Ergasia Stieltjes

ISTORIKES RIZES TOU OLOKLHRWMATOS
STIELTJES
FWTEINH TSIFOUNTIDOU TMHMA MAJHMATIKWN PANEPISTHMIO KRHTHS IOUNIOS 2006
Sthn Afrodth, sthn Eirnh, sth Qrusola, sthn k. Stlla Koutrkh kai sth mhtra mou.
H ergasa aut katatjhke sto Tmma Majhmatikn tou Panepisthmou Krthc ton Ionio tou 2006. Thn kritik epitrop apotlesan oi: Katsoprinkhc Emmanoul, Anaplhrwtc Kajhghtc Mtshc Jemistoklc, Epkouroc Kajhghtc Papadhmhtrkhc Miqal, Anaplhrwtc Kajhghtc. Thn epbley thc anlabe o k. Papadhmhtrkhc, ton opoo kai euqarist pol gia thn upomon kai ton poltimo qrno pou dijese gia th dirjws thc.
Perieqmena
I
1
H teleutaa ergasa tou

To suneqc klsma
Stieltjes
.
sta suneq klsmata.
15
17
1.1 1.2
Stieltjes [1 , 2 , . . . , k ] kai oi idithtc tou. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Orismc twn poluwnmwn Pn (z) kai Qn (z) kai idithtec twn suntelestn
To smbolo
17
touc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3 1.4 Sqseic metax twn rizn twn Rzec twn poluwnmwn suntelest. 1.5 1.6
21 25
Pn (z)
kai
Pn (z) kai Qn (z). Qn (z) pou den

me tic rzec twn
. . . . . . . . . . . . . exartntai ap kpoio
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28 29 32
Sqsh twn rizn tou To prshmo thc
Q2n+2n (z)
Q2n (z)
kai
xk i .
(2n) P2n (z).
. .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Melth twn anaptugmtwn qoc klsmatoc .
Laurent
twn proseggsewn
2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6
Stieltjes Pn (z) To anptugma Laurent tou Qn (z) . . . . . . Ta cn wc sunrthsh twn rizn tou Qm (z). cn+1 Melth tou orou lim cn . . . . . . . . . .
Ta
Pn (z) Qn (z)
tou sune35
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
35 39 39 41 43 48
'Ena akmh kritrio sgklishc thc seirc
n , Pn (z)
Merikc
Qn (z) idithtec tou S

kai
suneqoc
wc sunartseic twn sqetikc me ta
+ ... ci . . . . . . . . Pn (u), Qn (u). . . .

wc proc th
c0 z
c1 z2
c2 z3
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Melth
tou
klsmatoc .
Stieltjes
sgklish
sthn 53
perptwsh
pou
Re(z) > 0
3.1 3.2 3.3
Stieltjes sthn perptwsh pou z = 1. . . Melth tou suneqoc klsmatoc Stieltjes tan x enai jetikc arijmc. . Melth tou suneqoc klsmatoc Stieltjes tan o migadikc arijmc z qei
Melth tou suneqoc klsmatoc jetik pragmatik mroc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53 55
56
Melth tou suneqoc klsmatoc sugklnei.
Stieltjes
sthn perptwsh pou h
+ n=1 n
61
4.1 4.2 4.3
Sunartseic-ria twn
Sunpeiec thc omoimorfhc sgklishc twn Melth twn rizn
P2n (z), P2n+1 (z), Q2n (z), Q2n+1 (z). . P2n (z) sthn p(z). thc sunrthshc q(z). . . . . . . . . . . . .
7
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61 63 65
4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8
H akolouja H sunrthsh
(k ) enai gnhswc axousa. . . . . q(z) me th morf apeiroginmenou.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66 67 69 73 75
Oi sunartseic Oi suntelestc
p(z) p1 (z) q(z) kai q1 (z) me th morf seirn. ci wc peira ajrosmata. . . . . .
To prblhma twn ropn. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Jewrmata suneqoc
thc
Migadikc
Anlushc .
pou
bohjon
sth
melth
tou 79
klsmatoc
Stieltjes
to
Katanom
mzac
kai
oloklrwma
Stieltjes
91
6.1
Melth twn auxousn sunartsewn wc proc th sunqeia.
Sunartseic 91 98 103
fragmnhc kmanshc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2 6.3 To orismno oloklrwma
Stieltjes.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Melth twn sunartsewn thc morfc
F (z) =
+ d(u) z+u . 0
. . . . . . . .
anaparstash
7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7
F (z) F1 (z) Stieltjes Orismc twn lim sup kai lim inf pragmatikc akoloujac kai idithtc touc.109 Oi sunartseic kai . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 Idithtec twn sunartsewn n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 An 0 a < b, tte (a) (b). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 (u)+(u) H sunrthsh (u) = kai idithtc thc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 2
twn kai wc oloklhrwmtwn . 109
Diastmata prtou kai deutrou edouc kai idithtc touc. . . . . . . . . Ektmhsh tou oloklhrmatoc qeiac thc
117
L 0 |n (u)
(u)|du,
pou
shmeo sun119 121 125 127 129
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.8 7.9
Oi sunartseic
kai
F1
me th morf oloklhrwmtwn
Stieltjes.
. . . . .
Upologismc twn oloklhrwmtwn
+ k u d(u). 0
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.10 Merikc akmh idithtec thc 7.11 Ermhnea tou
limn+
H
. . . . . . . . . . . . + |n (u) (u)| du = 0. 0
eplush . tou
Melth
tou
perptwsh
+ d(u) z+u . 0 + pou n=1 n
problmatoc
twn
ropn
sthn 133
= +
8.1 8.2
Suneq klsmata pou orzontai ap axousec sunartseic. . . . . . . . . Sqsh twn
133
F (z), F1 (z)
kai
+ d(u) z+u 0 + d(u) x+u 0
sthn perptwsh pou to
enai 135 140 143 145 147 148 151
jetikc arijmc. 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.8 8.9
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kai
Sqsh twn oloklhrwmtwn Prto pardeigma.
+ d(u) x+u . 0
. . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Detero pardeigma. ' lla paradegmata. A
Upologismc thc mzac pou sugkentrnetai sto 0. Sqetik me ton hmixona
0x
twn arnhtikn arijmn.
Melth tou suneqoc klsmatoc pou antistoiqe sto oloklrwma
+ d(u) z+u 0
152
wc proc th sgklish. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.10 Melth thc sgklishc tou suneqoc klsmatoc sthn perptwsh pou h mza sto O enai mhdn. 8.11 Idithtec tou . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 155
{d(u)}n .
+ d(u) z+u . 0
8.12 Sunpeiec thc sgklishc tou suneqoc klsmatoc pou prokptei ap to oloklrwma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
II To oloklrwma Stieltjes H. Legesgue kai J. Radon.

9 Oi ergasec tou
msa ap tic ergasec twn
F. Riesz,
163
F. Riesz
sqetik me thn uf twn suneqn grammikn 165
sunarthsoeidn.
9.1
Ikan kai anagkaa sunjkh ste na enai ma sunrthsh h arqik miac sunrthshc fragmnhc kmanshc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 171
9.2 9.3
Basikc idithtec tou oloklhrmatoc
Stieltjes.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Anaparstash suneqoc grammiko sunarthsoeidoc me th bojeia tou oloklhrmatoc
Stieltjes.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
177 185
9.4
Sqlia gia to uploipo thc dhmoseushc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10 To
oloklrwma
Stieltjes
msa
ap
tic
ergasec
10.1 H anagwg tou oloklhrmatoc
Stieltjes
se oloklrwma
10.2 Endiafrousec parathrseic ap to biblo
Lebesgue Lebesgue. . . . {Leons sur l intgration et c e

tou .
187
187
la recherche des fonctions primitives.}

11 Genkeush tou oloklhrmatoc
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
194
Stieltjes
ap
ton
J. Radon
199
11.1 H nnoia thc sunolosunrthshc. 11.2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
199
J. Radon, Theorie und Anwendungen der absolut additiven Mengenfunktionen. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11.2.1 11.2.2 11.2.3 11.2.4 Prosjetikc sunartseic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Prth genkeush tou oloklhrmatoc
203 203 206 207 211
Deterh genkeush tou oloklhrmatoc Idithtec tou oloklhrmatoc
Stieltjes. . Stieltjes. Lebesgue-Stieltjes.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12 H
zw
tou
Thomas-Jan Stieltjes
215
10
Historical Roots of Stieltjes Integral.

This master thesis is consisted of two parts. In the rst part we study T.-J. Stieltjes last paper on continued fractions. In this beautiful work, he studied the analytical behaviour of the continued fraction of the form 1 1 z +
1 2 + . .
,
1
1 2k +
2k1 z+
..
where 1 , 2 , . . . , n , . . . are all positive numbers and z is a complex number. Among the other mathematical notions, which he denes, is the famous type of integral which nowadays has his name. In the second part we study some important papers which are related to the history of Stieltjes integral and were published by F. Riesz, H. Lebesgue and J. Radon at the beginning of the 20th century.
11
12
Eisagwgik shmewma.
H ergasa aut apoteletai ap do mrh. Sto prto mroc melettai to teleutao rjro {
Recherches sur les fractions continues}
tou
T.-J. Stieltjes.
Sth dhmoseus tou
aut, pou emfansthke se do mrh tic qronic 1894 kai 1895, orzei to oloklrwma pou
F. Riesz, H. Lebesgue kai J. Radon pou ginan stic arqc tou 20ou aina kai andeixan to oloklrwma
smera qei to nom tou. Sto detero mroc meletntai ergasec twn aut. Krioc skopc thc dhmoseushc tou forc tou suneqoc klsmatoc
Stieltjes
enai h melth thc analutikc sumperi-
1 1 z +
1 2 + . .
.
,
1
1 2k + . .
2k1 z+
pou ta
1 , 2 ,
...,
n ,
. . . enai jetiko arijmo kai
tuqaoc migadikc arijmc. Kje

suneqc klsma
suneqc klsma thc parapnw morfc onomzetai, proc timn tou,
Stieltjes.
Ta suneq klsmata, dhlad oi arijmhtikc parastseic thc morfc
0 +
0 1 +
1 2 + . .
.
n1 n n +
n + . .
pou ta
0 ,
...,
n ,
...,
0 ,
...,
n ,
...
me
K=Z
C,
tan nac ap touc pio
shmantikoc kldouc twn Majhmatikn tou 18ou kai 19ou aina. An kai paradegmata suneqn klasmtwn mpore kanec na brei sta Majhmatik twn Arqawn Ellnwn, twn Indn kai thc Anagnnhshc, o prtoc pou melthse susthmatik tic idithtc touc kai ta kajirwse wc kldo tan o 'Aggloc
J. Wallis
(1616-1703).
Ton 18o aina rqise n anaptssetai h montrna jewra twn suneqn klasmtwn. Basik ida twn ergasin pou dhmosieontai ekenh thn epoq enai ti kje suneqc klsma mpore na metatrape se ma seir kai antistrfwc. O
L. Euler
(1707-1783)
13
deqnei ti kje rhtc arijmc grfetai san peperasmno suneqc klsma
kai anti-
strfwc, kje peperasmno suneqc klsma enai rhtc. Qrhsimopointac to teleutao apodeiknei thn arrhtthta thc stajerc pou frei to nom tou. H jewra aut arqzei n apokt endiafron giat dnei na trpo prosggishc twn rrhtwn arijmn. Oi majhmatiko tou 19ou aina asqolontai me to pte na suneqc klsma sugklnei qi se nan pragmatik arijm. Epshc, en mqri tte oi arijmojewrstec
jewrosan touc suntelestc enc suneqoc klsmatoc pnta akraiouc arijmoc, to disthma aut arqzoun na meletntai suneq klsmata me migadikoc. Pollo dishmoi majhmatiko asqolontai m aut, metax twn opown kai oi
Jacobi, Hermite, Gauss,
Cauchy, Stieltjes.
H ergasa tou
Stieltjes,
sthn opoa gia prth for ma oikogneia
suneqn klasmtwn melettai ap thn pleur thc migadikc anlushc, enai idiatera shmantik giat gennitai m autn ma na jewra, h analutik jewra twn suneqn klasmtwn. Smera, an kai h parapnw jewra den parousizei pia arket ereunhtik endiafron, ta suneq klsmata brskoun efarmogc se llouc kldouc twn Majhmatikn, kurwc se algorjmouc upologistn kai sthn eplush exissewn me aprosdiristh anlush.
Sto prto keflaio thc ergasac tou o
Stieltjes
apodeiknei qrsimec algebrikc
sqseic metax twn diadoqikn rwn thc akoloujac twn klasmtwn pou proseggzei na suneqc klsma
Stieltjes.
Sto detero keflaio prosdiorzei th dunamoseir pou
antistoiqe sto klsma aut, en sto epmeno keflaio arqzei na to melet wc proc th sgklish. seir Sto ttarto keflaio asqoletai me thn eidik perptwsh sthn opoa h twn suntelestn tou suneqoc klsmatoc
+ k=1 k
Stieltjes
sugklnei kai sto
tloc orzei to prblhma twn ropn.
'Epeita apodeiknei kpoia jewrmata migadikc
anlushc pou ja qrhsimopoisei gia na oloklhrsei th melth tou wc proc th sgklish. Sta epmena keflaia asqoletai me thn eplush tou problmatoc twn ropn. Uprqei kai detero mroc thc ergasac tou t to jnat tou.
Stieltjes,
to opoo dhmosiethke me-
S aut to teleutao kommti, pou enai kurwc algebrik, melet
kpoiec eidikc periptseic tou problmatoc twn ropn, dnei poll arijmhtik paradegmata suneqn klasmtwn kai asqoletai me kpoiouc qrsimouc metasqhmatismoc tou klsmatoc auto.
1
tou.
Dhlad, to suneqc klsma me to opoo isotai kje rhtc ja stamatei se kpoio paronomast
14
Mroc I
H teleutaa ergasa tou
Stieltjes
sta suneq klsmata.
15
Keflaio 1
To suneqc klsma
Stieltjes.
T. J. Stieltjes
orzei to smbolo
Sthn arq tou prtou kefalaou thc ergasac tou, o
[1 , 2 , . . . , k ]
kai melet basikc idithtc tou. To smbolo aut, me th bojeia tou
opoou orzei ta polunuma twn arijmhtn kai twn paronomastn twn klasmtwn pou proseggzoun to suneqc klsma
Stieltjes,
kajc kai oi sqseic pou apodeiknei sthn
prth pargrafo, enai dh gnwstc sth jewra twn suneqn klasmtwn. Sunduzontc tec o
Stieltjes
katafrnei na prei shmantik apotelsmata gia touc suntelestc kai
tic rzec twn parapnw poluwnmwn.
1.1
To smbolo
[1 , 2 , . . . , k ]
kai
oi idithtc tou.
Jewrome ma akolouja arijmn
N, N1 , N2 , . . .
pou ikanopoie tic isthtec:
N = 1 N1 + N2 N1 = 2 N2 + N3 ........... Nk1 = k Nk + Nk+1 ........... .

Tte mporome na ekfrsoume to kai
wc grammik sunduasm twn
N1
kai
N2 ,
twn
N2
N3 ,
twn
N3
kai
N4 ,
ktl wc exc:
N = (1 2 + 1)N2 + 1 N3 = (1 2 3 + 1 + 3 )N3 + (1 2 + 1)N4 = . . . .

Orismc 1.1
Eisgoume to smbolo
[1 , 2 , . . . , k ] to opoo orzetai epagwgik ap tic
paraktw sqseic:
[ ] = 1,
[1 ] = 1 ,
[1 , 2 , . . . , k ] = [1 , 2 , . . . , k1 ]k + [1 , 2 , . . . , k2 ] .
(1.1)
17
Lmma
1.1
Me th bojeia tou sumblou
[1 , 2 , . . . , k ]
to
grfetai wc grammikc
sunduasmc twn
Nk
kai
Nk+1
wc exc:
N = [1 , 2 , . . . , k ]Nk + [1 , 2 , . . . , k1 ]Nk+1 .
Apdeixh: Gnetai me majhmatik epagwg. Gia
(1.2)
k=1
qoume
[1 ]N1 + N2 = 1 N1 + N2 = N ,
ra h (1.2) isqei. 'Estw ti h (1.2) isqei gia kpoio
k.
Tte, h (1.2) isqei kai gia
k+1
diti:
[1 , 2 , . . . , k+1 ]Nk+1 + [1 , 2 , . . . , k ]Nk+2 = [1 , 2 , . . . , k ]k+1 Nk+1 + [1 , 2 , . . . , k1 ]Nk+1 + [1 , 2 , . . . , k ]Nk+2 = [1 , 2 , . . . , k ](k+1 Nk+1 + Nk+2 ) + [1 , 2 , . . . , k1 ]Nk+1 = [1 , 2 , . . . , k ]Nk + [1 , 2 , . . . , k1 ]Nk+1 = N .
'Opwc sqolizei kai o
Stieltjes sthn ergasa tou, h sqsh pou sundei ton prto ro N wc jroisma kpoiwn rwn [1 , 2 , . . . , k ]Nl to jroisma twn deiktn
me do tuqaouc kai diaforetikoc rouc
thc parapnw akoloujac me do diadoqikoc rouc thc enai grammik kai {omoge-
nc}. Lgontac omogenc, ennoe ti, se kje kfrash tou thc akoloujac
(Nk ),
gia kje prosjeto
k+l
enai stajer.
Ma pio genik sqsh pou sundei ton
thc akoloujac enai aut pou apodeiknetai sto paraktw lmma:
Lmma
1.2
Isqei ti
[k+1 , k+2 , . . . , k+l1 ]N = [1 , 2 , . . . , k+l1 ]Nk + (1)l+1 [1 , 2 , . . . , k1 ]Nk+l .

(1.3)
Apdeixh: Efarmzoume majhmatik epagwg wc proc isqei. 'Estw ti h (1.3) isqei gia kpoio
l.
Gia
l=1
h (1.3) profanc,
l.
Ja prpei na dexoume ti gia
l+1
isqei:
[k+1 , . . . , k+l ]N = [1 , . . . , k+l ]Nk + (1)l+2 [1 , . . . , k1 ]Nk+l+1
[k+1 , . . . , k+l1 ]k+l N + [k+1 , . . . , k+l2 ]N = [1 , . . . , k+l ]Nk + (1)l+2 [1 , . . . , k1 ]Nk+l+1
k+l ([k+1 , . . . , k+l1 ]N [1 , . . . , k+l1 ]Nk ) + ([k+1 , . . . , k+l2 ]N [1 , . . . , k+l2 ]Nk ) = (1)l+2 [1 , . . . , k1 ]Nk+l+1
18
k+l (1)l+1 Nk+l + (1)l Nk+l1 = (1)l+2 Nk+l+1

(lgw upjeshc thc majhmatikc epagwgc) isodnama
Nk+l1 = k+l Nk+l + Nk+l+1 ,

pou isqei.
Ap thn
(1.3)
prokptoun pollc qrsimec sqseic:
Antikajistntac to
me
kai to
me
+ + 1,
parnoume th sqsh
[+1 , . . . , ++ ]N = [1 , . . . , ++ ]N +(1)+ [1 , . . . , 1 ]N+++1 .

Ap thn
(1.4)
(1.4)
gia
=0
parnoume thn
[+1 , . . . , + ]N = [1 , . . . , + ]N + (1) [1 , . . . , 1 ]N++1 .

Epshc, an sthn (1.3) jsoume pou
(1.5)
to
++1
kai pou
to
qoume ti:
[++2 , . . . , ++ ]N = [1 , . . . , ++ ]N++1 +(1)+1 [1 , . . . , + ]N+++1 .

(1.6)
(1.5) kai (1.6), apalefontac N , N+++1 thc morfc

Ap tic
to
N++1 ,
prokptei ma sqsh metax twn
N,
N = [1 , . . . , + ] [1 , . . . , ++ ]N + (1)+ [1 , . . . , 1 ]N+++1
pou to
,
(1.7)
isotai me
[1 , . . . , ++ ][+1 , . . . , + ] + (1)+1 [1 , . . . , 1 ][++2 , . . . , ++ ] .

Sugkrnontac tic
(1.4)
kai
(1.7),
parnoume ti:
=[1 , . . . , + ][+1 , . . . , ++ ]
Dhlad isqei ti
[1 , . . . , ++ ][+1 , . . . , + ] = [1 , . . . , + ][+1 , . . . , ++ ] + (1) [1 , . . . , 1 ][++2 , . . . , ++ ] . (1.8)

Ap thn
(1.8)
gia
=0
parnoume thn
[1 , . . . , + ] = [1 , . . . , ][+1 , . . . , + ]+ [1 , . . . , 1 ][+2 , . . . , + ] .
Epshc, ap thn (1.8) gia
(1.9)
==1
qoume ti
[1 , . . . , +2 ][2 , . . . , +1 ] = [1 , . . . , +1 ][2 , . . . , +2 ] + (1) .

Parathrome ti ap th sqsh
(1.10)
(1.9)
gia
= 1
katalgoume sth sqsh orismo tou
[1 , 2 , . . . , k ].
19
Akmh, ap thn
(1.9)
gia
=1
prokptei ti
[1 , . . . , +1 ] = 1 [2 , . . . , +1 ] + [3 , . . . , +1 ] .
Efarmzontac
(1.11)
k1
forc thn
(1.11),
parnoume ti
[1 , . . . , k ] = 1 + [2 , . . . , k ] 2 +
1
1 3 + . .
.
.
1 + k
Efarmzontac
k1
forc thn
(1.1),
parnoume ti
[1 , . . . , k ] = k + [1 , . . . , k1 ] k1 +
1
1 k2 + . .
.
.
1 + 1
'Omwc, ap thn prohgomenh isthta qoume ti to detero mloc thc parapnw sqshc isotai me
[k ,...,1 ] [k1 ,...,1 ] ,
dhlad enai
[1 , . . . , k ] [k , . . . , 1 ] = , [1 , . . . , k1 ] [k1 , . . . , 1 ]
ap pou epagwgik parnoume ti
[1 , . . . , k ] = [k , . . . , 1 ] .
'Ara, ap tic
(1.12)
(1.1)
kai
(1.12)
qoume ti
[k , . . . , 1 ] = [1 , . . . , k ] = [1 , . . . , k1 ]k + [1 , . . . , k2 ] = [k1 , . . . , 1 ]k + [k2 , . . . , 1 ] .
Epshc, to
[1 , . . . , n ]
sundetai me to
me ma sqsh thc morfc
[1 , . . . , n ] = [1 , . . . , k1 ][k+1 , . . . , n ]k + R ,
pou to
(1.13)
enai anexrthto tou
k . (1.9)
gia
H prohgomenh sqsh prokptei ap thn (1.1) wc exc:
= k, = n k
kai ap thn
[1 , . . . , n ] = [1 , . . . , k ][k+1 , . . . , n ] + [1 , . . . , k1 ][k+2 , . . . , n ] = k [1 , . . . , k1 ][k+1 , . . . , n ]+[1 , . . . , k2 ][k+1 , . . . , n ]+[1 , . . . , k1 ][k+2 , . . . , n ] .

20
'Ara, qrhsimopointac thn (1.1), thn (1.11) kai thn (1.9) parnoume
R = [1 , . . . , k2 ][k+1 , . . . , n ] + [1 , . . . , k1 ][k+2 , . . . , n ] = k1 [1 , . . . , k2 ][k+2 , . . . , n ] + [1 , . . . , k3 ][k+2 , . . . , n ] +[1 , . . . , k2 ][k+1 , . . . , n ] = (k1 + k+1 )[1 , . . . , k2 ][k+2 , . . . , n ] + [1 , . . . , k3 ][k+2 , . . . , n ] +[1 , . . . , k2 ][k+3 , . . . , n ] = [1 , . . . , k2 , k1 + k+1 ][k+2 , . . . , n ] + [1 , . . . , k2 ][k+3 , . . . , n ] = [1 , . . . , k2 , k1 + k+1 , k+2 , . . . , n ] .
Opte
R = [1 , . . . , k2 , k1 + k+1 , k+2 , . . . , n ] . R = [1 , . . . , k2 , k1 , 0, k+1 , k+2 , . . . , n ] ,
Epshc, isqei
giat
[1 , . . . , k1 , 0, k+1 , . . . , n ] = 0[1 , . . . , k1 ][k+1 , . . . , n ] + [1 , . . . , k2 ][k+1 , . . . , n ] + [1 , . . . , k1 ][k+2 , . . . , n ] = [1 , . . . , k2 ][k+1 , . . . , n ] + [1 , . . . , k1 ][k+2 , . . . , n ] = R.

Tloc, ap ton orism tou proc
[1 , . . . , n ]
prokptei ekola (me majhmatik epagwg wc
n)
ti gia kje
m=0
isqoun kai ta exc:
2 2n , . . . , m2n1 , ] = [1 , 2 , . . . , 2n ] , m m 2n 2 [m1 , , . . . , , m2n+1 ] = m[1 , 2 , . . . , 2n+1 ] . m m [m1 ,
(1.14)
1.2
Orismc twn poluwnmwn tec twn suntelestn touc.
Pn (z)
kai
Qn (z)
kai idith-
Jewrome to suneqc klsma
1 1 z +
1 2 + . .
.
,
1
1 2k + . .
2k1 z+
pou ta
1 , 2 ,
...,
n ,
. . . enai jetiko arijmo.
21
O arijmhtc kai o paronomastc kje rou thc akoloujac twn proseggsewn tou suneqoc klsmatoc blou
Stieltjes
enai polunuma tou
z,
ta opoa, me th bojeia tou sum-
[1 , . . . , n ]
pou qoume orsei, grfontai wc exc:
P2n (z) = [2 , 3 z, 4 , . . . , 2n1 z, 2n ] Q2n (z) = [1 z, 2 , 3 z, . . . , 2n ] P2n+1 (z) = [2 , 3 z, 4 , . . . , 2n1 z, 2n , 2n+1 z] Q2n+1 (z) = [1 z, 2 , 3 z, . . . , 2n , 2n+1 z] .
Parathrome ti ta arqik polunuma enai:
P1 (z) = 1, P2 (z) = 2 , Q1 (z) = 1 z, Q2 (z) = 1 + 1 2 z .

Mporome epshc na orsoume ta polunuma: Sumbolzoume me
P0 (z) = 0
kai
Q0 (z) = 1.
me ton
Pn (z)
(k)
kai
Qn (z)
(k)
ekena ta polunuma pou prokptoun ap ta
Pn (z) kai Qn (z), antstoiqa, tan antikatastsoume ton kje suntelest i i+k . Ap th sqsh (1.1) prokptei ti isqoun oi paraktw sqseic: Q2n (z) = 2n Q2n1 (z) + Q2n2 (z) Q2n+1 (z) = 2n+1 zQ2n (z) + Q2n1 (z) P2n (z) = 2n P2n1 (z) + P2n2 (z) P2n+1 (z) = 2n+1 zP2n (z) + P2n1 (z) .
Jerhma 1.1
(1.15) (1.16) (1.17) (1.18)
Isqei
P2n (z) = A0 + A1 z + . . . + An1 z n1 Q2n (z) = B0 + B1 z + . . . + Bn z n P2n+1 (z) = C0 + C1 z + . . . + Cn z n Q2n+1 (z) = D0 + D1 z + . . . + Dn+1 z n+1
kai
A0 = 2 + 4 + . . . + 2n 1 1 1 An2 = An1 + + ... + 2 3 3 4 2n1 2n An1 = 2 3 2n B0 = 1

n
(1.19) (1.20) (1.21) (1.22)
B1 =
k=1
(1 + 3 + . . . + 2k1 )2k
(1.23)
Bn1 = Bn Bn
1 1 1 + + ... + 1 2 2 3 2n1 2n = 1 2 2n
22
(1.24) (1.25)
C0 = 1
n
(1.26)
C1 =
k=1
(2 + 4 + . . . + 2k )2k+1
(1.27)
Cn1 = Cn Cn
1 1 1 + + ... + 2 3 3 4 2n 2n+1 = 2 3 2n+1
(1.28) (1.29) (1.30) (1.31) (1.32) (1.33)
D0 = 0 D1 = 1 + 3 + . . . + 2n+1 1 1 1 Dn = Dn+1 + + ... + 1 2 2 3 2n 2n+1 Dn+1 = 1 2 2n+1 .

Apdeixh: Oi anaparastseic twn
P2n (z), Q2n (z), P2n+1 (z), Q2n+1 (z)
apodeikno-
ntai me epagwg ap tic (1.15), (1.16), (1.17) kai (1.18). Stic diec sqseic basizmaste gia na apodexoume kai tic (1.19), (1.20), . . . , (1.33).
(1.16) antikajistntac kje for ta polunuma me peritt dekth, parnoume ti Q2n+1 (z) = Q(z) + Q1 (z), pou to Q(z) enai polunumo me stajer ro mhdn kai Q1 (z) = [1 z] = 1 z , ra kai to Q2n+1 (z) qei to stajer tou ro, D0 , mhdn. Lgw tou teleutaou, o stajerc roc tou Q2n (z) isotai me to stajer ro tou Q2n2 (z) kai, telik, isotai me to stajer ro tou Q2 (z) = [1 z, 2 ] = 1 2 z + 1. Dhlad loi oi stajero roi twn poluwnmwn Q2n (z)
Gia pardeigma, an efarmsoume forc thn enai soi me th monda. 'Omoia prokptoun kai oi timc twn llwn do stajern rwn
A0
kai
C0 .
(1.15) qoume ti o suntelestc tou megistobjmiou rou tou Q2n (z) isotai me to ginmeno tou suntelest tou megistobjmiou rou tou Q2n1 (z) ep to 2n . Epeid, mwc, isqei ti Q2n1 (z) = 2n1 zQ2n2 (z) + Q2n3 (z), o suntelestc tou megistobjmiou rou tou Q2n1 (z) isotai me to ginmeno tou suntelest tou megistobjmiou rou tou Q2n2 (z) ep to 2n1 kok. Telik, katalgoume sto ti o suntelestc Bn tou megistobjmiou rou tou Q2n (z) isotai me to ginmeno 1 2 2n kai, fusik, me to dio skeptik apodeiknontai kai oi tpoi twn An1 , Cn kai Dn+1 . Efarmzontac n forc thn (1.16) parnoume ti
Epshc, ap thn
Q2n+1 (z) = 2n+1 zQ2n (z) + 2n1 zQ2n2 (z) + . . . + 3 zQ2 (z) + Q1 (z) = 2n+1 zQ2n (z) + 2n1 zQ2n2 (z) + . . . + 3 zQ2 (z) + 1 z .
Kje polunumo sto
Q2k (z) n1
qei stajer ro monda, ra telik o suntelestc
D1
tou
Q2n+1 (z)
ja isotai me to jroisma forc thn
1 + 3 + . . . + 2n+1 .
prokptei ti
Efarmzontac
(1.15)
Q2n (z) = 2n Q2n1 (z) + 2n2 Q2n3 (z) + . . . + 2 Q1 (z) ,

opte o suntelestc tou
sto
Q2n (z)
isotai me to jroisma twn antstoiqwn sunte-
23
lestn twn poluwnmwn
2k Q2k1 (z)
n
gia
k = 1, 2, . . . , n,
dhlad enai
B1 =
k=1
'Omoia apodeiknetai kai h
(1 + 3 + . . . + 2k1 )2k .
Ja apodexoume th sqsh qoume to polunumo
(1.27). (1.32) qrhsimopointac Q3 (z), gia to opoo isqei ti
majhmatik epagwg. Gia
n=1
Q3 (z) = [1 z, 2 , 3 z] = 3 z[1 z, 2 ] + 1 z = 1 2 3 z 3 + 1 z + 3 z
kai, prgmati, o suntelestc tou 'Estw ti gia kje polunumo
isotai me
1 + 3 ,
dhlad me
k < n isqei h upjesh. Q2n (z), lgw thc (1.15) isotai me
Tte, o
1 2 3 ( 112 + 213 ). n1 sto suntelestc tou z
2n 1 2 2n1
kai lgw thc
1 1 1 + + ... + 1 2 2 3 2n2 2n1 zn

sto
+ 1 2 2n2
ja enai:
(1.16)
qoume ti o suntelestc tou
Q2n+1 (z)
1 1 1 + + ... + 1 2 2 3 2n2 2n1 +1 2n2 2n+1 + 1 2 2n1 1 1 1 = 1 2 2n+1 + + ... + 1 2 2 3 2n 2n+1 = Dn . 2n+1 2n 1 2 2n1 (1.32) (1.20) (1.28)
'Ara to zhtomeno qei apodeiqje. O tpoc (1.24) prokptei pol ekola me th bojeia tou kai oi kai apodeiknontai me moio trpo.
P2n sumbolsame to suntelest tou z k me Ak . 'Omwc, enai profanc ti o Ak exarttai ap to n, ra to swsttero ja tan na ton sumbolsoume (n) Ak . To dio akribc sumbanei kai me ta lla polunuma. Dhlad qoume:
Paratrhsh 1.1
Sto polunumo
P2n (z) = A0 + A1 z + . . . + An1 z n1 Q2n (z) = B0 P2n+1 (z) = C0

(n) (n) + B1 z + . . . + Bn z n (n) + C1 z + . . . + Cn z n (n) (n) (n) (n) (n) (n)
(n)
(n)
(n)
Q2n+1 (z) = D0 + D1 z + . . . + Dn+1 z n+1 .

'Ara, oi akoloujec twn poluwnmwn kje
P2n (z), Q2n (z), P2n+1 (z)

(n) + Ak , n=0
k = 0, 1, 2, . . .
tic akoloujec
pou gia qoume
k > n 1 enai Ak (n) ti D k = 0.
(n)
= 0,
gia
k>n
kai Q2n+1 (z) orzoun gia (n) + (n) + (n) + , Bk , Ck kai Dk n=0 n=0 n=0 (n) (n) enai B = 0 kai gia k > n + 1 k = Ck
24
Teleinoume thn pargrafo me do sqseic pou ja fanon qrsimec argtera. Ap th
(1.10)
gia
= 2n 1
parnoume ti
Q2n (z)P2n+1 (z) P2n (z)Q2n+1 (z) = 1 ,

en gia
(1.34)
= 2n 2
qoume ti
Q2n (z)P2n1 (z) P2n (z)Q2n1 (z) = 1 .
(1.35)
1.3
Sqseic
metax
twn
rizn twn
Pn (z)
kai
Qn (z)
Katarqc, arke na asqolhjome me th melth twn
Pn (z)
kai
den qoun ousiastikc diaforc ap ta polunuma
Qn (z), epeid Qn (z): ap ton
ta polunuma trpo orismo
touc sthn arq thc prohgomenhc paragrfou kai ap tic (1.14) prokptei ti ta
Pn (z)
Qn (z)
sundontai metax touc me tic sqseic
P2n (z) =
Ap thn
1 (1) Q (z) z 2n1
kai
P2n+1 (z) = Q2n (z) .

kai
(1)
(1.8),
an jsoume
= 2n 3, = 1
=2
kai antikatastsoume to
me
i z
gia kje peritt
i,
parnoume ma basik sqsh pou sundei treic diadoqikoc
rouc thc akoloujac twn poluwnmwn
Q0 (z) = 1, Q2 (z), Q4 (z),
...,
Q2n (z):
(1.36)
2n2 Q2n (z) = [2n2 , 2n1 z, 2n ]Q2n2 (z) 2n Q2n4 (z) .
'Otan treic diadoqiko roi miac peperasmnhc akoloujac poluwnmwn ikanopoion mia sqsh autc thc morfc, lme ti h akolouja aut enai
mia akolouja tou
Sturm.
Kje ttoia akolouja qei tic idithtec pou ja dexoume gia thn pargrafo.
(Q2k (z))
s autn thn
n pragmatikc rzec, diaforetikc an do, Q2n2 (z). Mlista, oi rzec tou Q2n2 (z) brskontai metax twn rizn tou Q2n (z). ' ra, kajc to z {pern} (tsi ste h tim A Q2n2 (z) tou na auxnetai) ap ma rza tou Q2n (z), h tim tou Q2n (z) {phdei} ap to sto +.
Jerhma 1.2
To polunumo
Q2n (z)
qei
arnhtikc kai diaforetikc ap tic rzec tou
Apdeixh: Edame ti treic diadoqiko roi thc akoloujac tax touc me th sqsh
(Q2k (z))
sundontai me-
(1.36),
h opoa grfetai
2k2 Q2k (z) = (2k2 2k1 2k z + 2k + 2k2 )Q2k2 (z) 2k Q2k4 (z) .
Ap thn parapnw sqsh kai epeid ta
(1.37)
enai jetik prokptoun ekola ta exc:
Do diadoqiko roi thc kti ttoio, ap thn
(Q2k (z)) den mporon na qoun koin rza. An sunbaine (1.37) ja parname ti uprqei arijmc pou mhdenzei to Q0 (z),
prgma topo, afo to polunumo aut enai stajer kai mh mhdenik.
25
En nac roc mhdenzetai se kpoio shmeo, tte o prohgomenoc kai o epmenoc roc thc akoloujac qoun sto shmeo aut antjeto prshmo. Uprqei mia perioq grw ap kje rza tou
Q2k (z)
pou o prohgomenoc kai o
epmenoc roc thc akoloujac diathron stajer prshmo. J apodexoume tra me majhmatik epagwg wc proc rizn tou Gia
ti metax duo diadoqikn
Q2k (z) brsketai akribc mia rza tou Q2k2 (z). k = 1, to polunumo Q2 (z) = 1 2 z + 1 enai prtou bajmo kai qei ma rza 1 pragmatik kai mlista arnhtik, th = 1 2 . Gia k = 2, to polunumo Q4 (z) enai deutrou bajmo. Epeid loi oi suntelestc tou enai jetiko pragmatiko arijmo, sto (0, +) diathre stajer prshmo. Grw ap to r uprqei mia perioq pou enai etershmo tou Q0 (z), ra parnei arnhtikc timc. Epomnwc, sto (, 0) qei ma rza. Epshc, epeid enai deutrou bajmo kai o suntelestc tou megistobjmiou rou enai jetikc, sto (, ) uprqei ma akma rza tou poluwnmou. 'Ara, to Q4 (z) qei do rzec pou enai pragmatiko kai mlista arnhtiko arijmo kai brskontai ekatrwjen thc rzac tou Q2 (z). Upojtoume ti kje polunumo Q2k (z) me k < n ikanopoie thn upjesh thc majhmatikc epagwgc. Tte gia to Q2n (z) qoume isqoun ta paraktw: En ri+1 , ri enai duo diadoqikc rzec tou Q2n2 (z) me ri+1 < ri kai i n 2, tte, i1 lgw thc upjeshc thc majhmatikc epagwgc, to Q2n4 (z) enai omshmo tou (1) i sto r sto ri kai omshmo tou (1) i+1 . Lgw thc (1.37), to Q2n (z) enai omshmo i i+1 sto r tou (1) sto ri kai omshmo tou (1) i+1 , ra qei ma toulqiston rza sto (ri+1 , ri ). Dhlad, se kajna ap ta n 2 diastmata (rn1 , rn2 ), . . . , (r2 , r1 ) uprqei n1 kai sto mia toulqiston rza tou Q2n (z). Sto rn1 to Q2n (z) enai omshmo tou (1) qei to dio prshmo me ton arijm (1)n , ra sto disthma (, rn1 ) uprqei ma toulqiston rza tou. To dio isqei kai gia to disthma (r1 , 0). Epeid o bajmc tou poluwnmou enai n, ja qei telik n pragmatikc rzec, pou ja enai lec arnhtikc kai diaforetikc metax touc. 'Ara, anmesa se duo diadoqikc rzec tou Q2n (z) ja brsketai ma akribc rza tou Q2n2 (z) kai to zhtomeno qei apodeiqje.
En sthn to
(1.8)
jsoume
= 2n 2, = 1, = 2
kai sth jsh kje
2i1
bloume
2i1 z ,
tte qoume ti
2n1
Q2n1 (z) Q2n3 (z) Q2n+1 (z) = [2n1 , 2n z, 2n+1 ] 2n+1 , z z z
dhlad qoume ti ta polunuma
Q1 (z) Q2n1 (z) Q2n+1 (z) = 1 , . . . , , z z z

ikanopoion ma sqsh thc diac morfc me thn tou
Sturm.
Epomnwc, ja qoun kai tic
(1.36) kai ra sqhmatzoun ma akolouja antstoiqec idithtec, dhlad gia kje n to
polunumo
Q2n1 (z) z
ja qei
n1
rzec pou ja enai pragmatikc kai mlista arnhtikc,
diaforetikc an do kai h kajemi touc ja brsketai metax do diadoqikn rizn tou poluwnmou
Q2n+1 (z) . z
26
Epshc, ap thn sqseic:
(1.8) me katllhlec epilogc twn ,
kai
parnoume tic paraktw
2n1 Q2n (z) = [2n1 z, 2n ]
Q2n1 (z) Q2n3 (z) z z 2n Q2n+1 (z) = [2n , 2n+1 z]Q2n (z) Q2n2 (z)
ap tic opoec prokptei ti oi paraktw akoloujec poluwnmwn
Q1 (z) Q2n3 (z) Q2n1 (z) = 1 , . . . , , , Q2n (z) z z z

kai
Q0 (z) = 1, . . . , Q2n2 (z), Q2n (z), Q2n+1 (z) Sturm, ra oi rzec tou poluwnmou Q2n1 (z) brskoz ntai metax twn rizn tou poluwnmou Q2n (z) kai oi rzec tou Q2n (z) brskontai metax twn rizn tou poluwnmou Q2n+1 (z). Me moio trpo qoume ti oi rzec tou P2n (z) brskontai metax twn rizn tou Q2n (z), oi rzec tou P2n+1 (z) brskontai metax twn rizn tou Q2n+1 (z) kai, tloc, ti oi rzec tou P2n (z) brskontai metax twn rizn tou P2n+1 (z).
apotelon epshc akoloujec tou
Paratrhsh 1.2
En upojsoume ti
x1 , x2 ,
...,
xn
enai oi rzec tou
Q2n (z),
tte, lgw twn parapnw, ja isqei ti
P2n (z) M1 M2 Mn = + + ... + Q2n (z) z + x1 z + x2 z + xn M1 , M2 , . . . , Mn enai jetiko arijmo. t1 , t2 , . . . , tn tic n + 1 rzec tou Q2n+1 (z),
pou ta Epshc, an sumbolsoume me tte qoume
(1.38)
t0 = 0,
N0 N1 N2 Nn P2n+1 (z) = + + + ... + Q2n+1 (z) z z + t1 z + t2 z + tn

pou ta
(1.39)
N0 , N1 , N2 ,
1.3
...,
Nn xk
enai epshc jetiko arijmo.
Paratrhsh
Nk , (n) exartntai ap to n, ra to pio swst ja tan na qrhsimopoisoume to sumbolism x k ,

Kje pwc epshc kai o antstoiqoc suntelestc,
tk ,
Mk
tk
(n)
Mk
(n)
kai
Nk
(n)
. Dhlad,
x1
(n) +
n=0
enai h akolouja pou orzetai ap tic prtec
Q0 (z), Q2 (z), . . . , Q2n (z), . . . kai geniktera, xk enai n=0 h akolouja pou orzetai ap tic k -ostc rzec thc diac akoloujac poluwnmwn. Epshc,
rzec twn poluwnmwn
(n) +
Mk
(n) + n=0
enai h antstoiqh akolouja twn arijmhtn sto klsma pou enai o
k -ostc
roc tou ajrosmatoc sth sqsh H stajer akolouja nmwn
(1.38).
+ n=0
enai h akolouja twn prtwn rizn twn poluwH
(n) t0
=0
Q1 (z), Q3 (z),
...,
Q2n+1 (z),
....
t1
(n) + n=0
enai h akolouja twn prtwn
27
jetikn rizn kai, geniktera, twn diwn poluwnmwn. Epshc, pou enai o
tk
(n) +
Nk
n=0 (n) +
enai h akolouja twn
k -ostn
jetikn rizn
n=0
enai h akolouja twn arijmhtn sto klsma
(k + 1)-ostc =0
gia
roc tou ajrosmatoc sth sqsh
Gia na enai kal orismnec oi akoloujec autc
(n) Mk
(n) Nk
(1.39). (n) (n) jtoume x = tk = + k
kai
k > n.
Aut, fusik de metabllei tic sqseic (1.38) kai (1.39).
1.4
Rzec twn poluwnmwn ntai ap kpoio
Pn (z)
kai
kai
Qn (z)
pou den exart-
suntelest.
Oi rzec twn exissewn arijmoc
Qn (z) = 0
Pn (z) = 0
genik exartntai ap touc
(afo oi rzec enc poluwnmou exartntai ap touc suntelestc tou kai oi
suntelestc twn parapnw poluwnmwn enai, pwc edame sthn twn
1.2,
rhtc sunartseic
i ).
Sthn pargrafo aut ja exetsoume an enai dunat kpoia rza na mhn
exarttai ap na sugkekrimno Ap thn exswsh
(1.9)
gia
i . = 2n
kai
= 2n
parnoume ti
Q2n+2n (z) = Q2n (z)Q2n (z) + Q2n1 (z)P2n (z) ,

en ap thn dia exswsh gia
(2n)
(2n)
(1.40)
= 2n
kai
= 2n + 1
(2n)
qoume ti
Q2n+2n +1 (z) = Q2n (z)Q2n +1 (z) + Q2n1 (z)P2n +1 (z) .

Ap thn
(2n)
(1.41)
1.3
gnwrzoume ti den enai dunatn ta polunuma
Pn (z)
kai
Qn (z)
na
qoun koin rza. To dio isqei kai gia ta ktw:
Qn1 (z)
kai
Qn (z).
' ra, isqoun ta paraA
En to tte
enai koin rza do ek twn poluwnmwn Q2n+2n (z), Q2n (z) kai P2n (z), ja mhdenzei kai to trto, lgw thc (1.40).
enai koin rza do ek twn poluwnmwn
(2n)
'Omoia, an to
Q2n+2n (z), Q2n1 (z)
kai
(2n) Q2n (z),
tte ja mhdenzei kai to trto, lgw thc diac sqshc.
Sto detero mloc thc to
(1.40)
to monadik polunumo pou exarttai ap to
2n+1
enai
(2n) Q2n (z)
kai, mlista, ap thn (1.11) kai thn (1.40) parnoume ti
Q2n+2n (z) = 2n+1 zQ2n (z)P2n (z) + R(z) ,

pou to
(2n)
(1.42)
R(z)
enai polunumo anexrthto tou
Enai profanc ti oi rzec tou
2n+1 . Q2n+2n (z) pou den
exartntai ap to
akribc ekenoi oi arijmo pou mhdenzoun tautqrona ta polunuma kai
2n+1 enai (2n) Q2n (z)P2n (z)
R(z).
'Omwc, edame ti an nac arijmc enai rza tou
Q2n+2n (z)
kai enc ek twn
28
Q2n (z), P2n (z), tte prpei na mhdenzei kai to llo. Kai, an nac arijmc mhdenzei ta (2n) Q2n (z), P2n (z), tte ja mhdenzei kai to Q2n+2n (z) kai, tloc, ap thn (1.42) petai ti ja enai rza kai tou R(z). Dhlad, ja enai ma rza tou Q2n+2n (z) anexrthth tou 2n+1 . 'Ara, oi rzec tou Q2n+2n (z) pou den exartntai ap to 2n+1 enai akribc oi (2n) koinc rzec twn Q2n (z), P 2n (z). Ttoioi arijmo enai dunatn na uprqoun, afo oi (2n) rzec tou Q2n (z) exartntai ap ta 1 , 2 , . . . , 2n , en oi rzec tou P 2n (z) exartntai ap ta 2n+2 , 2n+3 , . . . , 2n+2n . 'Omwc, gia na sumbe kti ttoio ja prpei ta i na
ikanopoion katllhlec sunjkec.
(2n)
Q2n+2n (z) pou (2n) den exartntai ap enai oi koinc rzec twn poluwnmwn Q2n1 (z), Q 2n (z). Epshc, ap thn (1.41) parnoume ti: oi rzec tou Q2n+2n +1 (z) pou enai anexr(2n) thtec tou 2n enai akribc oi koinc rzec twn Q2n1 (z), Q 2n +1 (z) kai oi rzec tou Q2n+2n +1 (z) pou enai anexrthtec tou 2n+1 enai akribc oi koinc rzec twn Q2n (z), (2n) P2n +1 (z).
Meletntac thn me ton dio trpo, parnoume ti oi rzec tou
(1.40) to 2n
1.5
Sqsh
twn
rizn
tou
Q2n+2n (z)
me
tic
rzec
twn
Q2n (z)
wc proc
kai
(2n) P2n (z).
S autn thn pargrafo ja asqolhjome me th jsh twn rizn tou tic rzec twn
Q2n+2n (z)
Q2n (z)
kai
(2n) P2n (z).
Sugkekrimna, ja dexoume ti:
Jerhma
1.3
Metax do opoiwndpote diadoqikn rizn tou
Q2n+2n (z)
brsketai
to pol ma ap lec maz tic rzec twn twn
Q2n (z),
Q2n (z),
(2n) P2n (z)
(2n) P2n (z).
Eidiktera, an lec oi rzec
enai diaforetikc an do, tte se kje disthma anmesa se do
diadoqikc rzec tou Apdeixh: 'Estw
Q2n+2n (z) brsketai akribc ma ap tic rzec twn Q2n (z), P2n (z).
(2n)
a, b do diadoqikc rzec tou Q2n+2n (z) kai ac upojsoume ti uprqoun (2n) do diadoqikc rzec xk , xk+1 twn Q2n (z), P 2n (z) anmesa stic a, b. Dhlad, enai a < xk < xk+1 < b. Parathrome ti ote h xk , ote h xk+1 enai tautqrona rza tou (2n) Q2n (z) kai tou P2n (z), diti ap th sqsh (1.40) Q2n+2n (z) = Q2n (z)Q2n (z) + Q2n1 (z)P2n (z)
ja eqame ti enai kai rza tou seic:
(2n)
(2n)
Q2n+2n (z).
Diakrnoume, tra, tic paraktw peript-
'Estw ti ta
xk , xk+1
enai rzec tou
Q2n (z).
Tte qoume:
Q2n+2n (xk ) = Q2n1 (xk )P2n (xk )

kai
(2n)
Q2n+2n (xk+1 ) = Q2n1 (xk+1 )P2n (xk+1 ) .

