUM ( )
. ,
: .
(Digital Signature): bit
( )
( ) .

8.3

8.3.3

129

. , (
)
(RAM) .
.
, , Internet ( ).

.
(Password Attacks)

. :
passwords: .
.
passwords , OTP (One Time Password): passwords
, .
, UNIX Windows,
. ( UNIX
OTP, ).
( )
( ) .

(brute force attack). (key stroke monitoring)
(keylogger) , .
.
, (
, .. ).
social engineering

130

. , Internet (ISP)
.
.
ISP ;

!
(shoulder surfing)
( ).

.
: . , . , ( ) passwords
crack
.
. ,
(digest).
, : digest . ,
. ,
,
( ).
crack : digests ( hashes)
, ,
digest. .
brute force attack.

( ) .
, .
crack ()
. UNIX Jack the
Ripper,

8.3

131

.
UNIX (root)
(login
passwd ). ,

(Network Monitoring Network Packet Sniffing)

, . ( telnet
ftp ),
, (clear text). ,
,
,
.
(packet sniffing)
promiscuous.
promiscuous mode
, . packet
sniffing
, .
. passwords
Man-in-the-Middle.
.
(Masquerade)

, . TCP/IP, IP Spoofing
IP
( . IP ).

132

firewall ( Internet
(trusted)). , IP spoofing

client server (point to point).
( ),

, .
. , . emails
,
social engineering .

(Denial of Service)

, ,
.
( ) ,
.
(..
,

).

sites Internet (Yahoo, CNN, twitter ).

, zombies botnet.
: (malware)
. zombie.
,
botnet. O botnet
zombies , Denial Of Service.
, -

8.3

133

IP ( botnet ),
(Distributed Denial of Service Attack, DDOS)
Denial of Service.
, Denial of Service
.
.

(Application-Layer Attacks)
HTTP, ActiveX, Telnet, FTP . ,
( , holes).

.

8.3.4

,
.
.

( )
.

. ( )
( ). , ,
:

134

,
(
).
.

, Caesar Cipher
8.5. ,

8.5:
.
,
, , ...
.
( ) .
, : ,
.
( , 24) .

. ,
( )
( !)
.

8.3

135

.
,
. ,
,
.

: ,
.

.
. : CSS ( DVD), A5/1 (
GSM), Blue-Ray .

:
DES, Data Encryption Standard,
3DES, Triple DES
IDEA, International Data Encryption Algorithm, .
64 bits.
64 bits, 64
bits.
, .
,
. ,
. , -
(.. ) .
: , Diffie
Hellman
, .

136

. , .
:


,
(
Bob Alice!)

8.6:
Bob Alice, , .
, . ,
(, , keyservers
).
.
,
,
. Alice
Bob :
Bob.

8.3

137

Bob
.
, Bob :
Alice.
.
, ,
( ) .
, .
: :
. , .
,
,
. ,
(fingerprint),
. , , ( ,
.. )
.
, ,
, ,
.

Bob Alice. .
Bob, Bob
.
email , .
Alice Bob Bob
Alice .
, :
Alice .

138

8.7:
Bob
Alice ( ).

Alice ( ) .
.
: , .
. ,
, .

: .
, . .
.

8.3.4.1
,
.
() .
(hash).
(digest) . MD4, Message Digest 4, MD5, Message Digest 5
SHA, Secure Hash Algorithm (.. SHA1, SHA256).

8.3

139

, :
(.. Bob Alice)
( , .. PGP, Digital Signature Standard )
(.. MD5).
.
.
Alice Bob
.
(digest).
,
.
Bob .
O Bob
Alice.
,
. , ,

Alice.
.
, (
)
( ) .
-
.

: GPG
Linux/FreeBSD ( Windows) .
.

140

8.3.5
, .
.

:
passwords passwords (One Time Passwords,
OTP): .
SSL / SSH / SOCKS: .
Radius / Tacacs: dial-up
.
PAP / CHAP: point to point ( , ).
Single Sign On: passwords. Single Sign On


, .
:
.
IPSec (IP Security): Internet Protocol Security
. , OSI.
IPSec :
IP : .
ESP, Encapsulation Security Payload:
.
IPSec VPN ( ,
Virtual Private Networks)
(dial up).
Firewall : .

8.3

141

Firewall
(gateways,
- , .. Internet
). firewall,

.
8.8
. - ( Internet) . ,
firewall.


(.. ports
).

8.8: firewall
,
,
. ..
web server () .

142

, ,
firewall. port
. ,
. firewall
(..
), .
IP () ports
(.. HTTP), (.. telnet, rlogin ).
(TCP UDP port)
.

ports. firewall,
() .

firewall.
(
), .

8.3.6
.

, .

.
, :
( , , ,
), (, racks ).
(bugs).

8.3

143

.
(.. (corrupted)
).
(, ).
(crackers, hackers ).
,
, ,
.

.
( ) .

:
(recovery):
.
(Continuity Plan):

.
(Information Backup): .
, . .
.
,
(
).
.
, ( )
.


.

144

. ,
(client server). ,
(servers),
main site. , main sites, . sites
(.. , ).
site
.
site
(, switches ). ,
( ) .
(LANs).
,
( ).
,

(.. backup. ,
main site ).
.
, ,
.
, , .

 II

148

2009
1
. ,
() .
.

1.
(ISDN)
2.
(xDSL)
3.

4.
(xDSL)

.
.
.
.
8

B. ,
.
1. (xDSL)
.
2. OSI , TCP/IP
.
3. IP .
4. (DNS)
IP .
8
.
.
1. TCP/IP;
. To (SMTP).
. (UDP).
. To (IP).

149
. (ICMP).
2. ,
.
.
.
.
.
9

2
. TCP/IP;
15
. IP : 150.23.05.0/22
1. ;
5
2. ;
5

3
. .
IP .
,
.
1. IP Ethernet
ARP .
2. ARP
ARP .
3. IP ,
Ethernet .

150

4. ARP .
5. IP .
10

. , , (5) OSI.
5
. :
IP :
11010001.10101010.01010101.00001111
:
11111111.11111111.11110000.00000000
1. bits ;
4
2. .
6

4
. IP 2000 bytes 20 bytes
820 bytes (800 bytes 20 bytes ). .
1o

2o

3o

DF

MF

(), , 20 bytes.
16

151
. digital signature standard MD5. B

. ,
B.
9

152

2010

1. , ,
.
. xDSL .
. TCP/IP
.
. (Transmission Control Protocol, TCP)
TCP/IP.
.
.
8
2. .
:
. To TCP port 20.
. TCP port 21.
. To TCP port 23.
. TCP port 25.
5
A3. .

1. (BRI)
2. (PRI)
3.
4. TCP/IP

. 32bits
. 32bits
. 64 Kbps
. 30 64 Kbps
8

A4 ;
4

153

B
1. ;
5
2. ;
5
3. ;
8
4. ;
7

1. TCP;
4
2. TCP;
5
3. IP .
Class A
Class B
Class C
Class D
16

1. TCP 2.000
10.000 . ;
10

154

2. IP 2.400 bytes 20 bytes

620 bytes. , IP .
1o

DF

MF

(), IP , 20 bytes.
15