29
(2n)
Epeid qoume diadoqikc rzec tou
Q2n (z), ta Q2n1 (xk ) kai Q2n1 (xk+1 ) ja (2n) (2n) qoun antjeto prshmo. Antjeta, ta P 2n (xk ) kai P2n (xk+1 ) ja enai omsh(2n) ma, afo sto [xk , xk+1 ] den uprqei rza tou P 2n (z). 'Ara, ta Q2n+2n (xk ) kai Q2n+2n (xk+1 ) enai etershma kai katalgoume se topo.
'Estw ti ta
xk , xk+1
enai rzec tou
P2n (z).
(2n)
Tte, isqei
Q2n+2n (xk ) = Q2n (xk )Q2n (xk )

kai
(2n)
Q2n+2n (xk+1 ) = Q2n (xk+1 )Q2n (xk+1 ) . Q2n (xk ) kai Q2n (xk+1 ) enai (2n) etershma, afo metax twn duo diadoqikn rizn tou P 2n (z) brsketai akri(2n) bc ma rza tou Q 2n (z). 'Ara, kai pli ta Q2n+2n (xk ) kai Q2n+2n (xk+1 ) enai
Ta kai enai omshma, en ta etershma, prgma to opoo enai topo.
(2n)
Q2n (xk )
Q2n (xk+1 )
(2n)
(2n)
'Estw ti to
xk
enai rza tou
Q2n (z)
kai to
xk+1
enai rza tou
P2n (z).
(2n)
Tte:
Q2n+2n (xk ) = Q2n1 (xk )P2n (xk )

kai
(2n)
Q2n+2n (xk+1 ) = Q2n (xk+1 )Q2n (xk+1 ) . m-ost rza tou Q2n (z), xekinntac thn arjmhsh Q2n (xk+1 ) enai omshmo tou Q2n (xk + ), pou enai arket mikr kai jetik, giat to xk+1 enai mikrtero thc (m1)-ostc rzac tou Q2n (z). 'Omwc, se mia mikr perioq dexi thc m-ostc rzac tou Q2n (z), to m1 , ra to Q (x +) enai omshmo prshmo tou Q2n (z) enai to dio me tou (1) 2n k m1 . Epshc, edame ti metax do diadoqikn rizn tou Q (z) brsketai tou (1) 2n Q2n1 (z) ma rza tou , opte metax thc m-ostc kai thc (m 1)-ostc rzac tou z Q2n (z) ja brsketai h m-ost rza tou Q2n1 (z). Epomnwc, se mia mikr perioq dexi tou xk to Q2n1 (z) ja qei to prshmo pou qei arister thc m-ostc rzac m tou, dhlad to Q2n1 (xk + ), ra kai to Q2n1 (xk ), enai omshmo tou (1) . Opte to ginmeno Q2n (xk+1 )Q2n1 (xk ) enai arnhtik.
En upojsoume ti to enai h twn rizn tou ap dexi, tte to 'Omoia, to mikr kai
(2n)
xk
P2n (xk ) qei to dio prshmo me to P2n (xk+1 ), pou osodpote (2n) jetik. An upojsoume ti to xk+1 enai h -ost rza tou P 2n (z), (1)
. 'Omwc, oi rzec tou
(2n)
(2n)
xekinntac thn arjmhsh twn rizn tou ap dexi, tte to prshm tou arister thc enai omshmo tou stic rzec tou metax thc
(2n) Q2n (z),
P2n (z)
(2n)
brskontai anmesa
prgma to opoo shmanei ti, epeid to
xk+1
brsketai
(2n) Q2n (xk+1

ginmeno
( + 1)-ostc rzac tou to prshmo tou (2n) ), opte kai tou Q2n (xk+1 ), enai to dio me tou (1) . 'Ara to (2n) (2n) P2n (xk )Q2n (xk+1 ) enai jetik. Sunduzontac ta apotelsmata twn
-ostc kai thc 30
(2n) Q2n (z),
do teleutawn paragrfwn, blpoume ti sthn perptwsh pou to tou
Q2n (z) kai
to
xk+1
enai rza tou
(2n ) P2n (z)
to
xk enai rza Q2n+2n (xk )Q2n+2n (xk+1 ) enai
arnhtik kai brskoume topo. Me ton dio akribc trpo douleoume gia na apodexoume to dio apotlesma kai sthn perptwsh pou to
xk
enai rza tou
P2n (z) kai to xk+1
(2n)
enai rza tou
Q2n (z).
Ed teleinei h apdeixh tou prtou mrouc tou jewrmatoc.
1 , 2 , . . . , n enai oi rzec tou Q2n (z) diatetagmnec kat axousa (2n) seir, en 1 , 2 , . . . , n 1 enai oi rzec tou P 2n (z), tic opoec qoume epshc diatxei (2n) kat axousa seir. Upojtoume ti ta Q2n (z) kai P 2n (z) den qoun koinc rzec kai ti oi rzec kai twn duo maz, diatetagmnec kat axousa seir enai oi x1 , x2 , . . . , xn+n 1 .
'Estw tra ti Parathrome ti lec autc oi rzec enai arnhtikc. Gia na apodexoume to detero mroc tou jewrmatoc arke na dexoume ti do diadoqiko roi thc peperasmnhc akoloujac
Q2n+2n (xi )
me
i = 0, 1, . . . , n + n ,
pou
x0 = , xn+n = 0 qoun i = 1, 2, . . . , n + n 1.
To prshmo tou arijmo
diaforetik prshmo.
Aut to qoume dh apodexei gia
Q2n+2n (x0 )
enai profanc
Q2n+2n (x1 ) diakrnoume (2n) tou P 2n (z).
duo periptseic, anloga me to
(1)n+n . Gia to prshmo tou an to x1 enai rza tou Q2n (z)

(2n)
Q2n+2n (x1 ) = Q2n1 (1 )P2n (1 ). Epeid oi rzec tou Q2n1 (z) brskontai anmesa stic rzec tou Q2n (z) kai epeid to (2n) Q2n1 (z) enai bajmo n, to Q2n1 (1 ) enai omshmo tou (1)n , en to P2n (1 ) enai n 1 , giat to P (2n) (z) enai bajmo n 1 kai h prth rza tou enai omshmo tou (1) 2n n+n 1 . megalterh tou 1 . ' ra, to Q2n+2n (x1 ) enai omshmo tou (1) A Sto dio sumprasma katalgoume an exetsoume thn perptwsh sthn opoa to x1 2n 2n enai rza tou P 2n (z), dhlad an x1 = 1 , opte Q2n+2n (x1 ) = Q2n (1 )Q2n (1 ) kai n+n 1 . 'Ara, se kje telik prokptei pli ti to Q2n+2n (x1 ) enai omshmo tou (1) perptwsh ta Q2n+2n (x0 ) kai Q2n+2n (x1 ) enai etershma. Dexame epomnwc ti do diadoqiko roi thc peperasmnhc akoloujac Q2n+2n (xi ), me i = 0, 1, . . . , n + n 1 kai x0 = , xn+n = 0, qoun diaforetik prshmo.
Sthn prth perptwsh, dhlad an enai
x1 = 1 ,
An o arijmc
n + n enai perittc, tte o Q2n+2n (x0 ) enai arnhtikc kai o Q2n+2n (xn+n 1 ), epeid qoume artou pljouc enallagc prosmou, ja enai epshc arnhtikc, en o Q2n+2n (xn+n ) enai jetikc. n+n
enai rtioc, tte o
An o
Q2n+2n (x0 )
enai jetikc kai o
Q2n+2n (xn+n 1 ),
epeid qoume peritto pljouc enallagc prosmou, ja enai tra arnhtikc, en o
Q2n+2n (xn+n )
enai jetikc.
Se kje perptwsh prokptei ti oi
Q2n+2n (xn+n 1 ) kai Q2n+2n (xn+n ) enai etersh-
moi kai h apdeixh tou jewrmatoc qei teleisei.
31
Paratrhsh
1.4
Sto jerhma pou apodexame prohgoumnwc, ma ap tic upojseic
Q2n (z) den apotele tautqrona kai rza tou P2n (z). Kai dexame ti s autn thn perptwsh kajna ap ta n + n 1 diastmata pou orzoun oi rzec tou Q2n+2n (z) periqei ete ma mno rza tou Q2n (z), ete ma mno rza tou (2n) P2n (z). 'Omwc, den xroume poia enai ta diastmata pou periqoun rzec tou prtou
pou kname tan ti kama rza tou poluwnmou kai poia periqoun tou deutrou. Fusik, o trpoc me ton opoo gnetai aut h katanom twn rizn exarttai ap tic timc twn
(2n)
i .
An epitryoume sta
na metabllontai kat na {suneq} trpo (arke na paramnoun jetik), tte kai h katanom twn en lgw rizn sta diastmata metablletai. Mlista, an arqik eqame do diado qik diastmata, ap ta opoa to prto perieqe rza tou rza tou tou
Q2n (z)
kai to detero
(2n) P2n (z),
tte me katllhlh metabol twn
mporome na petqoume h rza
Q2n (z)
na {persei} sto detero disthma, en tautqrona, h rza tou
P2n (z)
(2n)
na
{mpei} sto prto disthma. to
Tte, oi duo rzec tautzontai kai mhdenzoun epiplon kai
Q2n+2n (z).
Aut enai h perptwsh pou exetsame sthn
1.4. Q2n+2n (z),
Se lh thn pargrafo asqolhjkame me thn {trida} twn poluwnmwn
Q2n (z)
kai
(2n) P2n (z).
'Omwc, me ton dio akribc trpo katalgoume se antstoiqa
apotelsmata kai gia llec ttoiec {tridec}. 'Etsi qoume ti:
Metax do opoiwndpote diadoqikn rizn tou ap lec maz tic rzec twn
Q2n+2n (z)
Q2n+2n z
.
+1 (z)
brsketai to pol ma
(2n) Q2n (z)
kai
Q2n1 (z) . z
brsketai to pol ma
Metax do opoiwndpote diadoqikn rizn tou ap lec maz tic rzec twn
Q2n1 (z) z
kai
(2n) Q2n +1 (z)
Metax do diadoqikn rizn tou maz tic rzec twn
Q2n (z)
kai
Q2n+2n +1 (z) (2n) P2n +1 (z).
brsketai to pol ma ap lec
1.6
To prshmo
thc
xk i .
S autn thn pargrafo ja apodexoume ti:
Jerhma
1.4
En
xk
enai ma rza tou
Qm (z),
tte h
xk i
enai pnta mh arnhtik.
Apdeixh: Lgw twn sqsewn tou
Vieta to xk
enai sunrthsh twn
na jewrsoume th merik pargwgo thc sunrthshc
xk
wc proc to
j , ra mporome tuqao i . Gia thn
apdeixh thc prtashc ja prpei na diakrnoume tsseric periptseic gia to an o bajmc
tou poluwnmou kai to
enai rtioi peritto. Ja knoume thn apdeixh mno sthn
perptwsh pou to
enai rtioc kai to
perittc. Tte, ap thn
(1.42)
qoume ti
Q2n+2n (xk ) = 2n+1 xk Q2n (xk )P2n (xk ) + R(xk )

32
(2n)
opte me peplegmnh paraggish parnoume ti
xk Q2n (xk )P2n (xk ) xk = . 2n+1 Q2n+2n (xk )

Edame sthn prohgomenh pargrafo ti to polunumo
(2n)
(1.43)
Q2n (z)P2n (z) qei n+n 1 rzec, kajemi ap tic opoec brsketai metax twn rizn tou poluwnmou Q2n+2n (z). 'Ara, an upojsoume ti h xk enai h k -ost rza tou Q2n+2n (z) (an tic arijmsoume ap (2n) ta dexi proc t' arister), tte to prshmo tou Q2n (xk )P 2n (xk ) enai to dio me tou k1 . Epshc, h pargwgoc Q arijmo (1) 2n+2n (z) enai na polunumo n+n 1 bajmo kai qei akribc ma rza metax duo diadoqikn rizn tou Q2n+2n (z) (diti to teleutao polunumo qei n diakekrimnec rzec). 'Ara, to prshmo tou arijmo Q 2n+2n (xk ) enai Q2n (xk )P2n (xk ) kai Q2n+2n (xk ) enai omshmoi arijmo. ' ra, to dex mloc thc (1.43) enai mh arnhtik. H apdeixh enai A moia kai stic llec treic periptseic, arke na brome sqseic antstoiqec me thn (1.42).
to dio me tou arijmo kai telik, ta
Paratrhsh 1.5
(2n)
(1)k1
(2n)
Edame sthn
2n+1
akribc tte, tan enai
1.4 ti ma rza xk tou Q2n+2n (z) enai anexrthth tou (2n) koin rza twn Q2n (z) kai P 2n (z). An lboume upyh
ton tpo (1.43), tte parnoume na detero trpo apdeixhc tou apotelsmatoc auto.
33
34
Keflaio 2
Melth twn anaptugmtwn twn proseggsewn
Laurent
Pn(z) Qn(z)
tou
suneqoc klsmatoc
Stieltjes.
Sto uploipo
Sthn arq tou deterou kefalaou deqnoume ton trpo me ton opoo ap kje suneqc klsma
Stieltjes mporome na proume ma dunamoseir me kntro to +. Stieltjes.1
keflaio asqolomaste me to antstrofo prblhma, dhlad pc ap ma seir dunmewn tou
1 z,
thc opoac oi suntelestc ikanopoion orismnec proupojseic, prokptei na
suneqc klsma
2.1
To anptugma
Laurent
tou
Pn (z) Qn (z) .
Ap tic sqseic
(1.34)
kai
(1.35)
tou prohgomenou kefalaou qoume ti
Pn+1 (z) Pn (z) (1)n = , Qn+1 (z) Qn (z) Qn (z)Qn+1 (z)

pou gia kje
to
Qn (z)Qn+1 (z) ,
enai polunumo bajmo
n + 1.
Pn (z) Qn (z)
kai
Ap thn teleutaa sqsh prokptei ti, an anaptxoume ta dunamoseirc me kntro to tte oi
Pn+1 (z) Qn+1 (z)
se
prtoi roi twn anaptugmtwn ja enai koino.
Prgmati, an upojsoume ti uprqoun lestc twn rwn sqsh dnei:
k,
mikrtera sa tou
n,
ttoia ste oi sunte-
1 zk
na diafroun, tte, parnontac to elqisto ttoio
k,
h parapnw
d d (1)n + k+1 + . . . = Qn (z)Qn+1 (z) zk z

1
H sndesh enc suneqoc klsmatoc me ma dunamoseir enai kti pou prtoc kane o sto rgo tou {
L.
Euler(1736-1813)
ta tou arijmo
De Fractionlous Continious},
pou kuklofrhse to 1737.
Sto rgo
tou aut melet susthmatik ta suneq klsmata kai ta qrhsimopoie gia na apodexei thn arrhtth-
e.
35
isodnama
d+
gia kpoio
d (1)n z k + ... = z Qn (z)Qn+1 (z) z.

To rio tou dexio mlouc thc enai mhdn, en tou aristero isotai me
d = 0
kai gia la ta arket megla
teleutaac isthtac gia topo. 'Ara, enai
d,
prgma
(n) an+1 Pn (z) c0 c1 c2 cn1 an = 2 + 3 . . . + (1)n1 n + (1)n n+1 + (1)n+1 n+2 + ... Qn (z) z z z z z z
pou oi
(n)
(2.1)
prtoi roi emfanzontai sta anaptgmata lwn twn
Pk (z) Qk (z)
me
k n.
Oi
uploipoi arijmhtc
(n) an ,
(n) an+1 ,
. . . enai loi mikrteroi twn
cn , cn+1 ,
. . . antstoiqa.
Mlista, isqei to paraktw jerhma.
Jerhma
2.1
Gia kje
stajeropoietai ston
k = 0, 1, 2, . . . h arijm ck . Epshc, la
akolouja ta
(ak )
(n)
enai axousa kai telik
ck
enai jetik.
Apdeixh: Isqei ti
Pn (z) Qn (z)
Pn1 (z) (1)n1 + Qn1 (z) Qn1 (z)Qn (z) = ... 1 1 (1)n1 = + ... + . Q0 (z)Q1 (z) Q1 (z)Q2 (z) Qn1 (z)Qn (z) = z
(2.2)
Kje roc tou deutrou mlouc grfetai wc seir arnhtikn dunmewn tou
wc exc:
1 Q0 (z)Q1 (z) + + 1 Q1 (z)Q2 (z) 1 Q2 (z)Q3 (z) 1 Q3 (z)Q4 (z) 1 Q4 (z)Q5 (z)
= = = = =
1 z
(1)
2 + 33 44 + 55 + . . . 2 z z z z + 3 44 + 55 . . . z3 z z 4 + 55 . . . 4 z z + 5 ... z5
(5) (4) (4) (3) (3) (3)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
.......................................
gia arket megla Kajna ap ta o exc: en
z. (j) i
enai jetikc arijmc kai nac trpoc gia na to dome aut enai
Qm1 (z)Qm (z) = cz(z + x1 )(z + x2 ) (z + xm1 ) ,

36
tte gnwrzoume ti ta
c, x1 , x2 , . . . , xm1 x1 < x2 < . . . < xm1 . Gia kje i = 1, 2, . . . , m 1 isqei ti 1 = z + xi

+ n=0
enai jetiko arijmo.
Upojtoume ti
(1)n xn i , |z| > xi . z n+1
Opte enai
1 1 = Qm1 (z)Qm (z) cz
+ n=0
(1)n xn 1 z n+1 Cauchy

1 zk
+ n=0
(1)n xn m1 , z n+1
|z| > xm1 .
Lambnontac upyh ton tpo tou
gia to ginmeno seirn, prokptei ti gia
k < m
(m) k
den uprqei roc thc morfc 'Otan
sto anptugma tou
1 Qm1 (z)Qm (z) ,
ra enai
= 0.
k m,
tte to
(m) k
enai poluwnumik parstash twn
xi
me jetikoc
suntelestc, ra enai jetik. Epshc, gia
nk
n
isqei
(n) ak
=
m=2
k+1 ,
(m)
en gia
1k<n
isqei
k+1 (n) ak (n+1) (n)
=
m=2
k+1 .
(n+1) (n+1)
(m)
Epomnwc, gia Epeid
n k isqei ak
ak = k+1 > 0 kai gia n > k isqei ak
= ak
(n)
(k+1) ak
= ck ,
blpoume ti
ck ak = ak
opte
(k)
(k+1)
ak = k+1 > 0 ,
(k) (k+1)
(k)
(k+1)
0 = ak < ak < ak < . . . < ak < ck = ak

Dhlad gia kje fusik ston arijm An
(0)
(1)
(2)
= ak
(k+2)
= ... .
h akolouja
(ak )
(n)
enai axousa kai telik stajeropoietai
ck .
h akolouja
k = 0,
(a0 )
(n)
enai stajer me tim
c0 = 1
(1)
En qoume to suneqc klsma
Stieltjes 1
1
1 z +
,
1
1 2k + . .
2 + . .
2k1 z+
37
tte enai profanc ti ma isodnamh morf tou enai h
b0 z+
b1 1+ . .
.
,
b2k1
b2k z+ . .
1+
1 bi mporon ekola na upologiston ap ta ai , diti isqoun oi sqseic b0 = 1 1 kai bn = n n+1 . Smfwna me ta parapnw, to prohgomeno suneqc klsma Stieltjes orzei mia akolouja arijmn, thn (cn ). Apodeiknetai ti kajna ap ta cn enai rht sunrthsh twn suntelestn i tou suneqoc klsmatoc kai poluwnumik sunrthsh 2 twn bi me akraiouc suntelestc.
pou ta Jewrome, tra, thn peirh seir
c0 c1 c2 c3 2 + 3 4 + ... z z z z
kai sumfwnome na thn onomzoume kat tic dunmeic tou
anptugma tou suneqoc klsmatoc
Stieltjes
1 z.
Autc o orismc enai kajar tupikc, afo h seir aut enai
apoklnousa tic perissterec forc.
Ap ton algrijmo pou anafrjhke sthn uposhmewsh, qoume ti kajna ap ta enai rht sunrthsh twn
cn
i .
Ja dome sto keflaio aut ti isqei kai to antstrofo,
dhlad mporome na ekfrsoume kajna ap ta
wc sunrthsh mno twn
ci .
Prta
mwc ja qreiaste na apodexoume kpoiec protseic pou ja tic qrhsimopoisoume wc ergalea gia na proume touc epijumhtoc tpouc.
cn ap ta bi , ton Stieltjes qei apodexei se prohgomenh ergasa tou me ttlo {Sur la rduction en fraction e continue d une srie procdant suivant les puissances descedantes d une variable}. H ergasa tou e e
Uprqei nac pol komyc trpoc me ton opoo mporome na upologsoume ta opoo o aut dhmosiethke sto dio periodik to 1889 kai periqei ton paraktw algrijmo upologismo twn
cn .
Upologzoume ta
i,k kai i,k me 0,0 =1 0,k = 0,k + b2 1,k 1,k = 1,k + b4 2,k 2,k = 2,k + b6 3,k ... i,k = i,k + b2i+2 i+1,k ...
th bojeia twn tpwn kai
i,0 = 0 gia i > 0. 0,k+1 = b1 0,k 1,k+1 = b3 1,k + 0,k 2,k+1 = b5 2,k + 1,k ... i,k+1 = b2i+1,k i,k + i1,k ... . i,k = i,k = 0 gia i > k. Epshc, enai k+1,k+1 = b2k+3 k+1,k + k,k = k,k . 'Ara, ja qoume ti
me th bojeia twn tpwn
Me majhmatik epagwg wc proc
k k,k = k,k + b2k+2 k+1,k = k,k k,k = k,k = 0,0 = 1. Ta cn upologzontai ap ta i,k ci+k ci+k+1 = =
ekola apodeiknetai ti kai
kai
i,k
b0 0,i 0,k + b0 b1 b2 1,i 1,k + b0 b1 b2 b3 b4 2,i 2,k + . . . b0 b1 0,i 0,k + b0 b1 b2 b3 1,i 1,k + b0 b1 b2 b3 b4 b5 2,i 2,k + . . . .
38
2.2
Ta
cn
wc
sunrthsh twn rizn
tou
Qm (z)
Sthn
1.3
edame ti isqei
P2n (z) M1 M2 Mn = + + ... + , Q2n (z) z + x1 z + x2 z + xn

pou ta
M1 , M 2 ,
...,
Epeid enai to
Mi z+xi
Mn =
enai jetiko arijmo. m m Mi xi , qoume ap ton tpo (2.1) telik ti, tan m+1
m=0 (1)
parnei tic timc 0, 1, 2, . . . ,
2n 1, ck =
tte isqei:
Mi xk . i
i=1
(2.3)
'Omoia, epeid enai
P2n+1 (z) N0 N1 N2 Nn = + + + ... + , Q2n+1 (z) z z + t1 z + t 2 z + tn

pou ta
N0 , N1 , N2 ,
...,
Nn
enai epshc jetiko arijmo, ja isqei ti
ck =
i=0
pou to
N i tk , i
kai enai
(2.4)
parnei tic timc 0, 1, 2, . . . ,
2n
t0 = 0.
exartntai ap to bajm twn poluw-
Paratrhsh
2.1
Edame ti ta
Mi , Ni , xi
kai
ti
nmwn. ' ra, an jloume na akribologome, isqei A
ck =
i=1
kai
Mi (xi )k
(n)
(n)
k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , 2n 1
ck =
i=0
Ni (ti )k
(n)
(n)
k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , 2n .
2.3
Melth tou orou
lim cn+1 cn
Jewrome gia kje
p0
thn tetragwnik morf
m1 m1
cp+l+k Xl Xk .
l=0 k=0
39
An proume ton arijm
tsi ste
p + 2m 2 2n 1,
tte ap thn tautthta tou
diwnmou tou Netwna kai thn (2.3) qoume ti h parapnw tetragwnik morf isotai me
Mi xp (X0 + X1 xi + X2 x2 + . . . + Xm1 xm1 )2 , i i i

i=1
dhlad enai mh arnhtik orismnh. Enai ekolo na dome ti h tetragwnik morf enai jetik orismnh. Prgmati, an
X0 , X1 , . . . , Xm1 , qi la mhdn, ste h tetragwnik morf na parnei thn tim m1 ja eqe tic n diaforetikc rzec mhdn, tte to polunumo X0 + X1 u + . . . + Xm1 u x1 , . . . , xn . 'Ara, ja eqame n m 1 kai epomnwc, 2n p + 2n p + 2m 2 2n 1,
uprqan to opoo enai topo. ' ra, h orzousa A
cp cp+1 ... cp+m1

enai jetik. Gia
cp+1 cp+2 ... cp+m
. . . cp+m1 ... cp+m ... ... . . . cp+2m2

orzousa
m=2
parnoume ti h
22
cp cp+1
cp+1 cp+2
cn+1 cn
enai gnhswc axousa.
enai jetik, prgma to opoo sunepgetai ti h akolouja Opte uprqoun do periptseic:
Na enai kje
lim cn+1 = + cn lim cn+1 = , cn
kai ra h seir
c0 z
c1 z2
c2 z3
c3 z4
+ ...
na apoklnei gia
z.
pou
Na enai
jetikc pragmatikc arijmc, opte h parapnw
seir ja sugklnei apluta gia la ta me
me
|z| >
kai ja apoklnei gia la ta
|z| < . Qn (z)

auxnetai kajc
Gnwrzoume mwc ti kai h megalterh rza tou poluwnmou to
megalnei. Ja dexoume ti: To rio thc akoloujac pou sqhmatzetai ap tic megalterec rzec twn tautzetai me to
Jerhma
2.2
poluwnmwn
Qn (z)
lim cn+1 . cn
Apdeixh: Ap thn
1.3 qoume ti h akolouja twn megalterwn rizn twn Qm (z)
enai gnhswc axousa, ra ja qei rio, to opoo ja enai kpoioc jetikc arijmc to
+.
Epshc, isqei ti
Pn (z) = Qn (z)
n i=1
40
mi , z + si
(2.5)
pou
n =
n 2,
an
rtioc kai
jetik kai gia tic rzec
si
tou
n = n+1 , an n 2 Qn (z) isqei
enai perittc.
Akmh, ta
mi
enai la
0 s1 < s2 < . . . < sn .

Epeid
sn
enai h megalterh rza, qoume ti
cn1 = cn2
Lgw twn parapnw, en
n n1 i=1 mi si n n2 i=1 mi si
< sn .
lim cn+1 = +, tte lim sn = +. An to lim cn+1 = cn cn enai pragmatikc arijmc, to rio lim sn den mpore na enai mikrtero ap . En upojsoume ti xepern to , tte uprqei n kai jetik ttoia ste sn = + . Jewrome n 2n kai tic duo seirc: c0 c1 c2 c3 2 + 3 4 + ... z z z z
kai
(n) an+1 Pn (z) c0 c1 c2 cn1 an = 2 + 3 . . . + (1)n1 n + (1)n n+1 + (1)n+1 n+2 + . . . . Qn (z) z z z z z z
H prth sugklnei apluta gia 'Ara, tan
(n)
|z| > ,
en h deterh apoklnei gia
|z| < sn = + .
< |z| < + ,
tte h deterh seir apoklnei, en h prth sugklnei
apluta. 'Omwc, lgw tou jewrmatoc 2.1, enai to opoo shmanei ti krithrou sgkrishc).
an < cn , an+1 < cn+1 , . . . , prgma h deterh seir sugklnei apluta tan < |z| < + (lgw cn+1 'Atopo. Opte, lim cn = lim sn = .
c0 c1 c2 z z 2 + z 3 . . .
(n)
(n+1)
2.4
'Ena akmh kritrio sgklishc thc seirc
'Estw ti qoume na suneqc klsma
stoiqh seir pou prokptei ap aut, thn
Stieltjes kai jloume na meletsoume thn antc1 c2 c0 z z 2 + z 3 . . . , wc proc th sgklish.
To mno pou mporome na knoume, me bsh aut pou qoume wc tra apodexei, enai na upologsoume ta thc
cn
me th bojeia tou algrijmou pou anaframe sthn uposhmewsh
2.1.
'Omwc, kti ttoio enai exairetik eppono kai mno an emaste pol tuqero
ja katafroume na mantyoume ton tpo twn
cn
gia na brome thn aktna sgklishc thc
parapnw seirc. Sthn pargrafo aut ja apodexoume to paraktw jerhma, pou mac bohj na apofgoume lh thn talaipwra pou anaframe prohgoumnwc. Dustuqc,
mwc, sthn perptwsh thc sgklishc thc antstoiqhc dunamoseirc, de mac dnei arketc plhroforec gia thn aktna sgklishc. En
Jerhma
2.3
sup bn = +,
tte enai kai
lim cn+1 = +, cn
opte h seir
c0 c1 c2 2 + 3 ... z z z
apoklnei gia kje mi gadik arijm. An
sup bn = l,
tte kai to rio
lim cn+1 cn
enai
peperasmno kai mlista, h aktna sgklishc thc seirc den mpore na xepersei to
4l.
41
Apdeixh: En h akolouja
M osodpote meglo mporome na brome fusik
(bn ) den enai nw fragmnh, tte gia kje jetik arijm m ttoio ste bm = 1 >M . m m+1 m = 2n
m = 2n + 1, an m rtioc perittc antstoiqa. Jewrome sth sunqeia ta polunuma Q2n (z) kai Q2n+2 (z) kai (n) (n) (n) diatssoume tic rzec touc ap th mikrterh sth megalterh: stw x 1 , x2 , . . . , xn oi (n+1) (n+1) (n+1) rzec tou Q2n (z) kai x , x2 , . . . , xn+1 oi rzec tou Q2n+2 (z). Tte, ap touc 1 tpouc tou Vieta kai tic sqseic metax twn suntelestn twn poluwnmwn pou qoume dexei sthn 1.2, prokptoun ta exc:
Tte, ja uprqei nac fusikc ttoioc ste
n,
x1 + x2 + . . . + x(n) = n
(n)
(n)
Bn1 Bn 1 1 1 = + + ... + 1 2 2 3 2n1 2n = b1 + b2 + . . . + b2n1

(n+1)
kai omowc
x1
(n+1)
+ x2
(n+1)
+ . . . + xn+1 = b1 + b2 + . . . + b2n+1 .
Ap ta parapnw qoume ti
xn+1 (x(n) x(n+1) ) (xn1 xn1 ) . . . (x1 x1 n n

Epeid oi diaforc
(n+1)
(n)
(n+1)
(n)
(n+1)
) = b2n + b2n+1 .
xn+1 > b2n +b2n+1 > M . 'Ara, h akolouja twn megalterwn rizn twn poluwnmwn Qm (z) den enai nw fragenai jetikc, enai faner ti mnh. Qrhsimopointac to sumbolism sthn apdeixh tou jewrmatoc 2.2 brskoume ti
xi xi
(n)
(n+1)
(n+1)
lim sn = lim cn+1 = +. cn

Mnei na dexoume ti an
sup bn = l,
tte kai to rio
Prgmati, mporome na brome nan arijm suneqc klsma
ttoio ste
lim cn+1 cn Cl > b0 .
enai peperasmno. Jewrome tra to
Cl z+
l 1+ . .
.
.
l
l z+ . .
+ 1+
Fusik, uprqei mia seir thc morfc lestc
c0 z
c c z1 + z2 . . . pou antistoiqe s' aut. 2 3
Oi sunte-
cn
tou teleutaou suneqoc klsmatoc enai megalteroi ap touc antstoiqouc
suntelestc tou prtou ki aut apodeiknetai wc exc: Oi suntelestc
bi
tou deterou
suneqoc klsmatoc epilqjhsan tsi ste na enai megalteroi ap touc antstoiqouc suntelestc tou prtou suneqoc klsmatoc. Epomnwc, oi suntelestc rou suneqoc klsmatoc ja enai mikrteroi ap autoc tou prtou.
tou dete-
Epeid h merik
42
pargwgoc
xk i ,
pou tou
xk
enai rza tou
Qm (z), cn .
enai mh arnhtik, kajc ta
meino-
ntai, oi rzec
xk
Qm (z)
ja auxnontai.
Tte, ja auxnontai kai oi posthtec
j i
pou orsthkan sto jerhma 2.1, ra kai ta
To detero suneqc klsma enai periodik, opte an sumbolsoume me A thn tim tou gia ton tuqao migadik
z,
tte ja isqei ti
A=
Cl l z + 1+ A
C
A=
C 2
1+
4l 1 z
Dhlad, to suneqc klsma pou orsame prohgoumnwc parnei tic diec timc me th sunrthsh
A=
C 2
1+
4l 1 z
|z| > 4l. 'Ara, h antstoiqh seir tou prtou suneqoc klsmatoc ja sugklnei epshc gia |z| > 4l , prgma to opoo cn+1 shmanei ti to rio lim cn den mpore na xepersei to 4l.
thc opoac h dunamoseir me kntro to sugklnei gia
2.5
Ta
n Pn (z)
,
kai
Qn (z)
wc
sunartseic
twn
ci
P c c z1 + z2 . . . kai to antstoiqo anptugma tou Qn (z) diafroun mno wc 2 3 n (z) c0 c1 c2 1 1 proc touc rouc n+1 , n+2 , . . . . Epomnwc, to anptugma tou Qn (z) z z2 + z3 . . . z z 1 1 ja diafrei ap aut tou Pn (z) mno wc proc touc rouc , , . . ., pou n z nn +1 z nn +2 c2 c0 c1 enai o bajmc tou Qn (z). 'Etsi, sto ginmeno Qn (z) z z 2 + z 3 . . . den uprqei 1 1 1 kannac roc thc morfc z , z 2 , . . . , z nn . Gia lgouc eukolac, upojtoume ti to n
H seir
c0 z
enai rtioc arijmc kai jtoume
Q2n (z) = a0 + a1 z + a2 z 2 + . . . + an z n .
Tte, me bsh ta parapnw, sto ginmeno roi thc morfc
Q2n (z)
1 1 z , . . . , zn ,
c0 z
c1 z2
c2 z3
+ ...
den uprqoun
opte ja isqoun oi paraktw isthtec:
a0 c0 + a1 c1 + . . . + an cn = 0 a0 c1 + a1 c2 + . . . + an cn+1 = 0 ......................... a0 cn1 + a1 cn + . . . + an c2n1 = 0 . Q2n (0) = 1, tte h teleutaa sqsh maz me tic prohgomenec isthtec apotelon na ssthma n+1 exissewn me n+1 agnstouc, touc a0 , a1 , . . . , an .
An lboume upyh ti 43
H orzousa tou parapnw sustmatoc enai sh me
D=
1 0 c0 c1 c1 c2 ... ... cn1 cn
... 0 ... cn . . . cn+1 ... ... . . . c2n1 ai ,
c1 c2 ... cn
... cn . . . cn+1 ... ... . . . c2n1

isotai me
kai h orzousa pou antistoiqe ston gnwsto
gia
1 i n,
Dai
1 c0 ... cn1
i+1
... 0 1 0 . . . ci1 0 ci+1 ... ... ... ... . . . cn+i2 0 cn+i
... 0 ... cn ... ... . . . c2n1 .
= (1)
c0 . . . ci1 ci+1 . . . cn ... ... ... ... ... ... cn1 . . . cn+i2 cn+i . . . c2n1 c0 . . . ci1 ci+1 . . . cn ... ... ... ... ... ... cn1 . . . cn+i2 cn+i . . . c2n1 c1 c2 ... cn ... zn ... cn . . . cn+1 ... ... . . . c2n1 ... cn . . . cn+1 ... ... . . . c2n1
'Ara enai
ai = (1)i+1
kai telik
Q2n (z) =
1 z z2 c0 c1 c2 c1 c2 c3 ... ... ... cn1 cn cn+1
c1 c2 c2 c3 ... ... cn cn+1
... cn . . . cn+1 ... ... . . . c2n1
(2.6)
Gia na aplopoisoume touc tpouc me touc opoouc ja doulyoume paraktw, orzoume ton arijm
S{p(u)}
2.1
enc poluwnmou
p(u)
wc exc:
Orismc
'Estw to polunumo
p(u) = a0 + a1 u + a2 u2 + . . . + an un .
Tte orzoume
S{p(u)}
na enai h tim pou parnoume tan antikatastsoume sthn parstash
a0 + a1 u + a2 u2 + . . . + an un
tic dunmeic
u0 , u 1 , . . . , u n
me ta
c0 , c1 , . . . , cn
antstoiqa. Dhlad,
S{p(u)} = a0 c0 + a1 c1 + . . . + an cn .
44
'Opwc epame kai prohgoumnwc, o arijmc pou orsame mac epitrpei na grfoume diforec sqseic pol pio sntoma. Gia pardeigma, oi isthtec
a0 ck + a1 ck+1 + . . . + an ck+n = 0 ,
grfontai
k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n 1 .
S{uk Q2n (u)} = 0 ,

Sthn perptwsh pou to
k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n 1 .
enai perittc, grfoume
Q2n+1 (z) = 1 z + 2 z 2 + . . . + n+1 z n+1 ,

opte prokptei me ton dio trpo pwc kai prohgoumnwc ti
S{uk Q2n+1 (u)} = 0 ,

Epshc, epeid o stajerc roc tou jer ro tou
k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n 1 .
c2 z3
(2.7)
P2n+1 (z),
dhlad
c Q2n+1 (z) cz0 + z1 + 2 enai 1, ja qoume ti
+ ...
isotai me to sta-
Q2n+1 (u) u
= 1 .
(2.8)
To ssthma exissewn thc (2.7) kai h (2.8) apotelon na ssthma
n + 1 exissewn me
n+1
agnstouc, touc
1 , . . . , n+1 .
H orzousa tou sustmatoc enai
D=
c0 c1 c1 c2 ... ... cn cn+1
. . . cn . . . cn+1 ... ... . . . c2n i
en h orzousa pou antistoiqe se kje gnwsto
isotai me
Di
c0 c1 ... cn
i
. . . ci2 1 ci . . . ci1 0 ci+1 ... ... ... ... . . . cn+i2 0 cn+i
. . . cn . . . cn+1 ... ... . . . c2n .
= (1)
c1 . . . ci1 ci+1 . . . cn+1 ... ... ... ... ... ... cn . . . cn+i2 cn+i . . . c2n c1 . . . ci1 ci+1 . . . cn+1 ... ... ... ... ... ... cn . . . cn+i2 cn+i . . . c2n c0 c1 c1 c2 ... ... cn cn+1
45
'Ara
i = (1)i
. . . cn . . . cn+1 ... ... . . . c2n
kai epomnwc enai
z z2 c1 c2 c3 Q2n+1 (z) = c2 ... ... cn cn+1

Jtoume
. . . z n+1 . . . cn+1 . . . cn+2 ... ... . . . c2n
c0 c1 c1 c2 ... ... cn cn+1
. . . cn . . . cn+1 ... ... . . . c2n
(2.9)
Un =
c0 c1 c1 c2 ... ... cn1 cn
. . . cn1 ... cn ... ... . . . c2n2
, Wn =
c1 c2 c2 c3 ... ... cn cn+1

sto
... cn . . . cn+1 ... ... . . . c2n1
, U0 = W0 = 1 .
Ap thn
(1.25) qoume ti o suntelestc tou z n 1 2 2n+1 =

Wn Un+1 ,
ra
Ap thn (2.6) qoume ti o dioc suntelestc isotai me (2.9) qoume ti
Q2n (z) isotai me 1 2 2n . Un Wn . 'Omoia, ap tic (1.33) kai
2n = 2n+1 =
2 Un , Wn Wn1 2 Wn Un Un+1
(2.10)
kai auto enai oi tpoi pou dnoun touc suntelestc meletme sunartsei twn suntelestn Tloc, ap th sqsh
tou suneqoc klsmatoc pou
ci
thc dunamoseirc tou.
(1.31)
qoume ti o suntelestc tou
sto
Q2n+1 (z)
enai
1 + 3 + . . . + 2n+1 .
telik me
Ap th sqsh (2.9) prokptei ti to parapnw jroisma isotai
1 + 3 + . . . + 2n+1 = c2 c3 c3 c4 ... ... cn+1 cn+2 . . . cn+1 . . . cn+2 ... ... . . . c2n
Vn , Un+1
(2.11)
pou
Vn =
V0 = 1 .
Paratrhsh
2.2
Ap ta parapnw prokptei ti, an
p1 (u), p2 (u)
enai do polunuma
bajmo
kai isqei ti
S{uk p1 (u)} = S{uk p2 (u)} = 0 ,
k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1 ,
tte, epeid to antstoiqo grammik ssthma me agnstouc touc suntelestc tou kje poluwnmou qei monodistato qro lsewn, ja isqei ti
p1 (u) =
pou
p1 (u0 ) p2 (u) , p2 (u0 ) p2 (u).
u0
enai opoiosdpote arijmc pou de mhdenzei to polunumo
46
Mqri tra kataframe qi mno na ekfrsoume ta knoume to dio kai gia ta Mnei na knoume to dio
n sunartsei twn ci , all na Q2n (z), Q2n+1 (z) kai thn parstash 1 + 3 + . . . + 2n+1 . gia ta P2n (z), P2n+1 (z) kai 2 + 4 + . . . + 2n . c0 c1 c2 + 2 + 3 + ... z z z z)
Katarqc, parathrome ti an jewrsoume to ginmeno
p(z)
pou
p(z)
enai na polunumo, tte to akraio mroc thc seirc (dhlad to mroc thc me thn opoa isotai to parapnw
seirc pou periqei tic mh arnhtikc dunmeic tou ginmeno enai so me
p(z)p(u) zu
. Aut thn teleutaa paratrhsh arke na thn apode-
xoume mno gia thn perptwsh pou tou telest
p(z) = z k
(pou
k fusikc), lgw thc grammikthtac
S.
Prgmati, enai:
zk
kai
c0 c1 c2 ck + 2 + 3 + . . . = c0 z k1 + c1 z k2 + . . . + ck1 + + ... z z z z z k uk = z k1 + z k2 u + . . . + zuk2 + uk1 . zu
'Ara, to
z k uk zu
isotai me to akraio mroc tou parapnw ginomnou.
Epomnwc,
qoume ti
Pn (z) = S
Qn (z) Qn (u) zu
Q2n (z)Q2n (u) zu
Qrhsimopointac tic sqseic (2.6) kai (2.9) kai knontac prxeic metax twn orizousn, upologzoume tic parastseic
kai
Q2n+1 (z)Q2n+1 (u) zu
opte telik katalgoume stic isthtec
0 R0 R1 c0 c1 c2 c2 c3 P2n (z) = c1 ... ... ... cn1 cn . . . R0 R1 c1 c2 P2n+1 (z) = ... ... cn cn+1
pou
. . . Rn1 ... cn . . . cn+1 ... ... . . . c2n1
: Wn ,
(2.12)
. . . Rn . . . cn+1 ... ... . . . c2n
: Un+1 ,
(2.13)
R0 = c0 R1 = c0 z + c1 R2 = c0 z 2 + c1 z + c2
47
............
Rk
= c0 z k + c1 z k1 + . . . + ck
............ .
Ap thn (1.19) parnoume ti
P2n (0) = 2 + 4 + . . . + 2n 0 c0 c0 c1 = ... ... cn1 cn
kai lgw thc (2.12) enai
2 + 4 + . . . + 2n
. . . cn1 ... cn ... ... . . . c2n1
: Wn .
(2.14)
2.6
Merikc
idithtec tou
sqetikc
me ta
Pn (u) Qn (u)
,
Lmma
me to
Vk (u) enai na polunumo bajmo k , tte h tim tou S {Vk (u)} isotai Pm (u) oloklhrwtik uploipo sto thc sunrthshc Vk (u) Qm (u) , pou m k + 1.
2.1
En
Apdeixh: Lgw grammikthtac tou telest to polunumo
S,
arke na apodexoume to lmma gia
Vk (u) = uk . =
Jewrome loipn
ttoio ste
m k + 1.
Tte:
Pm (u) Qm (u) Pm (u) Vk (u) Qm (u)
c0 c1 c2 cm1 am 2 + 3 . . . + (1)m1 m + (1)m m+1 + . . . u u u u u
(m)
= (1)k c0 uk1 + (1)k1 c1 uk2 + (1)k2 c2 uk3 + . . . ck1 +ck 1 + ... . u

.
'Ara,
P S {Vk (u)} = Res Vk (u) Qm (u) m (u)
Epshc, isqoun oi paraktw sqseic pou ja qrhsimopoihjon sto teleutao keflaio thc ergasac tou
Stieltjes.
Lmma
2.2
1.
S Q2 (u) = 2n
1 2n+1
2.
S uQ2 (u) = 2n S S S
1 2 u Q2n+1 (u) 1 Q2 (u) u2 2n+1 (Q2n (u)1)2 u
1 2n+1
1 2n 2n+1
.
1 2n+1 2n+2
3.
1 2n+2
4.
= 1 + 3 + . . . + 2n+1 = S
Q2n (u)1 u
5.
= 2 + 4 + . . . + 2n
48
Apdeixh tou lmmatoc: Sqetik me thn isthta 1 isqei ti:
S Q2 (u) 2n
= Res Q2 (u) 2n = Res
1 + P2n (u)Q2n+1 (u) P2n+1 (u) = Res Q2n (u) Q2n+1 (u) Q2n+1 (u) Q2n (u) 1 = . Q2n+1 (u) 2n+1 (1.8)
gia
H deterh isthta isqei lgw thc sqshc (1.34). Gia thn isthta 2: Ap thn
= 1, = 2k + 1
kai
=2
parnoume
Q2k+2 (z)P2k (z) P2k+2 (z)Q2k (z) = 2k+2 .
(2.15)
Th sqsh aut ja th qrhsimopoisoume sthn trth ap tic isthtec pou akoloujon.
S uQ2 (u) 2n
P2n+2 (u) Q2n+2 (u) P2n+2 (u)Q2n (u) = Res uQ2n (u) Q2n+2 (u) Q2n+2 (u)P2n (u) + 2n+2 = Res uQ2n (u) Q2n+2 (u) uQ2n (u) = 2n+2 Res . Q2n+2 (u) = Res uQ2 (u) 2n
'Omwc,
uQ2n (u) Q2n+2 (u)
= = =
1 e0 u1 + e1 un1 + . . . + en e0 u + e1 u2 + . . . + en un+1 n = 1 E0 + E1 u + . . . + En+1 un+1 E0 un+1 + E1 u1 + . . . + En+1 n
en En+1 en En+1 n.
en1 1 e0 1 en un + . . . + en u + E0 En 1 1 En+1 un+1 + . . . + En+1 u
1 +1 1 En 1 ... En+1 u
en1 1 e0 1 + ... + +1 n en u en u
gia arket megla
Opte, enai
Res
uQ2n (u) Q2n+2 (u)
en En+1
en1 En en En+1
katalgoume sto ti
kai, an lboume upyh touc tpouc
(1.24)
kai
(1.25),
S uQ2 (u) 2n
= 2n+2 Res = =
uQ2n (u) Q2n+2 (u) 1 2n+2 1 2n+1 2n+2 2n+1 2n+2 2n 2n+1 1 1 1 + . 2n+1 2n 2n+1 2n+1 2n+2
49
Gia thn 3 enai:
1 2 Q (u) u 2n+1
1 2 P2n+2 (u) Q2n+1 (u) u Q2n+2 (u) 1 Q2n+2 (u)P2n+1 (u) 1 = Res Q2n+1 (u) u Q2n+2 (u) 1 Q2n+1 (u) 1 = Res = . u Q2n+2 (u) 2n+2 = Res deg (Q2n+1 (u)) = deg (uQ2n+2 (u)) 1,
H deterh isthta prokptei ap thn (1.34), an knoume katllhlh allag deiktn. 'Oson afor thn teleutaa isthta, isqei ti
ra to oloklhrwtik uploipo pou zhtme isotai me to phlko twn suntelestn twn megistobjmiwn rwn twn do poluwnmwn. Lambnontac upyh touc tpouc (1.25) kai (1.33) parnoume to zhtomeno. Gia thn 4:
1 2 Q (u) u2 2n+1
1 2 P2n+1 (u) Q (u) 2 2n+1 u Q2n+1 (u) 1 = Res Q2n+1 (u)P2n+1 (u) u2 = 1 + 3 + . . . + 2n+1 . = Res
H teleutaa isthta prokptei ekola, an lboume upyh thn (1.31). Tloc, gia thn 5 qoume:
(Q2n (u) 1)2 u
+S
Q2n (u) 1 u
= S
Q2 (u) Q2n (u) 2n u Q2n (u) 1 P2n (u) u Q2n (u) Q2n (u) 1 P2n (u) = 0 . u
= Res = Res
Opte,
(Q2n (u) 1)2 u
= S
Q2n (u) 1 u
Q2n (u) 1 P2n (u) u Q2n (u) P2n (u) P2n (u) = Res Res u uQ2n (u) = (2 + 4 + . . . + 2n ) + 0 = 2 + 4 + . . . + 2n . = Res
Enai
Res
P2n (u) uQ2n (u)
= 0,
diti
deg(P2n (u) = deg(uQ2n (u)) 2.
Epshc, h teleutaa
isthta isqei lgw thc (1.19).
50
Teleinoume thn pargrafo me thn paraktw paratrhsh:
Paratrhsh
2.3
En
bajmo
k 2n 1,
P2n (z) Q2n (z)
M1 z+x1
M2 Mn + z+x2 + . . . + z+xn
kai an
Vk (u) enai polunumo
tte isqei
S {Vk (u)} =
i=1
Prgmati, stw ti
Mi Vk (xi ) .
Tte qoume ti
Vk (u) = a0 + a1 u + . . . + ak uk . Mi = u + xi
+ m=0
(1)m Mi xm i , um+1
opte
Res Vk (u)
Mi u + xi
= a0 Mi + a1 xi Mi + . . . + ak xk Mi = Mi Vk (xi ) . i
Epomnwc, lgw grammikthtac tou oloklhrwtiko upolopou ja isqei kai h zhtomenh sqsh. Ap autn parathrome ti, an to
Vk (u)
enai na polunumo pou parnei mh
arnhtikc timc gia ta jetik
u, tte kai h posthta S {Vk (u)} de gnetai pot arnhtik.
51
52
Keflaio 3
Melth tou suneqoc klsmatoc
Stieltjes
wc proc th sgklish sthn
perptwsh pou
Re(z) > 0.
'Opwc anafrjhke kai sto eisagwgik shmewma, na ap ta erwtmata pou apasqolosan touc majhmatikoc tou 19ou aina, tan meletosan na suneqc klsma, tan to an aut sugklnei qi. Sto keflaio aut, o
Stieltjes
brskei ma ikan kai anagkaa
sunjkh pou apant sto erthma aut tan periorsoume to migadik klsmatoc pou meletme sto dexi hmieppedo.
tou suneqoc
Gia na fjsei sto apotlesma aut,
melet prta to suneqc klsma pou prokptei gia perptwsh pou to
z = 1,
sth sunqeia pern sthn
z z
enai jetikc arijmc kai tloc, qrhsimopointac ta prohgome-
na, genikeei th sunjkh gia kje migadik sumbanei tan to
me
Re(z) > 0.
To erthma ti akribc
den ankei sto dexi hmieppedo melettai sto pmpto kaflaio.
3.1
Melth
tou
suneqoc .
klsmatoc
Stieltjes
sthn
per-
ptwsh pou
z=1
+ n=1 n
Gia lgouc suntomac jtoume H seir
Pn = Pn (1)
kai
Qn = Qn (1). Stieltjes
Lmma
3.1
apoklnei akribc tte tan to suneqc klsma
sugklnei gia
z = 1.
Apdeixh: Ap tic sqseic
Pn = n Pn1 + Pn2 Qn = n Qn1 + Qn2

prokptei ti oi akoloujec th sqsh
(3.1) (3.2) enai axousec. Epshc, ap
(P2n ), (P2n+1 ), (Q2n ), (Q2n+1 )
1 1 1 (1)n1 Pn = + ... + Qn Q0 Q1 Q1 Q2 Q2 Q3 Qn1 Qn

53
(3.3)
parnoume ti h akolouja
P2n+1 Q2n+1
enai fjnousa kai ktw fragmnh, h
P2n Q2n
enai
axousa kai nw fragmnh kai kje roc thc prthc enai megalteroc ap kje ro thc deterhc. 'Ara kai oi duo akoloujec qoun rio kai stw ti
lim
Tte enai
P2n+1 = L1 , Q2n+1
lim
P2n =L. Q2n
L1 L.
Mlista, en h akolouja
enai axousa, tenei sto peiro, tte qoume arijm
> 0,
tte enai
L1 = L +
1 .
Ap th
(Qn1 Qn ), h opoa qei pnta rio giat L1 = L, en an qei rio peperasmno sqsh (3.2) fanetai ekola ti Q2n > 1
epomnwc,
Q2n+1 = 2n+1 Q2n + Q2n1 > Q2n1 + 2n+1 ,

ap thn opoa prokptei ti
Q2n+1 > 1 + 3 + . . . + 2n+1 .

Sth sunqeia parathrome ti
(3.4)
Q2n = 2n Q2n1 + Q2n2 > Q2n2 + 1 2n ,

opte
Q2n > 1 (2 + 4 + . . . + 2n ) .
En h seir
(3.5)
+ n=1 2n+1
+ n=1 n
enai apoklnousa, tte ma toulqiston ap tic seirc
+ n=1 2n ,
ja apoklnei epshc, ra ap tic (3.4) kai (3.5) qoume ti h
(Q2n )
(Q2n+1 )
ja apeirzetai, opte
Sthn perptwsh pou h
L1 = L kai to suneqc klsma + n=1 n sugklnei, qoume ti Qn = n Qn1 + Qn2 ,
sugklnei.
ra
Qn1 + Qn = (1 + n )Qn1 + Qn2 < (1 + n )(Qn2 + Qn1 )

kai telik
Qn1 + Qn < (1 + 1 )(1 + 2 ) (1 + n ) .

'Omwc, tan h seir
(3.6)
+ n=1 n +
sugklnei, isqei ti
(1 + n )
n=1 n=1
opte lgw thc parapnw isthtac, h nw fragmnec. arijmoc, ra Aut shmanei ti oi
en = e
+ n=1
< +
(Qn1 + Qn ) kai epomnwc kai h (Qn ) enai (Q2n ) kai (Q2n+1 ) sugklnoun se pragmatikoc
L1 > L.
S autn thn perptwsh to suneqc klsma j apoklnei.
54
Paratrhsh
3.1
An jsoume
s=
+ n=1 n ,
tte ap thn (3.6) qoume ti
Qn1 + Qn < es
kai
1 1 Qn1 Qn < (Qn1 + Qn )2 < e2s , 4 4 L1 L 4e2s .
opte enai
'Etsi parnoume ma ektmhsh thc diaforc twn orwn twn akoloujin sthn perptwsh pou to suneqc klsma
Stieltjes
apoklnei gia
z = 1.
P P ( Q2n+1 ) kai ( Q2n ) 2n+1 2n
Paratrhsh
apoklnei gia Epeid
Upojtoume, pwc kai prohgoumnwc, ti to suneqc klsma Stieltjes z = 1. Tte, ta ria twn (Q2n ) kai (Q2n+1 ) enai pragmatiko arijmo. P P lim Q2n+1 = L1 , lim Q2n = L, oi arijmhtikc akoloujec (P2n ), (P2n+1 ) ja qoun 2n+1 2n
3.2
epshc peperasmna ria.
3.2
Melth jetikc
tou
suneqoc
klsmatoc
Stieltjes
tan
enai
arijmc.
Douleontac me ton dio akribc trpo, pwc kai sthn
se lec tic sqseic thc prohgomenhc paragrfou to epshc jetikc arijmc) kai parathrntac ti oi seirc
3.1 (arke na antikatastsoume 2n1 me to 2n1 x, pou enai
1 x + 2 + 3 x + 4 + . . .
kai
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + . . .
apoklnoun tautqrona, katalgoume sto paraktw lmma. H seir
Lmma
3.2
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + . . .
apoklnei an kai mnon an h seir
1 x + 2 + 3 x + 4 + . . .
apoklnei kai aut sumbanei akribc tte tan to suneqc klsma
1 1 x +
1 2 + . .
.
1
2k1 x+ 1 2k + . .
55
sugklnei. Sugkekrimna, an enai
F1 (x)
kai
F (x)
ta peperasmna ria twn akoloujin
P ( Q2n+1 (x) ) 2n+1 (x)

enai
kai
P ( Q2n (x) ), 2n (x)
antstoiqa, tte, tan h seir
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + . . .
apoklnei,
F1 (x) = F (x) = lim
Pn (x) , Qn (x) F1 (x) > F (x).
en, tan h prohgomenh seir sugklnei, tte ja enai
3.3
Melth tou suneqoc klsmatoc dikc arijmc
Stieltjes
tan o miga-
qei jetik
pragmatik mroc.
Lmma
3.3
Isqoun oi isthtec
P2n (z) Q2n (z) P2n+1 (z) Q2n+1 (z) n=1
= =
2 4 2n + + ... + , (3.7) Q0 (z)Q2 (z) Q2 (z)Q4 (z) Q2n2 (z)Q2n (z) 1 3 z 5 z 2n+1 z ... .(3.8) 1 z Q1 (z)Q3 (z) Q3 (z)Q5 (z) Q2n1 (z)Q2n+1 (z)
P2 (z) Q2 (z)
Apdeixh: Ja dexoume th sqsh (3.7) qrhsimopointac majhmatik epagwg. Gia qoume
2 Q0 (z)Q2 (z) ,
pou isqei.
'Estw ti h (3.7) isqei gia
n = k.
Tte, an lboume upyh mac thn isthta (2.15), parnoume ti:
P2k+2 (z) Q2k+2 (z)
= =
P2k (z) 2k+2 + Q2k (z) Q2k (z)Q2k+2 (z) 2 4 2k 2k+2 + + ... + + . Q0 (z)Q2 (z) Q2 (z)Q4 (z) Q2k2 (z)Q2k (z) Q2k (z)Q2k+2 (z) n = k + 1.
kai Omowc apodeiknetai kai h (3.8).
Dhlad, h prtash mac isqei kai gia
Jerhma
3.1
Oi akoloujec
P2n (z) Q2n (z)
P2n+1 (z) Q2n+1 (z)
sugklnoun omoimorfa sta su-
mpag uposnola tou dexio hmiepipdou oi opoec enai olmorfec sto H seir sto
se sunartseic
F (z)
kai
F1 (z),
kai
antstoiqa,
H. F F1
tautzontai
+ n=1 n
apoklnei akribc tte tan oi sunartseic
H.
Apdeixh: Lgw tou parapnw lmmatoc, h melth thc sgklishc tou suneqoc
klsmatoc pou mac endiafrei angetai sth melth thc sgklishc twn seirn
+ k=1
kai
2k Q2k2 (z)Q2k (z) 2k+1 z . Q2k1 (z)Q2k+1 (z)

56
1 1 z
+ k=1
Jtoume kje migadik arijm
so me
H = {z C| Re(z) = x > 0} uprqei > 0 ttoio ste gia

n+n k=n
C. kje z
tou
'Estw
z = x + yi kai jewrome to dexi hmieppedo S na sumpagc uposnolo tou H . Tte, S na enai Re(z) > kai isqei
n+n k=n
2k Q2k2 (z)Q2k (z) n

kai
2k , |Q2k2 (z)Q2k (z)|
gia opoiousdpote fusikoc arijmoc
n.
'Omwc, enai
Q2k2 (z)Q2k (z) = C(z + x1 )(z + x2 ) (z + x2k1 ) ,

pou ta
C , x1 ,
...,
x2k1
enai loi jetiko pragmatiko arijmo.
Epshc, epeid to Epomnwc,
pragmatik mroc
enai jetikc arijmc, ja isqei ti
|z + xi | > x + xi .
|Q2k2 (z)Q2k (z)| Q2k2 (x)Q2k (x) Q2k2 ()Q2k ()

kai telik
n+n k=n
O
2k Q2k2 (z)Q2k (z)
n+n k=n
2k . Q2k2 ()Q2k () 3.2

qoume ti
enai jetikc pragmatikc arijmc, ra ap thn
+ k=1
Dhlad, h kje
2k P2n () = F () = lim . Q2k2 ()Q2k () Q2n ()

sugklnei, ra gia kje
+ 2k k=1 Q2k2 ()Q2k ()
>0
uprqei
ttoio ste gia
n>
kai gia kje fusik arijm
na isqei ti
n+n k=n
2k Q2k2 (z)Q2k (z)
n+n k=n
2k <, Q2k2 ()Q2k ()
prgma to opoo shmanei ti h
+ k=1
2k Q2k2 (z)Q2k (z) S

tou
sugklnei omoimorfa se kje sumpagc uposnolo seir sunartsewn pou enai olmorfec sto
kai, epeid prkeitai gia
H,
qoume ti kai h sunrthsh
F (z) =
k=1
2k P2n (z) = lim Q2k2 (z)Q2k (z) Q2n (z)
enai olmorfh sto hmieppedo aut. Me ton dio trpo parnoume ti kai h sunrthsh
F1 (z) =
1 1 z
+ k=1
2k+1 z P2n+1 (z) = lim Q2k1 (z)Q2k+1 (z) Q2n+1 (z)

57
enai olmorfh sto dio snolo. Epomnwc, sto
qoume ti
F (z) = lim
Sthn perptwsh pou h seir
P2n (z) , Q2n (z)

+ n=1 n + n=1 n
F1 (z) = lim
sugklnei, oi
P2n+1 (z) . Q2n+1 (z)

kai
F F
F1
enai diaforetikc, afo
diafroun toulqiston sta shmea tou hmixona twn jetikn pragmatikn arijmn. Sthn perptwsh pou h seir apoklnei, oi kai
F1
tautzontai ston hmi-
xona twn jetikn pragmatikn arijmn. sto sunektik snolo
' ra, ap thn arq tautismo, ja enai sec A
H. F
kai
Sth sunqeia apodeiknoume kpoiec idithtec twn

Prtash 3.1
F1 .
En
enai jetikc pragmatikc arijmc, tte isqoun
x0+
lim F (x) = 2 + 4 + . . . + 2n + . . . , 1 . 1 + 3 + . . . + 2n+1 + . . .
(3.9)
x0+
Eidiktera, an h seir
lim xF1 (x) =

+ n=1 n x0+
(3.10)
sugklnei, tte enai
lim F (x) < + ,
x0+
lim xF1 (x) > 0 . x
Apdeixh: Ja dexoume mno thn prth isthta. H apdeixh thc llhc gnetai me to dio skeptik. Gia tuqao fusik
kai tuqao jetik pragmatik arijm
isqoun
P2n (x) = Q2n (x)
n k=1
2k Q2k2 (x)Q2k (x)
n k=1
2k = Q2k2 (0)Q2k (0)
2k .
k=1
qoume ti
Parnontac to rio twn do akriann posottwn kajc to
n +,
F (x) 2 + 4 + . . . + 2n + . . .
ra kai
lim sup F (x) 2 + 4 + . . . + 2n + . . . .

x0+
Epshc, gia kje fusik
kai gia kje jetik pragmatik
ja enai
F (x)
P2n (x) = Q2n (x)
n k=1
2k . Q2k2 (x)Q2k (x) x 0+

prokptei
Parnontac to kattero rio twn do akriann posottwn gia
lim inf F (x) 2 + 4 + . . . + 2n

x0+
opte gia
n +
qoume ti
lim inf F (x) 2 + 4 + . . . + 2n + . . .

x0+
kai to zhtomeno qei apodeiqje.
58
Prtash
3.2
Isqei ti
F (x) =
kai
cp1 cp c1 c2 c0 2 + 3 + . . . + (1)p1 p + (1)p p+1 , 0 < < 1 x x x x x
F1 (x) =
cp1 cp c0 c1 c2 2 + 3 + . . . + (1)p1 p + (1)p p+1 , 0 < < 1 . x x x x x
Apdeixh: Ja dexoume monqa thn prth isthta. Enai:
P2n (x) Q2n (x)
=
k=1 n
Mk x + xk Mk xp1 Mk xp Mk Mk xk k k + . . . + (1)p1 + (1)p p x x2 xp x (x + xk )
=
k=1
=
Epeid qoun isqei
cp1 2n cp c0 c1 2 + . . . + (1)p1 p + (1)p p+1 , 0 < 2n < 1 . x x x x
P F (x) = lim Q2n (x) ki afo ta ci enai anexrthta tou n, sunepgetai ti ta 2n 2n (x) kpoio rio , me 0 1. Enai profanc mwc ti = 0 kai = 1. 'Ara,
F (x) =
cp1 cp c0 c1 c2 2 + 3 + . . . + (1)p1 p + (1)p p+1 , 0 < < 1 . x x x x x
59
60
Keflaio 4
Melth tou suneqoc klsmatoc
Stieltjes sthn perptwsh + n=1 n sugklnei.

sugklnei.
pou h
S lo to keflaio, ektc ap thn teleutaa pargrafo, upojtoume ti h seir
+ n=1 n
4.1
Sunartseic-ria
twn
P2n (z) P2n+1 (z) Q2n (z) Q2n+1 (z)

, , ,
Ap tic sqseic (1.15), (1.16), (1.17) kai (1.18) prokptoun pol ekola oi paraktw isthtec:
P2n (z) =
k=1
2k P2k1 (z) ,
n
Q2n (z) = 1 +
k=1 n
2k Q2k1 (z) , 2k+1 zP2k (z) ,

k=1
P2n+1 (z) = 1 +
n
Q2n+1 (z) =
k=0 + n=1 n
2k+1 zQ2k (z) .
< + kai jewrsoume ton tuqao jetik arijm x, tte ap thn 3.1 kai 2n1 me to 2n1 x, parnoume ti oi akoloujec (Q2n+1 (x)) kai (Q2n (x)) enai nw fragmnec, ra kai sugklnousec. P2n (x) P2n+1 (x) 'Omwc, lim Q2n (x) = F (x) < + kai lim Q2n+1 (x) = F1 (x) < +, ra oi (P2n (x)),
An sugkekrimna ap ton tpo (3.6), antikajistntac kje 61
(P2n+1 (x))
ja enai epshc sugklnousec, opte kai fragmnec. Epomnwc, oi seirc
2k P2k1 (x) ,
k=1 +
1+
k=1 +
2k Q2k1 (x) , 2k+1 xP2k (x) ,
1+
k=1 +
2k+1 xQ2k (x)

k=0
sugklnoun gia kje jetik pragmatik Isqei kti akmh pio isqur:
x.
Jerhma
4.1
'Otan h
+ n=1 n
sugklnei, oi akoloujec
P2n (z) =
k=1
2k P2k1 (z) ,
n
Q2n (z) = 1 +
k=1 n
2k Q2k1 (z) , 2k+1 zP2k (z) ,

k=1
P2n+1 (z) = 1 +
n
Q2n+1 (z) =
k=0
2k+1 zQ2k (z) C

kai epeid oi roi touc enai
sugklnoun omoimorfa se kje sumpagc uposnolo tou
akraiec sunartseic kai ta ria touc ja enai, epshc, sunartseic olmorfec sto
C.
Apdeixh: Ja knoume thn apdeixh mno gia thn prth seir, lec oi llec gnontai me parmoio trpo. Jewrome tuqao sumpagc uposnolo pou mpore na prei to mtro 'Estw
tou
enc migadiko
C kai upojtoume sto S enai .
ti h mgisth tim
n, n
tuqaoi fusiko arijmo. Tte, qoume ti
n+n
n+n
2k P2k1 (z)
k=n
'Omwc, to
2k |P2k1 (z)| .
k=n
mpore na prei to mtro tou
P2k1 (z) enai na polunumo me jetikoc suntelestc kai h mgisth tim pou z sto S enai , opte: |P2k1 (z)| P2k1 (|z|) P2k1 ()
62
kai telik
n+n
n+n
2k P2k1 (z)
k=n
'Eqoume apodexei ti h seir uprqei fusikc
2k P2k1 () .
sugklnousa, ra gia kje
k=n + k=1 2k P2k1 () enai
>0
ttoioc ste gia kje
na isqei ti
n+n
2k P2k1 () <
k=n
gia kje fusik
n.
Dhlad, gia kje
>0
uprqei fusikc
ttoioc ste gia kje
na isqei ti
n+n
2k P2k1 (z) <

gia kje fusik
n,
opte h
k=n + seir k=1 2k P2k1 (z)
sugklnei omoimorfa sto
S.
Epeid to snolo
pou jewrsame tan tuqao, ap ta prohgomena qoume telik
ti oi tsseric sunartseic
p(z) =
k=1
2k P2k1 (z) = lim P2n (z) ,

+
q(z) = 1 +
k=1 +
2k Q2k1 (z) = lim Q2n (z) , 2k+1 zP2k (z) = lim P2n+1 (z) ,
k=1
p1 (z) = 1 +
+
q1 (z) =
k=0
enai olmorfec s lo to
2k+1 zQ2k (z) = lim Q2n+1 (z)
C.
Ap thn (1.34), an proume ta ria twn do meln thc isthtac, prokptei ma sqsh pou sundei tic parapnw sunartseic kai ja fane qrsimh paraktw:
p1 (z)q(z) p(z)q1 (z) = 1 .
(4.1)
4.2
Sunpeiec thc omoimorfhc sgklishc twn
P2n (z)
sthn
p(z)
H sunrthsh ste
p(z) enai olmorfh sto C, ra uprqoun arijmo A0 , A1 , . . . , Ak , . . . ttoioi

+
p(z) =
k=0
63
Ak z k .
Mlista, isqei h paraktw prtash.

Prtash 4.1
An
+ n=1 n
< + P2n (z).

(n)
kai an
A0 , A1 ,
...,
Ak ,
. . . enai oi suntelestc
thc dunamoseirc thc
p(z),
tte kajnac touc isotai me to rio thc akoloujac twn Dhlad, an
antstoiqwn suntelestn twn
P2n (z) = A0 + A1 z + . . . + An1 z n1 ,

tte isqei
(n)
(n)
Ak = lim Ak
n
Apdeixh: Isqei ti
(n)
Ak =
kai epeid ta polunuma ja qoume ti
(n)
1 (k) 1 P (0) = k! 2n 2i
|z|=1
P2n (z) dz z k+1
P2n (z) sugklnoun omoimorfa sthn p(z) sto monadiao kklo, P2n (z) z k+1 p(z) , z k+1
|z|=1
ra
|z|=1
lim Ak =
(n)
1 2i
|z|=1
p(z) p(k) (0) = = Ak . k! z k+1
Prtash
4.2
An tte
me
lim zn = Z ,
Apdeixh:
< + kai an (zn ) lim P2n (zn ) = p(Z). > 0.

ttoioc ste gia kje
+ n=1 n
enai mia akolouja mi gadikn arijmn
'Estw
Jewrome nan kuklik dsko
grw ap to
Z.
Tte,
uprqei fusikc
n>
la ta
zn
na brskontai msa sto
D.
Epshc, lgw thc omoimorfhc sgklishc, uprqei fusikc
ttoioc ste gia kje
me
na
|P2n (z) p(z)| < gia kje z sto D. Tloc, ap th sunqeia thc p sto Z uprqei fusikc ttoioc ste gia kje n > enai |p(zn ) p(Z)| < . 'Omwc, n>
na isqei
|P2n (zn ) p(Z)| |P2n (zn ) p(zn )| + |p(zn ) p(Z)| < 2

gia kje
n > N,
pou
o megalteroc ap touc fusikoc
kai
To
pou
jewrsame tan tuqao, ra
lim P2n (zn ) = p(Z).
< + , tte h akolouja twn paraggwn (P2n ) sugklC. Epomnwc, mporome + na paragw gsoume sec forc jloume thn isthta p(z) = k=1 2k P2k1 (z). Epshc, tan qoume ma akolouja (zn ) me limn+ zn = Z , lgw twn parapnw ja isqei ti lim P2n (zn ) = p (Z).
Paratrhsh 4.1
An
+ n=1 n
nei, epshc, omoimorfa sthn
se kje sumpagc uposnolo tou
Fusik, anloga sumpersmata isqoun kai gia tic
q(z), p1 (z), q1 (z).
64
4.3
Melth twn rizn
thc sunrthshc
q(z)
Sthn prth pargrafo tou kefalaou gryame tic sunartseic
p(z), p1 (z), q(z), q1 (z)
me th morf peirwn seirn. S aut thn pargrafo kai stic epmenec ja apodexoume diforec protseic pou ja mac bohjsoun na gryoume tic sunartseic autc me th morf apeiroginmenwn. Ja meletsoume monqa thn perptwsh thc Oi llec periptseic meletntai me anlogo trpo. En
q(z) = lim Q2n (z).
x1
(n)
x2
(n)
, ...,
xn
(n)
enai oi rzec tou
Q2n (z)
(diatetagmnec ap th mikrterh
proc th megalterh), tte ja isqei ti
Q2n (z) =
1+ z
z
(n) x1
1+
z
(n) x2
1 +
z
(n) xn
.
1 (n) x2
Epomnwc, o suntelestc tou isotai me
sto polunumo aut enai o
1 (n) x1
+...+
1 (n) xn
pou
B1
(n)
(an jumhjome touc sumbolismoc thc
1.2).
'Omwc, ap th sqsh (1.23)
prokptei ti h akolouja
(n) (B1 )
enai gnhswc axousa.
An enai
tte, ap thn prtash 4.1 thc prohgomenhc paragrfou, petai thc akoloujac
q(z) = + Bk z k , k=0 ti to B1 enai to rio

Epomnwc,
(B1 ),
(n)
ra ja enai to
supremum 1
(n) xn
thc akoloujac autc.
qoume telik ti
1
(n) x1
1
(n) x2
+ ... +
= B1
(n)
< B1 .
(4.2)
Jewrome tic akoloujec twn rizn
(x1 ), (x2 ), . . . , (xk ), . . .

twn poluwnmwn
(n)
(n)
(n)
Q2n (z).
En enai
k > n,
tte qoume sumfwnsei ti
Ap to jerhma 1.2 prokptei ti prokptei ti enai ktw fragmnh arijm, stw ton
(n) h akolouja (x k ) enai fjnousa, mwc ap thn (4.2) 1 ap ton arijm B1 . Sunepc, ja qei rio pragmatik
xk
(n)
= +.
kai, mlista, lgw thc ditaxhc twn rizn, ja isqei ti
1 2 . . . k . . . .
Paratrhsh 4.2
(4.3)
Upojsame sthn arq tou kefalaou ti h seir
+ n=1 n
sugklnei.
Epeid sthn apdeixh parxhc twn orwn
kai thc sqshc (4.3) de qrhsimopoijhke
poujen h upjesh aut, petai ti h akolouja seir twn suntelestn tou suneqoc klsmatoc
(k ) orzetai kai enai axousa Stieltjes sugklnei, ete qi.

+ 1 k=1 k
sugklnei.
ete h
Prtash
4.3
An
+ n=1 n
< +,
tte h seir
Apdeixh: Jewrome do fusikoc qoume ti
kai
me
n > k.
Epeid
k = inf mN xk
(m)
, ja
1 1 1 1 1 1 + + ... + > (n) + (n) + . . . + (n) . 1 2 k x1 x2 xk

65
'Omwc, ap ton orism tou
inf
qoume ti dojntoc
>0
uprqei
ttoio ste gia
n>N
na isqei
1 1 1 1 1 1 + + ... + (n) (n) . . . (n) < . 1 2 k x1 x2 xk

Epomnwc, gia
n > max(N, k)
ja isqei ti
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 + +. . .+ < (n) + (n) + . . . + (n) + < (n) + (n) + . . . + (n) + = B1 + , 1 2 k x1 x2 xk x1 x2 xn

opte,
1 1
1 2
+ ... +
1 k
< B1 +
+ 1 n=1 k
gia kje
> 0. B1 .
Dhlad, h seir jetikn rwn
enai nw fragmnh, ra ja enai sugklnousa
kai, mlista, to jroism thc den mpore na xepersei to
Prtash
4.4
An
+ n=1 n
< +,
tte h sunrthsh
q(z)
mhdenzetai se kje ro thc
akoloujac
(k ). (Q2n (z)) sugklnei omoimorfa sthn q(z) (n) C. Epshc, limn xk = k , ra ap thn prtash
(n) n
Apdeixh: H akolouja twn poluwnmwn se kje sumpagc uposnolo tou 4.2 parnoume ti
q(k ) = lim Q2n (xk ) = 0

kai to zhtomeno qei apodeiqje.
Paratrhsh
4.3
Ap th sqsh (4.3) qoume ti h akolouja
ap thn prtash 4.3 ti h seir prokptei ti h
q(z)
qei rzec ta
+ 1 k=1 k k kai
(k )
enai axousa kai
sugklnei.
Ap thn prohgomenh prtash
j apodexoume paraktw ti autc enai kai
oi monadikc rzec thc sunrthsh, afo mpore h
q(z). Akmh, epeid h q(z) den enai mpore na enai h mhdenik q(0) = lim Q2n (0) = 1, ap thn arq tou tautismo prokptei ti den akolouja (k ) na qei wc shmeo sussreushc pragmatik arijm. 'Omwc, lim n = + .
epeid prkeitai gia mia axousa akolouja, sunepgetai ti
Sto dio apotlesma mporome na katalxoume kai pio ekola: ap thn prtash 4.3 qoume ti, epeid h seir mac sugklnei, ja enai
lim 1 = 0, n
ra
lim n = +.
4.4
H akolouja
(k )
enai
gnhswc axousa.
Fusik, h parapnw akolouja den mpore na enai telik stajer, giat, an aut sunbaine, h seir
+ 1 k=1 k
ja eqe jroisma
+.
66
'Estw ti uprqoun kpoioi roi thc akoloujac jetiko akraioi
(n ) pou enai soi, dhlad uprqoun
kai
ttoioi ste
i2
kai
k+1 = k+2 = . . . = k+i , k+i < k+i+1 . Jewrome arket meglo n tsi ste oi peperasmnou pljouc (n) (n) (n) (n) (n) roi x 1 , . . . , xk , xk+1 , . . . , xk+i , xk+i+1 na diafroun pol lgo ap ta antstoiqa
en ri touc
1 ,
...,
k , k+1 ,
...,
k+i , k+i+1 ,
tsi ste loi oi arijmo
xk+1 , xk+2 ,
(n)
(n)
...,
(n) xk+i
na brskontai sto disthma
[k+1 , k+i+1 ]. xk+1 > k+1 = k+i

(n)
Gnwrzoume akma ti
kai, epeid
k+i = inf mN xk+i ,
(m)
ja uprqei fusikc
ttoioc ste
xk+i
(n+n )
< xk+1 .
(n)
'Ara, oi rzec
xk+1
tou ti
(n+n )
, xk+2
(n+n )
, . . . , xk+i
(n+n ) (n)
Q2n+2n (z) ja brskontai lec sto disthma [k+1 , xk+1 ].

(n+n ) xk+i+1
Epshc, isqei profanc
> k+i+1 > k+i . [xk+i

(n+n )
'Etsi, katalxame sto ti to disthma
, xk+i+1 ]
(n+n )
duo diadoqikn rizn tou
Q2n+2n (z)
periqei tic rzec
xk+1 , xk+2 , . . . , xk+i

tou
(n)
(n)
(n)
rizn tou
Q2n (z). 'Omwc, ap to jerhma 1.3 thc 1.5 qoume ti metax duo diadoqikn Q2n+2n (z) brsketai pnta to pol mia rza tou Q2n (z) kai katalgoume
se topo.
4.5
H sunrthsh
q(z)
me
th morf
apeiroginmenou.
'Estw
>0
jetik kai osodpote mikr. Epeid gia to apeiroginmeno
Q(z) =
k=1
isqei ti
1+
z k
1+
k=1
|z| e k m
|z| k
=e
|z|
1 k
< + ,
dhlad sugklnei, ja uprqei fusikc
ttoioc ste
1+
k=m+1
|z| 1 < . (1) k

67
Stajeropoiome to
z.
'Estw tte
M= 1+
+ k=1
1+
|z| k
. Profanc, isqei ti
m k=1
kai, lgw thc prohgomenhc sqshc,
|z| <M k
(2)
1+
k=m+1
Epeid
z 1 < . (3) k
+
Q(z) =
k=1
ap tic (2) kai (3) qoume ti
1+
z k
1+
k=m+1
z k
Q(z) =
k=1
pou to
1+
z + M , k Q2n (z)
n
(4) . z
(n) xk
enai migadikc arijmc me mtro mikrtero tou
Gia kje fusik
me
n>m
to polunumo
grfetai
Q2n (z) =
k=1
Epeid
1+
z
(n) xk
1+
k=m+1
1 (n) xk
<
1 k
kai lgw twn (1) kai (2) qoume ti
1+
k=1
kai
|z| xk
(n)
<M
1+
k=m+1
z
(n) xk
1 < ,
opte ap tic do prohgomenec sqseic prokptei ti
Q2n (z) =
k=1
pou to mtro tou 'Omwc, enai
1+
z
(n) xk
+ M ,
(5)
enai mikrtero tou
.
m
m n+
lim
1+
k=1
z
(n) xk
=
k=1
1+
z k
. (6)
Ap tic (4), (5) kai (6) parnoume ti
lim sup |Q2n (z) Q(z)| 2M .

n+
Apodexame to paraktw jerhma.
68
Jerhma
4.2
An
+ n=1 n
< +,
tte h sunrthsh
parnei th morf
q(z) =
k=1
Paratrhsh 4.4
1+
z k
, zC.
(4.4)
'Opwc dexame gia thn
q(z), tsi prokptei kai gia tic uploipec treic

Epshc, ap ton tpo
sunartseic ti mporon na proun th morf apeiroginmenou. (4.4) prokptei ti h thc akoloujac aplc.
enai sunrthsh gnouc mhdn kai ti qei wc rzec touc rouc Dhlad, qei peirec rzec kai, mlista, lec enai
(k ) kai mno autc.
4.6
Oi sunartseic
p(z) q(z)
kai
p1 (z) q1 (z)
me th
morf
seirn.
Ap la sa edame stic prohgomenec paragrfouc prokptei ti gia kje migadik arijm
z,
pou de mhdenzei thn
q(z) lim
sthn prth perptwsh thn
q1 (z)
sth deterh
perptwsh, isqei ti
P2n (z) p(z) = n+ Q2n (z) q(z)

kai
P2n+1 (z) p1 (z) = . n+ Q2n+1 (z) q1 (z) lim

p(z) q(z)
wc peiro jroisma apln klasmtwn kai, fusik, me
Ja gryoume th sunrthsh ton dio trpo kai h Sthn (1.38) thc
p1 (z) q1 (z)
mpore na prei thn dia morf.
1.3
dexame ti
P2n (z) M1 M2 Mn = + + ... + , (n) (n) (n) Q2n (z) z + x1 z + x2 z + xn

pou ta
(n)
(n)
(n)
M1
(n)
M2
(n)
, ...,
Mn
(n)
enai jetiko arijmo.
Paraktw apodeiknoume kpoia lmmata pou ja mac bohjsoun.
Lmma
4.1
Gia to suntelest
Mk
(n)
, pou
k =1,
2, . . . ,
n,
isqei ti
Mk
Apdeixh: H (1.38) grfetai
(n)
P2n (xk ) Q2n (xk )

(n)
(n)
P2n (z) =
l=1
Ml
(n) Q2n (z)
Q2n (xl )
(n)
(n)
z (xl )
69
opte upologzontac ta ria kai twn do meln thc parapnw isthtac tan (profanc ta ria aut uprqoun), qoume ti
z xk (n) (n) (n) P2n (xk ) = Mk Q2n (xk ).
(n)
Lmma
4.2
Gia kje fusik arijm
n
(n)
isqei ti
M1
Apdeixh: to
(n)
+ M2
(n) + . . . + Mn =
1 . 1
Ap thn (1.38), an pollaplasisoume kai ta do mlh thc isthtac me
Q2n (z), prokptei ti o suntelestc tou z n1 sto P2n (z) isotai me to jroisma (n) (n) (n) M1 + M2 + . . . + Mn ep to suntelest tou z n sto Q2n (z). An lboume upyh touc tpouc (1.21) kai (1.25) thc 1.2 prokptei ti M1
(n)
+ M2
(n)
(n) + . . . + Mn =
1 . 1
Paratrhsh
4.5
Ap thn paratrhsh 2.1 qoume ti
c0 =
'Ara, ap to parapnw lmma prokptei ti
c0 =
1 1 .
(n) n k=1 Mk
gia kje
n.
Lmma
4.3
An
+ n=1 n
< +,
tte gia kje fusik arijm
h akolouja
(Mk )
(n)
sugklnei se jetik pragmatik arijm, stw ton
k ,
kai mlista isqei ti:
k =
Apdeixh: Gnwrzoume ti
p(k ) . q (k )
p(z)
kai to dio kai h
lim xk = k , ti h (P2n (z)) sugklnei omoimorfa sthn (Q2n (z)) sthn q(z) se kje sumpagc uposnolo tou C. 'Ara, ap
(n)
(n)
thn prtash 4.2, thn paratrhsh 4.1 kai to lmma 4.1 qoume ti
P2n (xk ) p(k ) (n) = lim = lim Mk . q (k ) n+ Q (x(n) )

2n k
An jsoume
k = lim Mk , tte, epeid Mk 0, qoume ti to k enai mh arnhtikc pragmatikc arijmc +. 'Omwc, ap thn paratrhsh 4.3 qoume ti ta k enai aplc rzec thc q(z), ra q (k ) = 0 kai to k den enai +. Tloc, ap thn (4.1)
qoume ti
(n)
(n)
p1 (k )q(k ) p(k )q1 (k ) = 1 .

Epeid
q(k ) = 0,
4.4
sunepgetai ti enai
p(k ) = 0
kai epomnwc
k > 0.
Lmma
An
+ n=1 n
< +,
tte h seir
+ k=1 k
enai sugklnousa.
70
n, k duo fusiko arijmo me n > k . Epeid i = limn+ Mi , an jewrsoume na > 0, tte mporome na proume to n arket meglo ste na isqei (n) (n) (n) (n) (n) (n) 1 + 2 + . . . + k < M1 + M2 + . . . + Mk + < M1 + M2 + . . . + Mn + .
Apdeixh: 'Estw Lgw tou lmmatoc 4.2 ja enai
(n)
1 + 2 + . . . + k <
gia kje
1 + 1
+ k=1 k 1 1 .
enai nw fragmnh,
> 0.
Aut shmanei ti h seir jetikn rwn
ra sugklnei kai, mlista, to jroism thc den xepern to
Prtash
4.5
An
+ n=1 n
< +,
tte h sunrthsh
S(z) =
+ k k=1 z+k
enai mer-
morfh sto
C.
D(0, R). Epeid h (k ) enai axousa kai sugklnei sto +, uprqei k0 tsi ste to pol oi k0 prtoi roi thc akoloujac na brskontai msa ston D(0, R). Tte gia kje z D(0, R) kai gia kje k > k0 isqei
Apdeixh: Jewrome nan anoikt kuklik dsko
k k k . |z + k | k |z| k R
H upakolouja
(k R)kk0 +1
+ k0 +1
enai ktw fragmnh ap kpoion jetik arijm
c, opte
k 1 k R c
k < + .
k0 +1
Epomnwc, h
D(0, R).
+ k k=k0 +1 z+k
sugklnei omoimorfa kai orzei olmorfh sunrthsh ston
' ra h sunrthsh A
k0
S(z) =
k=1
enai mermorfh ston
k + z + k
+ k=k0 +1
k z + k
S(z)
enai mermorfh sto
D(0, R) kai, epeid to R enai tuqao, sunepgetai ti h sunrthsh C.

p(z) q(z)
Afo dexame la ta prohgomena, pernme sthn apdeixh tou basikterou apotelsmatoc autc thc paragrfou. Ja gryoume dhlad thn 'Estw uprqei wc seir. kje fusik arijm
> 0
kai
ttoioc ste
z C. Epeid limn+ n = +, gia m+i |z| > 1 . Tte, prokptei ti |m+i + z| m+i |z| > 1 ,
i,
opte, gia kje
isqei
1 <. |m+i + z|
71
Gia th sunrthsh
qoume
S(z) =
k=1
All
k + z + k
+
+ k=m+1
k . z + k
+
+ k=m+1
k z + k
k=m+1 m
k < |z + k |
k <
k=m+1
kai, epomnwc,
S(z) =
k=1
pou to mtro tou
k + , z + k 1 . m < n,
(n) (n)
tte
(A)
enai mikrtero tou
Ap thn llh pleur, qoume ti, an
P2n (z) = Q2n (z)

'Omwc, gia kje
Mk
(n)
+
1
Mk
(n) (n)
. |xk + z| >
(n) 1 .
k=1 z + xk
k=m+1 z + xk
k m+1
n
isqei
xk
> k > Mk |z + Mk z+ .
(n)
+ |z|,
opte enai kai
Me th bojeia tou teleutaou qoume ti
Mk z+
(n) (n) xk
(n) (n) xk |
k=m+1 m k=1
<
k=m+1
Mk
(n)
<
k=m+1
kai, sunepc,
P2n (z) = Q2n (z)

pou to mtro tou 'Otan
(n) (n) xk
, 1
(B)
enai mikrtero tou
n +
isqei
limn+
Mk m k=1 z+x(n) k
m k k=1 z+k ,
opte ap tic (A) kai
(B) qoume ti
lim sup
n+
'Ara,
P2n (z) 2 S(z) . Q2n (z) 1

+ k=1
P2n (z) p(z) = lim = S(z) = q(z) n+ Q2n (z)

Apodexame loipn ti
k . z + k
Jerhma
4.3
An
+ n=1 n
< +,
tte gia kje
z C {k | k = 1, 2, . . . }
isqei
p(z) = q(z)
+ k=1
k . z + k
72
4.7
Oi suntelestc
ci
wc
peira
ajrosmata.
Edame sthn prohgomenh pargrafo ti h seir
+ k=1 k
sugklnei.
S autn thn
pargrafo ja asqolhjome me th genkeush tou prohgomenou lmmatoc. Ja dexoume dhlad ti:
Jerhma
4.4
An
+ n=1 n
< +,
tte gia kje
i = 0, 1, 2, . . .
, h seir
+ i k=1 k k
sugklnei kai, mlista, isqei ti
ci =
k=1
Apdeixh: 'Estw Epeid uprqei
k i . k
(4.5)
k fusikc arijmc kai to jroisma 1 i + 2 i + . . . + k i . 1 2 k (n) (n) = limn+ Mm kai m = limn+ xm , an jewrsoume > 0, tte
(n) (n) (n) (n) (n) (n)
arket meglo, ttoio ste na isqei
1 i + 2 i + . . . + k i < M1 (x1 )i + M2 (x2 )i + . . . + Mk (xk )i + . 1 2 k

'Omwc, ap thn isthta (2.3) thc
2.2
qoume ti
ci =
(n) (n) i n k=1 Mk (xk ) ,
opte ja enai
1 i + 2 i + . . . + k i < ci + . 1 2 k
Katalgoume sto ti h seir twn jetikn rwn ra sugklnei kai mlista ja enai
= (n )
+ i k=1 k k
enai nw fragmnh,
ci .
mporon na gnoun osodpote
Epeid oi roi thc gnhswc axousac akoloujac megloi, uprqei ja qoume ti
ttoioc ste
ci+1 m+1
< ,
pou
enai tuqaoc jetikc arijmc. Tte,
k i k
k=m+1
kai sunepc enai
<
1 m+1
k i+1 k
k=m+1
<
1 m+1
+ i+1 k k k=1
ci+1 < m+1
=
k=1
pou
k i + , (a) k
0 < . nm+1
n
isqei
Ap thn llh meri, qoume ti gia kje
ci =
k=1
'Omwc,
Mk (xk )i +
k=m+1
(n)
(n)
Mk (xk )i .
(n)
(n)
Mk (xk )i <
k=m+1
(n)
(n)
1 m+1
Mk (xk )i+1 <

k=m+1
73
(n)
(n)
ci+1 <, m+1
opte
ci =
k=1
pou
Mk (xk )i + , (b)
(n)
(n)
0 < . m
stajer, qoume ti
Kratntac to
m n+
m (n) (n) Mk (xk )i
lim
=
k=1
k i . k | ci | < 2
kai, epomnwc,
k=1
Ap tic
(a), (b)
kai thn teleutaa isthta qoume ti
= ci .
Ap tic parathrseic 1.2 kai 1.3 qoume ti gia kje
n = 0, 1, 2, . . . Nn
(n) (n)
isqei
N P2n+1 (z) = 0 Q2n+1 (z) z

pou, gia
(n)
N1
(n) (n)
+ ... +
,
(n)
z + t1
z + tn
ta
k = 0, 1, . . . , n, ta Nk enai jetiko arijmo kai (n) (n) Q2n+1 (z). Jewrome ti Nk = 0 kai xk = + gia n < k .
pwc kai sthn perptwsh thc akoloujac
(n)
tk
enai oi rzec tou
Me ton dio akribc trpo,
P2n (z) Q2n (z)
, apodeiknetai ti gia thn akolouja
P2n+1 (z) Q2n+1 (z)
isqei to paraktw jerhma.
Jerhma
4.5
An
k =
(n) limn+ Nk
+ n=1 n
kai
< +, tte gia kje k = 0, 1, 2, . . . uprqoun ta ria (n) k = limn+ tk . 'Oloi oi arijmo k enai jetiko kai isqei:
kai
0 = 0 < 1 < 2 < . . .

Epshc,
lim k = + .
+ k=1
kai h
1 < + k
q1 (z)
grfetai wc apeiroginmeno
q1 (z) = z
k=1
'Etsi, oi arijmo
1+
z k
, z C. q1 (z).
0 , 1 , 2 ,
+ k=1
. . . enai akribc oi aplc rzec thc sunrthshc
Akmh, isqei ti h sunrthsh
0 p1 (z) = + q1 (z) z
k , z C {k | k = 0, 1, 2, . . . } z + k
74
enai mermorfh sto lista, enai
C,
en, gia kje
i = 0, 1, 2, . . .
h seir
+ i k=1 k k
sugklnei. M-
c0 =
k=0 +
k ,
i k k , i = 1, 2, . . . . k=1
ci =
(4.6)
Smfwna me to parapnw jerhma, sthn perptwsh pou uprqei kai deteroc trpoc na grafon ta
+ n=1 n
< +,
tte
ci
wc ajrosmata seirn.
Paratrhsh
4.6
Epeid, lgw thc sqshc (4.1), oi sunartseic
koinc rzec, oi arijmo ap ta sumpersmata
q(z), q1 (z) den qoun 1 , 2 , . . . , 0 , 1 , 2 , . . . enai loi diaforetiko an do. Epshc, thc 1.3 qoume ti gia kje n isqei < x1
(n)
0 = t0
(n)
< t1
(n)
< x2
(n)
(n)
< t2
(n)
(n)
(n) < . . . < x(n) < tn . n
Parnontac ta ria twn akoloujin
(xk ), (tk )
gia kje
brskoume ti
0 = 0 < 1 < 1 < 2 < 2 < . . . .

4.8 To prblhma twn ropn.
Orismc
4.1
Jewrome ton jetik hmixona pou h jetik mza
Ox
kai ma katanom mazn
(mi , i )
me
i=
1, 2, . . . ,
mi
brsketai se apstash
ap thn arq O kai oi
apostseic
enai diaforetikc an do. To jroisma
+ k mi i i=1
onomzetai rop
k -txhc
tou sustmatoc twn mazn
(mi , i )
wc proc thn arq O.
Smfwna me ton orism pou dsame, an upojsoume ti qoume to ssthma twn
i = 1, 2, . . . , tte gia kje k h rop k -txhc qei, smfwna me to jerhma 4.2, thn tim ck . Epshc, ap to jerhma 4.3 prokptei ti an jewrsoume to ssthma twn mazn (i , i ), me i= 0, 1, 2, . . . , tte gia kje k h rop k -txhc qei epshc thn tim ck . O Stieltjes orzei to prblhma twn ropn wc exc:
mazn me
Orismc 4.2
(i , i ),
'Estw ti qoume mia akolouja jetikn arijmn. Prblhma twn ropn
onomzoume to prblhma thc ereshc enc sustmatoc mazn kai twn jsewn pou ja tic topojetsoume sto jetik hmixona, ste h enai o
k -txhc
rop autc thc katanomc na
k -ostc
roc thc dojeshc akoloujac.
75
Ac sumbolsoume ton
k -ost
ro autc thc akoloujac me
uprqei lsh sto prblhma oi roi thc
ck . Katarqc, gia na (ck ) ofeloun na ikanopoion kpoiec anisthtec, mi ck =

kai ti gnwrzoume se poiec
dhlad uprqoun kpoiec anagkaec sunjkec. Prgmati, stw ti brskoume na ssthma mazn jseic
prpei na tic topojetsoume ste na isqei
+ k i=1 mi i
gia kje
k.
Sto
tloc thc
2.3
edame ti sthn perptwsh aut, gia kje fusik
p,
h tetragwnik morf
m1 m1
cp+l+k Xl Xk
l=0 k=0
ofelei na enai jetik orismnh. Epomnwc h orzousa
cp cp+1 ... cp+m1

prpei na enai jetik gia kje orsthkan sthn
cp+1 cp+2 cp+2 cp+3 ... ... cp+m . . . p. n.
. . . cp+m1 ... cp+m ... ... . . . cp+2m2 Un , Wn

pou
Eidiktera, prpei kai oi posthtec
2.5
na enai jetikc gia kje
Upojtontac ti oi parapnw anagkaec sunjkec ikanopoiontai, diakrnoume do periptseic sto prblhma twn ropn:
thn aristh perptwsh, pou h akolouja ste h seir
+ n=1 n
(ck )
twn ropn pou dnetai enai ttoia
na sugklnei. Ap la sa dexame stic prohgomenec pa-
ragrfouc prokptei ti s aut thn perptwsh uprqoun toulqiston do lseic sto prblhm mac, enai oi
(i , i )
kai
(i , i ).
Ap autc tic do lseic mpo-
rome na kataskeusoume peirec llec lseic parnontac katllhlouc kurtoc grammikoc sunduasmoc. Gia pardeigma, gnwrzoume ti enai
0 = 0 < 1 < 1 < 2 < . . . .

'Estw
(k )
h gnhswc axousa akolouja akolouja pou orzetai ap touc prohTte, kje ssthma mazn
gomenouc arijmoc. me
(mk , k ),
pou
k = 0, 1, 2, . . .
mk =
pou
ti , (1 t)i ,
uprqei uprqei
i i
me me
k = i , den uprqei j me k = j k = i , den uprqei j me k = j ,
tuqaoc arijmc tou [0,1], enai epshc ma lsh tou problmatoc.
thn orismnh perptwsh, sthn opoa h seir perptwsh, ja dexoume sthn lsh.
+ n=1 n
apoklnei.
S autn thn
8.3 ti to prblhma twn ropn qei ma kai monadik
76
To prblhma twn ropn enai na shmantik prblhma, pou prtoc jese o s autn thn ergasa tou.
Stieltjes
Bbaia, gi autn to prblhma aut qei endiafron epeid
qrhsimopointac to katafrnei n apantsei sto erthma thc sgklishc apklishc tou suneqoc klsmatc tou. Argtera, to 1919, o
melthse to dio prblhma jewrntac sth jsh thc hmieujeac twn pragmatikn arijmn. An kai o
H. L. Hamburger (1889-1956) Ox olklhro ton xona Hamburger sundei, pwc o Stieltjes, to prblhma F. Hausdor
(1868-1942), pou melet
me thn analutik jewra twn suneqn klasmtwn, den sumbanei to dio kai me thn ergasa pou dhmosieei thn epmenh qroni o
to dio prblhma orismno se peperasmno disthma.
To 1922 dhmosieontai do nec
ergasec, pou to prblhma twn ropn den qei pia kama sqsh me ta suneq klsmata. H ma enai tou
pwc to rise o
R. Nevanlinna (1895-1980), o opooc melet to prblhma twn ropn tsi Hamburger qrhsimopointac mno migadik anlush. H llh enai tou
M. Riesz
(1886-1969), o opooc sundei to prblhma me ta fragmna sunarthsoeid
tou qrou twn suneqn sunartsewn enc kleisto kai fragmnou diastmatoc, dhlad melet to prblhma ap thn pleur thc sunarthsiakc anlushc. Gia ma analutik istorik anadrom tou problmatoc auto parapmpoume sto [8].
77
78
Keflaio 5
Jewrmata thc Migadikc Anlushc pou bohjon sth melth tou suneqoc klsmatoc
Stieltjes.
Sto pmpto keflaio thc dhmoseusc tou o
Stieltjes
apodeiknei protseic ap th Mi-
gadik Anlush, tic opoec sto tloc tou kefalaou efarmzei gia na prei kainoria apotelsmata sth jewra tou. Arqzei me na jerhma to opoo argtera ja genikesei. To jerhma aut enai gnwst sth migadik anlush me to noma apodeqjhke thn dia perodo kai ap ton
Stieltjes-Vitali,
diti
G. Vitali
(1875-1932).
Jerhma
5.1
'Estw ma akolouja migadikn sunartsewn mi gadikc metablhtc
(fn )
pou enai olmorfec sto eswterik kukliko dskou kai aktna
me kntro thn arq twn axnwn 0
R.
' ra, kajemi touc ja parnei th morf A
fk (z) =
i=0
gia kje
Ai z i
(k)
me
|z| < R.
+ k=1 fk (z)
Upojtoume akmh ti h seir
sugklnei omoimorfa ston kuklik dsko
C1
me kntro 0 kai aktna
R1 < R . C
me kntro 0 kai aktna
Tloc, jewrome ti se kje kuklik dsko ste h diafor
R < R, ttoia
RR
enai osodpote mikr, to mtro tou ajrosmatoc
f1 (z) + f2 (z) + . . . + fn (z)

enai nw fragmno, anexrthta ap to fusik so h
plhsizei thn
tso to nw frgma
n, ap ton arijm L . L megalnei.
Enai profanc ti
'Otan isqoun oi treic parapnw proupojseic, tte h seir omoimorfa se kje kuklik dsko
+ k=1 fk (z)
sugklnei
Sto keflaio aut tan grfoume {kuklikc dskoc} ja ennoome {kleistc kuklikc dskoc}.
79
Prisma
5.1
Sto prohgomeno jerhma h aktna
tou kukliko dskou
enai
mikrterh thc
R.
'Omwc, mporome na thn proume tsi ste h diafor thc ap thn
na enai osodpote mikr kai, epomnwc, h seir
+ k=1 fk (z)
sugklnei omoimorfa
se kje sumpagc uposnolo pou periqetai sto dsko
C.
Smfwna me to jerhma tou
Weierstrass,
h parapnw seir ja paristnei sunrthsh olmorfh sto eswterik tou
C.
Gia na apodexoume to parapnw jerhma ja qrhsimopoisoume ta exc lmmata.
Lmma
5.1
En h seir
f (z) =
+ i i=0 i z
sugklnei omoimorfa gia
|z| = r,
tte
isqei ti
|i |
pou
M , ri
M = max|z|=r |f (z)|. i
qoume ti:
Apdeixh: 'Otan isqoun oi proupojseic tou lmmatoc, tte gia ta
i =
'Ara,
1 2i
|z|=r
f (z) dz . z i+1
|i |
1 2
|z|=r
|f (z)| 1 1 M |dz| M i+1 2r = i . i+1 |z| 2 r r
Paratrhsh
5.1
Me ton dio akribc trpo prokptei ti, an h seir
f (z) =
+ i i= i z
sugklnei omoimorfa gia ti
|z| = r,
tte isqei akma kai gia touc arnhtikoc akeraouc
|i |
M . ri
Gia touc arijmoc
Ai
(k)
, pou
i = 0, 1, 2 . . .
kai
k = 1, 2, . . .
isqei to paraktw:
Lmma
5.2
Me tic upojseic tou jewrmatoc 5.1, gia kje
i h seir
+ (k) k=1 Ai
sugkl-
nei. Apdeixh: H seir
+ k=1 fk (z)
|z| R1 ,
ra, dojntoc
> 0,
uprqei fusikc
ttoioc ste na isqei
n+n
fk (z) <
k=n
gia opoiodpote fusik 'Omwc, to jroisma
kai gia kje migadik
me
|z| R1 .
n+n k=n
fk (z)
enai na peperasmno jroisma seirn thc morfc
Ai z i ,
i=0
80
(k)
pou enai lec sugklnousec sto eswterik tou dskou peperasmno jroisma mpore na grafe:
C.
Epomnwc, to parapnw
n+n
n+n
fk (z) =
k=n i=0 k=n
H teleutaa seir sugklnei omoimorfa gia meno lmma, qoume ti
Ai
(k)
zi .
|z| = R1 , opte, efarmzontac to prohgo , i R1
n+n
Ai
k=n
ap pou prokptei ti h seir
(k)
<
+ (k) k=1 Ai
sugklnei.
Lmma
5.3
Gia kje
jewrmatoc 5.1, kje
i = 0, 1, . . . jtoume ci = + Ai k=1 ci ja ikanopoie thn anisthta |ci |
(k)
Tte, me tic upojseic tou
L . Ri
Apdeixh: 'Opwc kai sto prohgomeno lmma, to jroisma mpore na prei th morf:
f1 (z) + f2 (z) + . . . + fn (z)
+ i=0
Ai
k=1
(k)
zi . |z| = R ,
ap to lmma 5.1
Epeid h teleutaa seir sugklnei omoimorfa gia parnoume ti
Ai
k=1
(k)
L Ri
Epeid
kai h parapnw anisthta isqei gia to tuqao
n.
ci =
+ (k) k=1 Ai ,
ja qoume ti
|ci |
L . Ri
Prisma
5.2
Me tic upojseic tou jewrmatoc 5.1, h sunrthsh
F (z) =
+ i i=0 ci z
orzetai sto eswterik tou dskou
C. > 0,
uprqei fusikc
Lmma
5.4
Me tic upojseic tou jewrmatoc 5.1 kai dojntoc
ttoioc ste na isqei
Ai
k=n+n +1
kai
(k)
<
2 i R1 2L Ri
Ai
k=n+n +1
gia kje
(k)
kai
n.
81
Apdeixh: Ap thn apdeixh tou lmmatoc 5.2 qoume ti gia kje sugklnei kai ti, dojntoc ttoioc ste na isqei
i h seir
+ (k) k=1 Ai
> 0,
uprqei fusikc
n,
o opooc den exarttai ap to
i,
n+n
Ai
k=n
gia opoiodpote fusik
(k)
<
i R1
n.
Aut to teleutao sunepgetai ti
Ai
k=n
(k)
. i R1
An lboume upyh tic do parapnw sqseic kai thn isthta
n+n
Ai
k=n+n +1
katalgoume sto ti
(k)
=
k=n
Ai
(k)
k=n
Ai
(k)
Ai
k=n+n +1
Ap thn upjesh qoume ti
(k)
<
2 . i R1
n+n +n
fk (z) < 2L
k=n+n +1
gia
|z| R
kai gia kje fusik
. 'Omwc, h seir
n+n +n
n+n +n
fk (z) =
k=n+n +1
Ai
i=0 k=n+n +1
(k)
zi
|z| = R ,
ra ap to lmma 5.1 qoume ti
n+n +n
Ai
k=n+n +1
An
(k)
<
2L . Ri
n +,
tte ap thn parapnw anisthta qoume ti
Ai
k=n+n +1
(k)
2L . Ri
82
Paratrhsh
5.2
Sunduzontac tic apodexeic twn lhmmtwn 5.2 kai 5.4 bgzoume to
exc sumprasma. Me tic upojseic tou jewrmatoc 5.1, an doje tsi ste
> 0,
tte uprqei
n+n
fk (z) <
k=n
gia opoiondpote fusik opoo h
kai gia kje mi gadik
ston kuklik dsko aktnac
+ k=1 fk (z)
R1 ,
ston
sugklnei omoimorfa. Gia ton dio fusik
kai gia kje
isqoun
tautqrona oi sqseic
Ai
k=n+n +1
kai
(k)
<
2 i R1 2L Ri
Ai
k=n+n +1
gia kje
(k)
i.
APODEIXH TOU JEWRHMATOS 5.1 Ja dexoume qi mno ti h seir dsko
+ k=1 fk (z)
sugklnei omoimorfa ston kuklik h sunrthsh pou orsthke
, all kai ti to jroism thc isotai me
F (z), pou F
sto prisma 5.2.
C kntrou 0 kai aktnac R me R < R < R. Tte, L tsi ste gia kje n kai gia kje |z| R na isqei |f1 (z) + f2 (z) + . . . + fn (z)| < L . 'Estw > 0. Gia na dexoume to zhtomeno, arke na dexoume ti uprqei fusikc n ttoioc ste
Jewrome nan kuklik dsko ja uprqei nac jetikc arijmc
n+n
F (z)
k=1
gia kje fusik arijm
fk (z) < () z
me
kai gia kje migadik
|z| R .
Gia na prosdiorsoume ton
ergazmaste wc exc. H akolouja jetikn arijmn
2L
tenei sto mhdn, ra uprqei fusikc
R ( R )m
R R
ttoioc ste
2L
'Estw, epshc,
R ( R )p+1
R R
<
. 2
p
M =1+
R + R1
R R1
83
+ ... +
R R1
kai
>0
ttoio ste
1 2M < . 2
Epeid h
+ k=1 fk (z)
|z| R1 ,
uprqei fusikc
tsi ste
n+n
fk (z) <
k=n
gia kje fusik
kai
|z| R1 . =
kai gia thn aktna
Ap thn teleutaa paratrhsh, gia qoume ti
me to antstoiqo
Ai
k=n+n +1
kai
(k)
<
2 i R1
Ai
k=n+n +1
Epshc,
(k)
2L . R i
n+n
n+n
F (z)
k=1
fk (z) =
i=0 +
zi zi
i=0
ci
k=1 +
Ai
(k)
= |z| R
Ai
k=n+n +1
(k)
Opte gia
parnoume ti
n+n
F (z)
p
fk (z)
k=1 + i=0 (k)
Ai
k=n+n +1 + i
(k)
=
i=0 p
Ri
k=n+n +1
Ai
+
Ai
(k)
i=p+1
k=n+n +1
<
i=0
Ri
2 2L + Ri i i R R1 i=p+1
R ( R )p+1
= 2M + 2L
'Ara, h (*) qei apodeiqje.
R R
<.
Sth sunqeia genikeoume to jerhma 5.1 wc exc.
84
Jerhma
5.2
'Estw
(fn )
akolouja sunartsewn olmorfwn s na anoikt kai sune-
ktik snolo
S,
to snoro tou opoou to sumbolzoume me
s.2
Upojtoume ti h seir periqetai sto
+ k=1 fk (z)
sugklnei omoimorfa se kuklik dsko
C1 ,
pou
S. f1 (z) + f2 (z) + . . . + fn (z)
Tloc, upojtoume ti to mtro tou ajrosmatoc
enai nw fragmno ap to exarttai mno ap to Tte,
sto tuqao sumpagc uposnolo
tou
kai ti to
h seir
+
F (z) =
k=1
fk (z) S
tou
sugklnei omoimorfa se kje sumpagc uposnolo sunrthsh olmorfh sto

Apdeixh
kai paristnei
S. S
se do snola
: Qwrzoume to
A kai B
xna metax touc: to
la ta shmea
tou
gia ta opoa uprqei dskoc kntrou
ston opoo
A periqei + h k=1 fk
sugklnei omoimorfa, en To
B = S A. C1 .
Epshc, fanetai
enai mh ken, afo periqei la ta eswterik shmea tou
ekola ti enai anoikt snolo (afo grfetai wc nwsh anoiktn perioqn).
z0 tuqao shmeo tou B . Tte, z0 sthn opoa h seir + fk na sugklnei omoimorfa. k=1 Jewrome dsko C0 kntrou z0 kai aktnac R0 , ttoiac ste kje eswterik shmeo tou C0 na apqei ap to snoro tou S perisstero ap R0 . 'Epeita, parnoume tuqao shmeo z sto eswterik tou C0 kai treic kuklikoc dskouc me kntro to z : o prtoc dskoc C2 qei osodpote mikr aktna kai periqetai ston C0 , o deteroc dskoc C ja qei aktna R0 kai o trtoc, stw C , periqei touc llouc do kai periqetai sto S . An upojsoume ti qoume omoimorfh sgklish ston C2 , tte, epeid to C enai sumpagc uposnolo tou S , ap thn upjesh tou jewrmatoc kai ap to jerhma 5.1 petai ti h + seir k=1 fk sugklnei omoimorfa kai ston C . Epeid to z0 enai eswterik shmeo tou C , qoume ti h parapnw seir ja sugklnei omoimorfa kai se dsko kntrou z0 ,
Ja dexoume ti kai to enai anoikt snolo. 'Estw den uprqei kama perioq tou prgma topo. Katalxame se topo epeid upojsame ti uprqei dskoc me kntro to tuqao eswterik shmeo
tou
C0 ,
ston opoo h seir
+ k=1 fk
na sugklnei omoimorfa. ' ra, A
z B
kai to
B A
enai anoikt snolo.
Telik, to sunektik snolo touc sunlwn kai
grfetai wc nwsh do anoiktn kai xnwn metax
ki, epeid to
enai mh ken, qoume anagkastik ti
B=
kai
2 3
Stieltjes
sth dhmoseus tou jewre mia {perioq}
S,
qwrc na dieukrinzei ti akribc ennoe.
Ap thn apdeixh pou dnei fanetai ti jlei to H apdeixh pou dnei o
na enai anoikt kai sunektik snolo.
Stieltjes
sthn ergasa tou diafrei lgo ap aut pou knoume. Xekin me
na shmeo pou periqetai sto eswterik tou
C1
kai jewre arket meglo kuklik dsko pou qei
kntro to shmeo aut kai periqetai olklhroc sto
S.
Efarmzontac to jerhma 5.1 epektenei thn
aktna omoimorfhc sgklishc grw ap to shmeo aut kai, qrhsimopointac th sunektikthta tou
S,
deqnei telik ti qoume omoimorfh sgklish se kje sumpagc uposnol tou.
85
S = A.
Dhlad, kje shmeo tou
enai kntro dskou ston opoo h
+ k=1 fk
sugklnei
omoimorfa kai, epomnwc, h en lgw seir sugklnei omoimorfa se kje sumpagc uposnolo tou
S.
Paratrhsh
5.3
Ap to paraktw jerhma kai efarmzontac thn Arq tou Megstou
prokptei ti to mgisto thc sunrthshc sto snoro tou
|f1 (z) + f2 (z) + . . . + fn (z)| lambnetai pnta S . 'Ara ja mporosame stic upojseic tou jewrmatoc na pome aplc ti h sunrthsh |f1 (z) + f2 (z) + . . . + fn (z)| enai fragmnh sto snoro tou S , anexrthta ap to n. Tloc, o Stieltjes parathre ti antstoiqo jerhma isqei gia migadikc
sunartseic do migadikn metablhtn.
To paraktw jerhma enai ap ta shmantiktera autc thc dhmoseushc. Gia thn apdeix tou o
Stieltjes
qrhsimopoie to prohgomeno jerhma.
Jerhma
5.3
H akolouja sunartsewn
P2n (z) Q2n (z)
sugklnei omoimorfa se ma supou
nrthsh
F (z)
C A,
enai to snolo twn mh
jetikn pragmatikn arijmn. H sunrthsh
enai olmorfh s lo to
C A.
Apdeixh: Sthn pargrafo
3.3
edame ti gia kje
CA
isqei
P2n (z) 2 4 2n = + + ... + Q2n (z) Q0 (z)Q2 (z) Q2 (z)Q4 (z) Q2n2 (z)Q2n (z)
kai, epshc, ti h seir
+ k=1
2k Q2k2 (z)Q2k (z) S

tou sunlou
sugklnei omoimorfa se kje sumpagc uposnolo
twn migadikn
arijmn me jetik pragmatik mroc. Epeid prkeitai gia seir sunartsewn pou enai olmorfec sto
H,
petai ti kai h sunrthsh
F (z) =
k=1
enai olmorfh sto
2k P2n (z) = lim Q2k2 (z)Q2k (z) Q2n (z)
H.
Epshc, qoume ti
2 4 2n P2n (z) = + + ... + = Q2n (z) Q0 (z)Q2 (z) Q2 (z)Q4 (z) Q2n2 (z)Q2n (z)
en gia kje
n i=1
Mi
(n) (n)
z + xi
sto
CA
n
isqei
k=1
2k Q2k2 (z)Q2k (z)

86
n i=1
Mi
(n) (n)
|z + xi |
Sumbolzoume me
<z>
to elqisto thc parstashc
xona twn mh arnhtikn pragmatikn arijmn. Tte, an
|z + u| kajc z = a + bi,
.
to
diatrqei ton
ja isqei ti
< z >=
Se kje perptwsh to
|z|, |b|,
en en
a0 a<0
< z >
enai jetik kai ap ton orism tou qoume ti isqei
|z + u| < z >,
opte
n k=1
1 2k Q2k2 (z)Q2k (z) <z> <z> S
Mi
i=1
(n)
1 . < z > 1 .
Jewrome sth sunqeia sumpagc uposnolo to
S,
pou den qei kanna koin shmeo me Epomnwc,
A.
H sunrthsh
ja lambnei sto
ma elqisth jetik tim
isqei
n k=1
poioc ki an enai o fusikc
2k 1 , Q2k2 (z)Q2k (z) 1
n.
P2n (z) Q2n (z)
, ja sugklnei omoimorfa sthn
Epeid ikanopoiontai lec oi proupojseic tou jewrmatoc 5.2, h parapnw seir, epomnwc kai h akolouja sumpagc uposnolo tou
F (z)
se kje
C A.
P2n+1 (z) Q2n+1 (z)
. Gnwrzoume ti
Antstoiqa prgmata isqoun kai gia thn akolouja isqei
P2n+1 (z) 1 = Q2n+1 (z) 1 z F1 (z)
n k=1
2k+1 z Q2k1 (z)Q2k+1 (z) 3.3)

se kje sumpagc uposno-
kai ti h parapnw akolouja sunartsewn sugklnei omoimorfa se ma sunrthsh (thn opoa epshc orsame kai meletsame sthn
lo tou
H.
Epshc, h
P2n+1 (z) Q2n+1 (z)
enai nw fragmnh se kje ttoio sumpagc uposnolo.
'Ara, efarmzontac kai pli to jerhma 5.2, qoume ti h morfa sthn
P2n+1 (z) Q2n+1 (z)
sugklnei omoi-
F1 (z)
C A.
Tloc, h
F1 (z)
ja enai
olmorfh se lo to
C A.
+ n=1 n
sugklnei, oi
Sthn perptwsh pou h en tan h
F (z)
kai
+ n=1 n
F1 (z)
enai diaforetikc,
apoklnei, oi do sunartseic tautzontai.
Dhlad, sth deterh
perptwsh isqei ti
n+
lim
Pn (z) = F (z) , Qn (z)
CA C A. F (z) kai A, qrh-
kai, mlista, h sgklish enai omoimorfh se kje sumpagc uposnolo tou
Oi parapnw sqseic fanernoun to pc sumperifrontai oi sunartseic
F1 (z)
sto
C A.
Ja prospajsoume na tic epektenoume kai se shmea tou
simopointac kai pli to jerhma 5.2.
'Opwc kai prohgoumnwc, ja meletsoume to
87
prblhma aut mno gia th sunrthsh thn
F (z).
Antstoiqa apotelsmata isqoun kai gia
F1 (z).
5.4
Jerhma
H sunrthsh
F (z), pou orsthke parapnw, epektenetai panto sto C

P2n (z) Q2n (z)
, ap kpoio dekth
{k | k N}.
Mlista, h akolouja
omoimorfa sthn
F (z)
n kai peita, sugklnei C {k | k N}.
(k ) enai ma gnhswc . Jewrome do tuqaouc kai diadoqikoc rouc k+1 < k kai touc jetikoc a kai b gia touc opoouc isqei ti k+1 < b < a < k . Tte, uprqei n0 = n0 (k), pou enai ttoioc ste gia kje n n0 to polunumo Q2n (z) na mhn qei rza sto (b, a). Parnoume tuqaa a , b me b < b < a < a. Gia kje z me a |z| b isqei
Apdeixh: Gnwrzoume ap to keflaio 4 ti h akolouja fjnousa akolouja arnhtikn arijmn pou apoklnei sto
P2n (z) = Q2n (z)

H akolouja
n i=1
Mi z+
(n) (n) xi
i=1
Mi |z +
(n) (n) xi |
1 . 1 min(a a, b b ) a |z|
P2n (z) Q2n (z) nn 0
enai omoimorfa fragmnh se kje daktlio
kai, smfwna me to jerhma 5.3, sugklnei omoimorfa se opoiodpote dsko pou
periqetai ston
a < |z| < b
kai den tmnei to
A.
Ap to jerhma 5.2 sunepgetai ti
h akolouja aut ja sugklnei omoimorfa se kje sumpagc uposnolo tou daktulou
a < |z| < b. Epomnwc, h F (z) epektenetai sto daktlio autn kai, geniktera, h F orzetai sto C {k | k N} kai se kje sumpagc uposnol tou ja enai to
omoimorfo rio thc akoloujac
P2n (z) Q2n (z)
'Amesh sunpeia tou parapnw jewrmatoc enai ti h sunrthsh sto
C {k | k N}.
Se kje daktlio
k < |z| < k+1

+
ja qei anptugma
F (z) enai olmorfh Laurent
thc morfc
F (z) =
pou kje twn tou
ci z i , Laurent
(k)
(n) P2n (z) Q2n (z) sto daktlio xk z 1 sto anptugma tou
(k) ci
enai to rio twn antstoiqwn suntelestn twn anaptugmtwn
< |z| <
(n) xk+1 .
Sunepc, o
(k) c1
enai to rio twn suntelestn
M2 Mn P2n (z) M1 + + ... + . = (n) (n) (n) Q2n (z) z + x1 z + x2 z + xn

Isqei h paraktw prtash: O suntelestc isotai me
(n)
(n)
(n)
Prtash
5.1
c1
(k)
tou anaptgmatoc
Laurent
(n)
thc
F (z)
sto daktlio
k < |z| < k+1
c1 = lim
(k)
n+
M1
(n)
+ M2
88
(n)
+ . . . + Mk
(5.1)
Apdeixh: Sto daktlio
xk < |z| < xk+1 1 z+

(n) xi
(n)
(n)
isqoun ta paraktw:
en
i k,
tte
1 z
(1)m
m=0
xi z
(n)
diti
xi z
(n)
< 1.
tte
en
i > k,
1 z + xi
diti
(n)
1 xi
(n)
(1)m
m=0
z xi
(n)
z (n) xi
< 1. Laurent
(n)
tou
Epomnwc, to anptugma
P2n (z) Q2n (z)
sto daktlio
xk < |z| < xk+1 1 xi

(n)
(n)
(n)
enai:
P2n (z) = Q2n (z)
Mi
i=1
(x )2 1 xi 2 + i 3 ... + z z z z 1
enai o
(n)
Mi
(n)
z (xi )2
(n)
z2 (xi )3
(n)
+ ...
i=k+1
'Ara, o suntelestc tou
M1
(n)
+ M2
+ . . . + Mk
(n)
kai h prtash qei
apodeiqje, an lboume upyh thn paratrhsh pou prohgjhke thc prtashc.
Tloc, orzoume mia akolouja klimakwtn sunartsewn pou ja paxei shmantik rlo sta epmena keflaia thc ergasac tou Me bsh thn anaparstash
Stieltjes.
(n) (n)
P2n (z) = Q2n (z)

orzoume thn klimakwt sunrthsh
n k=1
Mk
z + xk
n (u)
wc exc:
0, (n) M , 1 (n) (n) n (u) = M1 + M2 , ........... (n) M + M (n) + . . . + M (n) , 1 2 n1 (n) (n) (n) M1 + M2 + . . . + Mn ,
0 u < x1 (n) (n) x1 u < x2 (n) (n) x2 u < x3 ...... (n) (n) xn1 u < xn xn u < +.
(n)
(n)
Paratrhsh
5.4
En
enai nac jetikc metax twn
kai
k+1 ,
tte gia arket
megla
n,
ttoia ste na isqei
(n) xk
<c<
(n) xk+1 , (n)
qoume ti
n (c) = M1
(n)
+ M2
89
+ . . . + Mk
(n)
'Ara, me bsh thn prohgomenh prtash, ja enai
c1 = lim n (c) .
n+
(k)
(5.2)
90
Keflaio 6
Katanom mzac kai to oloklrwma
Stieltjes.
Sto tloc tou ttartou kefalaou thc dhmoseusc tou, o
Stieltjes,
milntac gia to
prblhma twn ropn, jerhse ma tuqaa katanom mzac kat mkoc tou hmixona
0x.
H katanom mzac sthn opoa anafrjhke tan {diakrit}, dhlad jerhse na ssthma to pol arijmhsmou pljouc mazn mkoc tou
(Mi , i )
i = 1, 2, 3, . . .
, pou katanmontan kat
0x
wc exc: gia kje
enai topojethmnh mia mza
Mi
sto shmeo
i .
Aut
h katanom perigrfetai plrwc ap ma axousa kai klimakwt sunrthsh thc diac morfc me autn pou orsthke sto tloc tou prohgomenou kefalaou. S aut to keflaio, pou enai ap ta basiktera thc dhmoseusc tou giat ed orzei kai to perfhmo oloklrwm tou, jewre ti qei mia posthta mzac pou katanmetai me suneq trpo kat mkoc tou an gia kje shmeo
0x.
Ma ttoia katanom jewretai plrwc orismnh
tou hmixona mporome na upologsoume thn posthta thc mzac
pou enai katanemhmnh sto eujgrammo tmma pou qoume sto eujgrammo tmma
0x.
Profanc, h posthta thc mzac
0x
enai axousa sunrthsh tou
kai isqei kai to
antstrofo. Dhlad an qoume ma axousa sunrthsh tou
x,
tte mporome me autn
na orsoume ma katanom mzac kat mkoc tou hmixona. Autc enai kai o lgoc pou knei ton
Stieltjes
na asqolhje sto keflaio aut prta me tic axousec sunartseic
kai na epishmnei kpoiec basikc idithtc touc pou ja qrhsimopoisei argtera.
6.1
Melth qeia.
twn
auxousn
sunartsewn
wc
proc
th
sun-
Sunartseic fragmnhc
kmanshc.
H prth idithta afor ta ria auxousn sunartsewn kai enai h exc.
[a, b]. En x [a, b), tte uprqei to dexi rio (x+) sto x kai isqei (x) (x+). En x (a, b], tte uprqei to arister rio (x) kai isqei (x) (x).
Prtash 6.1
'Estw
(x)
axousa sunrthsh orismnh sto disthma
Apdeixh: Ja dexoume ti uprqei to dexi rio se kje
x [a, b)
kai ti isqei
(x) (x+).
To detero mroc thc prtashc apodeiknetai me ton dio trpo.
91
Jewrome ma tuqaa fjnousa kai mhdenik akolouja kai h
(n ) jetikn arijmn.
Tte,
((x + n ))
enai ma fjnousa akolouja ktw fragmnh ap ton arijm
(x).
'Ara, qei rio kpoion arijm
kai, mlista, lgw thc monotonac enai
A = inf (x + n ) .
n N
En
(1)
tte kai h
(n ) enai ma llh tuqaa fjnousa ((x + n )) ja qei kpoio rio B

n N
kai mhdenik akolouja jetikn arijmn, kai, epshc, ja isqei:
B = inf (x + n ) .
'Estw ti enai
(2) k
ttoio ste
A = B.
En
A > B,
tte lgw thc (2) uprqei
A > (x + k ) B . (3)
'Omwc, h fjnousa akolouja ste
(x+n ) tenei sto x.
Epomnwc, uprqei fusikc
x + k > x + m > x. Ap to teleutao qoume (x + k ) A, to opoo enai topo lgw thc (3). 'Omoia, katalgoume se topo, an upojsoume ti B > A. ' ra enai A = B . A Tloc, epeid gia kje n enai x + n > x, ja qoume ti (x + n ) (x). 'Ara, lgw thc (1), ja enai kai A (x). Epeid oi akoloujec (n ), (n ) pou jewrsame tan tuqaec, petai ti uprqei to rio (x+) = lim0+ (x + ) kai enai so me to A. Sunepc, isqei (x+) (x).
opte, lgw thc (1), enai
Paratrhsh 6.1
m ttoioc (x + k ) (x + m ) (x),
'Opwc parathre kai o
Stieltjes
se sqsh me thn prtash 6.1, an
x (a, b) kai (x+) > (x), tte h enai asuneqc sto x, en, an (x+) = (x), enai suneqc sto x. Se kje perptwsh h diafor (x+) (x) enai to lma thc sto x. An (a+) > (a), h enai asuneqc sto a, en, an (a+) = (a), tte h enai suneqc sto a. H diafor (a+) (a) enai to lma thc sto a. An (b) < (b), h enai asuneqc sto b kai, an (b) = (b), h enai suneqc sto b. Tte, h (b) (b) enai to lma thc sto b.
tte h Sqetik me ta shmea sunqeiac thc axousac sunrthshc tash.
isqei h paraktw pr-
Prtash
6.2
Se kje anoikt disthma tou pedou orismo thc, opoiadpote axousa
sunrthsh
qei shmea sunqeiac. Jewrome opoiodpote anoikt disthma
(c, d) tou pedou orismo thc kai parnoume a, b ste c < a < b < d. Jtoume = (b) (a) kai jewrome tsseric arijmoc p, q , r , s ttoiouc ste a < p < q < r < s < b. Enai faner ti ma toulqiston ap tic diaforc (q) (p), (s) (r) enai mikrterh ap 2 . Qwrc periorism thc genikthtac, ac upojsoume ti (q) (p) < . 2 (1) = p, b(1) = q , opte (b(1) ) (a(1) ) < kai a < a(1) < b(1) < b. Jtoume a 2 (2) , b(2) ste (b(2) ) (a(2) ) < kai a(1) < a(2) < b(2) < b(1) . Omowc, uprqoun a 4
Apdeixh: 92
Suneqzontac me ton dio trpo parnoume ma gnhswc axousa akolouja ma gnhswc fjnousa akolouja
a(n)
kai
b(n)
ste
a < a(1) < . . . < a(n) < . . . < b(n) < . . . < b(1) < b
kai
(b(n) ) (a(n) ) <

H
, n = 1, 2, . . . . 2n
(a(n) ) sugklnei se nan arijm A kai h (b(n) ) sugklnei se nan arijm B A. 'Estw metax twn A kai B . Tte, gia kje n isqei a(n) < < b(n) , opte ap ton orism (n) ) () kai (+) (b(n) ). 'Ara, twn () kai (+) qoume ti (a 0 (+) () (b(n) ) (a(n) ) < . 2n (+) = ().
kai h apdeixh qei
Parnontac ria sthn parapnw answsh tan 'Ara to
n +,
qoume ti
enai shmeo sunqeiac thc
msa sto disthma
(c, d)
teleisei.
Paratrhsh
6.2
To pljoc twn shmewn asunqeiac kje axousac sunrthshc
pou enai orismnh sto
[a, b],
enai to pol arijmsimo ki aut apodeiknetai wc exc.
Enai profanc ti to jroisma twn almtwn thc xepersei to
(b) (a).
'Estw
to snolo twn shmewn asunqeiac thc
snolo twn shmewn asunqeiac pou to lma fusikc. Tte, isqei ti
sta shmea asunqeiac den mpore na kai Ak to 1 enai megaltero ap to k , pou k tuqaoc + (x) (x) (b) (a) ,
1 card(Ak ) k
opte
+ (x) (x)
xAk xA
card(Ak ) k((b) (a)) .

Dhlad, gia kje ap
to pljoc twn shmewn asunqeiac pou to lma enai megaltero 'Ara, to
1 k
enai peperasmno.
A =
kN Ak
enai nwsh arijmhsmou pljouc
peperasmnwn sunlwn kai, epomnwc, enai to pol arijmsimo. Aut to teleutao sumprasma ( {enai to pol arijmsimo}) o nei wc
1 exc :
Stieltjes
to diatup-
{...Epeid o arijmc twn almtwn pou uperbanoun opoiondpote dosmno
(jetik) arijm enai peperasmnoc, enai faner ti mporome na diatxoume ta lmata kat fjnousa seir. Epomnwc, ta shmea asunqeiac sto disthma
(a, b)
mporon na
diataqjon wc ma peirh akolouja me dektec fusikoc arijmoc...}. mporome na ta arijmsoume, pwc lme emec smera.
Me lla lgia
O lgoc gia ton opoo de qrh-
simopoie thn kfrash {enai to pol arijmsimo} enai ti ekenh thn epoq mlic pou eqe arqsei na gnetai apodekt h jewra tou
G. Cantor
gia thn parxh diaforetikn
aperwn kai ta prgmata grw ap thn arijmhsimthta kai thn uperarijmhsimthta den
Bl. [2], sel. 70, deterh pargrafoc.
93
tan kai tso xekjara. Mlista, o ac sunlwn tou
Stieltjes
qrhsimopoie gnwst jerhma thc jewr-
G. Cantor
gia na dexei ti kai ta mh fragmna diastmata sto pedo
orismo thc axousac sunrthshc
periqoun to pol arijmsimo pljoc shmewn a-
sunqeiac: en qoume na mh fragmno disthma, tte aut grfetai san arijmsimh nwsh fragmnwn diasthmtwn, kajna ap ta opoa periqei to pol arijmsimo pljoc shmewn asunqeiac. Epeid, pwc qei apodexei o
Cantor,
arijmsimh nwsh to pol
arijmsimwn sunlwn enai to pol arijmsimo snolo, kai to mh fragmno disthma ja periqei to pol arijmsimo pljoc asuneqein.
Sto tloc autc thc paragrfou ja asqolhjome me tic sunartseic fragmnhc kmanshc, pou pazoun shmantik rlo sthn Pragmatik Anlush. Autc pou prtoc tic qrhsimopohse kai melthse tic idithtc touc tan o
C. Jordan
(1838-1922) se
ma dhmoseus tou to 1881, pou asqolontan me tic eujugrammsimec kamplec. Ma ektensterh melth touc ap ton dio periqetai ston trto tmo tou { pou kuklofrhse to 1887. O
Cours d Analyse},
Stieltjes
den knei kama anafor stic sunartseic autc, qi mno giat tan
ma prsfath kai qi eurwc gnwst nnoia thc epoqc ekenhc, all ki epeid den qoun sqsh me thn ergasa tou. Parl aut, anafroume ton orism touc kai tic
shmantikterec idithtc touc, epeid ja fanon idiatera qrsimec sth genkeush tou oloklhrmatoc
Stieltjes.
Orismc
mrish
'Estw ma sunrthsh orismnh sto disthma [a, b] kai ma tuqaa diaD = {a = x0 < x1 < x2 < . . . < xn1 < xn = b} tou diastmatoc auto. Tte, n b sqhmatzoume to jroisma Va (, D) = k=1 |(xk ) (xk1 )|. To elqisto nw frgma twn parapnw ajroismtwn onomzetai kmansh thc sto [a, b] kai sumbolzetai me Vab . Dhlad, enai
6.1
Vab = sup{Vab (, D)| D

Sthn perptwsh pou sto
diamrish tou
[a, b]} .
Vab < +, ja lme ti h sunrthsh enai fragmnhc kmanshc

enai axousa sunrthsh sto
[a, b].
6.1
Pardeigma
An h
kmanshc sto qoume ti
[a, b].
n
Prgmati, gia kje diamrish
[a, b], tte h enai fragmnhc D = {a = x0 < x1 < . . . < xn = b}
Vab (, D) =
k=1
kai, epomnwc,
|(xk ) (xk1 )| =
k=1
((xk ) (xk1 )) = (b) (a) .
Vab = (b) (a) < +.
[2], sel. 70, sto tloc thc 37: ...Cela est vrai mme lorsque l intervalle considr s ntend ` l e e e e a inni; on le divisera en intervalles
(a, b), (b, c), (c, d), (d, e), . . . On trouvera une suite innie de discontinuits pour chaque intervalle; l ensemble des discontinuits e e constituera une suite ` double entre, qu on sait ranger comme une suite simple. De l` on peut conclure a e a de nouveau, d aprs un thor`me de M. Cantor, qu il y a des points de continuit dans tout intervalle. e e e e
94
Prtash
6.3
An oi
1 , 2
enai sunartseic fragmnhc kmanshc sto
enai tuqaoi mi gadiko arijmo, tte kai h sunrthsh sto
[a, b] kai , , 1 +2 enai fragmnhc kmanshc
[a, b].
Apdeixh: Parnoume tuqosa diamrish
D = {a = x0 < x1 < . . . < xn = b}
kai
qoume ti
Vab (1 + 2 , D) ||Vab (1 , D) + ||Vab (2 , D) ||Vab 1 + ||Vab 2 .

'Ara,
Vab (1 + 2 ) ||Vab 1 + ||Vab 2 < + .

Paratrhsh 6.3
Enai profanc ti ma sunrthsh
orismnh sto [a, b] enai fragm-
nhc kmanshc sto
[a, b]
an kai mno an to pragmatik kai to fantastik thc mroc enai
sunartseic fragmnhc kmanshc sto
[a, b]
kai ti isqoun
Vab (Re), Vab (Im) Vab

kai
Vab Vab (Re) + Vab (Im) .

'Estw ti h sunrthsh enai orismnh sto disthma [a, b] kai a < c < b. enai fragmnhc kmanshc sto [a, b] an kai mno an enai fragmnhc kmanshc b c b sto [a, c] kai sto [c, b]. Epshc, isqei ti Va = Va + Vc . Eidiktera, an h enai fragmnhc kmanshc sto [a, b], tte enai fragmnhc kmanshc se kje upodisthma tou [a, b].
Prtash 6.4
Tte, h
Apdeixh: Parnoume tuqaec diamerseic
D1 = {a = x0 < x1 < . . . < xm = c}
kai
D2 = {c = x0 < x1 < . . . < xn = b}.
Orzetai tsi h diamrish
D = {a = x0 < . . . < xm = c = x0 < . . . < xn = b}

tou
[a, b]
kai epomnwc, isqei
Vac (, D1 ) + Vcb (, D2 ) = Vab (, D) Vab .

Metabllontac tic
D1 , D2
anexrthta th ma ap thn llh, blpoume ti
Vac + Vcb Vab . (1)

'Ara, an
Vcb < +. Antistrfwc, parnoume opoiadpote diamrish D = {a = x0 < x1 < . . . < xm = b} tou [a, b]. An isqei ti xn < c < xn+1 gia kpoio n, tte jewrome tic diamerseic D1 = {a = x0 < . . . < xn < c} kai D2 = {c < xn+1 < . . . < xm = b} twn [a, c] kai [c, b],
tte isqei kai antistoqwc. Epeid
Vab < +,
Vac < +
|(xn+1 ) (xn )| |(c) (xn )| + |(xn+1 ) (c)| ,

95
sunepgetai ti
Vab (, D) Vac (, D1 ) + Vab (, D2 ) Vac + Vcb . (2) xn = c gia kpoio n, jewrome tic diamerseic D1 = {a = x0 < . . . < xn1 < xn = c} kai D2 = {c = xn < . . . < xm = b}. Automtwc, qoume
An
Vab (, D) = Vac (, D1 ) + Vcb (, D2 )

kai parnoume thn anisthta (2) pwc prohgoumnwc. Ap th (2) parnoume ti
Vab Vac + Vcb . (3)

Epomnwc, an
Vab < +
kai
Vcb < +,
tte isqei
Vab < +.
Sunduzontac tic
(1) kai (3) katalgoume sthn isthta
Vab = Vac + Vcb .
Orismc
6.2
An h
enai fragmnhc kmanshc sto
[a, b],
orzoume th sunrthsh
gia kje
x [a, b],
pou deqmaste ti
Vaa
Vax
= 0.
H sunrthsh aut onomzetai
sunr-
thsh kmanshc
Paratrhsh
thc
. a x y b,
y Vax Vax + Vx = Vay .
6.4
H sunrthsh kmanshc enai, smfwna me thn prtash 6.4, axousa diti, an tte
sunrthsh sto
[a, b],
H shmantikterh idithta twn sunartsewn fragmnhc kmanshc, pou apodeqjhke ap ton
Jordan
to 1881, enai ti kje pragmatik sunrthsh fragmnhc kmanshc
grfetai wc diafor do auxousn sunartsewn. Sth sunqeia ja dome thn apdeixh autc thc idithtac. Gia kje pragmatik arijm
orzoume tic posthtec kai
max(t, 0)
Orismc
kai parathrome ti
t+ t = t
t+ = max(t, 0) t+ + t = |t|.
kai
t =
'Estw pragmatik sunrthsh orismnh sto [a, b] D = {a = x0 < x1 < . . . < xn = b}. Sqhmatzoume ta ajrosmata
6.3
kai tuqaa diamrish
n b Pa (, D)
=
k=1
((xk ) (xk1 ))
kai
b Na (, D)
=
k=1
((xk ) (xk1 )) .
jetik kmansh b b Pa kai Na .
kai
Ta elqista nw frgmata twn ajroismtwn autn onomzontai
arnhtik kmansh,
Prtash 6.5
antstoiqa, thc
sto
[a, b]
kai sumbolzontai
'Estw pragmatik sunrthsh fragmnhc kmanshc
sto
[a, b].
Tte
qoume ti
b b Pa Na = (b) (a)
kai
b b Pa + Na = Vab .
96
Apdeixh: Profanc, gia kje diamrish
tou
[a, b]
isqei ti
b b Pa (, D) + Na (, D) = Vab (, D)
kai
b b Pa (, D) Na (, D) = (b) (a) .
Ap tic isthtec autc brskoume ti
(b) (a) 1 b , Pa (, D) = Vab (, D) + 2 2 1 (b) (a) b Na (, D) = Vab (, D) . 2 2

Ap thn prth isthta qoume ti
1 (b) (a) b Pa (, D) Vab + 2 2

kai, epomnwc, ti
1 (b) (a) b Pa Vab + . 2 2

Epshc, isqei ti
1 b (b) (a) (b) (a) b b V (, D) = Pa (, D) Pa , 2 a 2 2

opte
1 b (b) (a) b Va Pa . 2 2 1 (b) (a) b Pa = Vab + 2 2
'Etsi apodeiknetai h isthta
kai me parmoio trpo apodeiknetai kai h
(b) (a) 1 b Na = Vab . 2 2
Orismc
6.4
An h
enai pragmatik sunrthsh fragmnhc kmanshc sto
orzontai oi sunartseic
x Pa
kai
x Na
gia kje
sto
[a, b]
(pou
[a, b], tte a a Pa = Na = 0).

kai
Oi sunartseic autc onomzontai
sunrthsh jetikc kmanshc
sunrthsh
arnhtikc kmanshc thc

Prtash 6.6
antstoiqa.
An h
enai pragmatik sunrthsh fragmnhc kmanshc sto
[a, b],
tte
grfetai wc diafor do auxousn sunartsewn.
97
Apdeixh: Epeid gia kje
sto
[a, b]
isqei
(x) (a) 1 x Pa = Vax + 2 2

sunepgetai ti oi sunartseic
kai
1 (x) (a) x Na = Vax , 2 2

enai axousec sto
x Pa
kai
x Na
[a, b].
Tloc, epeid
x x (x) (a) = Pa Na ,
sumperanoume ti h
grfetai wc diafor twn auxousn sunartsewn
x Na .
x Pa + (a)
kai
6.2
To orismno oloklrwma
Stieltjes
Sthn arq autc thc paragrfou, pou orzetai to oloklrwma pou frei to nom tou, o
Stieltjes
exhge pc ma axousa sunrthsh mac dnei plhroforec gia ton trpo me
ton opoo katanmetai mia posthta mzac kat mkoc tou xona 'Estw ti qoume ma axousa sunrthsh matikoc arijmoc. En to
0x.
pou orzetai stouc mh arnhtikoc prag-
enai shmeo asunqeiac thc
shmeo aut uprqei na sumpknwma mzac so me
, tte jewrome ti sto (x+) (x), an x > 0 kai so me
(0+) (0),
thn opoa o
an
x = 0.
H mza pou uprqei se kje shmeo sunqeiac jewretai ame-
lhta, dhlad enai sh me mhdn. Ap to shmeo aut kai pra uprqei kpoia asfeia,
Stieltjes
prospaje na diorjsei paraktw.
Anafretai, gia pardeigma,
ti h mza pou uprqei sto tuqao disthma sumbanei mno tan h
[a, b]
enai sh me
(b) (a).
Aut mwc
enai suneqc ap ta arister sto
kai ap ta dexi sto
b.
Epshc, anafretai ti h posthta thc mzac se na disthma den exarttai ap tic timc thc
sta kra tou diastmatoc, all ap tic timc thc pol kont sta kra.
'Ara, to disthma ti
0x
periqei mza sh me
(x+) (0)
sh me
(x+),
an upojsoume
(0) = 0. x
H posthta thc mzac pou enai sugkentrwmnh sto shmeo
x kai prorqeen h
tai ap thn {arister pleur} (dhlad h posthta thc mzac pou periqetai osodpote kont sto kai enai tautqrona sto disthma
0x)
enai sh me
(x) (x),
posthta thc mzac sto dio shmeo pou enai sugkentrwmnh ap thn {dexi pleur} enai
(x+) (x).
Gia na apofgoume tic anakrbeiec, upologzoume thn posthta mzac pou periqetai s na disthma wc exc:
An qoume to kai
[a, b], tte h mza sto disthma aut enai (b+) (a), (b+) (a), tan a = 0. [a, b) (a, b]
enai
an
a > 0,
Gia to
(b) (a), (b+) (a+).
an
a > 0,
kai
(b) (a),
tan
a = 0.
Gia to
enai
To
(a, b)
periqei mza sh me
(b) (a+).
98
'Eqontac dieukrinsei ton trpo me ton opoo katanmetai ma posthta mzac kat suneq trpo ston xona
0x, o Stieltjes genikeei kai thn nnoia thc ropc k -txhc, ste
S
na mporsei na asqolhje me to prblhma twn ropn kai s autn thn perptwsh. aut to shmeo orzei to oloklrwma tou.
axousa sunrthsh
f sto [a, b], kajc kai ma , pou orzetai epshc sto [a, b]. Jewrome ma diamrish D = {a = x0 < x1 < x2 < . . . < xn1 < xn = b} tou diastmatoc [a, b] kai sth sunqeia parnoume n arijmoc 1 , 2 , . . . , n ttoiouc ste xk1 k xk . Onomzoume pltoc thc diamrishc D ton arijm |D| = max1kn (xk xk1 ).
Orismc 6.5
'Estw pragmatik kai fragmnh sunrthsh
To rio tou ajrosmatoc
f (1 ) ((x1 ) (x0 )) + f (2 ) ((x2 ) (x1 )) + . . . + f (n ) ((xn ) (xn1 ))

kajc to pltoc thc diamrishc tenei sto mhdn, efson uprqei sto
(6.1)
R,
enai to
ori-
smno oloklrwma
Stieltjes
thc
f
b
sto
[a, b]
wc proc thn axousa sunrthsh
kai to sumbolzoume me
f (u) d(u) .
a
S autn thn perptwsh h
ja lgetai oloklhrsimh kat
Stieltjes
wc proc th
sto
[a, b].
Paratrhsh 6.5
Gia na uprqei to parapnw rio sto An upojsoume thn
enai aparathto oi
kai
na plhron kpoiec proupojseic. parathre kai o
Stieltjes qwrc
suneq sto
[a, b],
tte, pwc
mwc na dnei apdeixh, to parapnw oloklrwma pntote
uprqei. O dioc pntwc den asqoletai me tic proupojseic parxhc tou oloklhrmatoc tou, giat, pwc anafrei, ja ton apasqolsoun mno oi periptseic pou
f (u) =
1 z+u .
De jewre ti qei knei kti to diaforetik ap to
f (u) = uk oloklrwma Riemann
kai autc enai kai o lgoc pou qrhsimopoie paraktw, qwrc na knei apodexeic, aplc idithtc tou, pwc h grammikthta wc proc thn oloklhrwta sunrthsh. H tim tou parapnw oloklhrmatoc den allzei an metablloume
Paratrhsh
6.6
tic timc thc
sta shmea asunqeic thc pou brskontai sto eswterik tou
[a, b],
me
thn proupjesh ti h
enai suneqc s lo to disthma
[a, b]
kai ti h
paramnei
axousa met ap tic allagc stic timc thc. Prgmati, an parnoume pnta ta shmea thc diamrishc sunqeiac thc
D pou qrhsimopoiome sto (prgma to opoo gnetai
jroisma thc (6.1), tsi ste na enai shmea giat qoume dexei ti se kje disthma mia
axousa sunrthsh qei to pol arijmsimou pljouc shmea asunqeiac), tte h tim tou parapnw ajrosmatoc den ephrezetai ap tic allagc sta shmea asunqeiac, ra ote kai to rio ephrezetai. sta kra Antjeta me ta parapnw, an allxoume tic timc thc
a, b thc oloklrwshc, tte allzei en gnei kai h tim tou oloklhrmatoc. O Stieltjes to aitiologe aut lgontac ti, allzontac ta (a) kai (b), allzei h tim tou
ajrosmatoc thc (6.1) kai ra allzei to ri tou. 'Opwc edame, o
Stieltjes
jerhse kat ton orism tou oloklhrmatc tou ti h
enai axousa. O orismc autc genikeetai wc exc.
99
Orismc
6.6
'Estw
f,
fragmnec migadikc sunartseic pou orzontai sto disthma
[a, b].
Jewrome ma diamrish kai touc
diastmatoc
[a, b] xk1 k xk .
D = {a = x0 < x1 < x2 < . . . < xn1 < xn = b} tou n tuqaouc arijmoc 1 , 2 , . . . , n , pou enai ttoioi ste
To rio tou ajrosmatoc
f (1 ) ((x1 ) (x0 )) + f (2 ) ((x2 ) (x1 )) + . . . + f (n ) ((xn ) (xn1 ))

kajc to pltoc thc diamrishc tenei sto mhdn, efson uprqei sto oloklrwma
C, enai to orismno
Stieltjes
thc
sto
[a, b]
wc proc th sunrthsh
kai to sumbolzoume me
f (u) d(u) .
a
S autn thn perptwsh h
ja lgetai oloklhrsimh kat
Stieltjes
wc proc th
sto
[a, b].
Akoloujon kpoiec basikc idithtec tou oloklhrmatc tou, pou o simopoie qwrc na apodeiknei.
Stieltjes
qrh-
Prtash
6.7
'Estw oi fragmnec sunartseic enai oloklhrsimh kat
f , 1 , 2
pou orzontai sto disthma
[a, b].
1 , 2 sto [a, b], tte enai oloklhrsimh kat Stieltjes kai wc proc th sunrthsh 1 +2 sto [a, b], gia tuqaouc migadikoc , . Mlista, ja isqei ti
En h wc proc tic
Stieltjes
f (u) d(1 (u) + 2 (u)) =

a
Prtash 6.8
f (u) d1 (u) +
a a
f (u) d2 (u) .
'Estw oi fragmnec sunartseic enai oloklhrsimec kat
[a, b].
En oi
f1 , f2
tuqaouc migadikoc wc proc th
, kai h sunrthsh sunrthsh sto [a, b] kai isqei (f1 (u) + f2 (u)) d(u) =
f1 , f2 , pou orzontai sto disthma Stieltjes wc proc th sto [a, b], tte gia f1 + f2 enai oloklhrsimh kat Stieltjes
ti
b a a
f1 (u) d(u) +
a
f2 (u) d(u) .
Oi apodexeic twn do autn protsewn enai ekolec kai angontai sth grammikthta twn ajroismtwn (6.1) wc proc thn
kai th
. f
kai
Prtash
6.9
'Estw oi fragmnec sunartseic
pou orzontai sto
[a, b]
kai
eswterik shmeo tou prohgomenou diastmatoc. uprqoun kai ta
An to
c a f (u)d(u), b
b c f (u)d(u) c
b a f (u)d(u)
uprqei, tte
kai isqei ti
f (u) d(u) =
a
Eidiktera, an h
f (u) d(u) +
a c
f (u) d(u) .
wc proc th
enai oloklhrsimh kat
Stieltjes
sto
Stieltjes
wc proc th
se kje upodisthma tou
[a, b], [a, b].
tte
100
Apdeixh:
Parnoume tuqao
opoiadpote diamrishc sunepgetai ti h mikrterh ap
> 0, opte uprqei > 0 ste tan to pltoc thc D = {a = x0 < x1 < . . . < xn = b} enai mikrtero tou na b diafor tou ajrosmatoc (6.1) ap to a f (u)d(u) enai apoltwc
[a, c], tic D1 = {a = x0 < . . . < xm = c} D1 = {a = x0 < . . . < xm = c} me pltoc mikrtero tou kai antstoiqa endimesa shmea 1 , . . . , m kai 1 , . . . , m . Epshc, jewrome mia koin diamrish D2 = {c = t0 < t1 < . . . < tk = b} tou [c, b] me pltoc mikrtero tou kai antstoiqa endimesa shmea. Ap tic D1 kai D2 sqhmatzetai ma diamrish D tou [a, b] me pltoc mikrtero tou kai ap tic D1 , D2 sqhmatzetai mia diamrish D tou [a, b] me pltoc, epshc, mikrtero tou . Sunepgetai ti ta ajrosmata (6.1) pou antistoiqon stic D , D qoun diafor apoltwc mikrterh tou 2 kai, epeid h D2 enai koin, kai ta ajrosmata (6.1) pou antistoiqon stic D1 , D1 qoun diafor apoltwc mikrterh tou 2. (n) Parnoume, tra, ma akolouja diamersewn (D 1 ) tou [a, c], twn opown ta plth
Jewrome opoiesdpote diamerseic tou kai tenoun sto mhdn. Bsei twn swn epame mqri tra, h antstoiqh akolouja twn ajroismtwn (6.1) enai akolouja Parnontac tuqao
Cauchy kai, epomnwc, qei kpoio rio I sto C. > 0 kai jewrntac to antstoiqo twn prohgomenwn paragrfwn (n) thc apdeixhc, brskoume arket meglo n ste h D 1 na qei pltoc mikrtero tou kai ste to antstoiqo jroisma (6.1) na apqei ap to I ligtero tou . Katpin parnoume tuqosa diamrish D1 tou [a, c] me pltoc mikrtero tou , opte ta ajrosmata (6.1) (n) gia tic D1 kai D 1 apqoun ligtero ap 2. 'Ara, to jroisma (6.1) gia thn D1 apqei ap to I ligtero ap 3. Aut shmanei ti h f enai oloklhrsimh kat Stieltjes wc proc th sto [a, c] kai me parmoio trpo apodeiknetai ti h f enai oloklhrsimh kat Stieltjes wc proc th kai sto [c, b]. (n) Tra, parnoume ma akolouja diamersewn (D 1 ) tou [a, c] kai ma akolouja dia(n) mersewn (D 2 ) tou [c, b] twn opown ta plth tenoun sto mhdn. Sqhmatzoume thn (n) ) tou [a, b] ap tic (D (n) ) kai (D (n) ) kai enai profanc ti, akolouja diamersewn (D 1 2
parnontac ta ria twn ajroismtwn (6.1), katalgoume sthn
f (u)d(u) =
a a
f (u)d(u) +
c
f (u)d(u) .
Prtash
6.10
'Estw
ma suneqc sunrthsh kai
manshc sto
[a, b].
Tte, h
enai oloklhrsimh
ma sunrthsh fragmnhc kkat Stieltjes wc proc th sto [a, b]
kai isqei ti
f (u)d(u) max |f (x)|Vab .

a x[a,b]
H apdeixh thc prtashc autc ja gnei sto keflaio 9.
101
Prtash
6.11
An h
qei suneq prth pargwgo sto
sto dio disthma, tte h isqei ti
[a, b] kai h f enai suneqc Stieltjes wc proc th sto [a, b] kai
f (u)d(u) =
a a
f (u) (u)du .
sto
Apdeixh: Lgw omoimorfhc sunqeiac thc
[a, b],
gia tuqn
>0
uprqei
>0
ste na isqei gia kje
t1 , t2
sto
[a, b]:
|t1 t2 | < | (t1 ) (t2 )| < .

Parnoume tuqaa diamrish
D = {a = x0 < x1 < . . . < xn = b} pltouc mikrterou ap kai endimesa shmea 1 , 2 , . . . , n . Se kje disthma [xk1 , xk ] uprqei shmeo k ste f (k ) ((xk ) (xk1 )) = f (k ) (k )(xk xk1 ) kai, epomnwc,
n b
f (k )((xk ) (xk1 ))
k=1 n a
f (u) (u)du
k=1
f (k )( (k ) (k ))(xk xk1 )
n b
+
k=1 n
f (k ) (k )(xk xk1 )
a
f (u) (u)du
k=1
|f (k )|| (k ) (k )|(xk xk1 )

n b
+
k=1
f (k ) (k )(xk xk1 )
a n
f (u) (u)du
b
< M (b a) +
k=1
pou
f (k ) (k )(xk xk1 )
a
f (u) (u)du ,
M = maxx[a,b] |f (x)|. Epeid h f enai suneqc sto [a, b] kai, epomnwc, oloklhrsimh kat Riemann sto [a, b], sunepgetai ti h teleutaa apluth tim qei n rio mhdn tan to tenei sto mhdn. 'Ara, to k=1 f (k ) ((xk ) (xk1 )) qei rio b a f (u) (u)du tan to pltoc thc D tenei sto mhdn.
Prtash 6.12
An h
kai h
Stieltjes
b
wc proc thn
Stieltjes wc proc th sto [a, b], f sto [a, b] kai isqei
tte
f (u)d(u) +
a a
(u)df (u) = f (b)(b) f (a)(a) .

tpoc thc oloklrwshc kat mrh
H parapnw isthta enai gnwst wc oloklhrmatoc
tou
Stieltjes
kai h apdeix thc gnetai sto keflaio 9.
102
H mnh ap tic parapnw idithtec thn opoa anafrei o knei apdeixh, enai h teleutaa, pou qrhsimopoie to prohgoumnwc na to orsei.
Stieltjes, qwrc bbaia na b smbolo a (x) df (x) qwrc
Fusik, aut to knei giat de jlei na entrufsei peris-
stero sth melth tou oloklhrmatoc, afo ton endiafroun mno oi periptseic pou
f (u) = uk
Orismc
f (u) =
1 z+u .
6.7
'Estw ti oi
f,
enai fragmnec sunartseic sto
[a, b]
gia kje
enai megaltero ap to stajer shmeo proc th
a.
An h
b pou Stieltjes wc
sto
[a, b]
gia kje
b > a,
orzoume
f (u)d(u) = lim
a
an to rio uprqei sto
b+ a
f (u)d(u)
C.
thc morfc
6.3
Melth twn sunartsewn
F (z) =
+ d(u) 0 z+u .
'Estw
ma axousa sunrthsh orismnh sto [0, +) kai ttoia ste (0) = 0 kai (+) = limx+ (x) R. Jewrome th sunrthsh F pou orzetai me ton tpo
+
F (z) =
0
pou
d(u) , z CA , z+u
A = (, 0].
6.13
Prtash
An h
tte h sunrthsh
enai axousa sto [0, +) kai isqoun (0) = 0, (+) R, + d(u) F (z) = 0 z+u enai olmorfh sto C A. z
tou
Apdeixh: Jewrome tuqao migadik Tte,
CA
kai touc arijmoc
|z| < R < R .
R 0
tan ta
d(u) z+u R, R
R 0
d(u) = z+u
R R
d(u) 1 (+) (0) R VR 0 , z+u R |z| R |z|

uprqei to oloklrwma
tenoun sto
+ d(u) z+u 0
kai h sunrthsh
+. 'Ara, gia kje z C A F enai kal orismnh. F
Mnei na dexoume ti enai olmorfh.
Arke na dexoume ti uprqei akolouja se kje sumpagc uposnolo
olomrfwn sunartsewn pou sugklnei omoimorfa sthn tou
C A.
Prgmati, stw gia kje fusik
gia kje z C A. H Fn enai olmorfh sunrthsh giat ikanopoie tic exisseic Cauchy-Riemann. Prgmati:
Fn
me
Fn (z) =
n d(u) 0 z+u
n 0
d(u) x + iy + u
=
0
1 x + iy + u
103
d(u) =
0
1 d(u) (x + iy + u)2
kai
n 0
d(u) x + iy + u
=
0
1 x + iy + u
d(u) =
0
i d(u) , (x + iy + u)2
pou oi enallagc paraggishc kai oloklhrmatoc apodeiknontai pol ekola msw thc melthc twn antstoiqwn phlkwn diaforn pou orzoun tic paraggouc.
x + iy sto C A. 'Estw, tra, S tuqao sumpagc uposnolo tou C A. Ja dexoume ti h (Fn ) sugklnei omoimorfa sthn F sto S . 'Estw = maxz S |z|. Tte, gia kje n >
Epomnwc, gia kje qoume
n d(u) 0 x+iy+u
= i x
n d(u) 0 x+iy+u
+ 0
d(u) z+u
n 0
d(u) z+u
d(u) z+u n (+) (n) n |z| (+) (n) 0 n F

omoimorfa sto
kajc to
tenei sto
+.
'Ara, h
(Fn )
sugklnei sthn
kai h
apdeixh thc prtashc qei teleisei.
Jewrome tra mia llh axousa sunrthsh kai
ttoia ste na isqei
kje
1 (+) = limx+ 1 (x) R kai z C A. Isqei tte to exc:

6.1
thn sunrthsh
F1
me
F1 (z) =
1 (0) + d1 (u) z+u 0
= 0
gia
'Estw oi sunartseic kai 1 , pou enai axousec sto [0, +) kai ttoiec (0) = 1 (0) = 0, (+), 1 (+) R. En oi duo sunartseic F kai F1 me + d(u) + d1 (u) F (z) = 0 parnoun tic diec timc gia kje z C A, z+u kai F1 (z) = 0 z+u tte oi kai 1 qoun ta dia shmea asunqeiac kai diafroun to pol mno s aut ta
Jerhma
ste
shmea, dhlad qarakthrzoun thn dia katanom mzac.
Gia thn apdeixh ja qrhsimopoisoume to paraktw lmma.
Lmma
6.1
'Estw
axousa sunrthsh sto
(+) R.
Akmh, jewrome th sunrthsh
[0, +) G me
kai ttoia ste
(0) = 0
kai
G(z) =
0
gia kje
1 1 a+u z+u a
(u)du C A.
An
pou ankei sto
C A,
pou
stajerc migadikc arijmc tou
enai nac jetikc arijmc, tte
0+
lim [G(x + i) G(x i)] = i ((x) + (x+)) .
(6.2)
104
Apdeixh: Katarqc, ja dexoume ti h sunrthsh migadik
tou
CA
kai gia touc arijmoc
R, R
R
G enai kal orismnh. Gia ton tuqao me |z|, |a| < R < R isqei ti
R 0
1 1 (u)du a+u z+u

R
1 1 (u)du a+u z+u

R R
|z a|
R
kajc ta
(u)du |z a|(+) |a + u||z + u| +.

orzetai to
du 0, (u |a|)(u |z|)
kai
tenoun sto
'Ara, gia kje
sto
CA
+ 1 ( a+u 0
1 z+u )(u)du.
Knontac prxeic, qoume ti
G(x + i) G(x i) =
0 x
=
0
Ja dexoume ti
2i(u)du (u x)2 + 2 2i(u)du + (u x)2 + 2
+ x
2i(u)du . (u x)2 + 2
x 0+
lim
Isqei ti, an
2i(u)du = i(x) . (u x)2 + 2
< x,
tte
x 0
'Omwc,
(u)du = (u x)2 + 2
x 0
(u)du + (u x)2 + 2
x x
(u)du . (u x)2 + 2
x 0
(u)du (u x)2 + 2
du (u x)2 + 2 0 x 1 = (+) arctan arctan < (+)

x
opte
0+
'Oson afor to oloklrwma isqei
lim
(u)du =0. (u x)2 + 2

epeid gia kje
(x (x
x (u)du x (ux)2 +2 ,
ja enai
me
u < x
) (u) (x), ) arctan 1
x x
(u)du (x) arctan (u x)2 + 2
Epeid
lim0+ (x
) = (x),
x 0+
sunepgetai
lim
(u)du = (x) . 2 + 2 (u x) 2
105
Me ton dio trpo apodeiknoume ti
+ 0+
lim
2i(u)du (u x)2 + 2
x+
0+
lim
2i(u)du + lim (u x)2 + 2 0+
+ x+
2i(u)du (u x)2 + 2
= i(x+) + 0 = i(x+) .
Apdeixh
tou
jewrmatoc
6.1:
Ap tic protseic 6.12 kai 6.11 qoume ti
b 0
kai
d(u) + z+u
b 0
(u)d
0 b 0
1 z+u
(b) z+b
d(u) = z+u
(u)du (b) + . 2 (z + u) z+b

brskoume ti
Parnontac ta ria twn do meln gia
b +,
+
F (z) =
0
Akmh, paragwgzontac thn
(u)du . (z + u)2
G(z) =
0
brskoume ti
1 1 a+u z+u
(u)du ,
F (z) = G (z) .
H aitiolghsh enai pol ekolh kai gnetai me th melth tou phlkou twn diaforn pou orzei thn
G (z).
+
'Omoia, an jewrsoume thn
G1 (z) =
0
tte enai
1 1 a+u z+u
1 (u)du ,
F1 (z) = G1 (z) .
'Omwc, oi sunartseic stajer. kai
kai
F1
enai sec, ra oi
kai
G1
ja diafroun mno kat ma
'Ara, an jewrsoume, pwc kai prohgoumnwc, nan tuqao jetik arijm osodpote mikr, tte qoume
>0
G(x + i) G(x i) = G1 (x + i) G1 (x i) ,
, lgw tou lmmatoc, an proume
0+ ,
tte brskoume ti
(x) + (x+) = 1 (x) + 1 (x+) . ()

106
H teleutaa sqsh isqei gia louc touc jetikoc arijmoc ti
(0) = 1 (0) = 0. , 1
Ap th sqsh
()
qoume ti oi
nqeiac, ra kai koin shmea asunqeiac. Oi
x, en gia to mhdn isqei 1 qoun ta dia shmea suPrgmati, stw x tuqao shmeo sto (0, +).
kai
enai asuneqec to pol se arijmsimo pljoc shmewn kai sta koin shmea
sunqeiac parnoun, lgw thc parapnw isthtac, tic diec timc. Jewrome loipn do akoloujec
(x n ), (x + n )
koinn shmewn sunqeiac pou sugklnoun sto
ap
arister kai dexi antstoiqa. Isqei ti
(x) = lim (x n ) = lim 1 (x n ) = 1 (x)

n+ n+
kai
(x+) = lim (x + n ) = lim 1 (x + n ) = 1 (x+) .

n+ n+
'Ara, to
ja enai tautqrona shmeo sunqeiac asunqeiac gia tic do sunartseic.
Me parmoio trpo apodeiknetai ti oi ap dexi sto 0.
kai
enai tautqrona suneqec asuneqec
Tloc, ap ta parapnw prokptei ti ta lmat touc sta koin Dhlad, oi do axousec sunartseic qarakthrzoun thn
shmea asunqeiac enai sa.
dia katanom mzac kai diafroun to pol sta shmea asunqeic touc.
Paratrhsh
6.7
An oi
kai
ikanopoion tic upojseic kai,epomnwc, kai to sump-
rasma tou jewrmatoc 6.1 kai allxoume tic timc touc se kje shmeo enai koin shmeo asunqeic touc, ste na isqoun oi
x > 0,
to opoo
(x) =
tte, epeid
(x) + (x+) 2
kai
1 (x) =
1 (x) + 1 (x+) , 2
(0) = 1 (0) = 0,
petai ti oi do sunartseic enai sec panto.
107
108
Keflaio 7
H anaparstash twn wc oloklhrwmtwn
F (z) kai F1(z) Stieltjes.

pragmatikc akoloujac
7.1
Orismc twn
lim sup
touc.
kai
lim inf
kai idithtc
Jewrome ma akolouja pragmatikn arijmn fusik
(uk ) pou enai fragmnh.
Tte, gia kje
kai h akolouja
un , un+1 , un+2 , un+3 , . . .

ja enai fragmnh, ra ta arijmo. Mlista, o arijmc
Ln = supkn uk
kai
ln = inf kn uk
ja enai peperasmnoi
Ln
qei ex orismo tic paraktw idithtec:
Kanec ap touc arijmoc
un , un+1 , un+2 , un+3 , . . .

den xepern ton
Ln . Ln . (Ln )
enai fjnousa kai
Gia kje
>0 n
osodpote mikr mporome na brome kpoion ap touc parapnw
rouc pou na enai megalteroc tou Akmh, so o auxnei o
Ln
meinetai, dhlad h akolouja
ktw fragmnh ap opoiodpote ktw frgma thc arijm, stw ton
(uk ).
'Ara, qei rio pragmatik
L.
Ja isqei ti
L = lim Ln = inf sup uk .

n+ n N kn
O arijmc
onomzetai
limsup
thc akoloujac
(uk )
kai me bsh ta prohgomena qei
tic exc idithtec.
O prtoc pou rise ta
lim sup kai lim inf
tan o
pou ekdjhke ddeka qrnia prin ap aut th dhmoseush, dhlad to 1882. O dioc touc onmase
Paul du Bois-Reymond (1831-1889) se biblo tou, les
109
Oi roi thc akoloujac
(uk )
ap kpoio dekth kai pra enai loi mikrteroi tou
L + ,
ste o
pou
tuqaoc jetikc arijmc pou mpore na gnei osodpote mikrc.
Apdeixh: 'Estw
> 0.
Epeid h akolouja
(Ln ) enai fjnousa, uprqei n ttoioc
Ln
na enai mikrteroc ap
L + ,
opte kanec ap touc arijmoc
un , un+1 , un+2 , un+3 , . . .

den xepern ton
Ln ,
ra loi touc enai mikrteroi ap
L + . L ,
pou
Uprqoun peiroi roi thc akoloujac
(uk )
pou enai megalteroi ap
Apdeixh: 'Estw
> 0.
Metax twn rwn
u 1 , u2 , u3 , u4 , . . .
uprqei pnta kpoioc, stw o enai megalteroc kai ap
un ,
pou enai megalteroc ap
L1 .
Tte ja
L ,
afo
L1 L.
Sth sunqeia jewrome touc rouc
un+1 , un+2 , un+3 , un+4 , . . . .

Uprqei toulqiston nac roc megalteroc ap En
Ln+1 ,
ra kai ap ton
L .
ul
enai autc o roc, tte suneqzoume, jewrntac touc rouc
ul+1 , ul+2 , ul+3 , ul+4 , . . . ,

opte parnoume nan ro
um
pou enai megalteroc ap
L .
stouc
Me ton trpo pou parnoume touc dektec isqei
Ll+1 , ra kai ap n < l < m < . . ., epomnwc
kataskeuzoume ma upakolouja thc
(uk ),
thc opoac loi oi roi enai anmesa
kai
L + . ln = inf kn uk
enai a-
Me ton dio akribc trpo parnoume ti h akolouja twn xousa kai nw fragmnh, afo h pragmatik arijm
(uk )
enai nw fragmnh.
' ra, sugklnei se nan A
l = lim ln = sup inf uk .

n+ n N kn
O arijmc
l onomzetai liminf thc akoloujac (uk ).
'Opwc o
L, tsi kai o l apodeiknetai
ti qei tic paraktw idithtec.
limites d indtermination des nombres uk . e

anoikt disthma pou perilambnei touc
Oi basikterec idithtec pou tan gnwstc sqetik m
autoc touc arijmoc tan ti loi sqedn oi roi thc akoloujac brskontai se kje fragmno kai
l, L
kai ti h akolouja qei rio akribc tte, tan
L = l.
Pntwc, epeid den tan kai tso gnwstc nnoiec ekenh thn epoq, o
Stieltjes
jewre swst na tic
orsei xan gia na tic qrhsimopoisei tan ja anaferje sthn aktna sgklishc thc dunamoseirc kai ston orism thc sunrthshc
pou ja paxei shmantik rlo sthn uploiph ergasa.
Sthn apdeixh thc prtashc 3.1 kai sto tloc thc kai
4.6
qrhsimopoisame dh tic nnoiec twn
lim sup
lim inf
sunartsewn kai akoloujin gia lgouc eukolac kai komythtac, en o
Stieltjes
den knei
kti ttoio stic antstoiqec apodexeic.
110
Oi roi thc akoloujac
(uk ) ap kpoio dekth kai pra enai loi megalteroi tou
l , l + .
pou
Gia kje
> 0 kai osodpote mikr uprqoun peiroi roi thc (uk ) mikrteroi tou
Epshc, isqoun oi exc idithtec.
Enai pnta
L l. n isqei ln Ln
kai, epomnwc, enai
Apdeixh: Profanc, gia kje fusik
l L.
Isqei
L=l
an kai mno an h
(uk ) sugklnei kai tte to ri thc enai h koin tim
L = l. L = l. Jewrome > 0. Tte, ap tic prohgomenec idithtec (uk ) ap kpoio dekth kai pra ja brskontai metax twn arijmn l = L kai L + = l + . To pou jewrsame tan tuqao, ra h akolouja (uk ) ja sugklnei kai to ri thc ja isotai me L = l .
Apdeixh: 'Estw ti qoume ti oi roi thc Antstrofa, stw ti h oi roi thc mikr
(uk ) sugklnei kai to ri thc enai o arijmc m. Tte, loi (uk ) ap kpoio dekth kai pra ja brskontai se mia perioq osodpote grw ap to m. Epeid gia to L gnwrzoume ti uprqoun peiroi roi thc m = L.
'Omoia, ap tic idithtec tou
(uk )
pou brskontai se ma osodpote mikr perioq grw ap ton arijm aut,
petai ti
qoume ti se kje perioq tou,
so mikr ki an enai, brskontai peiroi roi thc akoloujac. ' ra, ja enai A kai to zhtomeno qei apodeiqje.
Prtash 7.1
m=l R
thc
An h akolouja
dunamoseirc
+ k k=0 ck z
( k |ck |)
enai fragmnh, tte h aktna sgklishc
isotai me
R=
En, an h
1 lim sup
k
|ck |
( k |ck |) den enai fragmnh, tte h dunamoseir aut sugklnei mno gia z = 0. J. Hadamard
(1865-1963), paralepetai.
H apdeixh, pou gine ap ton
7.2
Oi sunartseic
kai
Jewrome thn klimakwt kai axousa sunrthsh pmptou kefalaou wc exc:
n (u),
pou orsame sto tloc tou
0, (n) M , 1 (n) (n) n (u) = M1 + M2 , ........... (n) M + M (n) + . . . + M (n) , 1 2 n1 (n) (n) (n) M1 + M2 + . . . + Mn ,
111
0 u < x1 (n) (n) x1 u < x2 (n) (n) x2 u < x3 ...... (n) (n) xn1 u < xn xn u < +.
(n)
(n)
H parapnw sunrthsh parnei timc ap na mh arnhtik arijm
n (0) = 0 wc n (+) =
1 1 .
Jewrome tra
kai thn akolouja arijmn
1 (u), 2 (u), 3 (u), . . . .

H parapnw akolouja enai fragmnh, ra ta 'Estw
lim inf , lim sup enai peperasmnoi arijmo.
(u) := lim sup k (u)

n+ kn
kai
(u) := lim inf k (u) .

n+ kn
Prtash 7.2
Oi
kai
qoun tic paraktw idithtec.
1. 2.
(u) (u). (0) = (0) = 0. u isqei (u) = (u), tte uprqei to limn+ n (u) kai mlista isotai me (u) = (u) kai, antstrofa, an uprqei to limn+ n (u), tte isqei (u) = (u) = limn+ n (u).
kai
3. En gia kpoio
4. Oi 5. An
enai axousec, wc ria auxousn sunartsewn. tte
0 a < b,
(a) (b).
'Olec oi parapnw idithtec enai profanec, ektc ap thn teleutaa, h opoa gia na apodeiqje qreizetai na gnoun prta kpoiec llec parathrseic.
7.3
Idithtec
twn
sunartsewn
Gia kje
isqei ti
+ 0
1 n (u) uk du = 1
x2 1 k 1 u du + M1 uk du + . . . 1 1 0 x1 xn 1 + M1 M2 . . . Mn1 du 1 xn1 +
x1
+
xn
1 1 1 1
uk du
1 = (M1 + M2 + M3 + . . . + Mn )xk+1 1 k+1 1 + (M2 + M3 + . . . + Mn )(xk+1 xk+1 ) 2 1 k+1 1 +... + Mn (xk+1 xk+1 ) n n1 k+1 1 = (M1 xk+1 + M2 xk+1 + M3 xk+1 + . . . + Mn xk+1 ) , n 1 2 3 k+1
112
pou tan grfoume
Mi
kai
Me bsh touc tpouc thc
xj ennoome Mi 2.2 qoume ti
(n)
kai
xj
(n)
M1 xk+1 + M2 xk+1 + M3 xk+1 + . . . + Mn xk+1 = ck+1 , n 1 2 3

ra enai
+ 0
gia
1 ck+1 n (u) uk du = 1 k+1
Epshc, gia kje
k = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . , 2n 2. n qoume
+ 0
ti
1 ck+1 n+n (u) uk du = , 1 k+1
pou tra to
parnei timc
Epomnwc, gia kje
k = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . , 2n + 2n 2. k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , 2n 2 ja isqei ti
+
(n (u) n+n (u)) uk du = 0 . ()

0
H teleutaa isthta sunepgetai ti h sunrthsh toulqiston
2n 1
2 forc.
n (u) n+n (u)
allzei prshmo
Ac upojsoume ti to teleutao den isqei. prshmo
Tte, h
n (u) n+n (u)
ja allzei
forc, pou
0 m 2n 2.
'Estw ti se kajna ap ta diastmata
(0, u1 ), (u1 , u2 ), . . . , (um , +)

enai enallx mh arnhtik kai mh jetik.
p(u) bajmo m me p(u) = (u u1 )(u u2 ) (u um ). H mh mhdenik sunrthsh (n (u) n+n (u)) p(u)
Jewrome to polunumo
diathre stajer prshmo sta shmea pou de mhdenzetai. Epomnwc, to oloklrwma
(n (u) n+n (u)) p(u)du

0
qei arnhtik jetik tim. 'Omwc, ap thn (*) prokptei ti to parapnw oloklrwma prpei na enai mhdn. toulqiston 'Atopo. 'Ara, h sunrthsh
n (u) n+n (u)
allzei prshmo
2n 1
forc.
Ap thn llh, oi
kai
n+n
enai axousec kai klimakwtc sunartseic kai h
enai stajer sta diastmata
(x1 , x2 ), (x2 , x3 ), . . . , (xn1 , xn ) .

2
H mjodoc pou qrhsimopoiome paraktw gia na apodexoume autn thn prtash apoddetai ston giat o
Legendre (1752-1833). Aut to apotlesma ja prpei na tan pol gnwst thn epoq ekenh, Stieltjes to qrhsimopoie qwrc na to apodeiknei, anafrontac mno to noma tou Legendre.
113
Opte h sunrthsh
n (u) n+n (u)
allzei prshmo to pol ma for se kajna ap
ta parapnw diastmata.
Epiplon, ja parousizei to pol ma allag prosmou se
kajna ap ta shmea asunqeiac
x1 , x2 , . . . , xn .
'Omwc, isqei ti
n (0) = n+n (0) = 0

kai
n (+) = n+n (+) =

opte h
1 , 1
n (u) n+n (u) den parousizei allag prosmou sta diastmata (0, x1 ), (xn , +). Epomnwc, h n (u) n+n (u) qei to pol 2n 1 shmea allagc prosmou.
Dexame telik ti isqei h paraktw prtash.
Prtash
7.3
Gia kje
h sunrthsh
n (u) n+n (u)
allzei prshmo akribc
2n 1
forc: sta diastmata
(x1 , x2 ), (x2 , x3 ), . . . , (xn1 , x(n) ) n

parousizei
(n)
(n)
(n)
(n)
(n)
n1
allagc prosmou, ma se kje disthma, en oi uploipec allagc
prosmou sumbanoun sta shmea asunqeiac
x1 , x2 , . . . , xn
(n)
(n)
(n)
thc
n . xk (= xk )
(n)
enai
Paratrhsh
7.1
Ap thn parapnw prtash prokptei ti, an to
shmeo sunqeiac thc
n+n (u),
tte isqei
n (xk ) < n+n (xk ) < n (xk +) ,

en tan to
xk
enai shmeo asunqeiac (ra koin rza twn
Q2n (z), Q2n+2n (z))
kai
gia tic do sunartseic, tte isqei
n (xk ) < n+n (xk ) < n+n (xk +) < n (xk +) .

'Ara, se kje perptwsh isqei ti
n (xk ) < n+n (xk ) n+n (xk +) < n (xk +) .

Paratrhsh 7.2
Epeid h sunrthsh sta opoa
ta diastmata
(n) (n) (xk , xk+1 ),
n (u)n+n (u) allzei prshmo se kajna ap h klimakwt sunrthsh n (u) enai stajer, h
n+n (u) ja allzei anagkastik tim sto eswterik touc. Aut shmanei ti metax do rizn tou poluwnmou Q2n (z) uprqei pnta ma rza tou Q2n+2n (z). Apodexame, dhlad, me detero trpo na ap ta sumpersmata thc 1.5.
114
7.4
An
0a<b
tte
(a) (b)
(a) > (b). Tte uprqei > 0 ttoio ste (a) > (b) + . qoume ti (a) = limn+ supkn k (a), ra ap tic idithtec tou limsup pou apodeqjhkan sthn 7.1 prokptei ti uprqei upakolouja (nk (a)) thc (n (a)), thc opoac loi oi roi enai megalteroi ap (a) . 'Omoia, epeid (b) = limn+ inf kn k (b), ja uprqei upakolouja n (b) thc (n (b)), thc m opoac loi oi roi enai mikrteroi tou (b) + . Ja dexoume tra ti kanna ap ta polunuma Q2n (z) kai Q2n (z) den qoun k m rza sto (a, b). Prgmati, ac upojsoume antjeta ti to Q2n (z) qei ma rza c sto k (a, b). Tte h sunrthsh nk (u) enai asuneqc sto c, opte
'Estw ti isqei 'Omwc, ap ton orism thc
nk (c) nk (a) > (a) > (b) + . ()

Jewrome, tra, na dekth
nm
megaltero tou
nk .
Lgw thc paratrhshc 7.1 ja enai
nk (c) < nm (c) nm (c+) < nk (c+) . ()

'Omwc, h
nm
enai axousa, ra
nm (c+) nm (b) < (b) + .

Ap thn teleutaa seir anisottwn kai tic
(), ()
katalgoume se topo.
Me ton dio trpo deqnoume ti kai ta polunuma
Q2nm (z)
P2nk (z) Q2nk (z)
den qoun rza sto
(a, b).
Epeid h upakolouja poluwnmwn
(Q2nk (z))
den qei kama rza sto
(a, b),
bsei
twn parathrsewn prin ap thn prtash 5.1, h akolouja olmorfh sunrthsh
ja sugklnei sthn
F (z) omoimorfa se kje sumpagc uposnolo tou daktulou a < |z| < b. An F (z) = + ci (z)i enai h seir Laurent thc F (z) sto daktlio a < |z| < b, ap thn (5.2) qoume ti gia to suntelest c1 ja isqei c1 = lim nk (c) , (1)
k+
pou
tuqaoc arijmc tou
(a, b).
P2n (z) m Q2n (z)
m
H sunrthsh
F (z)
enai tautqrona kai to rio thc upakoloujac
ra me to dio skeptik katalgoume sto ti ja prpei
c1 =
m+
lim nm (c) . (2)
'Omwc, oi isthtec (1) kai (2) enai adnaton na isqoun tautqrona, giat loi oi arijmo
nk (c) enai megalteroi ap (a), loi oi arijmo nm (c) enai mikrteroi ap (b)+ kai epiplon isqei (b) + < (a) . Katalxame se topo giat upojsame ti (a) > (b). 'Ara ja enai (a) (b).
115
7.5
H sunrthsh
(u) =
(u)+(u) 2
kai
idithtc
thc.
Jewrome th sunrthsh
pou se kje shmeo
tou
[0, +)
orzetai ap thn isthta
(u) =
Prtash 7.4
(u) + (u) . 2
H sunrthsh
qei tic paraktw aplc idithtec:
Enai axousa. Isqei ti
(0) = 0 u
kai
(+) =
1 1 ,
epomnwc h
parnei mh arnhtikc kai
peperasmnec timc. Gia kje shmeo 'Ara, tan enai tou
(0, +)
isqei ti
(u+) (u)
kai
(u) (u).
(n (u))
den qei rio, tte h
megaltero 'Omwc, h kai,
(u) > (u), h enai asuneqc. Dhlad, tan h akolouja enai asuneqc me lma (u+) (u) pou enai so ap (u) (u). To antstrofo den isqei aparathta.
enai axousa, ra qei to pol arijmhsmou pljouc shmea asunqeiac telik, to rio limn+ n (u) den orzetai gia shmea, to pljoc twn opown xk
enai shmeo asunqeiac kpoiac
enai to pol arijmsimo.
En
n ,
tte
n (xk ) (xk ) n (xk +) .

Apdeixh: Oi do prtec idithtec enai profanec.
'Estw
tuqao shmeo tou
(0, +).
Tte, an
enai nac jetikc kai osodpote
mikrc arijmc, ja isqei ti
(u + ) (u + ) (u) .
Epomnwc,
(u+) (u)
kai me antstoiqo trpo prokptei h anisthta
(u) (u).
'Ara, h trth idithta thc
qei apodeiqje.
Gia thn teleutaa idithta, upojtoume ti to
xk
enai shmeo asunqeiac thc
n .
Tte, ap thn paratrhsh 7.1 sunepgetai ti gia kje
n >n
isqei
n (xk ) < n (xk ) < n (xk +)

kai, ra, ja enai
n (xk ) (xk ) (xk ) n (xk +) .

Epomnwc,
n (xk ) (xk ) n (xk +) .
116
7.6
Diastmata touc.
prtou
kai
deutrou
edouc
kai
idithtc
Orismc
7.1
Jewrome na disthma
pljouc polunuma ap ta aut, tte ja lme ti to
(a, b) me 0 a < b. En uprqoun peperasmnou Q2n (z), n = 1, 2, 3, . . . , pou den qoun rza sto disthma (a, b) enai prtou edouc. Sthn antjeth perptwsh, to (a, b)
ja lgetai disthma deutrou edouc.
Kje disthma thc morfc (0, b) gia to opoo uprqei stw kai na Q2n (z) pou na qei rza s aut enai prtou edouc: efson uprqei na polunumo Q2n (z) pou na mhdenzetai s aut, lgw tou jewrmatoc 1.1, kje polunumo Q2k (z) me k n ja mhdenzetai sto (0, b), ra mno peperasmnou pljouc polunuma
Pardeigma 7.1
polunumo
de ja mhdenzontai sto disthma aut.
Isqei h paraktw prtash.
Prtash
7.5
En gia kpoio fusik
n to polunumo Q2n (z) qei do rzec sto (a, b),
tte to disthma aut enai prtou edouc.
(b, a), tic k1 , k2 me k2 < k1 < 0. Jewrome nan tuqao fusik n kai to polunumo Q2n+2n (z). En upojsoume ti to teleutao polunumo den qei kama rza sto (b, a), tte oi k1 , k2 ja brskontai sto disthma (2 , 1 ) do diadoqikn rizn tou. Kti ttoio mwc
Apdeixh: 'Estw ti to polunumo
Q2n (z)
qei do rzec sto
den mpore na sumbanei, giat ap to jerhma 1.3 qoume ti metax do diadoqikn rizn tou to
Q2n+2n (z) brsketai to pol ma rza tou Q2n (z). 'Ara, gia kje fusik n polunumo Q2n+2n (z) qei toulqiston ma rza sto (a, b) kai to disthma aut
enai prtou edouc.
Akolouje ma epshc qrsimh prtash.
Prtash
(a, b) enai deutrou edouc kai ta a, b enai shmea sunqeiac thc , tte enai (a) = (b) kai gia kje > 0 uprqei tsi ste gia kje n > kai gia kje a u b na isqei ti
7.6
En to disthma
|n (u) (u)| < . ()

Dhlad, h
(n )
sugklnei omoimorfa sth
sto disthma
[a, b].
a kai b enai shmea sunqeiac thc , epomnwc, enai (b) = limn+ n (b). Ja dexoume ti isqei (a) = (b). Prgmati, an upojsoume to antjeto, tte ja qoume ti (a) < (b). ' ra, uprqei > 0 ttoio ste A
Apdeixh: Upojsame ti ta kai
(a) = limn+ n (a)
(a) + < (b) . (1)

117
Gia to
aut uprqei fusikc
ste gia kje
n>
na isqei
|n (a) (a)| < (2)

kai
|n (b) (b)| < . (3)

Ap tic (1), (2) kai (3) prokptei ti gia kje kanna
n>
isqei ti
n (a) < n (b),
dhlad
n gia n > den enai stajer sto disthma [a, b] kai epomnwc ta polunuma Q2n (z), gia n > , qoun toulqiston ma rza sto (a, b). Aut shmanei ti to
disthma aut enai prtou edouc, prgma pou enai antjeto me thn upjesh. ' ra enai A
(a) = (b) kai h enai stajer sto [a, b]. Epeid (a) = (b) = (u) gia kje u sto [a, b],
oi sqseic (2) kai (3) grfontai
(u) < n (a) < (u) +

kai
(u) < n (b) < (u) +

gia kje
All, kje ti
n > . n
enai axousa, ra gia kje
u tou [a, b] kai gia kje n >
ja qoume
(u) < n (u) < (u) +

isodnama
|n (u) (u)| < .

Paratrhsh 7.3
Me tic upojseic thc prohgomenhc prtashc, sunepgetai ti isqei tou
(u) = limn+ n (u), ra se kje shmeo u epomnwc, oi kai tautzontai sto [a, b].
Prisma 7.1
[a, b]
uprqei to rio twn
n (u)
kai,
En to disthma
(0, b)
enai deutrou edouc, tte isqei ti
(u) = n (u) = 0
gia kje fusik
kai gia kje
sto
[0, b].
Apdeixh: Ap to pardeigma sthn arq autc thc paragrfou prokptei ti efson to disthma
(0, b) enai deutrou edouc, kanna polunumo Q2n (z) den mpore na mhdenzetai sto [0, b]. Epomnwc, enai n (u) = 0 gia kje fusik n kai kje u [0, b] kai oi , , mhdenzontai sto [0, b].
118
7.7
Ektmhsh
tou
oloklhrmatoc thc
L 0 |n (u)
(u)|du
pou
shmeo sunqeiac
Jewrome ma diamrish
0 = u0 < u1 < u2 < . . . < uk1 < uk = L

tou
[0, L]
ttoia ste kanna
ui
na mhn enai shmeo asunqeiac thc
'Estw ti
enai to megaltero mkoc twn diasthmtwn
Se kje disthma trpo:
(ui1 , ui )
antistoiqome nan akraio
.3 (ui1 , ui ) thc diamrishc. arijm i me ton akloujo
En to en lgw disthma enai prtou edouc, tte o
gia ton opoo to polunumo
Q2n (z)
den qei
i enai o megalteroc fusikc rza sto (ui1 , ui ).

enai o mikrteroc fusikc, o
En to
(ui1 , ui )
enai deutrou edouc, tte o
opooc qei thn idithta gia kje megalter tou fusik
na isqei
|n (u) (u)| < ,

pou
enai aujaretoc jetikc arijmc kai
[ui1 , ui ].
(Lgw thc prtashc
7.6, nac ttoioc fusikc
pnta uprqei.)
Sumbolzoume me tuqao fusik
to megaltero ap touc
arijmoc
1 , 2 , . . . , k
kai parnoume
megaltero ap
N.
Epeid isqei
ui
|n (u) (u)|du =
0 i=1 ui1
arke na ektimsoume to kje oloklrwma
|n (u) (u)|du ,
ui ui1
|n (u) (u)|du. n > N,

h sunrthsh
En to disthma
(ui1 , ui )
enai prtou edouc, tte, epeid
qei na toulqiston shmeo asunqeiac
sto disthma aut, ra
n (c) (c) n (c+) .

Epomnwc,
(ui1 ) < n (ui )

kai
n (ui1 ) < (ui ) .

3
tou Ap th stigm pou ta shmea asunqeiac thc
enai arijmhsmou pljouc, ta uploipa shmea
[0, L] ap
pou mporome na dialxoume ta shmea thc diamrishc plhn tou 0 enai uperarijmhsmou
pljouc.
119
'Ara, gia kje
[ui1 , ui ]
isqei
n (u) (u) n (ui ) (ui1 ) < n (ui ) n (ui1 ) + (ui ) (ui1 )

kai
n (u) (u) n (ui1 ) (ui ) > n (ui1 ) n (ui ) + (ui1 ) (ui ) .

Ap tic do teleutaec anisthtec qoume ti
|n (u) (u)| < n (ui ) n (ui1 ) + (ui ) (ui1 ) .

'Ara enai
ui
|n (u) (u)|du n (ui ) n (ui1 ) + (ui ) (ui1 ) .

ui1
Telik, to jroisma twn oloklhrwmtwn thc morfc to
ui ui1
|n (u) (u)|du, pou
(ui1 , ui )
enai disthma prtou edouc, ja enai mikrtero so ap
(1 + 2 ) ,
pou
1 , 2 enai ta ajrosmata
4
Opte,
i (n (ui )
n (ui1 )) kai
i ((ui )
n (ui1 )) 2 . 1
antstoiqa.
(1 + 2 ) n (+) n (0) + (+) (0) =

An to disthma ti
1 1 + 1 1
(ui1 , ui ) enai deutrou edouc, tte epeid n > N i |n (u) (u)| <
ja qoume
epomnwc,
ui
|n (u) (u)|du (ui ui1 )

ui1
|n (u) (u)|du, pou to (ui1 , ui ) enai disthma deutrou edouc, ja enai mikrtero so ap L.
kai, telik, to jroisma twn oloklhrwmtwn thc morfc Dexame thn paraktw prtash.
Prtash 7.7
ui ui1
En
kai
enai aujaretoi jetiko
arijmo, tte uprqei fusikc arijmc
ttoioc ste gia kje
n>N
na isqei ti
|n (u) (u)|du
0
Dhlad, isqei
2 + L . 1
L n+ 0
lim
|n (u) (u)|du = 0 .
Ta ajrosmata aut den enai thleskopik, ektc an la ta diastmata
(ui1 , ui )
enai prtou
edouc.
120
7.8
Oi
sunartseic .
kai
F1
me
th
morf
oloklhrwmtwn
Stieltjes
Lmma 7.1
'Estw
A o hmixonac twn mh jetikn pragmatikn arijmn.

+ 0 + 0
Tte, gia kje
CA
isqei ti
P2n (z) = Q2n (z)

Apdeixh: Katarqc, to diti h
dn (u) = z+u
n (u)du . (z + u)2 Stieltjes,
+ dn (u) z+u 0
enai na kal orismno oloklrwma
sto
n enai axousa kai fragmnh sunrthsh kai h [0, +).

5
1 z+u
enai suneqc sunrthsh tou
Isqei ti
P2n (z) = Q2n (z)

kai
n i=1
Mi z + xi
+ 0
n (u) du (z + u)2
x1
=
0 x2
n (u) du + (z + u)2
x2 x1
n (u) du + ... + (z + u)2

+
+ xn
n (u) du (z + u)2
M1 du (M1 + M2 + . . . + Mn ) du + ... + (z + u)2 (z + u)2 x1 xn x2 x3 1 1 = M1 (M1 + M2 ) ... z + u x1 z + u x2 (M1 + . . . + Mn ) 1 z+u

+ xn
M2 Mn M1 + + ... + . z + x1 z + x2 z + xn
'Ara, h zhtomenh isthta qei apodeiqje.
Me th bojeia tou lmmatoc ja dexoume to epmeno jerhma.
Jerhma
7.1
Gia kje
CA
isqei ti
F (z) =
0
d(u) . z+u
Apdeixh: Ap to parapnw lmma qoume ti
P2n (z) = Q2n (z)

5
Pio swst, enai
+ 0
n (u)du , (z + u)2
xi .
Mi
(n)
ant gia
Mi
kai
xi
(n)
ant gia
121
ra
P2n (z) Q2n (z)

Epomnwc,
+ 0 + 0
(u) du = (z + u)2 (u) du (z + u)2
+ 0 + 0
n (u) (u) du . (z + u)2 |n (u) (u)| du . |z + u|2
P2n (z) Q2n (z)
To teleutao nw frgma thc parstashc grfetai
L 0
pou
|n (u) (u)| du + |z + u|2 .
+ L
|n (u) (u)| du , |z + u|2 .
enai tuqao shmeo sunqeiac thc
Jewrome sth sunqeia duo tuqaouc arijmoc pargrafo, sunepgetai ti uprqei fusikc
kai
Tte, ap thn prohgomenh
tsi ste gia kje
n me n > N
na isqei
|n (u) (u)|du
0
Opte,
2 + L . 1 2 + L 1
L 0
pou
|n (u) (u)| 1 du 2 |z + u| < z >2 |z + u| kajc to u [L, +) isqei ti |n (u) (u)| <
, () +.
<z>
enai to elqisto thc
metablletai ap to 0 wc to
Gia kje
sto disthma
1 1
kai gia kje
z = a + bi
tou
CA
qoume
|z + u|2 = (u + a)2 + b2 (u + a)2 .

Epomnwc,
+ L
|n (u) (u)| 1 du < 2 |z + u| 1 L
+ L
du 1 = , () 2 (u + a) 1 (L + a) L+a
na enai jetikc
pou upojtoume ti to arijmc.
enai arket meglo ste to jroisma
Telik, ap tic (*) kai (**) prokptei ti
P2n (z) Q2n (z)

pou o arijmc
+ 0
1 (u) du < 2 (z + u) < z >2
2 + L 1
1 , 1 (L + a) ,
mporon na
mpore na prei ososdpote meglec timc kai oi
proun osodpote mikrc timc. 'Ara, h parstash sto apluto gnetai osodpote mikr gia arket megla
n.
122
Ap ta parapnw qoume ti h akolouja rzoume mwc ti h akolouja mpagc uposnolo tou
P2n (z) Q2n (z)
sugklnei sto
+ (u) du . 0 (z+u)2
Gnw-
P2n (z) Q2n (z)
sugklnei omoimorfa sthn
F (z)
se kje su-
C A.
+
' ra, h sunrthsh A
mpore na prei th morf
F (z) =
0
(u) du = (z + u)2
+ n=1 n
+ 0
d(u) , z CA . z+u
(7.1)
sugklnei, isqei akmh ma isthta:
F (z) = lim
P2n (z) = n+ Q2n (z)
+ 0
d(u) = z+u
+ i=1
i , z CA , z + i
enai ekenh h axousa sunrthsh
pwc edame sta jewrmata 4.3, 5.3 kai 5.4. ' ra, h A
pou prosdiorzei ton trpo me ton opoo katanmetai ston xona mazn
0x
to ssthma twn
(i , i ), i = 1, 2, 3, . . . .
Me th bojeia twn parapnw mporome na bgloume to exc sumprasma gia th morf thc
.
7.8
Prtash
makwt.
enai axousa kai kli1 (0) = 0 kai (+) = 1 . Ta shmea asunqeic thc enai oi rzec k , k = 1, 2, . . . thc q(z). Mlista, se kje shmeo asunqeiac k to lma thc sunrthshc enai so me k .
'Otan h seir sugklnei, h sunrthsh Parnei arijmhsmou pljouc timc kai isqei: Apdeixh: Jewrome thn axousa sunrthsh
+ n=1 n
thc opoac h tim sto tuqao
[0, +)
isotai me
(u) =
i u
Shmea asunqeiac thc enai
i . k = 1, 2, . . .
, en to lma thc se kje
enai ta
k ,
pou
k .
Epshc, gi autn isqei ti
+ 0
d (u) = z+u
+ i=1
i = z + i
+ 0
d(u) , z C A. z+u
kai
Ap to jerhma 6.1 petai ti oi sunartseic
qoun akribc ta dia shmea ' ra, to zhtomeno qei A
asunqeiac kai ta lmat touc sta shmea aut enai sa. apodeiqje.
Anloga sumpersmata isqoun kai gia thn upakolouja twn perittn rwn thc
Pn (z) Qn (z)
H sunrthsh
F1 (z)
+
sthn opoa sugklnei h akolouja
P2n+1 (z) Q2n+1 (z)
grfetai
sth morf
F1 (z) =
0
1 (u) du = (z + u)2
+ 0
d1 (u) , z z+u
CA ,
(7.2)
123
pou
enai ma axousa sunrthsh pou qarakthrzei ma katanom mzac ston
0x.
n=1 n
sugklnei, isqei epiplon h isthta
F1 (z) = lim
en h
P2n+1 (z) = n+ Q2n+1 (z)
+ 0
d1 (u) = z+u
+ i=0
i , z CA , z + i
enai ekenh h axousa sunrthsh pou prosdiorzei ton trpo me ton opoo
katanmetai ston xona
0x
to ssthma twn mazn
(i , i ) i = 0, 1, 2, . . . .
Apodeiknetai akribc me ton dio trpo, pwc sthn parapnw prtash, ti sthn perptwsh aut, h
enai ma klimakwt sunrthsh, h opoa parnei arijmhsmou pljouc
1 1 (0) = 0 kai 1 (+) = 1 . Ta shmea asunqeiac thc 1 enai oi rzec k , k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , thc q1 (z) kai to lma thc se kje shmeo k isotai me k . Se kje shmeo u [0, +) sto opoo h 1 enai suneqc, h tim thc ja enai sh me 1 (u) = i u i . + Epeid mac endiafrei h perptwsh sthn opoa h seir n=1 n apoklnei sto +, pou oi sunartseic F kai F1 tautzontai kai, ra, oi kai 1 qarakthrzoun thn dia
timc kai ti isqoun oi isthtec katanom mzac, sto uploipo tou kefalaou de ja asqolhjome me thn akolouja twn perittn proseggsewn
P2n+1 (z) Q2n+1 (z)
kai th sunrthsh
1 .
Paratrhsh
7.4
Ap ta parapnw qoume ti, tan
+ n=1 n
< +,
tte gia kje
jetik arijm
isqei
F1 (x) =
i=0
i x + i
xF1 (x) = 0 +
i=1
Opte,
i x . x + i
x0+
Lgw thc prtashc 3.1 ja enai
lim xF1 (x) = 0 .
0 =
1
+ k=0 2k+1
(7.3)
H isthta aut ja fane qrsimh paraktw.
124
7.9
Upologismc twn oloklhrwmtwn
+ k u d(u). 0
Jerhma
7.2
Isqei ti
+ k u d(u) 0
= ck
gia kje fusik
k.
Apdeixh:
Qrhsimopoiome majhmatik epagwg.
Katarqc, j apodexoume ti
+ d(u) 0
fusik
= c0 . x
kai gia kje
Sto tloc tou trtou kefalaou eqame dexei ti gia kje jetik arijm
enai
F (x) =
opte,
cp1 cp c0 c1 c2 2 + 3 + . . . + (1)p1 p + (1)p p+1 , 0 < < 1 , () x x x x x
xF (x) = c0
cp1 cp c1 c2 + 2 + . . . + (1)p1 p1 + (1)p p , 0 < < 1 . () x x x x z

to
Ap th sqsh (7.1), jtontac pou parnoume ti
kai pollaplasizontac kai ta do mlh me
x,
xF (x) =
0
kai ap thn sqsh (**) qoume ti
x d(u) ( ) x+u
x+
lim xF (x) = c0 . ( ) xF (x) enai nw fragmnh sto [0, +)
Epeid to prohgomeno rio uprqei, h sunrthsh kai stw
na nw frgma thc.
Epshc, isqei ti
0
0
opte, gia
d(u)
0
x d(u) = x+u
1
0
x x+u
d(u)
L V L , x+L 0
x +,
qoume ti
L x+ 0
lim
x d(u) = x+u
d(u) .
0
Mlista, gia na emaste pio akribec, enai
sup
x[0,+) 0
diti h
x d(u) = x+u
d(u) , ( )
0
L x 0 x+u d(u)
enai axousa sunrthsh tou
x.
'Omwc, gia kje jetik arijm
isqei profanc ti
L 0
x d(u) x+u
+ 0
x d(u) = xF (x) M x+u
125
gia kje
'Ara, ap thn
x [0, +). ( ) prokptei
ti
d(u) M
0
gia kje
L.
Sunepc, to genikeumno oloklrwma
+ d(u) 0
enai peperasmno.
Ja dexoume ti
d(u) = lim
0
Epeid to
x+ 0
x d(u) . x+u > 0,

ja uprqei
+ d(u) 0
enai peperasmno, dojntoc
ttoio ste
0
L
Efson
d(u) < . (1)

ja enai epshc
+ x x+u d(u) L
+ d(u) L +
0
L
Tloc, lgw thc
x d(u) < . (2) x+u x

ti
( ),
isqei gia arket megla
L 0
x d(u) x+u
d(u) < . (3)

0
Sunduzontac tic anisthtec (1), (2), (3), parnoume ti gia arket megla
isqei
+ 0
Sunepc,
x d(u) x+u
+
d(u) < 3 .
0 +
x+ 0
Lgw thc
lim
x d(u) = x+u
+
d(u) .
0
( )
kai thc
( ),
parnoume ti
d(u) = c0 .
0
'Estw, tra, ti gia
nk1
isqei
+ n u d(u) 0
= cn .
Tte, qoume ti
F (x) = = =
d(u) x+u 0 + u u2 1 uk1 uk 2 + 3 . . . + (1)k1 k + (1)k k d(u) x x x x x (x + u) 0 c0 c1 c2 ck1 (1)k + uk 2 + 3 . . . + (1)k1 k + d(u) . x x x x+u x xk 0
126
Opte
xk+1 F (x)
Ap thn
c0 c1 ck1 + 2 . . . + (1)k k x x x
qoume
= (1)k
0
x uk d(u) . x+u
()
gia
p=k+1
x+
kai, epomnwc,
lim xk+1 F (x)
c0 c1 ck1 + 2 . . . + (1)k k x x x
+
= (1)k ck
x+ 0
lim
x uk d(u) = ck . (a) x+u k=0

+
(antikajistntac to
Me parmoio trpo, pwc kai sthn perptwsh tou to
d(u)
me
uk d(u)),
apodeiknetai ti
+ x+ 0
Lambnontac, tra, upyh tic qei apodeiqje.
lim
x uk d(u) = x+u
uk d(u) . (b)
0 + k u d(u) 0
(a), (b), parnoume ti
= ck
kai to jerhma
Paratrhsh
7.5
To prohgomeno jerhma enai ap ta spoudaitera jewrmata thc
ergasac tou
Stieltjes, giat apodeiknei m aut ti ta oloklhrmata 0 uk d(u), k = 0, 1, 2, . . . enai ma lsh tou problmatoc twn ropn. Mnei n apodexei ti tan + h seir n=1 n apoklnei, h lsh tou jewrmatoc 7.2 enai kai h monadik. Autc ja
enai o basikteroc st qoc tou epmenou kefalaou. Akribc me ton dio trpo pwc sto parapnw jerhma apodeiknetai ti kai sthn perptwsh thc
F1
isqei ti
ck =
+ pou h seir n=1 n sugklnei, to prblhma twn ropn qei do toulqiston lseic, + k + tic ck = u d(u) kai ck = 0 uk d1 (u) gia kje fusik k . Tte mwc kai oi 0 + k exisseic ck = u d (t(u) + (1 t)1 (u)), pou k = 0, 1, . . . kai t ankei sto (0,1), 0
ja enai, epshc, lsh tou problmatoc. 'Ara to prblhma twn ropn qei s autn thn perptwsh peirec lseic.
+ k u d1 (u), 0
k = 0, 1, 2, . . .
. ' ra, sthn perptwsh A
7.10
Merikc
akmh
idithtec
thc
Jerhma
7.3
Isqei ti
+ n+ 0
gia kje
lim
|n (u) (u)| uk du = 0
k = 0, 1, 2, . . .
Aut enai kti pou qoume dh dei sto tloc tou kefalaou 4.
127
Apdeixh: Ap thn prtash 7.7 qoume ti, en
kai
enai aujaretoi jetiko arijmo, tte uprqei fusikc arijmc
ttoioc ste gia kje
n>N
na isqei ti
|n (u) (u)|du
0
Edame akma ti
2 + L . (1) 1
'Ara oi arijmo
(+) = n (+) =
1 1
= c0 .
c0 n (u) kai c0 (u)
enai mh arnhtiko, opte,
|n (u) (u)| (c0 (u)) + (c0 n (u)) .

Epeid
uk+2 d(u) = ck+2 ,

0
qoume ti gia kje
isqei
uk+2 ((+) (u))

0
kai gia ton dio lgo isqei
xk+2 d(x) = ck+2
uk+2 (n (+) n (u)) ck+2 .

'Ara
uk |(u) n (u)|
kai, epomnwc,
2ck+2 u2
|(u) n (u)|uk du
0 0
|(u) n (u)|uk du +
L
|(u) n (u)|uk du
Lk
Epilgontac prta to
2 + L 1
2ck+2 + . L ,
arket mikr, blpoume ti
arket meglo kai peita ta
+ n+ 0
lim
|(u) n (u)|uk du = 0 .
Paraktw akoloujon do akmh idithtec thc sunrthshc
. 2n 1
Prtash
7.9
Gia kje
n,
h sunrthsh
allzei prshmo toulqiston
forc.
128
Apdeixh: Sthn arq thc
7.3
dexame ti
+ 0
gia
ck+1 1 n (u) uk du = 1 k+1
k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , 2n 2.
+ 0
Ap to prohgomeno jerhma qoume ti
1 n (u) uk du 1
+
+ 0
1 (u) uk du 1
0
tan
|n (u) (u)|uk du 0
n +.
' ra, enai A
(n (u) (u)) uk du = 0 ,
0
gia
k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , 2n 2,
7.10
prgma to opoo sunepgetai
to zhtomeno.
Prtash
'Estw
tte sto disthma Apdeixh:
0 a < b. An h enai stajer sto [a, b] kai suneqc sta a, b, [a, b] mhdenzontai peperasmnou pljouc polunuma Q2n (z). [a, b] kai i
ja periqetai se na ap ta diastmata
To disthma
(n) Profanc, epeid ta i1 enai ta ria twn akoloujin (x i1 ) kai [a, b] ja periqontai peperasmnou pljouc rzec poluwnmwn Q2n (z).
(i1 , i ). (n) (xi ), sto
7.11
Ermhnea tou
limn+
Dn
+ |n (u) 0
(u)| du = 0
Sumbolzoume me
Dn
kai
tic katanomc mzac pou orzoun oi sunartseic
Ap thn tuqaa katanom
mporome ekola na persoume sthn katanom
knoume kpoia anakatanom mazn. kat
n kai D an An upojsoume ti gia th metafor miac mzac m
apaitetai rgo
ml,
tte ekola prokptei ti gia na proume ap thn katanom
Dn
thn
to sunolik rgo pou apaitetai enai so me
|n (u) (u)| du
0
Aut to sunolik rgo to sumbolzoume me
{Dn , D}.
Epeid
+ n+ 0
lim
|n (u) (u)| du = 0 n.
Epomnwc, h katanom
to rgo aut gnetai osodpote mikr kajc auxnei to
mpore na jewrhje wc to rio thc akoloujac twn katanomn ston paraktw orism.
D (Dn ), opte odhgomaste
Qrhsimopoiome akribc thn dia mjodo, pwc kai sthn
7.3.
129
Orismc
7.2
Ja lme ti ma katanom mazn
nomn mazn
(Dn )
tan h arijmhtik akolouja
D enai to rio ({Dn , D}) twn
miac akoloujac katargwn pou apaitontai
enai mhdenik.
An
n, n
enai do tuqaoi fusiko arijmo, tte profanc isqei ti
{Dn , Dn+n } {Dn , D} + {D, Dn+n } . ()

Epomnwc, ja mporosame na dsoume kai ton akloujo orism.
Orismc
7.3
Ja lme ti uprqei to rio miac akoloujac katanomn mazn uprqei fusikc
gia kje
>0
tsi ste
{Dn , Dn+n } <
gia kje
(Dn ), tan fusik n .
An ma akolouja katanomn qei rio me bsh ton prto orism, tte ja qei rio kai me ton detero orism. Apodeiknetai mwc ti isqei kai to antstrofo. ' ra, oi A
do orismo enai isodnamoi kai to mno sto opoo diafroun enai ti ston prto prpei na gnwrzoume thn katanom-rio thc akoloujac twn katanomn. (n) Mi P2n (z) n Epeid isqei ti i=1 z+x(n) , mporome na jewrsoume ti oi roi thc Q2n (z) i
akoloujac
P2n (z) Q2n (z)
apotelon kat kpoio trpo parametrikc
ropc twn antstoiqwn
katanomn mazn thc akoloujac
(Dn ).
Kai me bsh ta sa qoume dexei, h parapnw
akolouja twn parametrikn katanomn qei wc rio thn antstoiqh parametrik rop thc
D.
An tra jewrsoume to orismno oloklrwma
+ d(u) z+u , 0
me th bojeia tou opoou
ekfrzetai h parametrik rop thc
D, kai jumhjome ap ton orism tou oloklhrmatoc Dn , dhlad ton 2n-ost ro thc akoloujac
Stieltjes
8
ti enai to rio enc ajrosmatoc, katalgoume sto ti gi aut to jroisma
arke na proume thn parametrik rop thc

O
diti den prosdiorzei thn katanom
Stieltjes dnei touc do orismoc kai parathre ti o deteroc orismc den enai kai tso akribc, D gia thn opoa o arijmc {Dn , D} gnetai osodpote mikrc.
'Omwc, grfei ti de ja asqolhje parapnw me to jma twn do orismn. 'Oson afor thn isodunama touc, isqoun ta exc. An ma akolouja
(Dn )
qei rio me ton prto orism, lgw thc
()
ja qei rio kai me ton detero.
An qoume ma akolouja katanomn mazn an
(Dn )
pou qei rio me bsh to detero orism kai
(fn )
enai h antstoiqh akolouja twn auxousn sunartsewn pou tic orzei, tte ap th Jewra
Mtrou qoume ti h ma sunrthsh na isqei
(fn )
enai akolouja
Cauchy
kat mso. 'Ara, ap gnwst prtash, ja uprqei
ttoia ste h akolouja twn sunartsewn na sugklnei s' aut kat mso, dhlad
+ n+
Epiplon, uprqei upakolouja
lim
|fn (u) F (u)| du = 0 .

0
(fnk ) thc (fn ) pou na sugklnei shmeiak sthn F sqedn panto sto (0, +), prgma to opoo shmanei ti (an sta shmea thc mh sgklishc diorjsoume thn F katllhla) h F enai ma axousa sunrthsh, ra orzei ma katanom mzac D ston 0x. Tte, h teleutaa sqsh
grfetai
n+
lim {Dn , D} = 0 ,
prgma to opoo shmanei ti h akolouja qei rio kai me bsh ton prto orism.
Giat enai sunartseic tou
z.
130
twn proseggsewn qc klsma
Pn (z) Qn (z)
tou suneqoc klsmatoc
Stieltjes.
M lla lgia, to sune-
10 oloklhrmatoc.
Stieltjes
enai sthn ousa ma llh isodnamh morf katllhlou orismnou
Aut h sten sqsh pou sundei ta suneq klsmata me ta orismna oloklhrmata
Stieltjes
enai kai o lgoc gia ton opoo ja asqolhjome sto epmeno keflaio me th
melth twn teleutawn.
10
Sto shmeo aut o
(sto periodik polunuma
Stieltjes parathre ti akribc to dio sunbaine se ma palaiterh dhmoseush Comptes rendus, tmoc XCIX , sel. 508 tou 1884), pou ta polunuma Q2n (z) tan tou Legendre.
131
132
Keflaio 8
Melth tou
+ d(u) z+u . 0
H eplush
tou problmatoc twn ropn sthn perptwsh pou
+ n=1 n = +.
pou orzontai ap axousec sunar-
8.1
Suneq tseic.
klsmata
Jewrome ma axousa sunrthsh na isqei
pou enai ttoia ste na orzetai sto
[0, +),
(0) = 0
kai oi ropc kje txhc thc katanomc mazn pou orzei na enai
peperasmnec. Jtoume
ck =
0
gia kje
uk d(u)
k = 0, 1, 2, . . . . + To ti to c0 = d(u) enai peperasmno, isoduname me to ti to (+) = 0 limu+ (u) enai peperasmno. Ma epiplon sunjkh gia th enai ti ja prpei na qei peira shmea auxhtikth1 Isodnama, h sunjkh aut gia th mpore na diatupwje wc exc: h den mpore tac.
na enai klimakwt sunrthsh me peperasmnou pljouc shmea asunqeiac. Me autn thn epiplon upjesh pou knoume, exasfalzoume to exc: an suneqc sunrthsh, orismnh sto h
enai mh arnhtik kai
[0, +)
kai ttoia ste
+ f (u)d(u) 0
= 0,
tte
mhdenzetai se kje shmeo auxhtikthtac thc
kai, epomnwc, ja mhdenzetai se
peira shmea. Jewrome tra to oloklrwma thsh olmorfh sto
C A.
+ d(u) z+u . 0
'Eqoume dexei ti paristnei ma sunr-
Sthn eidik perptwsh pou h
stajeropoietai ap to
kai met, to parapnw oloklrwma ja isotai me
a d(u) 0 z+u
an isqei
kai ja paristnei sunrthsh
'Ena shmeo .
u>0
ja enai shmeo auxhtikthtac thc
(u ) < (u )
gia kje
u,u
me
u <u<u
133
olmorfh sto
C A1 ,
pou
A1 = [a, 0].
S autn thn perptwsh, oi ropc kje txhc
enai pnta peperasmnec kai mlista isqei
c0 = (a).
Sto parapnw genikeumno oloklrwma antistoiqe h paraktw dunamoseir me k-
c0 c1 c2 2 + 3 ... , z z z h opoa sth genik perptwsh pou h den stajeropoietai apoklnei, en sthn perptwsh pou h enai stajer ap to a kai met, sugklnei gia kje |z| > a. 'Estw x tuqaoc jetikc arijmc. Tte, epeid
+
ntro to
0<
0
uprqei
x uk d(u) < x+u
uk d(u) ,
0
me
0<<1
ste na isqei
+ 0
x uk d(u) = x+u
uk d(u)
0
kai me upologismoc antstoiqouc me autoc pou kname sthn apdeixh tou jewrmatoc 7.2 gia thn
F,
qoume ti
+ 0
d(u) c0 c1 cn1 cn = 2 + . . . + (1)n1 n + (1)n n+1 . x+u x x x x

c0 c1 n1 cn1 +. . . x x2 +. . .+(1) xn
H eresh tou suneqoc klsmatoc pou antistoiqe se na oloklrwma thc morfc
+ f (u)du x+u 0
thc antstoiqhc dunamoseirc
enai na jma
me to opoo asqoljhkan se ergasec touc oi majhmatiko
P. Chebyche (1821-1894), H.
Heine (1821-1881) kai J. Darboux (1842-1917).

anafrjhkan arket oi prohgomenoi.
Ja qrhsimopoisoume ta apotelsmat
touc kai ja asqolhjome idiatera me to prblhma thc aktnac sgklishc, sto opoo den
Gia na brome ap ma dunamoseir thc parapnw morfc to suneqc klsma pou thc antistoiqe, arke na antikatastsoume ta tic orzousec
ci
stouc tpouc thc
Un , Wn
twn paraktw tetragwnikn
2 morfn
2.5 kai na upologsoume
X0 + uX1 + u2 X2 + . . . + un1 Xn1

0
kai
d(u)
u X0 + uX1 + u2 X2 + . . . + un1 Xn1

0
d(u) .
Autc oi tetragwnikc morfc enai jetik orismnec, diti an gia kpoia epilog twn
X0 , X1 , . . . , Xn1
to prto oloklrwma ( to detero) mhdenzetai, tte to polunumo
X0 + uX1 + u2 X2 + . . . + un1 Xn1

2
An lboume upyh touc tpouc
morfc enai dia me tou ajrosmatoc me
uk d(u), tte h prth ap tic parapnw tetragwnikc autn pou jewrsame sthn 2.3. Sth deterh morf pollaplasizoume kje ro u, opte parnoume tic orzousec Wn . ck =
134
+ 0
ja mhdenzetai sta peira shmea auxhtikthtac thc
opte
X0 = X1 = . . . = Xn1 = k
tou suneqoc
0.
' ra, oi orzousec A
Un , Wn
enai jetikc.
Me thn bojeia tou tpou (2.10) upologzoume touc suntelestc
klsmatoc, pou enai jetiko arijmo. M autn ton trpo parnoume na suneqc klsma thc morfc pou qoume meletsei. Epomnwc, me bsh la sa qoume dexei sta prohgomena keflaia, qoume do periptseic:
En h seir
+ n=1 n
sugklnei, tte gia tic akoloujec twn rtiwn kai perittn
proseggsewn tou suneqoc klsmatoc ja isqei ti
P2n (z) p(z) lim = F (z) = = n+ Q2n (z) q(z)
+ i=1
i = z + i i = z + i
+ 0
d(u) , z CA , z+u d1 (u) , z C A. z+u
P2n+1 (z) p1 (z) = F1 (z) = = n+ Q2n+1 (z) q1 (z) lim

Oi sunartseic pou
+ i=0
+ 0
p(z), q(z), p1 (z), q1 (z) kai ta i , i , i , i orzontai me th diadikasa perigrfetai sto keflaio 4, en oi , 1 me ton trpo pou perigrfetai sto
keflaio 7.
En h seir
+ n=1 n
apoklnei, tte gia kje
tou
CA
h akolouja
Pn (z) Qn (z)
twn proseggsewn tou suneqoc klsmatoc qei rio
Pn (z) = F (z) = n+ Qn (z) lim

pou h
+ 0
d(u) , z+u
orzetai tsi pwc perigryame sto keflaio 7.
Stic paraktw paragrfouc ja brome th sqsh pou qoun ta ria
+ d(u) z+u 0
kai
+ d1 (u) z+u thc akoloujac twn proseggsewn 0 + d(u) rwma z+u ap pou aut prolje. 0
tou suneqoc klsmatoc me to olokl-
8.2
Sqsh twn to
F (z) F1 (z)
,
kai
+ d(u) 0 z+u
sthn perptwsh pou
enai
jetikc arijmc.
S autn thn pargrafo ja brome th sqsh pou sundei touc arijmoc
F (x), F1 (x) kai
+ d(u) x+u 0
sthn perptwsh pou to
enai jetikc pragmatikc arijmc. Ja qrhsimopoi-
soume to lmma kai to jerhma
pou akoloujon.
To jerhma diatupjhke kai apodeqjhke se llh ergasa tou
Stieltjes
sto
Comptes Rendus,
tmoc
CV III ,
sel. 1297, toc 1889.
135
Lmma
8.1
'Estw
Rn+1 .
Tte uprqoun jetiko arijmo
Q(X0 , X1 , . . . , Xn ) ma jetik orismnh c kai C ste na isqei
tetragwnik morf ston
2 2 2 2 2 2 c(X0 + X1 + . . . + Xn ) Q(X0 , X1 , . . . , Xn ) C(X0 + X1 + . . . + Xn )

gia kje
X0 , X1 ,
...,
Xn .
Q(X0 , X1 , . . . , Xn ) enai suneqc sunrthsh twn X0 , X1 , . . . , Xn kai, ra, qei mgisth tim C kai elqisth tim c > 0 sto sumpagc snolo pou orzetai ap 2 2 2 thn isthta X0 + X1 + . . . + Xn = 1. Epomnwc, isqei ti c Q(X0 , X1 , . . . , Xn ) C 2 2 2 gia kje X0 , X1 , . . . , Xn pou ikanopoion thn X0 + X1 + . . . + Xn = 1 kai, epeid h Q
Apdeixh: H enai omogenc deutrou bajmo, petai h dipl anisthta tou lmmatoc.
Jerhma
8.1
An
x > 0,
to elqisto thc parstashc
1 + X1 (x + u) + X2 (x + u)2 + . . . + Xn (x + u)n
0
wc proc ta
d(u) () x+u
X1 , X2 ,
...,
Xn
uprqei kai isotai me
+ 0
'Ara, gia kje jetik
d(u) P2n (x) . x + u Q2n (x)
isqei ti
+ 0
Apdeixh: H tetragwnik morf
d(u) P2n (x) > . x+u Q2n (x)
+ 0
(X0 + X1 (x + u) + . . . + Xn (x + u)n )2
d(u) x+u c>0
enai jetik orismnh. 'Ara, smfwna me to prohgomeno lmma, uprqei stajer ste na isqei
+ 0
gia kje
(1 + X1 (x + u) + . . . + Xn (x + u)n )2
d(u) 2 2 c(1 + X1 + . . . + Xn ) x+u

to jroisma ...,
X1 , . . . , Xn . Sunepgetai ti h parstash () tenei +, tan 2 2 (X1 + . . . + Xn ) +, opte epeid enai suneqc sunrthsh twn X1 ,
elqisth tim. Jtoume
Xn ,
qei
L(x + u; X1 , . . . , Xn ) = 1 + X1 (x + u) + X2 (x + u)2 + . . . + Xn (x + u)n .

136
Ekola prokptei me upologismoc ti h parstash paraktw ssthma exissewn:
()
gnetai elqisth tan isqei to
(x + u)k L(x + u; X1 , . . . , Xn ) d(u) = 0 , k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1 .

0
Epagwgik prokptei ti
uk L(x + u; X1 , . . . , Xn ) d(u) = 0 , k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1 ,
0
to opoo me th bojeia tou sumblou
S , pou orsame sto tloc tou kefalaou 2, grfetai

(8.1)
S{uk L(x + u; X1 , . . . , Xn )} = 0 , k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n 1.
Lgw thc paratrhshc 2.2 kai epeid
L(x + u; X1 , . . . , Xn ), an jewrhje wc stajer. 'Omwc, L(0; X1 , . . . , Xn ) = 1,
S{uk Q2n (u)} = 0, qoume ti h parstash polunumo tou u, isotai me to Q2n (u) ep ma
ra qoume
L(x + u; X1 , . . . , Xn ) =
H parstash
Q2n (u) . Q2n (x)
(8.2)
()
isotai me
L(x + u; X1 , . . . , Xn ) (1 + X1 (x + u) + . . . + Xn (x + u)n )
0
epomnwc, an lboume upyh to ssthma exissewn ti h elqisth tim thc
d(u) , x+u
(8.1)
kai th sqsh (8.2) parnoume
()
enai sh me
L(x + u; X1 , . . . , Xn )
0
d(u) x+u
=
0
d(u) x+u
+ 0
Ap thn
1 Q2n (x)
Q2n (x) Q2n (u) d(u) . x+u
2.5
qoume ti
S
ra,
Q2n (x) Q2n (u) x+u
= P2n (x) ,
+ 0
kai qoume telik ti
Q2n (x) Q2n (u) d(u) = P2n (x) x+u

+ 0
L(x + u; X1 , . . . , Xn )
0
d(u) = x+u
d(u) P2n (x) . x + u Q2n (x)
Akribc me ton dio trpo apodeiknetai kai to jerhma
137
Jerhma
8.2
An
x > 0,
tte h elqisth tim thc parstashc
1 + X1 (x + u) + X2 (x + u)2 + . . . + Xn (x + u)n
0
wc proc ta
ud(u) x+u
X1 ,
...,
Xn
uprqei kai isotai me
P2n+1 (x) Q2n+1 (x)

'Ara, gia kje jetik
+ 0
d(u) . x+u
isqei ti
P2n+1 (x) > Q2n+1 (x)

Paratrhsh 8.1
+ 0
d(u) . x+u
Me mejodologa parmoia me aut pou qrhsimopoisame sthn ap-
deixh tou jewrmatoc prokptei ti h tetragwnik morf
(1 + X1 u + . . . + Xn un )2 d(u)
0
gnetai elqisth wc proc ta
X1 ,
...,
Xn ,
tan isqei to ssthma exissewn
S{ui W (u, X1 , . . . , Xn )} = 0 , i = 1, . . . , n ,
pou
W (u, X1 , . . . , Xn ) = 1 + X1 u + . . . + Xn un .
An lboume upyh mac th sqsh (2.7)
kai thn paratrhsh 2.2, tte prokptei ti
W (u, X1 , . . . , Xn ) =
Paratrhsh 8.2
Q2n+1 (u) . uQ2n+1 (0)
(8.3)
Sthn parstash
1 + X1 (x + u) + X2 (x + u)2 + . . . + Xn (x + u)n
0
ta
d(u) () x+u
X1 , X2 ,
...,
Xn
enai tuqaoi arijmo anexrthtoi tou
u,
ra sth jsh tou
L(x + u; X1 , . . . , Xn ) = 1 + X1 (x + u) + X2 (x + u)2 + . . . + Xn (x + u)n

mporome na jewrsoume na opoiodpote polunumo tou
u = x parnei thn tim 1.

tou jewrmatoc 8.1, ti
Epeid to
u n x
u,
pou enai bajmo
kai gia
enai na ttoio polunumo, ja isqei, lgw
+ 0
Epshc, enai
P2n (x) d(u) x + u Q2n (x)
+ 0
u2n d(u) . x2n (x + u)
1 1 u u2n1 u2n = 2 + . . . + (1)2n1 2n + (1)2n 2n , x+u x x x x (x + u)

138
opte to oloklrwma
+ u2n d(u) 0 x2n (x+u) + 0
enai telik so me
c1 c2n1 d(u) c0 + 2 . . . + 2n x+u x x x
kai, ra, qoume ti
P2n (x) c0 c1 c2n1 2 + . . . 2n . Q2n (x) x x x

An qrhsimopoisoume to dio polunumo kai gia thn parstash tou jewrmatoc 8.2, parnoume me moio trpo ti
P2n+1 (x) c0 c1 c2n1 c2n 2 + . . . 2n + 2n+1 . Q2n+1 (x) x x x x

'Etsi, dexame kai me detero trpo thn isq twn do teleutawn anisottwn, oi opoec prokptoun mesa kai ap thn apdeixh thc prtashc 3.2.
Paratrhsh
8.3
'Enac trpoc na proseggsoume thn arijmhtik tim tou oloklhr-
matoc
+ d(u) x+u 0
enai na brome prta th dunamoseir
c0 c1 c2 2 + 3 ... x x x
gia thn opoa xroume ti en gnei apoklnei. Prosjtontac kje for rtio pljoc prosjetwn thc parapnw seirc parnoume ma arijmhtik akolouja thc opoac kje roc enai mikrteroc ap ton antstoiqo thc To
P2n (x) Q2n (x)
, lgw thc prohgomenhc paratrhshc.
limsup
thc prthc akoloujac enai mikrtero so tou
F (x)
kai apotele na ktw
frgma tou
+ d(u) x+u . 0
'Omoia, prosjtontac peritt pljoc rwn thc parapnw seirc
parnoume ma akolouja thc opoac to tautqrona na nw frgma tou
liminf
enai megaltero so tou
F1 (x)
kai
+ d(u) x+u . 0
'Enac deteroc trpoc gia na proseggsoume thn arijmhtik tim tou oloklhrmatoc enai na brome to antstoiqo suneqc klsma kai na jewrsoume tic upakoloujec twn rtiwn kai perittn proseggsen tou. Autc qoun ria smfwna me ta jewrmata 8.1 kai 8.2, ja isqei ti
F (x) kai F1 (x) antstoiqa kai,
F (x)
0
d(u) F1 (x) . x+u
An lboume upyh ta parapnw, tte o deteroc trpoc dnei ma kalterh prosggish tou oloklhrmatoc.
139
8.3
Sqsh twn oloklhrwmtwn
+ d(u) 0 x+u
kai
+ d(u) 0 x+u .
+ d(u) x+u . 0
S autn thn pargrafo ja qrhsimopoisoume ta jewrmata thc prohgomenhc paragrfou gia na brome th sqsh pou sundei ta oloklhrmata Ja meletsoume prta thn perptwsh pou h
+ n=1 n
+ d(u) x+u 0
kai
sugklnei. Sthn perptwsh
aut edame ti to prblhma twn ropn qei peirec lseic kai ti do ttoiec lseic enai oi katanomc pou orzontai ap tic dia dunamoseir
, 1 .
S lec autc tic lseic antistoiqe h
c0 c1 c2 ck 2 + 3 . . . + (1)k k+1 + . . . . z z z z
An jewrsoume to antstoiqo suneqc klsma, tte qoume dexei ti oi akoloujec twn rtiwn kai perittn proseggsewn sugklnoun antstoiqa stic sunartseic
p(z) F (z) = = q(z)

kai
+ 0
d(u) = z+u
+ i=1
i z + i
F1 (z) =
p1 (z) = q1 (z)
+ 0
d1 (u) = z+u
+ i=0
i . z + i F (z)
kai
'Omwc, den mporome na brome thn akrib sqsh pou sundei tic oloklrwma
F1 (z)
me to
+ d(u) z+u . 0
To mno pou mporome na pome s autn thn perptwsh enai
aut sto opoo katalxame sthn prohgomenh pargrafo, ti dhlad sthn perptwsh pou to
z=x
enai jetikc pragmatikc arijmc, tte isqei ti
F (x) =
p(x) q(x)
+ 0
d(u) p1 (x) = F1 (x) . ( ) x+u q1 (x) x

gia thn opoa na isqei stw h ma ap
Mlista, en gnei den uprqei kama tim tou tic do isthtec sthn
( ),
smfwna me to paraktw jerhma.
Jerhma
8.3
'Estw ti h seir
+ n=1 n
sugklnei. An h katanom pou orzei h
enai
diaforetik ap autc pou orzoun oi
kai
1 ,
tte gia kje jetik arijm
isqei ti
F (x) =
Apdeixh:
p(x) < q(x)
+ 0
d(u) p1 (x) < = F1 (x) . x+u q1 (x)
Ja dexoume me thn eic topo apagwg ti den enai dunat na isqei h
isthta ap arister sthn kai h isthta ap ta dexi.
( ).
Me ton dio akribc trpo apodeiknetai ti den isqei
'Estw loipn ti uprqei jetikc
x0
tsi ste
p(x0 ) = q(x0 )
+ 0
140
d(u) . x0 + u
Ap to jerhma 8.1 qoume ti gia to
x0
enai
+ 0
d(u) P2n (x0 ) = x0 + u Q2n (x0 )
+ 0
Q2n (u) Q2n (x0 )
d(u) 0. x0 + u n +,
En proume to rio tou kajenc mlouc thc parapnw isthtac kajc to to prto mloc mhdenzetai. Epshc, epeid gia kje
To dio ja prpei na sumbanei kai me to detero mloc. enai
x > x0
1 x+u
ja isqei ti
Q2n (u) Q2n (x)

+
1 x0 + u
2
Q2n (u) Q2n (x0 ) d(u) =0. x+u
n+ 0
'Ara, gia kje
lim
Q2n (u) Q2n (x)
x x0
ja enai
p(x) = q(x)
+ 0
d(u) x+u z
tou
kai ap thn Arq thc Tatishc petai ti gia kje
CA
qoume ti
p(z) = q(z)
, isodnama,
+ 0
d(u) z+u
+
+ 0
d(u) = z+u
d(u) . z+u
kai
Ap to jerhma 6.1 prokptei tte ti oi sunartseic shmea asunqeic touc. 'Atopo, ap thn upjesh.
diafroun to pol sta
Sthn perptwsh pou
+ n=1 n
= +,
isqei to paraktw jerhma.
Jerhma
8.4
'Otan h seir
+ n=1 n
apoklnei, tte to prblhma twn ropn qei mo-
nadik lsh. Apdeixh: 'Estw ti uprqei llh ma katanom pou enai lsh tou diou problmatoc. Tte, aut ja perigrfetai ap ma axousa kai fragmnh sunrthsh sto
1 , pou ja orzetai + [0, +) kai gia thn opoa ja isqoun 1 (0) = 0 kai ck = 0 uk d1 (u), pou k = 0, 1, . . . . H 1 qei peira shmea auxhtikthtac. Se antjeth perptwsh, an u1 , u2 , . . . , uN enai ta mna shmea auxhtikthtac thc 1 , mporome na brome X0 , X1 , . . . , XN , qi N na mhdenzetai sta u , u , . . . , u . Tte, la mhdn, ste to X0 + X1 u + . . . + XN u 1 2 N
oi tetragwnikc morfc
X0 + uX1 + u2 X2 + . . . + uN XN
0
141
d1 (u)
kai
u X0 + uX1 + u2 X2 + . . . + uN XN
0
d1 (u) ,
oi opoec tautzontai me tic jetik orismnec tetragwnikc morfc thc seldac 122 pou orzontai ap thn H
ja mhdenzontai. ' topo. A
qei akribc tic diec idithtec me thn
ra ap thn paratrhsh 8.3, gi autn
prokptei, pwc akribc kai me thn
ti isqei
F (x)
0
'Omwc, enai qoume ti
d1 (u) F1 (x) , x > 0 . x+u F

kai
+ n=1 n + 0
= +,
ra oi sunartseic
F1
tautzontai sto
CA
kai
d1 (u) = F (z) = z+u
+ 0
d(u) = z+u
kai
+ 0
d(u) . z+u
Epomnwc, ap to jerhma 6.1 prokptei ti oi
orzoun thn dia katanom
mzac. ' ra, h lsh sto prblhma twn ropn enai monadik. A
Paratrhsh
8.4
Prpei na parathrsoume ed ti aut h teleutaa perptwsh enai
dunatn na sumbanei akmh kai tan h dunamoseir
c0 c1 ck 2 + . . . + (1)k k+1 + . . . z z z
enai panto apoklnousa: sthn perptwsh pou sumbanei kti ttoio, ja isqei ti
limn+ cn+1 cn
Parl aut,
1 = +, ra h akolouja n n+1 den mpore + aut de shmanei ti h seir n=1 n ja enai
na enai nw fragmnh. kat angkh sugklnou-
sa. Mporome, gia pardeigma, na dialxoume louc touc suntelestc klsmatoc aujareta, ektc ap touc rouc miac upakoloujac arijmo
n
thc
tou suneqoc
(nk )
(n )
ste oi
1 1 1 , ,..., ,... n1 n1 +1 n2 n2 +1 nk nk +1
na tenoun sto peiro.
Paratrhsh
8.5
Ma teleutaa apl paratrhsh enai ti, ete h lsh sto prblhma
twn ropn enai monadik, ete qi, h posthta thc mzac pou katanmetai kat mkoc tou xona
0x enai
sh me
c0 =
1 1 .
Dhlad, h rop mhdenikc txhc
c0
enai pntote sh
me th sunolik posthta mzac.
142
8.4
Prto
pardeigma.
Paraktw ja asqolhjome me na pardeigma pou ja mac bohjsei na katalboume th jewra pou qoume anaptxei. Jewrome to oloklrwma
+ 0
pou
4 (1 + sin 4 u) e u du z+u
1 1.
H sunrthsh
4 4 4 4 (u) = 24 4( u3 + 3 u + 6 4 u + 6)e u 2( u3 3 4 u 3)e u sin 4 u 4 4 2( u3 + 3 u + 3 4 u)e u cos 4 u

enai axousa sto
[0, +),
ikanopoie thn
(0) = 0
4 u
kai th sqsh
d(u) = (1 + sin
'Ara, h
u)e
du , 0 u < + . .
orzei ma katanom mzac pou exarttai ap thn tim thc paramtrou
'Omwc, ja dome ti den isqei to dio kai me tic ropc qreiastome to paraktw lmma.
ck .
Gia na tic upologsoume ja
Lmma
8.2
Isqei ti
+ 4n+3 u u e sin udu 0
= 0.
Apdeixh : Efarmzontac gia ton upologism kje oloklhrmatoc thn kat pargontec oloklrwsh kai qrhsimopointac tic timc twn prohgomenwn oloklhrwmtwn, qoume ti
+ 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0
eu sin udu =
0
eu cos udu =
+
1 , 2
ueu sin udu =
1 , 2
ueu cos udu = 0 , 1 , 2 3 , 2
0 + 0
u2 eu sin udu =
u2 eu cos udu =
u3 eu sin udu = 0 ,
0
u3 eu cos udu =
u4 eu sin udu =
0
u4 eu cos udu = 3 .
Ja dexoume epagwgik ti isqei
+ 0
4
u4n eu sin udu =

0
u4n eu cos udu . (1)
Prkeitai gia mia skhsh Oloklhrwtiko Logismo, gi aut kai paralepoume touc upologismoc.
143
Gia
fusik
n = 0 kai n = 1 h parapnw isthta profanc isqei. k . Tte, moia me ta parapnw prokptei ti

+ 0
'Estw ti isqei gia kpoio
u4k+1 eu cos udu = 0 ,
ra enai
+ 0
u4k+2 eu sin udu =

0 + 0
u4k+2 eu cos udu ,
to opoo sunepgetai ti
u4k+3 eu sin udu = 0
kai, tloc, ap to parapnw parnoume ti
+ 0
u4k+4 eu sin udu =

0
u4k+4 eu cos udu .
'Ara, apodeqjhke h (1) gia kje sunepgetai ti
+ 4n+3 u u e sin udu 0 + 0
n = 0, 1, 2, . . . kai, pwc edame prohgoumnwc, aut = 0 . Ap ta parapnw prokptei ti isqei kai u4n+3 eu sin udu = 0
gia kje fusik
n.
Xanagurnme sto pardeigm mac. Lgw tou lmmatoc qoume ti
ck =
0
uk d(u) =
0
uk 1 + sin
u e
+ u
du =
0
uk e
du .
Dhlad, oi ropc den exartntai ap thn parmetro
Aut shmanei ti to prblhma
twn ropn qei peirec lseic, ra emaste sthn aristh perptwsh tou problmatoc kai, epomnwc, oi timc twn suntelestn ste h seir
+ n=1 n
tou suneqoc klsmatoc ja enai ttoiec
na sugklnei.
Ap to suneqc klsma ja proume tic do sunartseic-ria
p(z) = q(z)
kai oi katanomc mzac
+ i=1
i , z + i
p1 (z) = q1 (z)
+ i=0
i z + i
(i , i ) kai (i , i ) apotelon do ap tic lseic tou problmatoc.

+ 0 4 (1 + sin 4 u) e u du z+u
'Opwc edame, mno sthn perptwsh pou
'Omwc, den mporome na prosdiorsoume thn akrib sqsh metax tou oloklhrmatoc
kai twn sunartsewn
p(z) q(z)
kai
p1 (z) q1 (z) .
z = x
mporome na proume na ktw kai na nw frgma tou parapnw oloklhrmatoc.
144
Epeid ta
ck
den exartntai ap to
to dio ja sumbanei kai me ta
kai me tic
proseggseic
p(z) q(z)
kai
p1 (z) q1 (z) .
Efson
+ 0
kai to
u sin
x+u
du = e
4x
parnei timc ap
wc 1, ja isqei ti
4 p1 (x) p(x) > 2e 4x . q1 (x) q(x)

Epomnwc, s aut thn perptwsh ote h dunamoseir, all ote kai to suneqc klsma, mpore na dsei ma kal prosggish tou oloklhrmatoc. O upologismc twn suntelestn
tou suneqoc klsmatoc enai ma diadikasa arket polplokh kai gi aut h
sgklish thc seirc
+ n=1 n
den enai kajlou ekolo na apodeiqje.
Sto pardeigma pou akolouje apodeiknoume thn apeira twn lsewn sto prblhma twn ropn, upologzontac touc suntelestc tou suneqoc klsmatoc kai deqnontac ti h antstoiqh seir sugklnei.
8.5
Detero pardeigma.
Jewrome ma peritt kai periodik sunrthsh gia kje
ma ap tic isthtec:
f (x +
n 0 n n
1 2)
f (x), h opoa enai suneqc kai ikanopoie = f (x) f (x + 1 ) = f (x). Epeid h f enai 2
n 0
2
peritt, gia kje fusik
ja isqei ti
n 0
Epomnwc, enai
ex f (x)dx =
ey f (y)dy =
ey f (y)dy .
ex f (x)dx = 0 ,
ra kai
+
Knontac thn antikatstash parnoume ti
ex f (x)dx = 0 .
pou
x = k+1 + ln u, 2
+ 0
nac opoiosdpote akraioc,
uk u ln u f (ln u)du = 0
pou
enai, epshc, opoiosdpote akraioc.
An proume, gia pardeigma, th sunrthsh tic parapnw proupojseic, opte
f (x) = sin(2x),
tte aut ikanopoie
+ 0
uk u ln u sin (2 ln u)du = 0
145
gia kje akraio
k. 1
+ 0
Jewrome sth sunqeia to oloklrwma
1 + sin(2 ln u) ln u u du z+u
pou to morfc
parnei timc ap
wc 1. Epomnwc, qoume kai pli na oloklrwma thc
+ 0
pou h
d(u) z+u [0, +)

kai qei tpo
enai h axousa sunrthsh pou orzetai sto
1 (u) =
Kje rop
u 0
(1 + sin(2lnv)) v lnv dv .
ck
qei tim
ck = = =
1 1 1
+ 0 + 0 +
uk (1 + sin(2lnu)) ulnu du uk ulnu du e

x2 +(k+1)x
dx =
(k+1)2 4
ey dy
= e
(k+1)2 4
, .
Epomnwc, kai s autn thn perptwsh qoume
dhlad enai anexrthth thc paramtrou
peirec lseic sto prblhma twn ropn. Qrhsimopointac touc tpouc thc paragrfou
2.5 kai knontac katllhlec i tou suneqoc klsmatoc:
aplopoiseic stic orzousec, parnoume touc suntelestc
2n = (1 e 2 )(1 e1 )(1 e 2 ) (1 e
kai
n1 2
)e 2
2n+1 =
H seir
e
1
2n+1 4 3 n
(1 e 2 )(1 e1 )(1 e 2 ) (1 e 2 )
+ n + 2 kai h n=1 e n=0 2n+1 + n=1 n sugklnei.
. 32
+ 2 n 2 n=0 ( e ) ,
+ n=1 2n
frssetai ap thn
ap thn
ra sugklnoun. Telik, kai h seir
Epshc, me ton dio trpo pwc kai sto prto pardeigma, parnoume ti h diafor
p1 (x) p(x) q1 (x) q(x)

enai pnta megalterh sh ap
+ 0
sin(2 ln u) ln u 2 u du = 2e x ln x . x+u
146
8.6
' Alla
paradegmata.
'Ena pardeigma pou to prblhma twn ropn qei monadik lsh enai sthn perptwsh pou oi ropc o
ck i
enai oi arijmo pou prokptoun ap to suneqc klsma pou melthse
Laguerre,
sto opoo anafretai o
Stieltjes
ston prlogo thc dhmoseusc tou.
Oi
suntelestc
tou klsmatoc auto enai:
2n1 = 1 ,
2n =
1 . n
apoklnei, ra to suneqc
Sthn perptwsh aut enai profanc ti h seir klsma sugklnei kai paristnei sunrthsh knetai ti h sunrthsh
+ n=1 n
F (z)
olmorfh sto
C A.
Epshc, apodei-
= = 1
dnetai ap ton tpo
(u) = 1 eu ,
O
u0.
Laguerre
deixe ti gia kje
to suneqc klsma isotai me to oloklrwma
+ 0
d(u) = z+u
+ 0
eu du . z+u
Sto pardeigma aut uprqei mza osodpote makri ap to shmeo 0. Fusik, pwc qoume dh parathrsei, sthn perptwsh pou h mza den ektenetai mqri to peiro, all stamat se kpoio shmeo, to antstoiqo suneqc klsma pnta ja sugklnei, giat kai h antstoiqh dunamoseir sugklnei gia arket meglec timc tou
|z|.
Gia na katanosoume thn teleutaa perptwsh, jewrome to suneqc klsma me
suntelestc
b2n = p > 0
kai
b2n1 = q > 0 p z+
q 1+ . .
.
.
p
q
+ z+
1+ . .
Profanc, to klsma aut enai periodik, ra, an jsoume thn tim tou sh me qoume ti
k,
tte
k=
p . q z + 1+k k,
h opoa dnei do lseic. H ma
Prokptei tsi ma deuterobjmia exswsh wc proc aporrptetai giat, sthn perptwsh pou o timc tou suneqoc klsmatoc. sh me
enai jetikc pragmatikc, dnei arnhtikc
'Etsi, telik qoume ti se kje
h tim tou ja enai
F (z) =
Oi suntelestc
z 2 + 2(p + q)z + (p q)2 z + p q . 2z

n=1 2n 1 q 2n = ( p )n kai 2n+1 = p ( p )n . q kai n=0 2n+1 ja apoklnei.
Epomnwc,
dnontai ap touc tpouc
ma toulqiston ap tic seirc
147
To prblhma twn ropn qei monadik lsh kai h sunrthsh grfetai sth morf ta
anagkastik ja
+ d(u) z+u . 0
Gia na th gryoume me th morf aut, diakrnoume gia
p, q
tic paraktw periptseic:
An
p > q,
tte jtoume
a=
aut, me prxeic prokptei ti h
2 p q kai b = p+ q F grfetai sth morf
Sthn perptwsh
F (z) = =
pou
b ab 1 + z 2 a + d(u) , z+u 0
(u a)(b u) du u z+u
0 , ab , (u) = ab + ab +
1 2 1 2
u a b a
(t a)(b t) dt t (t a)(b t) dt t
u=0 0<u<a , aub , b < u. (a, b). ab

Tloc, parathrome
Parathrome ti uprqei ma sugkntrwsh mzac sto 0, h opoa enai sh me kai h uploiph mza enai suneqc katanemhmnh sto ti sthn perptwsh aut h seir
1 pq
+ n=0 2n+1
sugklnei, to jroism thc enai
kai, lgw thc prtashc pou ja dexoume sthn amswc epmenh pargrafo,
epibebainetai ti h mza pou enai sugkentrwmnh sto 0 isotai me
ab = pq .
Sthn perptwsh pou
p<q 1 2
prokptei ti h
dnetai ap ton tpo
b a
F (z) =
pou
(u a)(b u) du = u z+u
+ 0
d(u) , z+u
(u) =
0 ,
1 2 1 2
u a b a
0u<a (t a)(b t) dt , a u b t (t a)(b t) dt , b < u. t (a, b).

Sthn perptwsh
Tra, olklhrh h mza enai suneqc katanemhmnh sto aut h seir
+ n=0 2n+1
apoklnei kai, ap thn prtash thc epmenhc paragrfou,
epibebainetai ti h mza sto 0 enai sh me mhdn.
'Otan
p = q,
tte
a=0
kai ete touc tpouc thc prthc perptwshc efarmsoume
ete autoc thc deterhc ja proume to dio apotlesma.
8.7
Upologismc thc
mzac pou
sugkentrnetai
sto
0.
S autn thn pargrafo ja upologsoume thn posthta thc mzac pou sugkentrnetai sto 0.
148
Prtash
8.1
Sthn orismnh perptwsh tou problmatoc twn ropn, h mza pou enai
sugkentrwmnh sto 0 isotai me
1
+ n=0 2n+1
Sthn perptwsh pou h seir aut apoklnei, h antstoiqh mza isotai me mhdn. Sthn aristh perptwsh, to phlko
1
+ n=0 2n+1
enai to mgisto thc mzac pou mpore na enai sugkentrwmnh sto 0 kai aut sumbanei sthn perptwsh thc lshc me
(i , i ), 0 .
afo sto shmeo
0 = 0
qoume posthta mzac sh
0 =
1 . + n=0 2n+1
Gia kje llh lsh tou problmatoc twn ropn h posthta thc
mzac sto 0 enai mikrterh ap
ma axousa sunrthsh me (0) = 0, me peira shmea auxhtikthtac, h opoa orzei ma katanom mzac ston hmixona 0x pou apotele lsh tou problmatoc
Apdeixh: 'Estw twn ropn. Tte, edame ti ja isqei
+ 0
gia kje
d(u) F1 (x) x+u
x 0.
Epshc, ap thn prtash 3.1 kai thn paratrhsh 7.4 qoume ti
x0+
Ja dexoume ti, an enai
lim xF1 (x) =
1
+ n=0 2n+1
= 0 .
= lim0+ ()
enai h mza pou enai sugkentrwmnh sto 0, tte
= lim
Prgmati, isqei ti
x0+
xd(u) . x+u
+ 0
(upojtoume to Epeid
xd(u) = x+u
x2 0
xd(u) + x+u
x2
xd(u) + x+u
+ x
xd(u) x+u x2 < x).
arket mikr jetik arijm, mikrtero thc mondac, ra
(x2 ) x = ((x2 ) (0)) 1+x x + x2

sunepgetai ti
x2 0
xd(u) (x2 ) (0) = (x2 ) x+u
x2 x0+
lim
xd(u) = lim (x2 ) = . x+u x0+

149
Epshc, enai profanc ti
0
x2
opte, epeid
xd(u) < ( x) (x2 ) x+u

ja enai kai
limx0+ (( x) (x2 )) = 0,
x0+ x
lim
x2
xd(u) =0. x+u u

ja isqei ti
Tloc, epeid h
x x+u
enai fjnousa sunrthsh tou
xd(u) x (+) ( x) . x+u 1+ x

x 1+ x
Epomnwc, afo enai
limx0+
((+) ( x)) = 0,
+
ja qoume ti
x0+
'Ara, to zhtomeno apodeqjhke.
lim
xd(u) =0. x+u

+ n=1 n
Sthn orismnh perptwsh tou problmatoc twn ropn, dhlad, tan ja enai
= +,
+ d(u) x+u 0
= F1 (x),
prgma to opoo sunepgetai ti
= lim
x0+
xd(u) = lim xF1 (x) = x+u x0+

+ n=1 n +
1
+ n=0 2n+1
Sthn aristh perptwsh, dhlad, tan
< +,
epeid
xF (x)
0
ja enai
xd(u) xF1 (x) x+u 1

+ n=0 2n+1
0 = lim xF (x) lim xF1 (x) =

x0+ x0+
.
5
Gnwrzoume ti gia ekenh thn katanom mazn pou orzei h axousa sunrthsh isqei
= lim
x0+
xd1 (u) = lim xF1 (x) = x+u x0+
1
+ n=0 2n+1
= 0 .
Mnei na dexoume ti gia kje llh katanom mzac pou apotele lsh tou problmatoc twn ropn enai
<
5
O orismc thc uprqei sthn
1
+ n=0 2n+1
7.8.
150
'Estw ti uprqei ma llh axousa sunrthsh
me
(0) = 0 =
kai me peira shmea
auxhtikthtac, ttoia ste h katanom mzac pou orzei na apotele, epshc, lsh tou aristou problmatoc twn ropn kai gia thn opoa isqei katanomc pou orzoun oi . En ap tic + n=0 2n+1 pou enai sugkentrwmnh sto
kai
afairsoume th mza
0, tte parnoume do diaforetik sustmata mazn pou dnoun epshc tic diec ropc
k -txhc,
ra uprqoun peirec llec katanomc mazn pou dnoun tic diec ropc
k-
txhc me ta do prohgomena. Lgw thc paratrhshc 8.5, s lec autc tic katanomc h
0x enai sh me c0 . Jewrome ma ttoia katanom mazn, h opoa orzetai ap ma axousa sunrthsh 1 kai sto 0 enai topojethmnh mza > 0. En s autn thn katanom prosjsoume sto 0 mza , tte
posthta thc mzac pou katanmetai kat mkoc tou parnoume na no ssthma mazn pou apotele epshc lsh tou arqiko problmatoc twn ropn. Prgmati, h sunolik posthta thc mzac kat mkoc tou
0x isotai me c0 ,
en, ap ton trpo me ton opoo orsame autn thn katanom, enai profanc ti kai oi uploipec ropc enai sec. H mza tou sustmatoc auto pou antistoiqe sto 0 ja enai sh me
+ >
+ n=0
1 , 2n+1
topo.
8.8
Sqetik
me
ton hmixona
0x
twn arnhtikn
arijmn.
'Eqoume apodexei ti sthn perptwsh pou h seir
+ n=1 n
apoklnei, to suneqc klsma
Stieltjes
sugklnei kai mlista, to rio twn proseggsewn tou enai h sunrthsh
F (z) =
0
d(u) , z+u ,
h opoa orzetai sto
pou oi mnec idithtec pou ofelei na plhro h sunrthsh
[0, +),
enai na enai axousa sunrthsh tou
u,
na ikanopoie thn
(0) = 0
kai na
qei peira shmea auxhtikthtac. analutik panto sto
Tte, prokptei en gnei ti h sunrthsh
enai
C A,
mwc, den mporome pnta na thn epektenoume analutik
kai sto A. Prgmati, an mporosame na brome analutik epktas thc sto tte h sunrthsh
ja prepe anagkastik na enai analutik sunrthsh
(b, a), tou u sto
(a, b).
'Omwc, to na apaitsoume gia thn
na enai analutik periorzei kat pol thn
klsh twn auxousn sunartsewn me tic opoec asqolomaste. An jloume na brome paradegmata suneqn klasmtwn gia ta opoa h antstoiqh sunrthsh
A, tte den prpei na orsoume prta touc suntelestc k , all na xekinsoume parnontac th tsi ste na qei thn katllhlh sumperifor sta antstoiqa upodiastmata tou A. Sto prto pardeigma thc paragrfou 8.6 h enai analutik sto (0, +) kai, epomnwc, h antstoiqh sunrthsh F ja epektenetai analutik sta shmea tou (, 0). Epshc, sto detero pardeigma thc diac paragrfou, h epektenetai analutik sta diastmata (0, a), (a, b), (b, +) kai, pwc enai faner, kai h antstoiqh F epektenetai analutik sta shmea autn twn
sumperifretai omal se upodiastmata tou diasthmtwn.
151
8.9
Melth
tou
suneqoc
klsmatoc wc proc th
pou
antistoiqe
sto
oloklrwma
+ d(u) 0 z+u
sgklish.
'Otan qoume ma axousa sunrthsh
sto [0, +), me (0) = 0 kai peira shmea auxh+ d(u) z+u . 0
H melth auto tou
tikthtac thn katanom mzac pou aut orzei, tte wc gnwstn parnoume na suneqc klsma pou antistoiqe sto genikeumno oloklrwma
suneqoc klsmatoc wc proc th sgklish apotele na prblhma pou parousizei arketc analogec me th melth miac dunamoseirc wc proc th sgklish. Den mporome
na dsoume genik lsh sto parapnw prblhma, par mno na katalxoume se kpoia sumpersmata pou mac dnoun apantseic se eidikc periptseic. Sthn perptwsh pou
to suneqc klsma sugklnei, to prblhma twn ropn qei ma kai monadik lsh kai s autn thn perptwsh lme ti h katanom thc mzac pou orzei h
enai
orismnh.
Fusik, ja mporosame eisgontac {arnhtikc mzec} na proume kai llec lseic sto prblhma twn ropn, mwc de ja asqolhjome me thn nnoia thc arnhtikc mzac giat to prblhma ja gnei perploko. Antjeta, tan to suneqc klsma apoklnei, tte
to prblhma twn ropn qei peirec lseic kai tte ja onomzoume thn katanom twn mazn pou orzei h
aristh.
Parathrome ti profanc isqoun ta exc:
An se ma aristh katanom mazn prosjsoume ma akmh mza, tte qoume kai pli aristh katanom mazn. An ap ma orismnh katanom mazn afairsoume ma mza, tte qoume kai pli orismnh katanom mazn. 'Otan qoume duo diaforetikc katanomc mzac pou qoun sec ropc, tte kai oi do katanomc mzac enai aristec.
Sta paraktw ja qrhsimopoisoume thn exc prtash. En
Prtash
8.2
Ci,k Xi Xk = Q(X0 , X1 , . . . , Xn )
i=0 k=0
enai ma summetrik kai jetik orismnh tetragwnik morf, tte to elqisto thc
Q(1, X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn )
isotai me
C0,0 C0,1 C1,0 C1,1 ... ... Cn,0 Cn,1
. . . C0,n . . . C1,n ... ... . . . Cn,n
C1,1 . . . C1,n ... ... ... Cn,1 . . . Cn,n
2 2 Q(1, X1 , . . . , Xn ) c(1+X1 +. . .+Xn ) 2 2 gia kje X1 , . . . , Xn . 'Epetai ti Q(1, X1 , . . . , Xn ) + tan 1+X1 +. . .+Xn + kai, epeid h Q(1, X1 , . . . , Xn ) enai suneqc sunrthsh twn X1 , . . . , Xn , ja qei elqisth Q tim gia kpoiec timc twn X1 , . . . , Xn . Exisnontac tic merikc paraggouc X1 , . . . ,
Apdeixh: Ap to lmma 8.1 gnwrzoume ti 152
Q Xn
me to mhdn, brskoume na grammik ssthma
enai oi timc twn
X1 ,
...,
Xn
pou elaqistopoion to
n exissewn, tou opoou h lsh Q(1, X1 , . . . , Xn ). Lnontac kai
knontac prxeic epibebainoume thn elqisth tim thc ekfnhshc.
An, tra, jewrsoume thn tetragwnik morf
Q(X0 , X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn ) =
0
parathrome ti
(X0 + X1 u + . . . + Xn un )2 d(u)
Q(X0 , X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn ) =
i=0 k=0
ci+k Xi Xk .
Efarmzoume thn prtash 8.2 kai th sqsh (2.11) kai brskoume ti to elqisto thc
+ (X0 0
+ X1 u + . . . + Xn un )2 d(u), c0 c1 c1 c2 ... ... cn cn+1 . . . cn . . . cn+1 ... ... . . . c2n
isotai me
c2 . . . cn+1 ... ... ... cn+1 . . . c2n {d(u)}n
1 . 1 + 3 + . . . + 2n+1
An, gia lgouc suntomac, sumbolsoume
thn elqisth tim tou
(1 + X1 u + . . . + Xn un )2 d(u) ,
0
tte, qoume apodexei ti
{d(u)}n =
Epshc, an jsoume
1 . 1 + 3 + . . . + 2n+1
kai efarmsoume thn prtash 8.2 kai th sqsh
c1 =
+
+ d(u) u 0
(2.14), brskoume ti h mgisth tim thc parstashc
1 (1 + X1 u + . . . + Xn un )2
0
wc proc ta
d(u) u
X1 ,
+ 0
...,
Xn
isotai me
d(u) u
c1 c0 c0 c1 ... ... cn1 cn c1 0 0 c1 ... ... 0 cn
. . . cn1 ... cn ... ... . . . c2n1 ... 0 ... cn ... ... . . . c2n1
153
c1 . . . cn ... ... ... cn . . . c2n1 c1 . . . cn ... ... ... cn . . . c2n1
c1 c0 c0 c1 ... ... cn1 cn
. . . cn1 ... cn ... ... . . . c2n1
c1 . . . cn ... ... ... cn . . . c2n1 c1 . . . cn ... ... ... cn . . . c2n1
0 c0 . . . cn1 c0 c1 . . . cn = ... ... ... ... cn1 cn . . . c2n1 = 2 + 4 + . . . + 2n .

+
Ap thn paratrhsh 8.1 prokptei ti to elqisto thc tetragwnikc morfc
(1 + X1 u + . . . + Xn un )2 d(u)
0
lambnetai tan
1 + X1 u + . . . + Xn un =
Q2n+1 (u) , uQ2n+1 (0) d(u) u
en ap to jerhma 8.1 kai th sqsh (8.2) qoume ti to mgisto thc parstashc
1 (1 + X1 u + . . . + Xn un )2
0
wc proc
X1 ,
...,
Xn
lambnetai tan
1 + X1 u + . . . + Xn un = Q2n (u) .
Paratrhsh 8.6
Epeid h elqisth tim
{d(u)}n
thc tetragwnikc morfc
(1 + X1 u + . . . + Xn un )2 d(u)
0
lambnetai tan
1 + X 1 u + . . . + X n un =
petai ti
Q2n+1 (u) , uQ2n+1 (0) Q2n+1 (u) uQ2n+1 (0)

2 u=0
= (0+) (0) = ((0+) (0))

+
<
0
kai epomnwc,
Q2n+1 (u) uQ2n+1 (0)
d(u) = {d(u)}n
< {d(u)}n =
1 . 1 + 3 + . . . + 2n+1 1
+ n=0 2n+1
'Ara, dexame me detero trpo thn anisthta
154
8.10
Melth
thc
sgklishc h mza
tou sto
suneqoc
klsmatoc
sthn
perptwsh pou
O enai mhdn.
Upojtoume ti sto 0 de sugkentrnetai mza. smnhc katanomc mzac h mza prokptei ti
Tte, epeid sthn perptwsh thc ori+ n=0
pou sugkentrnetai sto 0 isotai me =

kai
1 , 2n+1
+ n=0 2n+1
= +
{d(u)} = 0.
+ n=0 2n+1
sugklnei, ra
Sthn perptwsh thc aristhc katanomc mzac h seir
{d(u)} > 0.
'Otan klsma sto
Katalgoume loipn sto paraktw sumprasma.

O den uprqei en mza kai isqei
sugklnei,
tan
enai
{d(u)}
{d(u)} = 0 > 0
, tte
tte
to
suneqc klsma
to
suneqc
apoklnei.
Prokptei tra to exc erthma. 'Estw ti ap ma axousa sunrthsh
sto
[0, +),
me
D enai h (0) = 0 D.
katanom mzac pou orzetai kai me peira shmea auxhtiAn afairsoume
kthtac kai ac upojsoume ti
enai h posthta thc mzac sto 0.
aut th mza, prokptei ma llh katanom, stw (p.q.
Upojtoume ti me kpoio trpo
me th bojeia tou parapnw sumpersmatoc) brskoume to edoc thc katanomc
(dhl. to an enai orismnh aristh). Tte poio enai to sumprasma pou bgzoume
gia thn
D? En h D En h D
D ja enai. enai orismnh, tte kai h D enai orismnh enai ekenh h lsh thc aristhc
enai aristh, tte kai h
perptwshc tou problmatoc twn ropn pou qoume th mgisth mza sto 0. Prgmati, ja dexoume ti, an h
enai orismnh, tte h
den mpore na enai lsh thc aristhc
perptwshc tou problmatoc twn ropn me mza
sto mhdn austhr mikrterh ap
opoac h mza
ste, tan afairsoume th mza
pou perieqtai sto 0 na enai mikrterh thc mgisthc dunatc kai ttoia , na prokptei ma orismnh katanom D . Epeid to prblhma twn ropn, tou opoou lsh enai h D , enai aristo, ja uprqei ma katanom D1 , h opoa enai epshc lsh tou kai sthn opoa, h mza pou enai sugkentrwmnh sto 0 1 enai h mgisth dunat, dhlad isotai me 1 = . Tte, an ap thn katanom +
n=0 2n+1
1 . + n=0 2n+1
'Estw ti den isqei to teleutao. Tte, uprqei aristh katanom
D,
thc
D1
afairsoume ap to 0 posthta mzac sh me
, prokptei ma katanom D1 , h opoa

' topo. A
qei akribc tic diec ropc me thn
D.
'Ara, oi do katanomc enai lseic tou diou
problmatoc ropn kai epeid enai diaforetikc, ja enai kai oi do aristec. 'Ara, h
ja enai orismnh ja enai aristh kai sthn perptwsh aut, h mza pou
ja enai sugkentrwmnh sto 0 ja enai mikrterh ap th mgisth dunat.
8.11
Idithtec
tou
{d(u)}n
S autn thn pargrafo ja asqolhjome me thn perptwsh pou h axousa sunrthsh
sto
[0, +),
me
(0) = 0
kai me peira shmea auxhtikthtac, qei suneq pargwgo
prthc txhc. Dhlad, isqei
d(u) = f (u)du,
155
pou h
enai mh arnhtik sunrthsh,
suneqc sto isqei ti
[0, +)
kai den enai tautotik mhdn.
Smfwna me ta prohgomena ja
{f (u)du}n = min
0
kai
f (u)(1 + X1 u + . . . + Xn un )2 du =
1 1 + 3 + . . . + 2n+1
min
0
f (u) 1 (1 + X1 u + . . . + Xn un )2
du = 2 + 4 + . . . + 2n . u
Kpoiec forc enai ekolo na upologsoume to parapnw elqisto to antstoiqo suneqc klsma. En, gia pardeigma, qoume to genikeumno oloklrwma
ba (a)
tte, ap tic ropc
+ 0
ua1 ebu du , z+u
ck =
brskoume
ba (a)
+ 0
uk ua1 ebu du =
(k + a) (a)
S2n+1
a(a + 1) (a + n 1) n! b (n 1)! b 2 = , 2n = a a(a + 1) (a + n 1) (a + 1)(a + 2) (a + n) = 1 + 3 + . . . + 2n+1 = . n! 1 = 1 , 2n+1 =

+ n=0 2n+1 ,
parathrome ti
Sqetik me th seir
S2n+1 =
k=1
To rio thc akoloujac
a +1 =e k +,
n k=1
a ln( k +1)
.
a k
(S2n+1 )
enai
giat h seir
a > 0.
Epomnwc, kai h seir
+ n=0 2n+1
+ k=1 ln
+1
apoklnei gia
ja apoklnei kai, smfwna me ta prohgomena,
ja enai
ba a1 bu u e du (a)
8.7
=0.
Paratrhsh
Knontac allag metablhtc sto oloklrwma
f (u)(1 + X1 u + . . . + Xn un )2 du
0
6
An h
eqe peperasmnou pljouc shmea asunqeiac, tte kai pli isqoun sa ja pome s
autn thn pargrafo.
156
parnoume ti brskoume ti
{f (cu)du}n = 1 {f (u)du}n c
kai, telik, an proume to rio gia
n +,
(8.4)
1 {f (cu)du} = {f (u)du} . c
Paratrhsh 8.8
Epshc, an jewrsoume do suneqec sunartseic
h prth enai mh arnhtik kai h deterh pnta jetik kai h na jetik arijm, tte enai profanc ti
f1 f
f1 , f
ap tic opoec
enai nw fragmnh ap
{f (u)du} = 0 {f1 (u)du} = 0 ,

en tan h
f1 f
enai ktw fragmnh ap na jetik arijm, tte
{f (u)du} > 0 {f1 (u)du} > 0 .

Paraktw apodeiknoume kti pol isqurtero ap thn paratrhsh 8.7. H prtash anafretai kai pli se do suneqec sunartseic arnhtik kai h deterh pnta jetik. Upojtoume ti
f1 , f
ap tic opoec h prth enai mh
Prtash
8.3
{f (u)du} = 0
kai ti to phlko
f1 (u) f (u)
qei peperasmno mgisto
endeqomnwc na tenei sto peiro kajc to
M se kje disthma (, +) (o arijmc tenei sto mhdn). Tte, ja isqei kai
{f1 (u)du} = 0 .
Apdeixh: Jewrome na jetik arijm
osodpote mikr kai na > 0 ttoio ste
0
Sth sunqeia jewrome th sunrthsh
1 f1 (u)du < . 2 f
pou orzetai wc exc:
f (u) =
En
0, 0u f (u), u > .
enai tuqaoc fusikc, tte isqei ti
{f (u)du}n =
0
pou
f (u) L (u) n
du =
f (u) L (u)
du ,
L (u)
enai to polunumo bajmo
gia to opoo h tetragwnik morf
+ 0
f (u)(1 + X1 u + . . . + Xn un )2 du
parnei thn elqisth tim thc kai h tim tou sto mhdn enai sh me 1.
157
Ap th llh meri, an enai
{f (u)du}n =
0
me na antstoiqo polunumo isqei
f (u) (L(u))2 du {f (u)du}n

prokptei ti
L(u),
tte ap ton orism tou
{f (u)du}n
0
Epomnwc,
f (u) (L(u))2 du =
f (u) (L(u))2 du {f (u)du}n .
{f (u)du} = 0 {f (u)du} = 0 .
Epshc, ap ton orism tou
{f1 (u)du}n
+
qoume ti
{f1 (u)du}n
0
f1 (u) L (u)
2
du
+
=
0
'Omwc, to polunumo
f1 (u) L (u)
du +
f1 (u) L (u)
du .
L (u)
ikanopoie to ssthma twn exissewn
+ 0
, isodnama,
f (u)L (u)uk du = 0 ,
k = 1, 2, . . . , n ,
+
Epeid sto disthma
f (u)L (u)uk du = 0 ,
h
k = 1, 2, . . . , n . L (u)
(, +)
f (u)uk
diathre stajer prshmo, to polunumo
ja allzei prshmo akribc lterec tou
.7
Efson
n forc sto (, +), dhlad oi rzec tou enai lec megaL (0) = 1, sto disthma [0, ], anagkastik, ja isqei ti 0 < L (u) 1 .
Sunepc,
0
All, enai
f1 (u) L (u)
du
0
1 f1 (u)du < . () 2
f1 (u) L (u)
du M
f (u) L (u)
du = M {f (u)du}n
kai, epomnwc, qoume
1 {f1 (u)du}n < + M {f (u)du}n . 2

7
Gia na proume to teleutao apotlesma qrhsimopoiome ekeno to epiqerhma tou
Legendre
pou
qrhsimopoisame dh do forc sta prohgomena keflaia.
158
Epeid
{f (u)du} = 0,
uprqei fusikc
tsi ste gia kje
n>
na isqei
1 M {f (u)du}n < . () 2
Sunduzontac tic
()
kai
()
parnoume ti gia to dojn
uprqei
ste gia kje
n>
na isqei
{f1 (u)du}n <

kai h prtash qei apodeiqje.
Pardeigma
8.1
Sthn perptwsh pou qoume th sunrthsh
f (u) =
e2
4 , e2 u k =
4 k,
epomnwc h seir
tte oi suntelestc tou antstoiqou suneqoc klsmatoc enai
+ n=0 2n+1
apoklnei kai ja enai
e2 u
4du e2 u
=0.
Lgw thc paratrhshc 8.6, gia ton tuqao jetik arijm
ja isqei epshc ti
ec u
An jsoume
4du ec u
=0.
f1 (u) = ua1 ebu G(u) ,

pou
f (u) =
ec u
4 , ec u
tou
a > 0, b > 0,
1 2,
fragmnh se kje disthma
c < b kai G(u) ma jetik sunrthsh (, +), tte qoume ti
h opoa enai nw
1 f1 (u) = ua1 ebu +c u G(u) 1 e2c u f (u) 4

kai to rio thc parapnw sunrthshc kajc to shmanei ti h arijm
f1 f
se kje disthma thc morfc
u tenei sto peiro enai mhdn. Aut (, +) enai nw fragmnh ap nan
M .
Dhlad, ikanopoiontai oi proupojseic thc prohgomenhc prtashc, opte
{ua1 ebu G(u)} = 0 .

'Ara, ap to oloklrwma
+ 0
ua1 ebu G(u) du = 0 z+u

159
prokptei na suneqc klsma pou sugklnei efson to suneqc klsma sth seir tou
8 apoklnei.
1 2.
En
G(u) = 1 kai <
1 2,
tte
Sth sunqeia, ja efarmsoume to parapnw apotlesma
Stirling.
Gnwrzoume ti
log (z) =
pou
1 2
log z z +
1 log(2) + J(z) , 2 1 du , 1 e2u
J(z) =
+ 0
z2
z log + u2
, knontac allag metablhtc,

1
1 J(z) = 2
+ 0
zu 2 log z2 + u
1 du . 1 e2 u
H dunamoseir pou antistoiqe sto oloklrwma aut enai h
B1 B2 B3 + ... 2 12z 34z 5 6 z3

kai to antstoiqo suneqc klsma
(A)
1 1 z +
1 2 z+ . .
.
.
1
1 2k z+ . .
2k1 z+
H sunrthsh
f,
s aut thn perptwsh, qei tpo
f (u) = G(u) = e2
u log
1 1 u 2 log 2
1 1e2 u
Gia na .
1 1 e2 u
Enai
1 1 2u u 2e G(u) 2
me
parapnw apaitseic. gia kje migadik
limu+ G(u) = 1, ra h G ikanopoie tic ekfrsoume thn J(z) me ma parstash pou sugklnei
me jetik pragmatik mroc arke na metasqhmatsoume th seir
Stirling 3 =
(A) sto parapnw suneqc oloklrwma.
pwc parathre o
84 53 ,
O upologismc twn suntelestn k , Stieltjes, enai ma diadikasa epponh. Prokptei ti 1 = 12, 2 = 5 , 2 4 = 2809 , 5 = 1003860 , . . . kai to pc suneqzoun oi arijmo auto paramnei 2340 1218947
kti to exairetik polploko.
H apdeixh aut paralepetai kai sthn ergasa tou
Stieltjes.
160
8.12
Sunpeiec thc sgklishc tou suneqoc klsmatoc pou prokptei ap to oloklrwma
+ d(u) 0 z+u .
Sthn teleutaa pargrafo thc ergasac tou o
Stieltjes diatupnei kpoiec protseic pou
sqetzontai me tic sunpeiec thc sgklishc tou suneqoc klsmatoc pou prokptei ap to oloklrwma
+ d(u) z+u . 0
Gia tic apodexeic touc parapmpei se tpouc pou dnei sth
sunqeia thc ergasac tou.
Prtash
8.4
En ap to oloklrwma
+ 0
d(u) z+u
prokptei suneqc klsma pou sugklnei, tte to dio sumbanei kai me to suneqc klsma pou prokptei ap to
+ z
pou to
+ 0
d(u) , z+u
enai stajerc jetikc arijmc. Exairetai ma mno tim tou , ekenh gia thn opoa h sunrthsh dnei thn dia katanom me aut pou prokptei an ap thn katanom (i , i ) thc 1 afairsoume th mza 0 ap to 0.
Prtash 8.5
En ap to oloklrwma
+ 0
d(u) z+u
+ 0
ud(u) , z+u
me exaresh thn dia perptwsh me autn thc prohgomenhc prtashc.
Prtash
8.6
En ap to oloklrwma
+ 0
d(u) z+u
+
pou
d(u ) z+u (i , i 1 ) , i = 1, 2, 3, . . .,
dhlad h
stajerc jetikc arijmc.
Exairetai ma perptwsh, ekenh kat thn opoa h
katanom thc mzac pou orzei h
enai h
katanom pou prokptei an plhsisoume kje mza thc katanomc pou orzei h
kat
pio kont sto 0.
161
162
Mroc II
To oloklrwma
Stieltjes msa ap tic ergasec twn F. Riesz, H. Legesgue kai J. Radon.
163
Keflaio 9
Oi ergasec tou
F. Riesz
sqetik
me thn uf twn suneqn grammikn sunarthsoeidn.
To oloklrwma
Stieltjes
rqise na gnetai gnwst kai na brskei efarmogc perpou
15 qrnia met th dhmoseush thc ergasac {
Recherches sur les fractions continues}, Mathematikai `s e
an kai fanetai na uprqan kpoioi majhmatiko pou asqoljhkan m aut, pwc o
J. Knig, pou to 1897 o Tennszettudom`nyi Ertesit}. e a o

Oggroc
grfei gi aut sto shmewma tou {
Stic arqc tou 20ou aina, na ap ta jmata me ta opoa asqolontan kurwc Italo kai Glloi majhmatiko tan h melth tou sunarthsoeidoc, mac nnoiac idiatera qrsimhc sth Majhmatik Fusik. To sunarthsoeidc oriztan wc ma sunrthsh antistoiqe se kje sunrthsh
nan pragmatik migadik arijm.
U , h opoa
Wc grammik
rizan to sunarthsoeidc pou {diathre} thn epimeristik idithta, dhlad ikanopoie th sqsh
U (f + g) = U (f ) + U (g).
Suneqc grammik sunarthsoeidc tan ekeno pou
qei epiplon thn idithta na diathre to rio miac omoimorfa sugklnousac akoloujac sunartsewn. Fusik, o orismc pou dinan gia to suneqc grammik sunarthsoeidc
thn epoq ekenh enai isodnamoc me to shmerin, an exairsoume ti to pedo orismo enc sunarthsoeidoc mpore na enai opoiosdpote grammikc qroc me nrma. To 1903 o
les} ti en U
J. Hadamard apdeixe sth dhmoseus tou {Sur les oprations fonctionele enai na suneqc grammik sunarthsoeidc me pedo orismo to snolo
twn suneqn sunartsewn pou orzontai se kpoio sumpagc snolo, p.q. sto disthma
Arqik oriztan wc sunrthsh sunartsewn {
fonction de fonction},
Oi
gi aut kai o
J. Hadamard
(1865-1963) thn onmase {
fonctionnelle}
kai, telik, to teleutao noma epikrthse anmesa sta
difora lla pou qrhsimopoiontan gia thn nnoia aut.
F. Riesz
(1875-1941) stic dhmosieseic touc thn onomzoun sunrthsh-prxh ( {
(1880-1965) kai H. Lebesgue opration-fonctionnelle} ) gia e
na tonsoun ti to pedo orismo thc den enai snolo arijmn, pwc twn sunhjismnwn sunartsewn, all snolo sunartsewn.
165
[a, b],
tte gia kje sunrthsh
tou
isqei ti
U (f ) = lim
pou
n+ a
kn (x)f (x)dx , [a, b]
(9.1)
(kn )
enai ma akolouja suneqn sunartsewn pou orzontai sto o
kai enai
anexrthth thc f . 'Exi qrnia argtera, to 1909, les oprations fonctionnelles linaires} katfere na e e
F. Riesz
sthn ergasa tou {
Sur
anaparastsei ta suneq grammik
sunarthsoeid me na pio komy trpo, qrhsimopointac to oloklrwma
Stieltjes.
Pr-
keitai gia thn ergasa sthn opoa apodeiknetai to perfhmo Jerhma Anaparstashc twn suneqn grammikn sunarthsoeidn. perpou na qrno met, o Thn ergasa aut sqolase kai epkteine,
H. Lebesgue sth dhmoseus tou me ttlo {Sur l intgrale e de Stieltjes et sur les oprations fonctionnelles linaires}. San apnthsh sta sqlia e e tou Lebesgue, o F. Riesz dhmoseuse to 1911 ma na ergasa, me ttlo {Sur certains syst`mes singuliers d quations intgrales}. Eke melthse analutik kpoiec basikc e e e idithtec tou oloklhrmatoc Stieltjes pou tou qreizontai sthn ergasa, dwse xan
apdeixh tou Jewrmatoc Anaparstashc qwrc na knei ousiastikc allagc kai asqoljhke me problmata oloklhrwtikn exissewn, ta opoa lnontai me efarmog tou jewrmatc tou.
F. Riesz pou dnei na apdeixh tou Jewrmatoc AnaDmonstration nouvelle d un thor`me e e e concernant les oprations fonctionelles linaires}. H apdeixh pou dnei diafrei ap tic e e
Uprqei kai trth ergasa tou parstashc.
Dhmosiethke to 1914 me ttlo {
prohgomenec kai enai pio komy kai apl, pwc grfei kai o dioc ston prlogo. Aut pou tou dwse thn ida gi aut thn apdeixh tan ta sqlia tou tou dhmoseush. Ap tic treic dhmosieseic tou
Lebesgue gia thn prth
F. Riesz
ja meletsoume stic epmenec paragrfouc
th deterh, giat eke asqoletai analutik me to oloklrwma
Stieltjes.
enai ma sunr-
9.1
Ikan thsh
kai
anagkaa
sunjkh
ste
na
h arqik
miac sunrthshc
fragmnhc kmanshc.
Tjetai to exc erthma:

tsoume an h kmanshc?
en
qoume
ma
sunrthsh
pc
mporome
na
exe-
enai to aristo oloklrwma miac sunrthshc
fragmnhc
Paraktw apodeiknoume na qrsimo kritrio sqetik me to parapnw
erthma.
Lmma
9.1
An h
enai sunrthsh fragmnhc kmanshc sto
[a, b],
tte h
enai
oloklhrsimh (kat
Riemann)
sto
[a, b].
Apdeixh: H ti kje
enai h diafor do auxousn sunartsewn sto [a, b] kai enai gnwst axousa sunrthsh enai oloklhrsimh kat Riemann sto [a, b].
F. Riesz
apodexeic tou en lgw jewrmatoc. O E. Helly (1884-1943) Comptes rendus de l Acadmie de Vienne. e
De djhkan mno ap ton
dhmoseuse epshc ma apdeix tou to 1912 sto periodik
166
Orismc
9.1
'Estw
ma pragmatik sunrthsh orismnh sto
[a, b].
Gia kje arijm
x [a, b)
orzoume touc
nw
kai
ktw dexioc pargwgouc arijmoc

l D+ A(x) = lim inf yx+
Dini
thc
A:
u D+ A(x) = lim sup yx+
A(y) A(x) , yx
orzoume touc
A(y) A(x) . yx
Epshc, gia kje
arijmoc
Dini
thc
x (a, b] A:
nw
kai
ktw aristeroc pargwgouc
u D A(x) = lim sup yx
A(y) A(x) , yx
l D A(x) = lim inf yx
A(y) A(x) . yx
Profanc, h
A
an
qei dexi pargwgo
u D+ A(x)
sto
= x [a, b)
9.2
l D+ A(x)
D+ A(x) = A+ (x) sto x [a, b) an kai mno an = A+ (x). Omowc, h A qei arister pargwgo D A(x) = A (x) u l kai mno an D A(x) = D A(x) = A (x). A enai orismnh kai suneqc sto [a, b].
Lmma
'Estw ti h pragmatik sunrthsh
Tte uprqei
[a, b)
ste
A(b) A(a) l u D+ A() D+ A() ba

kai uprqei
[a, b)
ste
l u D+ A() D+ A()
A(b) A(a) . ba A(a) = A(b) = 0.
Apdeixh: Parnoume thn eidik perptwsh, pou H
kpoio shmeo
[a, b]. An h tim aut enai arnhtik, tte pinetai se (a, b), en, an h tim aut enai mhdn, tte pinetai sto = a. Se kje A(y)A() l u gia kje y > kai, epomnwc, 0 D+ A() D+ A(). perptwsh qoume 0 y Omowc, apodeiknoume ti h A qei mgisth tim se kpoio shmeo [a, b). Tte A(y)A() l u qoume 0 gia kje y > kai, epomnwc, D+ A() D+ A() 0. y
qei elqisth tim sto H genik perptwsh angetai ekola sthn eidik jewrntac th sunrthsh
A(x)
A(b) A(a) bA(a) aA(b) x . ba ba
Fusik, isqei kai h anlogh parallag tou prohgomenou lmmatoc gia touc aristeroc paraggouc arijmoc
Dini
thc
kai h apdeixh enai entelc moia.
Lmma
9.3
'Estw
ma pragmatik sunrthsh orismnh sto
[a, b].
Upojtoume ti h
sunrthsh sto
u D+ A,
orismnh aujareta sto shmeo
b,
Riemann
[a, b].
Tte isqei
A(b) A(a) =
a
u D+ A(x)dx .
167
Apdeixh: Parnoume thn tuqaa diamrish
[a, b]. Se kje disthma [xk1 , xk ] k ste na isqei ti

u D+ A(k )
'Ara,
qoume, bsei tou lmmatoc 9.2, ti uprqoun
D = {a = x0 < x1 < . . . < xm = b} tou k kai
A(xk ) A(xk1 ) u D+ A(k ) . xk xk1

m
m u D+ A(k )(xk k=1

kai
xk1 )
k=1
(A(xk ) A(xk1 )) = A(b) A(a)

m
A(b) A(a) =
k=1
Parnontac diamerseic
(A(xk ) A(xk1 ))
k=1
u D+ A(k )(xk xk1 ) .
twn opown to pltoc tenei sto mhdn, apodeiknetai to su-
mprasma tou lmmatoc.
Paratrhsh
9.1
Isqoun kai oi anlogec parallagc tou lmmatoc gia tic sunart-
seic
l u D+ A, D A
kai
l D A.
Paratrhsh
9.2
To sumprasma tou lmmatoc isqei, profanc, se kje upodisthma
[a, c]
tou
[a, b],
opte parnoume ti, me tic upojseic tou lmmatoc, h
isotai me to
aristo oloklrwma thc
u D+ A
sto
[a, b].
Prtash
9.1
'Estw
oloklrwma kpoiac
A ma sunrthsh orismnh sto [a, b]. Tte, h A ja enai to aristo sunrthshc pou enai fragmnhc kmanshc sto [a, b], akribc
tte, tan to jroisma
m1 k=1
pou
A(xk+1 ) A(xk ) A(xk ) A(xk1 ) , () xk+1 xk xk xk1

enai tuqaa diamrish tou
D = {a = x0 < x1 < . . . < xm = b}
[a, b],
enai nw
fragmno ap na stajer jetik arijm anexrthto thc
D.
Apdeixh: Enai faner ti mporome, qwrc periorism thc genikthtac, na upojsoume ti oi sunartseic
kai
enai pragmatikc.
'Estw ti h sunrthsh
enai to aristo oloklrwma kpoiac sunrthshc
enai fragmnhc kmanshc sto ma tuqaa diamrish tou
[a, b].
Tte, an
D = {a = x0 < x1 < . . . < xm

xk
pou = b} enai
[a, b],
ja isqei ti
1 A(xk ) A(xk1 ) = xk xk1 xk xk1

pou sto
(x)dx = k ,
xk1
k enai nac [xk1 , xk ].
arijmc metax tou katterou kai tou anterou frgmatoc thc
168
Parnoume tuqao idithta:
> 0,
opte gia kje
uprqoun
k , k
sto
[xk1 , xk ]
me thn
(k )
Sunepgetai ti
< k < (k ) + . m m
m1
m1
|k+1 k |
k=1 k=1 m1
(|k+1 (xk )| + |(xk ) k |)

m1
=
k=1 m
|k+1 (xk )| +
k=1 m1
|k (xk )| |k (xk )|
k=1
=
k=2 m
|k (xk1 )| +
k=1
Tra, gia kje
(|k (xk1 )| + |k (xk )|) .
qoume ti
|k (xk1 )| + |k (xk )| < max |(k ) +
(xk1 )| + |(k ) + (xk )|, m m |(k ) (xk1 )| + |(k ) (xk )| m m max(|(k ) (xk1 )| + |(k ) (xk )|, 2 |(k ) (xk1 )| + |(k ) (xk )|) + m 2 = |(tk ) (xk1 )| + |(tk ) (xk )| + , m
' ra, A
pou
tk
enai ete to
ete to
k .
m
m1
|k+1 k | <
k=1
(|(tk ) (xk1 )| + |(tk ) (xk )|) + 2

k=1 Vab
Epeid to
+ 2 .
enai tuqao, katalgoume sto ti
m1 k=1
A(xk+1 ) A(xk ) A(xk ) A(xk1 ) = xk+1 xk xk xk1 A
m1
|k+1 k | Vab .
k=1
Antistrfwc, stw ti h sunrthsh jroisma
orzetai sto
[a, b]
kai enai ttoia ste to
m1 k=1
A(xk+1 ) A(xk ) A(xk ) A(xk1 ) xk+1 xk xk xk1

169
na enai nw fragmno ap na stajer jetik arijm G gia opoiadpote diamrish D = {a = x0 < x1 < . . . < xm = b} tou [a, b]. bx Jewrome tuqao shmeo x [a, b) kai to jetik h, pou enai mikrteroc tou 3 . x+2b Parnoume ton arijm y = kai th diamrish {a, x, x+h, y, b}. Jewrome to jroisma 3 () pou antistoiqe s autn kai, lambnontac upyh thn trigwnik anisthta, parnoume ti
A(x + h) A(x) A(b) A(y) h by A(x + h) A(x) A(y) A(x h) h y (x h)

Parnontac ta antera ria tan noc. Jewrome th sunrthsh sto
A(y) A(x h) A(b) A(y) G. y (x h) by

prokptei ti o
h 0+ ,
u D+ A(x)
enai peperasm-
h opoa sto
[a, b)
isotai me thn
isotai me thn
u D A(b).
u D+ A,
en h tim thc
H sunrthsh ton arijm
enai fragmnhc kmanshc kai mlista, h kmans thc den xepern
G.
Prgmati, stw ma diamrish
D = {a = x0 < x1 < . . . < xm = b}
tou
[a, b]
kai to jroisma
m1
|(xk+1 ) (xk )| .
k=0 u D+ A prokptei ti gia kje k < m uprqei jetikc arijmc hk tsi A(xk +hk )A(xk ) ste to (xk ) na diafrei osodpote lgo ap ton arijm . Gia k = m hk dialgoume to hm arnhtik kai tsi ste to (xm ) na diafrei osodpote lgo ap A(xm +hm )A(xm ) ton arijm . Epiplon, mporome na proume ta difora hk so mikr hm jloume, ste ta diastmata (xk , xk + hk ), pou k = 1, . . . , m 1, kai (xm + hm , xm )
Ap ton orism thc na mhn qoun koin shmea. Tte, to jroisma
m1
|(xk+1 ) (xk )|
k=0
diafrei osodpote lgo ap to jroisma
m1 k=0
A(xk+1 + hk+1 ) A(xk+1 ) A(xk + hk ) A(xk ) . hk+1 hk
'Omwc, to teleutao jroisma, an qrhsimopoisoume thn trigwnik anisthta, prokptei
() pou antistoiqe sth diamrish D = {a = x0 , x0 +h0 , x1 , x1 +h1 , . . . , xm1 +hm1 , xm +hm , xm = b}, to opoo profanc m1 enai mikrtero so ap G. ' ra, to jroisma A k=0 |(xk+1 ) (xk )| enai mikrtero so ap to G. Epeid h diamrish pou dialxame tan tuqaa, petai ti h sunrthsh enai fragmnhc kmanshc kai, mlista, h kmans thc ja enai mikrterh sh tou G. Ap to lmma 9.1 sunepgetai ti h enai oloklhrsimh kat Riemann sto [a, b]
ti enai mikrtero so ap to jroisma thc morfc 170
kai, epomnwc, bsei tou lmmatoc 9.3 kai thc paratrhshc 2, h oloklrwma thc
enai to aristo
9.2
Basikc idithtec tou oloklhrmatoc
Stieltjes
Sthn pargrafo aut apodeiknoume shmantikc idithtec tou oloklhrmatoc pou ja qrhsimopoisoume paraktw.
Prtash 9.2
Stieltjes,
'Estw
enai suneqc kai ti h
f , do sunartseic pou orzontai sto [a, b]. Upojtoume ti h enai fragmnhc kmanshc. Tte, to oloklrwma Stieltjes
b
b a f (x)d(x)
uprqei kai mlista isqei
f (x)d(x) max |f (x)|Vab . ()

a
Apdeixh: ajroismtwn
x [a,b]
Gnwrzoume ti to oloklrwma
Stieltjes
b a f (x)d(x)
enai to rio twn
f (k )((xk ) (xk1 )) , ( )
k=1
pou
tenei sto mhdn.
k [xk1 , xk ], kajc to pltoc thc diamrishc D = {a = x0 < x1 < . . . < xm = b} b Epomnwc, an upojsoume ti to oloklrwma a f (x)d(x) uprqei, tte h isqc thc () enai profanc. Mnei n apodexoume thn parxh tou en lgw oloklhrmatoc, tan h f enai suneqc kai h fragmnhc kmanshc sto [a, b]. 'Estw > 0. H sunrthsh f enai suneqc sto sumpagc snolo [a, b], ra kai omoimorfa suneqc. Epomnwc, uprqei > 0 ttoio ste gia opoiadpote x, y tou [a, b] na isqei |x y| < = |f (x) f (y)| < .
Parnoume ma tuqaa diamrish mikrtero tou
kai opoiadpote
D = {a = x0 < x1 < . . . < xm = b} diamrish D leptterh ap th D . An

(k) (k)
me pltoc
(k) xk1 = t0 < t1 < . . . < tp1 < tp = xk

enai ta diairetik shmea thc
(k)
(k)
sth
D sto disthma [xk1 , xk ], an k [xk1 , xk ] kai an (k) (k) [tl1 , tl ], tte, sugkrnontac ta ajrosmata thc f sto [xk1 , xk ] pou antistoiqon D kai sth D , parnoume
p
f (k ) ((xk ) (xk1 ))
l=1 p
f (l )((tl ) (tl1 )) (f (k ) f (l ))((tl ) (tl1 ))

l=1 p (k) (k) (k)
(k)
(k)
(k)
<
l=1
(tl ) (tl1 ) .
171
(k)
(k)
Ajrozontac tic anisthtec autc gia smtwn thc
k = 1, . . . , m,
brskoume ti h diafor twn ajroi-
tim ligtero
[a, b] pou b ap Va .
sto
antistoiqon stic diamerseic
D, D
tou
diafroun kat apluth
An, tra, proume do opoiesdpote diamerseic tero tou
D, D
[a, b]
me pltoc mikr-
kai tic sugkrnoume me thn koin eklptuns touc, katalgoume sto ti ta
antstoiqa ajrosmata thc
diafroun kat apluth tim ligtero ap
2 Vab .
Jewrome opoiadpote akolouja diamersewn tenoun sto mhdn. ajroismtwn thc arijm
(Dn )
tou
[a, b],
twn opown ta plth
Smfwna me thn prohgomenh pargrafo, h antstoiqh akolouja enai akolouja
Cauchy kai, epomnwc, sugklnei se kpoion migadik
A.
mrish
> 0 kai jewrome to antstoiqo kai opoiadpote diaD = {a = x0 < x1 < . . . < xm = b} me pltoc mikrtero tou . Parnoume, epshc, arket meglo n ste h Dn na qei pltoc mikrtero tou . Tte, h diafor m tou k=1 f (k ) ((xk ) (xk1 )) ap to jroisma pou antistoiqe sth Dn enai kat b apluth tim mikrterh ap 2 Va . Parnontac to rio kajc n +, brskoume
Tra, parnoume tuqao
ti
f (k ) ((xk ) (xk1 )) A 2 Vab .

k=1
'Ara, to
b a f (x)d(x)
uprqei kai enai so me ton arijm
A. [a, b].
En to
Prtash
9.3
'Estw
f,
do fragmnec sunartseic pou orzontai sto uprqei, tte kai to oloklrwma
oloklrwma
b a f (x)d(x)
b a (x)df (x)
uprqei kai
mlista isqei h isthta
f (x)d(x) +
a a
(x)df (x) = f (b)(b) f (a)(a) . D = {a = x0 < x1 < . . . < xm = b}

m m
tou
(9.2)
Apdeixh: Jewrome ma diamrish endimesa shmea
[a, b],
ta
t 1 , t2 ,
...,
tm
kai to jroisma
(tk )(f (xk ) f (xk1 )) =

k=1
Epshc,
(tk )f (xk )
k=1 k=1 m
(tk )f (xk1 ) .
f (b)(b) f (a)(a) =
k=1
f (xk )(xk )
k=1
f (xk1 )(xk1 ) .
Afairntac kat mlh tic do prohgomenec isthtec parnoume ti
(tk )(f (xk ) f (xk1 )) (f (b)(b) f (a)(a))

k=1 m m
=
k=1
f (xk )((xk ) (tk )) +

k=1
172
f (xk1 )((tk ) (xk1 )) .
To detero mloc thc prohgomenhc isthtac enai to jroisma pou antistoiqe sth diamrish
D , h opoa prokptei ap la ta shmea xk , tj

b a f (x)d(x).
(qwrc epanalyeic). Epomnwc,
to rio tou deutrou mlouc thc prohgomenhc isthtac, kajc to pltoc thc sto mhdn, uprqei kai enai so me
tenei
'Ara, kai to rio tou ajrosmatoc sto
prto mloc ja uprqei, dhlad uprqei kai to oloklrwma isthta (9.2).
b a (x)df (x)
kai isqei h
Prtash
9.4
'Estw
kai
do fragmnec sunartseic pou orzontai sto
[a, b].
Upo-
kai ti h Riemann sto [a, b]. 'Ara, orzetai h sunrthsh A me A(x) = x [a, b]. Tte, uprqei kai to rio twn ajroismtwn jtoume ti uprqei to oloklrwma
b a f (x)d(x)
x a (t)dt + A(a)
gia kje
m k=1
(f (xk ) f (xk1 ))(A(xk ) A(xk1 )) xk xk1 D = {a = x0 < x1 < . . . < xm = b}

tenei sto mhdn.
kajc to pltoc thc diamrishc
Apdeixh: Jewrome, qwrc periorism thc genikthtac, ti oi sunartseic enai pragmatikc. En
kai
D = {a = x0 < x1 < . . . < xm = b}

enai ma tuqaa diamrish tou
[a, b],
tte parathrome ti
inf
x[xk1 ,xk ]
opte gia tuqao
(x)
uprqoun
A(xk ) A(xk1 ) sup (x) , xk xk1 x[xk1 ,xk ] k , k

sto
>0
[xk1 , xk ]
ste
(k )
kai
A(xk ) A(xk1 ) < m (|f (xk ) f (xk1 )| + 1) xk xk1
A(xk ) A(xk1 ) < (k ) + . xk xk1 m (|f (xk ) f (xk1 )| + 1)
Ap tic teleutaec anisthtec qoume ti
(sk )(f (xk ) f (xk1 ))

kai
(f (xk ) f (xk1 )) (A(xk ) A(xk1 )) < m xk xk1
(f (xk ) f (xk1 )) (A(xk ) A(xk1 )) < (tk )(f (xk ) f (xk1 )) + , xk xk1 m sk = k , tk = k sthn perptwsh pou f (xk ) f (xk1 ) 0 perptwsh pou f (xk ) f (xk1 ) < 0.
173 kai
pou: sthn
sk = k , tk = k
'Ara,
(sk )(f (xk ) f (xk1 )) <

k=1
kai
k=1
(f (xk ) f (xk1 )) (A(xk ) A(xk1 )) xk xk1
m k=1
(f (xk ) f (xk1 )) (A(xk ) A(xk1 )) < xk xk1

b a f (x)d(x),
(tk )(f (xk ) f (xk1 )) + .

k=1
Epeid uprqei to oloklrwma prqei kai to
lgw thc prohgomenhc prtashc, ja u-
b a (x)df (x).
Afnontac, tra, to pltoc thc diamrishc
D,
all kai to
na tenoun sto mhdn, sumperanoume ti
m |D|0
lim
k=1
(f (xk ) f (xk1 )) (A(xk ) A(xk1 )) = xk xk1
(x)df (x) .
a
Lgw thc (9.2) ja isqei ti
m |D|0
lim
k=1
(f (xk ) f (xk1 )) (A(xk ) A(xk1 )) = f (b)(b)f (a)(a) xk xk1
f (x)d(x) .
a
(9.3)
Paratrhsh
9.3
To rio
lim|D|0
m (f (xk )f (xk1 ))(A(xk )A(xk1 )) k=1 xk xk1
ja to sumbol-
zoume me
b df (x)dA(x) . dx a b
Epomnwc, oi do isthtec thc prohgomenhc apdeixhc grfontai
(x)df (x) =
a b a
Paratrhsh 9.4
df (x)dA(x) , dx
b a
f (x)d(x) = f (b)(b) f (a)(a)
df (x)dA(x) . dx
(9.4)
'Ena erthma pou prokptei enai to an metablletai qi h tim
tou oloklhrmatoc
b a f (x)d(x)
tan allzoume thn tim thc
se kpoia shmea, up
thn proupjesh ti h se kje tim thc
enai suneqc sto
[a, b].
Enai profanc ti an prosjsoume
ton dio stajer pragmatik arijm, tte h tim tou ajrosmatoc (xk1 )) de metablletai, ra to dio isqei kai gia thn tim tou parapnw oloklhrmatoc. En metablloume tic timc thc se na arijmsimo pljoc shmewn, ste h na paramenei sunrthsh fragmnhc kmanshc, tte, lgw thc sunb qeiac thc f , pli h tim tou a f (x)d(x) de metablletai. Aut prokptei pol ekola
m k=1 f (k )((xk )
ap thn prtash pou akolouje.
174
Prtash
9.5
'Estw ti h sunrthsh
To oloklrwma tan h
b a f (x)d(x)
enai stajer ektc
orzetai sto [a, b] kai enai fragmnhc kmanshc. mhdenzetai gia kje suneq sunrthsh f akribc tte, ap na snolo shmewn tou (a, b) pou mpore na enai to
enai mia sunrthsh fragmnhc kmanshc sto
pol arijmsimo. Apdeixh: Upojtoume ti h ttoia ste to oloklrwma An proume sth jsh thc
b a f (x)d(x)
na mhdenzetai gia kje suneq sunrthsh
[a, b], f.
th stajer sunrthsh me tim 1, prokptei ti
(a) = (b) . (1)

An jewrsoume thn
g(x; ) =
tte qoume ti
x, a x , x b ,
b
(x)dg(x; ) =
a a
(x)dg(x; ) +
(x)dg(x; ) .
Ta oloklhrmata pou emfanzontai sto detero mloc thc parapnw isthtac orzontai giat h
enai fragmnhc kmanshc kai h
[a, ]
'Ara,
kai
[, b].
'Omwc, enai
b (x)dg(x; ) b
g(x; ) suneqc se kajna ap ta diastmata = 0, giat h g(x; ) enai stajer sto [, b].
(x)dg(x; ) =
a
Ap thn prtash (9.3), th sqsh (1) ki epeid
(x)dg(x; ) .
a b a g(x; )d(x)
= 0,
parnoume telik ti
(x)dx = ( a)(a) .
a
Paragwgzontac th sqsh aut sta shmea sunqeiac thc gia kje shmeo sunqeiac thc
brskoume ti
() = (a)
'Ara, h
enai stajer sto
[a, b],
ektc ap na to
pol arijmsimo pljoc shmewn tou Antistrfwc, stw ti h
(a, b).
arijmsimo snolo shmewn tou
enai stajer kai sh me c sto [a, b], ektc ap na to pol (a, b). Enai profanc ti an x enai opoiodpote shmeo sunqeiac thc sto (a, b), tte isqei (x) = (x+) = c. Parnontac ma opoiadpote diamrish D = {a = x0 < x1 < . . . < xm = b}, pou ta x1 , . . . , xm1 enai la shmea sunqeiac thc , parathrome ti
m m
f (k )((xk ) (xk1 )) =
k=1
pou h
f (k )(c c) = 0 ,
k=1
enai opoiadpote suneqc sunrthsh orismnh sto
[a, b].
Epeid to pltoc miac ttoiac diamrishc mpore na gnei osodpote mikr jloume kai epeid to brskoume
b a f (x)d(x)
b a f (x)d(x)
uprqei smfwna me thn prtash 9.2, parnontac to rio,
= 0.
175
Prtash
9.6
Jewrome tic sunartseic
kai
pou orzontai sto
[a, b]
kai h prth
enai suneqc, en h deterh fragmnhc kmanshc.
Tte, h tim tou oloklhrmatoc
b a f (x)d(x)
timc thc
den allzei kai h kmansh thc
den auxnetai, an antikatastsoume tic
se opoiadpote shmea asunqeic thc
x (a, b)
me opoiodpote kurt
sunduasm twn orwn Apdeixh:
(x)
kai
(x+). ,
shmea asunqeiac
h opoa prokptei ap thn an se kpoia x (a, b) thc antikatastsoume thn tim (x) me ton kurt sun duasm (x) = (x+) + (1 )(x), pou o arijmc exarttai ap to x. Parnoume opoiadpote diamrish D = {a = x0 < x1 < . . . < xm = b} tou [a, b] kai paremblloume shmea sunqeiac y1 , . . . , ym thc ste na enai xk1 < yk < xk gia kje k = 1, . . . , m. Tte, Jewrome th sunrthsh
| (xk ) (xk1 )| | (y1 ) (a)|

k=1 m1
+
k=1
(| (xk ) (yk )| + | (yk+1 ) (xk )|)
+| (b) (ym )| = |(y1 ) (a)|

m1
+
k=1
(| (xk ) (yk )| + |(yk+1 ) (xk )|)
+|(b) (ym )| .
Parnoume tuqao
>0
kai jewrome shmea
k , k
kont sto
xk ,
ste
yk < k < xk < k < yk+1

kai
|(k ) (xk )| <

Tte, gia kje
xk
kai me to
, |(k ) (xk +)| < . 2m 2m antstoiqo qoume
| (xk ) (k ) (1 )(k )| |(xk +) (k )| + (1 )|(xk ) (k )| < . 2m Parathrome ti aut isqei ete to xk enai shmeo asunqeiac ete enai shmeo sunqeiac thc .
Tte qoume ti
| (xk ) (yk )| + |(yk+1 ) (xk )| < |(k ) + (1 )(k ) (yk )| + |(yk+1 ) (k ) (1 )(k )| + |(k ) (yk )| + |(k ) (k )| m = |(k ) (yk )| + |(k ) (k )| + |(yk+1 ) (k )| + . m +(1 )|(k ) (k )| + |(yk+1 ) (k )| +
176
Tloc, isqei
| (xk ) (xk1 )| < |(y1 ) (a)|

k=1 m1
+
k=1
|(k ) (yk )| + |(k ) (k )| + |(yk+1 ) (k )|
+ |(b) (ym )| + Vab + .

Epeid to
pou jewrsame tan tuqao, brskoume ti
| (xk ) (xk1 )| Vab

k=1
kai epomnwc
Vab Vab .
H sunrthsh

b a
enai fragmnhc kmanshc kai stajer mhdn sto
[a, b],
ektc ap
to pol arijmsimo pljoc shmewn tou
(a, b).
Ap thn prtash 9.5 sunepgetai ti
f (x)d (x)
a
f (x)d(x) =
a
f (x)d( )(x) = 0 .
9.3
Anaparstash me th bojeia
suneqoc tou
grammiko
sunarthsoeidoc .
oloklhrmatoc
Stieltjes
Jewrome to snolo sto
lwn twn migadikn sunartsewn pou orzontai kai enai suneqec U , parnei migadikc , ikanopoie thn
[a, b].
9.2
Orismc
Kje sunrthsh
pou orzetai sto
timc kai gia
kje
f, g
kai opoiousdpote migadikoc arijmoc
U (f + g) = U (f ) + U (g)
ja lgetai
grammik sunarthsoeidc.
9.3
Orismc
'Ena grammik sunarthsoeidc
pou orzetai sto
kai diathre to -
rio miac akoloujac sunartsewn tou akolouja
pou sugklnei omoimorfa, dhlad gia kje ma sunrthsh tou
(fn ) tou pou sugklnei omoimorfa se limn+ U (fn ) = U (f ), ja onomzetai suneqc.

177
isqei ti
Riemann sunrthsh pou orzetai b sto [a, b], tte h sunrthsh U : C me U (f ) = a g(x)f (x)dx enai na suneqc grammik sunarthsoeidc. Epshc, h sunrthsh V : C me V (f ) = f (x0 ), pou x0 tuqao stajer shmeo tou [a, b], enai epshc suneqc grammik sunarthsoeidc, all 3 den mpore na prei th morf tou paradegmatoc U .
Pardeigma 9.1
En
enai ma oloklhrsimh kat
Lmma
9.4
'Estw
na suneqc grammik sunarthsoeidc orismno sto snolo dhlad uprqei stajerc jetikc arijmc
Tte to
enai
fragmno,
ttoioc ste
na isqei
|U (f )| M max |f (x)|
x [a,b]
gia kje suneqc.
(9.5)
sto
Kai antistrfwc, kje fragmno grammik sunarthsoeidc enai
Apdeixh: thsoeidc. isqei
'Estw ti to
enai na suneqc all mh fragmno grammik sunar-
Tte, gia kje fusik
ja uprqei sunrthsh
fk
sto
ttoia ste na
|fk (x)| 1
gia kje (1)
[a, b],
|U (fk )| > k 2 .
H seir
sign (U (fk ))
k=1
ja sugklnei omoimorfa se kpoia sunrthsh grammik sunarthsoeidc, ja isqei ti
fk (x) k2 f
tou
Epeid to
enai suneqc
U (f ) =
k=1
sign (U (fk ))
U (fk ) = k2
+ k=1
|U (fk )| . k2 U (f ) den enai arijmc,
'Omwc, h seir sto detero mloc apoklnei lgw thc (1), ra to prgma topo. Sunepc, to
enai fragmno.
Antistrfwc, stw ti to
enai na fragmno grammik sunarthsoeidc.
T-
te, smfwna me thn upjesh uprqei stajer je akolouja
ste na isqei h (9.5), ra gia kisqei
(fn ) tou , pou sugklnei omoimorfa se ma sunrthsh f , |U (fn f )| M maxx[a,b] |fn (x) f (x)|, opte limn+ U (fn ) = U (f ).
Orismc 9.4
'Estw
na suneqc grammik sunarthsoeidc pou orzetai sto
Tte
o arijmc
MU = sup{|U (f )| : f , |f (x)| 1
3
gia kje
x [a, b]}
Aut apodeiknetai pol ekola, san skhsh Apeirostiko Logismo.
178
onomzetai
nrma
tou
kai enai, profanc, o elqistoc arijmc gia kje
gia ton opoo isqei
|U (f )| M max |f (x)|
x[a,b]
f . F. Riesz. .
To
Akolouje to perfhmo Jerhma Anaparstashc tou

Jerhma 9.1
'Estw
na grammik sunarthsoeidc pou orzetai sto
enai
suneqc akribc tte, tan uprqei sunrthsh fragmnhc kmanshc
pou orzetai sto
[a, b]
kai enai ttoia ste gia kje
tou
na isqei
U (f ) =
a
Apdeixh: kmanshc
f (x)d(x) . U
uprqei sunrthsh fragmnhc
En gia to grammik sunarthsoeidc
pou orzetai sto
[a, b]
kai enai ttoia ste gia kje
tou
na isqei
U (f ) =
a
f (x)d(x) , U
ja enai suneqc.
tte, lgw thc prtashc 9.2 kai tou lmmatoc 9.4, to
Antistrfwc, stw na suneqc grammik sunarthsoeidc U . Qrhsimopointac to U , ja orsoume ma sunrthsh A me pedo orismo to disthma [a, b], wc exc. En [a, b], tte jewrome th sunrthsh g(x; ) pou orzetai ap ton kanna:
g(x; ) =
kai orzoume
x, a x , x b
A() = U (g(x; )).
P = {a = x0 < x1 < . . . < xm = b} tou [a, b] kai tic m 1 suneqec sunartseic f1 , f2 , . . . , fm1 . Kje fk enai mhdenik ektc tou diastmatoc (xk1 , xk+1 ), sto shmeo xk parnei thn tim
Sth sunqeia, jewrome ma diamrish
fk (xk ) = sign
A(xk+1 ) A(xk ) A(xk ) A(xk1 ) xk+1 xk xk xk1
kai tloc, se kajna ap ta diastmata
Me th bojeia twn sunartsewn autn orzoume thn
gia kje
x sto [a, b]. Gia kje k = 1, 2, . . . , m 1 h tim thc fk sto tuqao x sunartsewn thc morfc g(x; ) ja dnetai ap ton tpo:
gia kje
m1 k=1 fk (x)
[xk1 , xk ], [xk , xk+1 ] enai grammik. f pou parnei tim f (x) = [a, b]. Profanc, h f enai suneqc kai isqei |f (x)| 1
tou
tou
[a, b],
wc sunrthsh twn
fk (x) = fk (xk )
opte
g(x; xk+1 ) g(x; xk ) g(x; xk ) g(x; xk1 ) xk+1 xk xk xk1
U (fk ) = fk (xk )
A(xk+1 ) A(xk ) A(xk ) A(xk1 ) xk+1 xk xk xk1 A(xk+1 ) A(xk ) A(xk ) A(xk1 ) = 0 xk+1 xk xk xk1
179
kai sunepc,
m1 k=1
A(xk+1 ) A(xk ) A(xk ) A(xk1 ) = |U (f )| MU . xk+1 xk xk xk1 ,

pou orzetai
Ap thn prtash 9.1 petai ti uprqei sunrthsh fragmnhc kmanshc sto
[a, b]
kai thc opoac to aristo oloklrwma enai h
A.
An allxoume tic timc thc
sta shmea
kai
b,
tte h
ja paramenei sunrthsh fragmnhc kmanshc sto
[a, b]
kai h
A ja suneqsei na enai to aristo oloklrwma thc sto [a, b]. Orzoume (a) = U (1), pou 1 enai h monadiaa sunrthsh sto [a, b], kai (b) = 0.
Tte qoume ti
na enai
g(x; )d(x) = g(b; )(b) g(a; )(a)

a a
(x)dg(x; )
= 0 + aU (1)
a
(x)dx
= A(a)
a
(x)dx
= A() = U (g(x; )) .
Parnoume tuqaa suneq sunrthsh thc omoimorfhc sunqeiac thc (9.6)
orismnh sto disthma
[a, b]
kai
|x y| <
na isqei
f , uprqei > 0, ttoio ste gia |f (x) f (y)| < . Brskoume ma diamrish D = {a = y0 < y1 < . . . < yn = b}
kje
> 0. Lgw x, y sto [a, b] me
tou
[a, b]
gia thn opoa isqei
yk yk1 <
gia
k = 1, . . . , n.
Tte, gia th sunrthsh
pou parnei thn tim
h(x) = f (a)
n1
g(x; a) g(x; y1 ) g(x; a) a y1 a
+
k=1
f (yk )
g(x; yk ) g(x; yk1 ) g(x; yk+1 ) g(x; yk ) yk yk1 yk+1 yk

ja isqei ti
+ f (b)
g(x; b) g(x; yn1 ) b yn1
se kje
h(yk ) = f (yk ) gia kje k = 0, 1, . . . , n. Epshc, h h enai grammik se kje disthma [yk1 , yk ], pou k = 1, . . . , n. 'Ara, |h(x) f (x)| gia kje x [a, b]. Tloc, h h enai grammikc sunduasmc twn g(x; yk ), opte ja
isqei
x [a, b],
U (h) =
a
h(x)d(x) .
180
Ap ta parapnw prokptei ti
U (f )
a
f (x)d(x)
|U (f ) U (h)| +
a x[a,b]
h(x)d(x)
a x[a,b]
f (x)d(x)
MU max |f (x) h(x)| + Vab max |f (x) h(x)| (MU +

To
Vab )
pou jewrsame tan tuqao, ra isqei ti
U (f ) =
a
f (x)d(x) .
Lmma
9.5
'Estw sunrthsh
fragmnhc kmanshc sto
[a, b]
me thn idithta
(x) =
Tte, gia kje kajna ap ta
(x) + (x+) , x (a, b) . 2

ste
> 0 uprqei diamrish D = {a = x0 < x1 < . . . < xm = b} x1 , . . . , xm1 na enai shmeo sunqeiac thc kai ste
m
Vab
<
k=1
|(xk ) (xk1 )| .
kai brskoume diamrish
Apdeixh: Parnoume tuqao
>0
D = {a = x0 < x1 < . . . < xm = b}

ste
Vab
< 2
|(xk ) (xk1 )| .
k=1
'Epeita jewrome ta shmea sunqeiac
k.
Epshc, parnoume shmea sunqeiac
y1 , . . . , ym thc ste yk (xk1 , xk ) gia kje k , k thc ta opoa enai arket kont sto xk (k ) + (k ) < 2 4m
ste na isqei
yk < k < xk < k < yk+1

gia kje
kai
(xk )
k = 1, . . . , m 1.
m
Tte,
|(xk ) (xk1 )|
k=1 m1 k=1
(|(xk ) (yk )| + |(yk ) (xk1 )|) =
= |(y1 ) (a)| +
k=1
(|(xk ) (yk )| + |(yk+1 ) (xk )|) +
181
+|(b) (ym )| |(y1 ) (a)| + (k ) + (k ) (k ) + (k ) (yk ) + (yk+1 ) 2 2 k=1 +|(b) (ym )| + 2 |(y1 ) (a)| + +
m1 m1
+
k=1
(|(k ) (yk )| + |(k ) (k )| + |(yk+1 ) (k )|) + . 2
+|(b) (ym )| +
Sumperanoume loipn ti
Vab < |(y1 ) (a)| +

m1
+
k=1
(|(k ) (yk )| + |(k ) (k )| + |(yk+1 ) (k )|) +
+|(b) (ym )| ,
opte h zhtomenh diamrish enai aut pou apoteletai ap ta shmea
a, b, y1 , . . . , ym , 1 , 1 , . . . , m1 , m1 .
Prtash
9.7
'Estw
na suneqc grammik sunarthoseidc tou
tou. An isqei
enai opoiadpote sunrthsh fragmnhc kmanshc sto
kai MU [a, b], ttoia
h nrma ste na
U (f ) =
a
tte qoume ti Epshc,
f (x)d(x) , f ,
()
MU Vab . uprqei kpoia f
ste na isqei h
()
kai epiplon na isqei
MU = Vab .
Apdeixh: 'Estw
tuqaa sunrthsh sto
, gia thn opoa isqei |f (x)| 1 gia kje
sto
[a, b].
Ap thn prtash 9.2 petai ti
|U (f )| =
a
kai, epomnwc,
f (x)d(x) Vab
MU
Vab . ,
pou enai fragmnhc kmanshc sto
Jewrome, tra, ma tuqaa sunrthsh kai qei thn idithta
[a, b]
U (f ) =
a
f (x)d(x) , f .
182
(x) = (x) gia kje x to opoo enai ete to a ete to b (x)+(x+) ete shmeo sunqeiac thc sto (a, b) kai (x) = gia kje x (a, b) pou 2 enai shmeo asunqeiac thc . Ap thn prtash 9.6 qoume ti
Kataskeuzoume thn ste
U (f ) =
a
kai
f (x)d (x) , f .
Vab Vab . (x+) = (x+)

kai
Epeid ta shmea asunqeiac enai to pol arijmhsmou pljouc, enai ekolo na dome ti
(x) = (x)
gia kje
x (a, b)
kai, epomnwc,
(x) =
Parnoume tuqao
(x+) + (x) , x (a, b) . 2
> 0 kai efarmzoume to prohgomeno lmma gia thn . Uprqei diamrish D = {a = x0 < x1 < . . . < xm = b} ste kajna ap ta x1 , . . . , xm1 na enai shmeo sunqeiac thc kai na isqei Vab
Gia kje
< 2
| (xk ) (xk1 )| .
k=1
k = 1, . . . , m 1
parnoume shmea
k , k
arket kont sto
xk
ttoia ste
k < xk < k k1 < k
gia kje
k = 1, . . . , m 1,
gia kje
k = 2, . . . , m 1,
a < 1 , m1 < b
kai
| (x) (x )| < sign ( (1 ) (a))
10m
gia kje
x, x
sto
[k , k ]
kai
k = 1, . . . , m 1.
[a, b], h opoa enai stajer me tim sto [a, 1 ], stajer me tim sign ( (b) (m1 )) sto [m1 , b], ( ) ( stajer me tim sign ( k k1 )) sto [k1 , k ] gia kje k = 2, ..., m 1 kai grammik se kje mikr disthma [k , k ].
Sth sunqeia orzoume sunrthsh suneq sto Parathrome amswc ti isqei
|f (x)| 1 , x [a, b] .
Katpin, gia kje
k = 2, ..., m 1
parnoume
k k1
f (x)d (x) = sign( (k ) (k1 ))( (k ) (k1 )) = | (k ) (k1 )| ,
pwc epshc
1 a
f (x)d (x) = sign( (1 ) (a))( (1 ) (a)) = | (1 ) (a)|

183
kai
b m1
f (x)d (x) = sign( (b) (m1 ))( (b) (m1 )) = | (b) (m1 )| . [k , k ] isqei ti |f (k )| 1 kai |f (k )| 1. An pk enai o suntelestc f sto disthma aut, tte
k k k k k
Se kje disthma
diejunshc thc grammikc sunrthshc me thn opoa isotai h isqei
k k
f (x)d (x) = = pk
(f (x) f (k )) d (x) + f (k )
d (x)
(x k )d (x) + f (k ) ( (k ) (k ))
k k
= pk (k k ) (k )
k
(x)dx + f (k ) ( (k ) (k ))
= pk
k
kai, epomnwc,
( (k ) (x)) dx + f (k ) ( (k ) (k ))
k k
f (x)d (x)
|pk |(k k )
+ |f (k )| 10m 10m = |f (k ) f (k )| + |f (k )| 10m 10m 3 . 10m
'Ara
b a
m1
f (x)d (x)
| (1 ) (a)| +
k=2
| (k ) (k1 )| 3(m 1) 10m | (xk ) (k )| + | (k ) (xk )|

k=1
+| (b) (m1 )|
m1
| (1 ) (a)| +
m1
+
k=2
| (k ) (k1 )| + | (b) (m1 )|
3(m 1) 2(m 1) 10m 10m

m
k=1
| (xk ) (xk1 )| . 2 2
184
5(m 1) 10m
Vab
Epomnwc,
Vab
a
f (x)d (x) = |U (f )|
x[a,b]
MU max |f (x)| MU Vab .

Epeid to
tan tuqao, sumperanoume ti
MU = Vab .
9.4
Sqlia
gia to uploipo thc
dhmoseushc.
Oi treic prohgomenec pargrafoi apotelon kai tic treic prtec paragrfouc thc dhmoseushc tou
F. Riesz
kai enai shmantikc sthn istora tou oloklhrmatoc
Stieltjes,
afo eke apodeiknontai gia prth for kpoiec basikc idithtc tou, kajc kai to perfhmo Jerhma Anaparstashc tou
F. Riesz,
to opoo deqnei pso shmantik ma-
jhmatik ergaleo enai to oloklrwma aut. Stic uploipec paragrfouc thc dhmoseushc, o shmantik epshc, jewrmata.
Riesz
apodeiknei ta paraktw,
Jerhma
9.2
'Estw ti h akolouja
(fk )
apoteletai ap dosmnec migadikc sunart-
seic suneqec sto
[a, b]
kai h
(ck )
apoteletai ap dosmnouc migadikoc arijmoc. Tte,
h ikan kai anagkaa sunjkh ste na uprqei sunrthsh
[a, b],
h opoa na ikanopoie to ssthma
fk (x)d(x) = ck ,
a
enai na uprqei mh arnhtikc arijmc
k = 1, 2, ...
(9.7)
me thn idithta
k ck M max
k=1
gia kje fusik arijm An
x[a,b]
k fk (x)
k=1
(9.8)
kai gia tuqaouc mi gadikoc arijmoc
1 ,
...,
n .
M0
enai o elqistoc
gia ton opoo isqei h (9.8), tte
M0 Vab
gia kje sunrthsh (9.7).
[a, b],
h opoa ikanopoie to ssthma
Epshc, uprqei kpoia
ssthma (9.7) kai thn
0 fragmnhc M0 = Vab 0 .
kmanshc sto
[a, b],
h opoa ikanopoie to
Jerhma
9.3
Me tic upojseic tou prohgomenou jewrmatoc kai me thn proupjesh
ti isqei h sunjkh (9.8), opoiesdpote sunartseic
[a, b],
pou ikanopoion to ssthma (9.7), diafroun se to pol arijmsimo pljoc shmewn tou
[a, b]
an kai mno an kje mi gadik sunrthsh suneqc sto
[a, b]
enai omoimorfo rio
grammikn sunduasmn twn
fk , k = 1, 2, ...
185
Jerhma
9.4
'Estw ti h akolouja
(fk )
apoteletai ap dosmnec migadikc sunar-
tseic suneqec sto
[a, b].
Tte, kje migadik sunrthsh suneqc sto
[a, b]
enai o-
moimorfo rio grammikn sunduasmn twn sunartseic
fk , k = 1, 2, ...
, an kai mno an oi mnec
[a, b]
oi opoec ikanopoion to ssthma
fk (x)d(x) = 0 , k = 1, 2, ... ,
a
enai ekenec pou qoun stajer tim sto shmewn tou
[a, b],
ektc ap na to pol arijmsimo pljoc
[a, b].
Me to teleutao jerhma dnei ma komy apnthsh se na prblhma pou eqe teje ap ton
E. Schmidt
ste kje rio
(1876-1959) kai diatupnetai wc exc:
an doje na arijmsimo
snolo sunartsewn ttoio
1 2
,
, ...,
suneqn sto , pou enai
[a, b]
, pte to snolo aut enai sto
sunrthsh grammikn
suneqc twn
[a, b]
na
apotele
to
omoimorfo
sunduasmn
parapnw
sunartsewn.
O ...,
Schmidt
eqe apodexei ti gia na qei na arijmsimo snolo sunartsewn
1 , 2 ,
suneqn sto sunjkec.
[a, b],
thn parapnw idithta ja prpei to ssthma aut na ikanopoie do
H prth sunjkh, pou argtera apodeqjhke ti enai anagkaa all qi
ikan, enai na mhn uprqei mh mhdenik kai suneqc sto enai orjognia se kje
[a, b]
sunrthsh, h opoa ja
anagkaa, enai oi sunartseic txewc kai na mhn
k , k = 1, 2, .... H deterh sunjkh, h opoa enai ikan all qi k , k = 1, 2, ... na qoun suneqec paraggouc deutrac uprqei mh mhdenik kai suneqc sto [a, b] sunrthsh, h opoa ja
tou p.q.
enai orjognia s lec tic paraggouc. Sthn nath pargrafo o sustmatoc (9.7)
Riesz parathre ti an sto prblhma thc eplushc apaitsoume h pou yqnoume na qei kai llec idithtec, pwc
na enai pragmatik sunrthsh montonh, tte odhgomaste se problmata me ta opoa
kai o
T.-J. Stieltjes (1856-1894) C. Carathodory (1873-1950). Prgmati, sto prblhma twn ropn, tsi pwc to e rise o Stieltjes, anazhtome ma pragmatik kai axousa sunrthsh, h opoa ikanopoie
dh eqan asqolhje se ergasec touc majhmatiko, pwc o Sto dkato keflaio thc dhmoseusc tou sqolizei thn ergasa tou
katllhlo ssthma sunarthsiakn exissewn pou qei th morf (9.7).
me ttlo
H. Lebesgue Sur l intgrale de Stieltjes et sur les oprations fonctionelles linaires me thn e e e
opoa ja asqolhjome sto epmeno keflaio.
186
Keflaio 10
To oloklrwma tic ergasec
Stieltjes msa tou Lebesgue.

F. Riesz,
ap
To 1910, na qrno met th dhmoseush thc ergasac tou
h opoa perieqe
gia prth for to Jerhma Anaparstashc twn suneqn grammikn sunarthsoeidn, o H. Lebesgue dhmosieei thn ergasa me ttlo {Sur l intgrale de Stieltjes et sur e les oprations fonctionelles linaires}. Sthn arq thc dhmoseusc tou autc o Lebee e sgue anafretai sto oloklrwma Stieltjes, to opoo orzei wc na grammik telest pou antistoiqe se kje sunrthsh f , pou ikanopoie katllhlec idithtec, ton arijm b n 1 f (i )((xi+1 ) (xi )). O dioc grfei ti den enai stqoc tou a f (x)d(x) = lim na exetsei tic propojseic pou prpei na ikanopoion oi sunartseic f kai ste na u orzetai to parapnw oloklrwma h
enai dh gnwst ti to parapnw rio uprqei tan
enai suneqc kai h
[a, b]
kai autc enai oi sunartseic
me tic opoec ja asqolhje, ra den ton endiafroun oi uploipec periptseic. Stqoc tou enai n apodexei ti telik kje suneqc grammik sunarthsoeidc mpore na ekfraste me th bojeia enc oloklhrmatoc ti kje oloklrwma
Lebesgue.
Aut to katafrnei deqnontac
Stieltjes
suneqoc sunrthshc angetai se oloklrwma
Lebesgue
ajrosimhc sunrthshc.
10.1
anagwg
tou .
oloklhrmatoc
Stieltjes
se
olokl-
rwma
Lebesgue
Lmma
10.1
'Estw ma migadik sunrthsh tuqao shmeo tou isthtec
sto
[a, b],
h opoa enai fragmnhc k-
manshc.
An
kmansc thc
x0 enai Vax oi
[a, b],
ja isqoun gia th
kai th sunrthsh
Vax0 + Vax0 = |(x0 +) (x0 )| , Vax0 Vax0 = |(x0 ) (x0 )| ,

efson h jsh tou
x0 sto disthma [a, b] enai ttoia ste ta antstoiqa ria na orzontai.

187
isthta, sthn perptwsh pou
x0 [a, b) kai ja dexoume thn prth isthta. H deterh x0 (a, b], prokptei me anlogo trpo. x + x Katarqc, ta ria Va 0 kai (x0 +) uprqoun giat h Va enai axousa sunrthsh kai h fragmnhc kmanshc. En y > x0 , tte
Apdeixh: Upojtoume ti
y Vay Vax0 = Vx0 |(y) (x0 )| .

Parnontac ta ria twn meln thc parapnw anisthtac kajc
y x0 +,
qoume ti
Vax0 + Vax0 |(x0 +) (x0 )| .

Mnei na dexoume thn anisthta thc antjethc forc. 'Estw
> 0.
Tte, uprqei diamrish
D = {a = y0 < y1 < ... < ym = b}
tou
[a, b],
ttoia ste
Vab < Vab (, D) Vab .

En
i enai o dekthc gia ton opoo isqei yi1 x0 < yi , tte jewrome tuqao y me x0 < y < yi kai th diamrish D = D {x0 , y} = {a = z0 < z1 < ... < zl = b}. Isqei
ti
Vab < Vab (, D) Vab (, D ) Vab ,

opte
0
j=1
Ap to teleutao petai ti
j Vzj1 |(zj ) (zj1 )| < .
y 0 Vx0 < |(y) (x0 )| + .

Parnontac ta ria stic parapnw anisthtec gia isqei
y x0 +
qoume ti gia tuqao
>0
x 0 Vx00 + < |(x0 +) (x0 )| +

, isodnama,
0 Vax0 + Vax0 < |(x0 +) (x0 )| +

kai ra to zhtomeno qei apodeiqje.
Paratrhsh
10.1
Ap to prohgomeno lmma prokptei ti h
enai suneqc ap
dexi s na shmeo an kai mno an kai h
Vax
enai suneqc ap dexi sto shmeo aut. 'Ara, oi kai
To dio akribc isqei kai gia th sunqeia ap arister. dia shmea sunqeiac.
Vax
qoun ta
ma sunrthsh fragmnhc kmanshc orismnh sto [a, b] kai v = v(x) = Vax x b h sunrthsh kmansc thc. H sunrthsh Va : [a, b] [0, Va ] enai axousa kai ja prospajsoume na thn antistryoume, dhlad na orsoume ma sunrthsh x(v) : [0, Vab ] [a, b], h opoa ja sumperifretai, kat kpoio trpo, pwc h antstrofh thc Vax , an aut uprqe. b 'Estw v0 [0, Va ]. Diakrnoume tic paraktw periptseic.
'Estw 188
An uprqei akribc na
x0
ttoio ste
Vax0 = v0 ,
tte orzoume
x(v0 ) = x0 .
An uprqoun perisstera ap na qi monosnolo, sto opoo h sto dio disthma. En orzoume
Vax
x ttoia ste Vax = v0 , tte uprqei disthma, enai stajer. Profanc, kai h enai stajer
x0
enai opoiodpote shmeo tou diastmatoc auto, tte
x(v0 ) = x0 .
En h exswsh
Vax = v0 den qei lsh wc proc x, tte uprqei (monadik) x0 sto [a, b], sto opoo oi kai Vax enai asuneqec kai ttoio ste v0 [Vax0 , Vax0 ) x x + (Va 0 , Va 0 ]. Sthn perptwsh aut jtoume x(v0 ) = x0 . Dhlad, h x(v) enai x x + stajer sto anoikt disthma (Va 0 , Va 0 ) kai sh me x0 . Sto disthma aut
enai dunatn na periqetai toulqiston na ap ta kra tou.
H sunrthsh pou oi
x(v) enai asuneqc sta shmea v0 , ta opoa antistoiqon se diastmata

enai stajerc, en enai stajer se diastmata, ta opoa antistoiqon
kai
se shmea asunqeiac twn
kai Vax . Enai gnhswc axousa kai suneqc stic eiknec x twn diasthmtwn pou h Va enai gnhswc axousa kai suneqc, me exaresh, swc, twn
krwn twn diasthmtwn autn. Jewrome th snjeth sunrthsh
Vax
(x(v)) : [0, Vab ] C. Vax0 = v0 ,

tte isqei
An uprqei akribc na
x0
ttoio ste
(x(v0 )) = (x0 ).
tte isqei
An uprqei disthma, qi monosnolo, sto opoo isqei
Vax = v0 ,
(x(v0 )) = (x0 ),
pou
fanc, h epilog tou
x0 enai opoiodpote shmeo tou diastmatoc auto. Prox0 den ephrezei thn tim (x(v0 )) = (x0 ), diti h enai x0 , tte (x(v0 )) = (x0 ). (Vax0 , Vax0 + ).
stajer sto disthma aut.
An
v0 (Vax0 , Vax0 + ) gia lad, h (x(v)) enai stajer
kpoio (monadik) sto disthma
Dh-
Tropopoiome thn (x(v)), tsi ste na enai grammik se kajna ap ta diastmata [Vax0 , Vax0 ] kai [Vax0 , Vax0 + ]. Tte parnoume ma sunrthsh (v), h opoa orzetai wc exc. 'Estw
v0
tuqao shmeo tou
[0, Vab ].
gia to opoo isqei
En uprqei monadik
x0
Vax0 = v0 ,
tte jtoume
(v0 ) = (x(v0 )) = (x0 ) .

En uprqei disthma, qi monosnolo, sto opoo isqei
Vax = v0 ,
tte jtoume
(v0 ) = (x(v0 )) = (x0 ) ,

pou
x0
enai opoiodpote shmeo tou diastmatoc auto.
ephrezei thn tim aut.
H epilog tou x0 den (v0 ) = (x(v0 )) = (x0 ), diti h enai stajer sto disthma
189
Sthn perptwsh pou den uprqoun timc twn ja uprqei sto disthma
[a, b]
na (monadik)
kai ja isqei na ap ta do: sumbanei to prto, orzoume
x pou na antistoiqon sthn v0 , tte x0 sto opoo h Vax enai asuneqc Vax0 v0 < Vax0 Vax0 < v0 Vax0 + . An (x0 ) (x0 ) (v0 Vax0 ) . Vax0 Vax0
(v0 ) = (x0 ) +
An isqei to detero, tte orzoume
(v0 ) = (x0 ) +
(x0 +) (x0 ) (v0 Vax0 ) . Vax0 + Vax0 x0 [a, b]

isqei
Enai ekolo na apodeiqje ti gia kje
(Vax0 ) = (x0 ) .
Prgmati, diakrnoume tic exc periptseic, afo jsoume
v0 = Vax0 .
tte ap ton orism
An to thc
x0
enai to monadik
isqei
x gia to opoo x0 ) = (v ) = (x ). (Va 0 0 x0

uprqei kai detero
isqei
Vax = v0 ,
x ste na isqei Vax = v0 , tte, ap ton x0 ) = (v ) = (x ), pou x enai opoiodpote ap ta orism thc , isqei (Va 0 0 0 x gia ta opoa isqei Vax = v0 . 'Omwc, h enai stajer se kpoio disthma pou x periqei ta x0 , x0 , opte (Va 0 ) = (x0 ) = (x0 ).
An ektc ap to
10.1
Orismc
'Estw
ma mi gadik sunrthsh orismnh sto
apoltwc suneqc
sto
sto
[a, b],
an gia kje
smnou pljouc xna an do diastmata
[a, b]. H onomzetai > 0 uprqei > 0 ste: gia kje pepera(a1 , b1 ), (a2 , b2 ), . . . , (an , bn ) pou periqontai
[a, b]
kai ikanopoion thn
(b1 a1 ) + (b2 a2 ) + . . . + (bn an ) <

sunepgetai ti
|(b1 ) (a1 )| + . . . + |(bn ) (an )| < .

Oi apoltwc suneqec sunartseic pazoun kentrik rlo sth jewra tou oloklhrmatoc
Lebesgue kai to shmantiktero apotlesma pou sqetzetai m autc tic sunartseic enai
to exc.
Jerhma
10.1
'Estw
apoltwc suneqc sto
mia migadik sunrthsh orismnh sto [a, b]. Tte, h [a, b] an kai mno an uprqei sunrthsh oloklhrsimh
enai kat
Lebesgue
sto
[a, b]
me thn idithta
(x) =
[a,x]
(t)dt , x [a, b] .
190
Prtash
10.1
'Estw pragmatik sunrthsh
nrthsh kmanshc H
fragmnhc kmanshc sto [a, b], h suVax thc kai h sunrthsh pou kataskeusthke sta prohgomena. |(v2 ) (v1 )| v2 v1
ikanopoie th sqsh
gia kje
[0, Vab ].
v1 , v2 [0, Vab ]
me
v1 < v2 .
Epshc, h
enai apoltwc suneqc sto disthma
Apdeixh: periptseic.
Jewrome tuqaa
v1 , v2 [0, Vab ] x1
me
v1 < v2 x2
kai diakrnoume diforec
An uprqei toulqiston na oi
kai toulqiston na
sto
[a, b]
ste na isqoun
Vax1 = v1 , Vax2 = v2 ,
tte
x |(v2 ) (v1 )| = |(x2 ) (x1 )| Vx12 = Vax2 Vax1 = v2 v1 .
ii
Uprqei toulqiston na
Vax1 = v1 , all den uprqei kanna x ste = v2 . Tte uprqei (monadik) x2 sto [a, b] ste v2 [Vax2 , Vax2 ) x2 , V x2 + ]. Profanc isqei x < x kai, parnontac tuqao > 0, v2 (Va 1 2 a brskoume x3 ste x1 < x3 < x2 kai x1
sto
[a, b]
ste
Vax
|(x3 ) (x2 )| < ,

Lgw grammikthtac thc sqei
|Vax3 Vax2 | < . [Vax2 , Vax2 ]

kai
sta diastmata
[Vax2 , Vax2 + ],
i-
|(v2 ) (x2 )| = |(v2 ) (Vax2 )| v2 Vax2 .

'Ara,
|(v2 ) (v1 )| |(v2 ) (x2 )| + |(x2 ) (x3 )| + |(x3 ) (x1 )|

x < v2 Vax2 + + Vx13 x < v2 Vax3 + 2 + Vx13
= v2 Vax1 + 2 = v2 v1 + 2 .
Epeid to
enai tuqao, katalgoume sth sqsh
|(v2 ) (v1 )| v2 v1 . iii

.
An uprqei toulqiston na
x2 ste Vax2 = v2 , all kanna x ste Vax = v1 , x x x x + tte uprqei (monadik) x1 < x2 ste v1 [Va 1 , Va 1 ) v1 (Va 1 , Va 1 ]. Parnoume tuqao kai brskoume x3 ste x1 < x3 < x2 kai |(x3 ) (x1 +)| < , |Vax3 Vax1 + | < .
'Opwc sthn perptwsh
ii,
lgw grammikthtac thc
isqei
|(v1 ) (x1 +)| = |(v1 ) Vax1 + | Vax1 + v1

191
kai
|(v2 ) (v1 )| |(x2 ) (x3 )| + |(x3 ) (x1 +)| + |(x1 +) (v1 )|

x Vx32 + + Vax1 + v1 x < Vx32 + 2 + Vax3 v1
= Vax2 v1 + 2 = v2 v1 + 2 .
'Ara,
|(v2 ) (v1 )| v2 v1 . x1
kai kanna
iv
Den uprqei kanna
Vax1 = v1 kai Vax2 = v2 . Tte, x x + mia perptwsh enai na uprqei x0 ste ta v1 , v2 na ankoun sto [Va 0 , Va 0 ], opte, lgw grammikthtac thc , sunepgetai h sqsh |(v2 ) (v1 )| v2 v1 . x x Ma deterh perptwsh enai na uprqoun x1 , x2 ste v1 [Va 1 , Va 1 ) v1 (Vax1 , Vax1 + ] kai v2 [Vax2 , Vax2 ) v2 (Vax2 , Vax2 + ]. Parnoume tuqao x3 ste x1 < x3 < x2 kai efarmzoume ta apotelsmata twn ii kai iii me to v3 = Vax3 : x2
ste
|(v2 ) (v1 )| |(v2 ) (v3 )| + |(v3 ) (v1 )| v2 v3 + v3 v1 = v2 v1 .

To ti h
enai apoltwc suneqc sto
[0, Vab ]
enai tra profanc, afo gia k-
je peperasmnou pljouc xna an do diastmata
(v1 , u1 ), (v2 , u2 ),
...,
(vn , un )
tou
[0, Vab ]
qoume
|(u1 ) (v1 )| + . . . + |(un ) (vn )| (u1 v1 ) + . . . + (un vn ) .

Jerhma 10.2
En
enai suneqc kai h
tte isqei ti
b a f (x)d(x)
V 0
sunrthsh fragmnhc kmanshc sto [a, b], f (x(v)) (v)dv , pou V = Vab kai x(v) kai (v) oi
sunartseic pou orsthkan prohgoumnwc.
[a, b], to oloprofanc ja orzetai. H snjeth sunrthsh f (x(v)) : klrwma Stieltjes [0, Vab ] R enai sqedn panto suneqc sto [a, b] kai h (v) enai sqedn panto 1, V ra kai to oloklrwma Lebesgue 0 f (x(v)) (v)dv ja orzetai. Ja dexoume ti ta
Apdeixh: Epeid h enai suneqc kai h
b a f (x)d(x)
do oloklhrmata enai sa.
f enai omoimorfa suneqc sto [a, b], ja uprqei > 0, x, y sto [a, b] me |x y| < na sunepgetai ti |f (x) f (y)| < . Jewrome ma diamrish D tou [a, b], ttoia ste to mkoc kje diastmatoc thc i = [li , mi ] na enai mikrtero ap . Ap kje ttoio disthma jewrome na shmeo i kai jtoume i = [v(li ), v(mi )], vi = v(mi ) v(li ). Se na tuqao disthma [u, w] [a, b] pou oi v kai enai stajerc isqei ti
'Estw Tte, epeid h ttoio ste gia kje
> 0.
v(w)
(w) (u) = 0 =
v(u)
192
(v)dv .
An h
den enai stajer sto
[u, w]
kai enai
u = x(v1 ), w = x(v2 ),
tte ja isqei ti
v2
(w) (u) = (x(v2 )) (x(v1 )) = (v2 ) (v1 ) =

v1
Epomnwc, se kje disthma
(v)dv .
ja qoume ti
(mi ) (li ) =
i
kai telik
(v)dv
f (x(v)) (v)dv
a i
f (i )[(mi ) (li )]
=
i i
[f (x(v)) f (i )] (v)dv
i i
Epshc, enai
| (v)|dv =
i
vi = V .
f (x)d(x)
a i
f (i )[(mi ) (li )] =
i i
[f (x) f (i )]d(x) dv(x) =

i i
i
'Ara, isqei ti
vi = V .
b a f (x)d(x)
V 0
f (x(v)) (v)dv . A,
to opoo orzetai
'Estw tra ti qoume to suneqc grammik sunarthsoeidc sto snolo twn suneqn sunartsewn tou sewc tou
Riesz
petai ti uprqei
[a, b]. sunrthsh ,
Tte, ap to Jerhma Anaparastpou orzetai sto
nhc kmanshc kai ttoia ste gia kje suneq sunrthsh
tou
[a, b], [a, b]
enai fragmna isqei ti
A(f ) =
b a f (x)d(x).
Smfwna, mwc, me thn parapnw prtash, h tim
A(f ) (v)
mpo-
re na grafe sth morf
V 0
f (x(v)) (v)dv ,
dhlad me th bojeia enc oloklhrmatoc
Lebesgue.
'Otan gnwrzoume th sunrthsh
, A.
tte oi sunartseic
x(v)
kai
enai 'Ara,
gnwstc, me exaresh swc tic timc touc se na snolo shmewn mtrou mhdn. qoume prosdiorsei kai to sunarthsoeidc
H parstash enc sunarthsoeidoc me th bojeia enc oloklhrmatoc do shmantik pleonektmata, pwc parathre o tou:
Lebesgue qei
Lebesgue
sto tloc thc dhmoseusc
Mac epitrpei na epektenoume ta sunarthsoeid se sunartseic polln metablhtn kai na ta ekfrsoume me th bojeia oloklhrwmtwn metablhtn.
Lebesgue
polln
H sunrthsh
pou emfanzetai sto oloklrwma
V 0
f (x(v)) (v)dv
upojtame
mqri tra ti tan suneqc.
'Omwc, to prohgomeno oloklrwma orzetai kai
193
sthn perptwsh pou jewrome sunartseic gia tic opoec qoume knei asjensterec upojseic. Ttoiec enai oi fragmnec sunartseic
f (x),
oi opoec metasqh-
matzontai se metrsimec sunartseic oloklhrsimec kat ttai ap th
f (x(v)) thc metablhtc v , oi opoec enai Lebesgue sto [a, b]. Bbaia, autc o metasqhmatismc exarsunrthsh . Ma megalterh klsh sunartsewn sthn opoa ja
mporosame na {dieurnoume} to pedo orismo twn sunarthsoeidn kai to oloklrwma
Stieltjes, enai lec oi fragmnec sunartseic f pou enai oloklhrsimec kat Lebesgue sto [a, b]. Aut h paratrhsh tou Lebesgue dnei ston F. Riesz thn
ida na dieurnei to pedo orismo twn suneqn grammikn sunarthsoeidn stic epmenec ergasec tou.
10.2
Leons c sur l intgration et la recherche des fonctions primie tives.

Endiafrousec parathrseic ap to biblo { }
Dexame sthn teleutaa prtash thc prohgomenhc paragrfou ti kje oloklrwma
Stieltjes
miac suneqoc sunrthshc
wc proc ma sunrthsh fragmnhc kmanshc
metatrpetai se oloklrwma miac ajrosimhc sunrthshc.
Aut h diadikasa metatro-
pc tou oloklhrmatoc ap to na edoc sto llo perigrfetai analutiktera ap ton
Lebesgue to 1928 sth deterh kdosh recherche des fonctions primitives}.
tou biblou tou {
Leons sur l intgration et la c e
H prth kdosh auto tou shmantiko biblou, pou bojhse sth eurterh didosh twn majhmatikn tou iden, gine to 1904 kai perieqe ta majmata pou ddaxe o
Lebe-
sgue sto Coll`ge de France thn akadhma qroni 1902-1903. e ik
O stqoc twn majhmtwn
kai tou biblou, pwc grfei kai o dioc ston prlog tou, enai ap touc polloc orismoc, pou eqan doje mqri tte gia to oloklrwma twn pragmatikn sunartsewn miac metablhtc, na dsei ekenouc pou autc jewre shmantikoc sthn eplush tou problmatoc thc oloklrwshc kai sthn katanhsh thc stenc sqshc pou sundei to prblhma aut me thn nnoia tou embado. Eke orzei kai melet to perfhmo oloklrwm tou. O lgoc gia ton opoo parajtei nan akma orism tou oloklhrmatoc, th stigm pou dh uprqoun pollo, enai ti to no aut oloklrwma enai {geniktero} ap aut tou
Riemann kai de mac periorzei sth melth twn oloklhrwmtwn twn {kaln}
sunartsewn. Ektc ap ton orism tou oloklhrmatoc tou, sto biblo aut melet to prblhma thc ereshc arqikn sunartsewn kai tic eujugrammsimec kamplec. H deterh kdosh tou biblou tou, met ap 25 perpou qrnia, den enai aplc mia anatpwsh thc palic, all periqei kai la ta na kai shmantik apotelsmata pou sqetzontai me tic basikc nnoiec kai ta problmata pou melet h prth. Dhlad,
asqoletai kai s autn me to oloklrwma twn pragmatikn sunartsewn miac pragmatikc metablhtc. Den epektenetai sto oloklrwma sunartsewn polln metablhtn,
Ma metrsimh sunrthsh lgetai ajrosimh tan enai oloklhrsimh kat
Lebesgue.
194
all afiernei na olklhro keflaio sth melth tou oloklhrmatoc parathre kai o dioc ston prlogo thc deterhc kdosc tou:
Stieltjes.
'Opwc
{...Den asqoljhka me to oloklrwma sunartsewn polln metablhtn, epeid oi anagnstec autn twn dialxewn mporon na diabsoun sqetik me aut sto exairetik biblo tou
Valle Poussin, e
sto opoo eda mia llou edouc genkeush tou gnwsto mac
oloklhrmatoc: to oloklrwma
Stieltjes.
Pi-
Gia tou lgou to alhjc, enai sa na meinoume th spoudaithta tou oloklhrmatoc
Stieltjes
tan to meletome sta plasia twn sunartsewn miac mno metablhtc.
stew ti prpei na asqolhjome kai me aut, mwc, emai ikanopoihmnoc pou katfera na dsw ma fusik kai pio genik ermhnea auto tou oloklhrmatoc.}
Sto keflaio tou, to
XI thc deterhc kdoshc tou biblou tou, oloklrwma Stieltjes enai tso shmantik: I
exhge giat, kat th gnmh
{...Sto keflaio
meletsame thn oloklrwsh tsi pwc th sunantome sta prta
majmata tou apeirostiko logismo: edame ti prkeitai gia ma kal orismnh prxh, pou antistoiqe se kje suneq sunrthsh nan arijm. Sta keflaia
dieurname thn prxh aut se megalterec oikogneiec sunartsewn.
II , III , V I , V II , O Stieltjes
diatrhse stajer thn klsh twn oloklhrwsmwn sunartsewn dia sunrthsh
f,
mwc deixe ti thn
mpore kanec na thn oloklhrsei sec forc jlei kai na antistoiqsei Aut pou katfere tan na epektenei thn nnoia
polloc ttoiouc arijmoc s aut.
thc oloklrwshc sto pedo twn sunarthsoeidn.}
Prgmati, me to no aut trpo oloklrwshc antistoiqome se kje suneq sunrthsh
f , anloga f (x)d(x).
me th sunrthsh
pou jewrome kai nan diaforetik arijm, ton
O prtoc shmantikc stqoc tou
Lebesgue,
afo dsei ton orism tou oloklhr-
matoc kai apodexeic kpoiwn basikn idiottwn tou, enai na dexei ti, anloga me thn sunrthsh
wc proc thn opoa oloklhrnetai ma suneqc sunrthsh f , to oloklrwma

mpore telik na ekfraste me th bojeia enc perissterwn oloklhrw'Epeita, anafrei kpoia shmantik apotelsmata sqetik me aut,
b a f (x)d(x)
mtwn
Lebesgue.
pou dhmosiethkan mqri th deterh kdosh tou biblou tou.
Tloc, ma shmantik paratrhsh pou knei sqetik me thn istora tou oloklhrmatoc
Stieltjes
enai ti:
{...O
Cauchy
tan autc pou prtoc sunlabe th spoudaithta kai th diaisjhtik
shmasa auto tou nou trpou oloklrwshc, en o
Stieltjes
tan autc pou rise me
majhmatik trpo thn prxh aut sthn perptwsh twn sunartsewn miac metablhtc.} (prlogoc deterhc kdoshc, sel. {...o
vi) Stieltjes
me thn oloklrwsh miac sunrthshc
Cauchy
asqoljhke prin ap ton
wc proc ma llh, mwc to kane ligtero austhr ap autn kai perisstero ap thn poyh thc Fusikc...} (keflaio
XI , IV ,
sel. 290)
195
Cauchy
jewre se melth tou gia na jma thc Fusikc thn nnoia twn {megejn 'Etsi onomzei ekena ta megjh pou orzontai msa ap tic diec
pou sunuprqoun}.
gewmetrikc fusikc katastseic. Gia pardeigma, en qoume nan klindro, tte h aktna tou, to yoc tou, to embadn thc epifneic tou kai o gkoc tou enai {megjh pou sunuprqoun}. Sthn perptwsh enc ariou smatoc, ttoia megjh enai o gkoc
tou, h mza pou katalambnei kai h posthta thc jermthtac pou apaitetai gia thn anywsh thc jermokrasac kat na bajm, efson o gkoc paramnei stajerc. H nnoia aut enai mia nnoia pio genik ap thn nnoia thc sunrthshc: en na
mgejoc enai sunrthsh llwn megejn, tte enai profanc ti la aut ta megjh enai {megjh pou sunuprqoun}. Sta paradegmata pou prohgjhkan, parathrome ti ta {megjh pou sunuprqoun} exartntai mesa ap na sma: ton klindro to ario sma. Aut to sma mporome na to dome, pio afhrhmna, san na pedo tou
R3 .
'Ara, ta {megjh pou sunuprqoun}
enai sthn ousa sunartseic pou anafrontai kje for sto dio pedo. To pedo aut den enai anagkastik uposnolo tou
R3 ,
mpore na enai kai disthma qwro tou
epipdou kai, geniktera, na uposnolo tou
Rn .
Sthn pragmati-
Ektc mwc ap tic sunolo-sunartseic, sth Fusik mac enai qrsimec kai oi sunartseic shmewn austhrtera oi sunartseic polln metablhtn.
kthta, oi shmeio-sunartseic enai ria sunolo-sunartsewn: kje shmeo tou qrou mpore na jewrhje wc to rio swmtwn pou to periqoun kai gnontai osodpote mikr, epomnwc ma shmeio-sunrthsh enai to rio sunolo-sunartsewn. Gia pardeigma, h
puknthta se na tuqao shmeo enc smatoc enai to rio tou phlkou thc mzac enc tmmatoc tou smatoc pou periqei to en lgw shmeo proc ton gko tou, kajc aut to tmma {surriknnetai} olona kai perisstero grw ap to shmeo. H pargwgoc miac sunrthshc pedou wc proc ma deterh sunrthsh, h opoa anafretai kje for sto dio pedo timn me thn prth enai ma shmeio-sunrthsh: an
(D), (D) enai do sunartseic pedou, h pargwgoc thc miac wc proc thn llh s na (Di ) shmeo P enai to rio tou phlkou (Di ) , kajc ta peda thc akoloujac Di gnontai olona kai pio mikr kai surriknnontai sto shmeo P .
Smfwna me ton
Lebesgue,
to prblhma me to opoo asqoljhke o
Cauchy
tan o
prosdiorismc thc sunrthshc thc
(D)
ap th sunrthsh
(D)
kai thn pargwgo
wc proc thn
Gia na mporsei na meletsei eukoltera to prblhma, o
f (P ) Cauchy
upojtei epiplon ti oi sunolo-sunartseic tou enai prosjetikc. En jewrsoume tuqao shmeo
(D) (D)
sto
P0 , tte uprqei pedo DP0 ttoio ste to phlko na diafrei apoltwc ap thn f (P ) ligtero ap gia kje pedo D pou periqetai DP0 kai periqei to P . Borel petai ti gia to tuqn pedo D mpore na kalufje D1 , D2 , ..., Dn . Dialgoume
Ap to gnwst jerhma tou
ap peperasmnou pljouc xna an do mikrtera peda na shmeo
Pi
ap to kajna touc tsi ste na isqei
(Di ) = (Di )(f (Pi ) + i ) ,

196
1 i 1 ,
opte telik
(D) =
i=1
(Di ) =
i=1
(Di )f (Pi ) +
i=1
(Di ) .
En gia opoiadpote diamrish tou qei peperasmno rio kajc ta
D kai gia tuqaa epilog twn Pi to prto jroisma Di gnontai osodpote mikr kai to detero jroisma paramnei fragmno (kti to opoo sumbanei tan h enai fragmnhc kmanshc), tte mporome na upologsoume thn .
Sthn perptwsh pou douleoume sthn pragmatik eujea, ta peda gnontai diast-
mata, h sunrthsh
f (P )
grfetai
f (x),
(P )
grfetai
rio, efson uprqei, enai to oloklrwma pou rise o
(x) kai Stieltjes.
telik, to parapnw
197
198
Keflaio 11
Genkeush tou oloklhrmatoc
Stieltjes
ap ton
J. Radon.
Sto teleutao keflaio autc thc ergasac meletome sunoptik kai qwrc idiaterh austhrthta to prto mroc thc dhmoseushc tou {
Johann Radon (1887-1956) me ttlo Theorie und Anwendungen der absolut additiven Mengenfunktionen} 1 . H ergasa Stieltjes kai Lebesgue. Gia na Radon s autn ton orism, ja prpei
aut, pou dhmosiethke to 1913, enai idiatera shmantik giat eke orzetai na oloklrwma pou apotele genkeush twn oloklhrwmtwn twn katanosoume kaltera to lgo pou odghse ton
prohgoumnwc na knoume mia mikr istorik anadrom.
11.1
H nnoia
thc sunolosunrthshc.
Mqri thn prth dekaeta tou 1900 eqan doje diforoi orismo gia to oloklrwma miac metablhtc kai eqan dhmosieute polurijmec ergasec pou meletontai oi idithtc tou. To epmeno erthma pou apasqlhse touc analstec tan to pc ja mporosan na genikesoun ston
Rn
tic prxeic thc oloklrwshc kai thc paraggishc, all kai nnoiec
kai idithtec sunartsewn kat ttoio trpo, ste basik jewrmata pou aforosan thn paraggish kai thn oloklrwsh sunartsewn miac metablhtc na suneqsoun na isqoun kai eke. Smfwna me ton
Hawkins
sto [4], o
G. Vitali
(1875-1932) tan nac ap autoc
pou asqoljhkan me to parapnw erthma. Se ergasa tou, pou dhmosiethke to 1908, prospjhse na genikesei na shmantik jerhm tou: ti kje apluta suneqc sunrthsh miac metablhtc, ja enai to aristo oloklrwma kpoiac llhc. Stouc orismoc pou dwse qrhsimopohse shmeiosunartseic orismnec gia orjognia parallhleppeda tou
Rn
ki aut tan pou dwse ston
Lebesgue
thn ida na meletsei to dio prblhma
jewrntac sunartseic orismnec se snola. Aut h prosggish luse poll problmata, pwc aut thc genkeushc tou orismo thc paraggou kai tan prwttuph gia thn epoq ekenh, diti oi analstec eqan sqedn tautsei thn nnoia thc sunrthshc me
Sta ellhnik: {Jewra kai efarmogc twn prosjetikn sunartsewn}.
199
aut thc shmeiosunrthshc. Sthn ergasa tou { to 1910, o
2
pou dhmosiethke
Sur l intgration des fonctions discontinues}, e
Lebesgue
asqoljhke me to oloklrwma sunrthshc polln metablhtn
kai anmesa sta lla, katfere na dsei mia genkeush tou jewrmatoc tou
Vitali.
Sto prto keflaio thc dhmoseusc tou, genkeuse to mtro sunlou, thn nnoia thc metrsimhc sunrthshc kai ton orism tou oloklhrmatc tou ston
Rn .
Oi orismo pou
dwse enai oi antstoiqoi orismo pou eqe dsei sthn perptwsh twn sunartsewn miac metablhtc me ma pol apl tropopohsh: sth jsh thc metablhtc shmeo
x qoume to tuqao
3
tou
Rn .
De ja asqolhjome me to pc rise to exwterik, to eswterik
mtro enc sunlou tou
n-distatou
qrou kai me to ti onmase metrsimo snolo,
ja anafroume mwc touc orismoc tou
Lebesgue
gia th metrsimh sunrthsh kai to
oloklrwm tou, giat sthn epmenh pargrafo ja touc sugkrnoume me autoc tou
Radon.
Orismc 11.1
'Estw
ma sunrthsh pou orzetai s na metrsimo snolo
E Rn .
ja lgetai metrsimh akribc tte, tan gia opoiousdpote pragmatikoc arijmoc
kai
to snolo twn shmewn
tou
gia ta opoa isqei
a < f (P ) < b
enai snolo
metrsimo.
Orismc 11.2
'Estw
ma fragmnh kai metrsimh sunrthsh pou orzetai s na
E Rn . Ac enai m kai M na ktw kai na nw frgma antstoiqa thc f sto E kai nac tuqaoc jetikc arijmc. Jewrome touc n 1 pragmatikoc arijmoc 1 , 2 , ..., n1 , pou enai ttoioi ste
fragmno kai metrsimo snolo
m = 0 < 1 < 2 < ... < n1 < n = M = n+1

kai oi diaforc ap to
i+1 i
na mhn uperbanoun ton arijm
Profanc, to
exarttai
i = 0, 1, ..., n1 jtoume Ei = {P E|i f (P ) < i+1 }. Tloc, orzoume En = {P E|f (P ) = n } kai jewrome ta ajrosmata n i m(Ei ), n i+1 m(Ei ), 0 0 pou m(A) enai to mtro Lebesgue opoioudpote metrsimou sunlou A. Isqei ti
Gia kje
m m(E)
0
2
Fusik, o
i m(Ei )
0
i+1 m(Ei ) M m(E) .
enai dunat na periqei llou edouc stoiqea, ektc ap shmea tou
Lebesgue den tan o prtoc pou tnise to gegonc ti to pedo orismo miac sunrthshc Rn . 'Opwc edame kai sto keflaio Hawkins,
o
9, to sunarthsoeidc, pou rqise na melettai epshc stic arqc tou 1900, enai akmh na pardeigma ttoiac sunrthshc. Smfwna me ton
Lebesgue
fanetai na ephresthke ap ton
Volterra,
o opooc tan ap touc prtouc pou asqoljhkan me ta sunarthsoeid kai se ma ergasa tou to 1889 tonzei to pso genik enai h nnoia thc sunrthshc, tsi pwc thn rise o {...Oi
tseic tou analstec sunhjz oun na jewron qrou. tic sunartseic ta trin
Dirichlet:
metablhtn wc sunargewmetrik oi stoi qea pou
anexrthtwn enai aut ta to
shmewn
tou
trisdistatou epshc oi
'Omwc, oi
shmea kai
den me
mna
qrou.
Uprqoun
grammc
kai
epifneiec
skeptik
metablhtc
jewrome mporon na qoun wc timc shmea, eujeec epifneiec. tseic shmewn, grammn epifanein.
'Etsi, parnoume antstoi qa sunar-
Mqri tra, meletsame mno tic sunartseic shmewn, mwc
ja tan pol endiafron na meletsoume kai sunartseic grammn epifanein.}
Oi orismo pou dwse sthn ergasa tou aut kai oi protseic pou apdeixe gia tic idithtec twn
metrhsmwn sunlwn enai prgmata pou mpore kanec na diabsei se opoiodpote biblo pou melet to oloklrwma
Lebesgue,
gi aut kai de ja epektajome se leptomreiec.
200
An uprqei kpoioc arijmc opoiadpote epilog twn
ttoioc ste gia kje
> 0,
na uprqei
> 0,
ste gia
i ,
pou ikanopoion thn proanaferjesa sunjkh, na isqei
i m(Ei ) I < ,
i=0
tte h
i+1 m(Ei ) I < ,

i=0
onomzetai ajrosimh sto
E,
onomzetai oloklrwma thc
sto
kai
sumbolzetai
E f (P )dP .
Sthn perptwsh pou h sunrthsh poietai wc exc.
den enai fragmnh, o parapnw orismc tropo-
Orismc
11.3
'Estw
metrsimh sunrthsh pou orzetai s na fragmno kai metrJewrome tuqao jetik arijm
kai ma axousa akolouja (i )+ , thc opoac oi roi parnoun timc sto R kai epiplon, gia kje i h i= diafor i+1 i enai omoimorfa fragmnh ap ton . Jtoume E = {P E|f (P ) = }, E+ = {P E|f (P ) = +} kai gia kje i Z, Ei = {P E|i f (P ) < i+1 }. Jewrome epshc tic seirc + i m(Ei ), i= + i+1 m(Ei ) kai upojtoume ti sugklnoun apoltwc. i= An uprqei kpoioc arijmc I ttoioc ste gia kje > 0, na uprqei > 0, ste gia opoiadpote epilog twn i pou ikanopoion thn proanaferjesa sunjkh isqei
simo snolo arijmn
E Rn .
i m(Ei ) I < ,
tte h
i+1 m(Ei ) I < ,
onomzetai ajrosimh sto
E,
onomzetai oloklrwma thc
sto
kai
sumbolzetai
E f (P )dP .
Kti pou prokptei ap ton orism enai ti an h metrsimh sunrthsh simh sto
enai ajro-
E,
tte kai h
|f |
ja enai epshc ajrosimh sto
E. Lebesgue
apodeiknei tic
Sth sunqeia tou prtou kefalaou thc ergasac tou o
gnwstc basikc idithtec tou oloklhrmatc tou, metax twn opown kai thn epmenh. En f enai ma sunrthsh ajrosimh sto fragmno kai metrsimo snoE Rn kai an e enai na metrsimo uposnolo tou E , tte h tim tou oloklhrmatoc e f (P )dP tenei sto mhdn kajc to mtro m(e) tou e tenei sto mhdn.
11.1
Prtash
lo
Sto detero keflaio dnei ton orism miac shmantikc sunolosunrthshc, tou aorstou oloklhrmatoc.
Orismc
11.4
'Estw
ma sunrthsh ajrosimh sto fragmno kai metrsimo snolo
E . Tte, gia kje metrsimo uposnolo e tou E orzetai h tim e f (P )dP . H sunrthsh F pou orzetai sthn klsh twn metrhsmwn uposunlwn tou E ap ton tpo F (e) = e f (P )dP gia kje metrsimo snolo e E onomzetai aristo oloklrwma thc f .
To aristo oloklrwma thc
qei do shmantikc idithtec.
201
1)
Enai ma apluta suneqc sunrthsh,
dhlad gia ma opoiadpote akolouja twn opown ta mtra tenoun sto mh-
e1 , e2 ,
...
metrhsmwn uposunlwn tou
E,
dn, h antstoiqh arijmhtik akolouja sto mhdn.
, , ... tenei epshc e1 e2 H idithta aut enai mesh sunpeia thc prtashc pou diatupjhke
f (P )dP
f (P )dP
prohgoumnwc.
2)
Enai
prosjetik
sunrthsh
4,
dhlad an
e1 , e2 ,
...
enai ma opoiadpote tte isqei ti
akolouja xnwn an do metrhsmwn uposunlwn tou
E,
f (P )dP =
e1 e2 ...
O
f (P )dP +
e1 e2
f (P )dP + ... .
Lebesgue
parathre ti, lgw thc apluthc sunqeiac tou aorstou oloklhr-
matoc, aut h idithta mpore na diatupwje pio apl kai me isodnamo trpo, gia do mno metrsima kai xna metax touc snola.
Ma akmh shmantik idithta tou aorstou oloklhrmatoc, pou prokptei mesa ap thn idithta 2, enai ti qei fragmnh kmansh. tuqaa, xna an do, metrsima uposnola tou Dhlad, an
A1 , A2 ,
...,
An
enai
E,
tte
f (P )dP
i=1 Ai i=1 Ai
|f (P )|dP =
A1 ...An
|f (P )|dP
E
|f (P )|dP < + .
Sth sunqeia thc ergasac tou o
Lebesgue asqoljhke me thn pargwgo miac sunoLebesgue

tou eptreye na genikesei
losunrthshc. An kai eqan doje kpoioi orismo gia thn pargwgo shmeiosunrthshc pou orzetai ston
Rn ,
o orismc pou dwse o
kaltera to jerhma tou
Vitali
wc exc:
Jerhma
11.1
En
enai ma apluta suneqc kai prosjetik sunolosunrthsh, h
opoa orzetai gia ta metrsima uposnola enc fragmnou kai metrhsmou sunlou tte h
E,
enai to aristo oloklrwma kpoiac sunrthshc. Dhlad, uprqei sunrthsh
f pou enai ajrosimh sto snolo E kai ttoia ste gia kje metrsimo uposnolo e tou E na isqei ti F (e) = e f (P )dP . H sunrthsh f ja enai sqedn panto sh me thn F (e) pargwgo thc F . Dhlad, gia sqedn kje P sto E isqei m(e) f (P ), pou to e enai metrsimo uposnolo tou E , to opoo surriknnetai sto shmeo P .
Telik, o
Lebesgue
katfere na dexei s aut thn ergasa tou ti kje aristo olo-
klrwma qei tic idithtec 1 kai 2, all kai antistrfwc, kje sunolosunrthsh pou qei tic idithtec autc enai na aristo oloklrwma. Ta parapnw apotelsmata tou ephrasan shmantik to
Radon,
pwc grfei kai o dioc ston prlogo thc ergasac
pou meletome sthn epmenh pargrafo, kajc tou dwsan thn ida na qrhsimopoisei thn nnoia thc sunolosunrthshc gia na genikesei ta oloklhrmata twn
Lebesgue
kai
Stieltjes.
4
Sth sgqronh bibliografa oi sunartseic pou qoun autn thn idithta lgontai
-prosjetikc.
202
11.2
J. Radon, Theorie und Anwendungen der absolut additiven Mengenfunktionen

.
Hilbert dhmoseuse ma ergasa sqetik me tic oloklhrwtikc exisseic, sthn Stieltjes gia thn anaparstash twn fragmnwn tetragwnikn morfn. Ap thn llh meri, to 1910, o F. Riesz se ma dhmoseus tou p qrhsimopoiose wc basik ergaleo to oloklrwma Lebesgue. pnw stouc qrouc L Skopc thc ergasac tou Radon, pwc anafretai ston prlog thc, tan, genikeoTo 1906 o opoa qrhsimopoiose to oloklrwma ntac ta do oloklhrmata, na proetoimsei to dafoc gia thn paragwg miac jewrac genikterhc twn jewrin twn
Hilbert
kai
Lebesgue.
Sto prto meleto-
Ja asqolhjome me ta do prta keflaia thc dhmoseushc.
ntai idithtec twn prosjetikn sunartsewn kai sto detero orzetai to genikeumno oloklrwma
Stieltjes.
11.2.1
Prosjetikc sunartseic.
Katarqc, la ta uposnola tou
Rn
pou jewrome sth melth mac enai uposnola enc
arister kleisto kai dexi anoikto diastmatoc
J = [M, M ) [M, M ) ... [M, M ) ,

pou
enai nac opoiosdpote jetikc arijmc.
Epshc, ja anafermaste pnta se ma klsh paraktw idithtec:
uposunlwn tou
pou ja qei tic
Kje disthma pou enai arister kleist, dexi anoikt kai periqetai sto ankei sthn
T.
enai kleist wc proc tic prxeic thc tomc kai thc diaforc.
H klsh
An
(En )
enai ma arijmsimh akolouja xnwn an do sunlwn thc
T,
tte h
nws touc ankei epshc sthn
T. J,
pou periqei la ta
M lla lgia, h klsh
Borel
uposnola tou
J .5
enai ma s-lgebra uposunlwn tou
Orismc
11.5
Ma sunolosunrthsh
f,
pou orzetai se ma klsh
me tic parapnw
idithtec, lgetai
prosjetik
akribc tte, tan gia opoiadpote akolouja sunlwn
(En )
sthn
T,
pou enai xna an do, isqei ti
f ( En ) = n=1
n=1
5
O
f (En ) .
Borel
uposnola tou
Radon
den thn anafrei wc s-lgebra, grfei mno ti periqei la ta
J.
203
enai fragmnhc kmanshc. Dhlad ti uprqei kpoioc mh arnhtikc arijmc
Radon deqnei me eic topo apagwg ti kje prosjetik sunrthsh N < +, ste gia kje diamrish (Ei ) tou J se arijmhsmou pljouc snola Ei thc T isqei ti + i=1 |f (Ei )| N .
Sth sunqeia o 'Etsi, h paraktw nnoia ja enai kal orismnh.
11.6
f ma prosjetik sunolosunrthsh, orismnh sth s-lgebra T T . Jewrome lec tic diamerseic (Ei ) tou E se arijmhsmou + pljouc snola Ei thc T kai sqhmatzoume ta antstoiqa ajrosmata i=1 |f (Ei )|. To elqisto nw frgma twn ajroismtwn autn onomzetai apluth kmansh thc E kai sumbolzetai me E |df |. H sunolosunrthsh pou orzetai sthn klsh T kai antistoiqe se kje snolo E T thn apluth kmans tou ja lgetai sunrthsh apluthc kmanshc thc f .
Orismc
'Estw
kai
na snolo thc
Radon
apodeiknei ti h sunrthsh apluthc kmanshc enai epshc prosjetik
sunrthsh kai me th bojei thc orzontai oi do paraktw mh arnhtikc sunolosunartseic, pou ja enai epshc prosjetikc:
(E) =
gia kje
|df | + f (E) , 2
me
(E) =
|df | f (E) 2
kai ja A B , tte ja enai (A) + (B A) = (B), ra (A) (B). 'Omoia qoume ti kai h enai axousa. Me th bojeia twn kai , h f kai h apluth kmans thc grfontai
Lgw thc mh arnhtikthtc touc, oi sunolosunartseic enai axousec: en
E T.
A, B T ,
f (E) = (E) (E) ,

E
|df | = (E) + (E) f

wc diafor do auxousn
kanonik
kai m autn ton trpo qoume katafrei na gryoume thn sunolosunartsewn.

dispash thc
H prth ap tic do parapnw isthtec onomzetai

sunrthshc
prosjetikc
se
do
axousec
sunartseic
kai
enai idiatera qrsimh, giat mac dnei th dunatthta na periorsoume th melth mac stic axousec kai prosjetikc sunartseic.
Ja epektenoume tra thn klsh sthn opoa orzetai h eswteriko kai exwteriko mtrou pou dwse o thn
f , genikeontac thn nnoia tou Lebesgue, wc exc. Katarqn, jewrome J.

S aut antistoiqome do arijmoc:
axousa.
Orismc
11.7
'Estw
tuqao uposnolo tou
f (E), pou enai to inmum lwn twn ajroismtwn thc morfc + f (Ij ), pou j=1 (Ij ) enai arijmsimh oikogneia kleistn arister, anoiktn dexi diasthmtwn sthn nwsh twn opown periqetai to E .
ton ton
f (E),
pou orzetai ap thn isthta
f (E) = f (J) f (J E) .
204
Ja lme ti to snolo tautzontai.
enai
metrsimo wc proc thn
tan oi do parapnw arijmo
An sumbolsoume me wc proc thn
Tf
thn klsh lwn twn uposunlwn tou
J , pou enai metrsima f

na enai
f,
tte apodeiknetai ti h
Tf
enai ma s-lgebra. Sthn perptwsh aut,
gia kje snolo
Tf T
mporome na orsoume thn tim thc
f (E) = f (E) = f (E) .

Ap ton trpo orismo thc, enai profanc ti h s-lgebra arister, anoikt dexi diastmata, ra kai la ta
Tf
periqei la ta kleist
Borel
uposnola tou
J.
' ra, oi A
Tf ,
qoun koin stoiqea ta An upojsoume ti h
Borel
uposnola tou
J. >0
, uprqei kleist snolo
kai h klsh
qoun epiplon thn paraktw idithta (R):
gia kje snolo
thc klshc T kai gia kje sto
pou
periqetai
ttoio
ste
na
isqei
f (E) f (E ) < ,
tte apodeiknetai ti h klsh sthn
periqetai sthn
Tf .
Epektenontac th sunrthsh
Tf
me ton trpo pou anaframe prohgoumnwc, h

thc
Tf
onomzetai
fusik
pedo
orismo
Sthn perptwsh pou h
den enai axousa, tte jewrome thn kanonik thc dispash
se do axousec kai prosjetikc sunartseic
, kai jewrome to fusik pedo orismo
thc kajemic. H tom touc ja enai epshc ma s-lgebra kai ja apotele to fusik pedo orismo thc
f. Radon
orzei thn nnoia thc bshc.
Sth sunqeia, o
Orismc
11.8
Ma axousa kai prosjetik sunolosunrthsh
ja lgetai
bsh
thc
prosjetikc sunrthshc
b(E) = 0,
isqei epshc
f , tan gia f (E) = 0.
kje snolo
sto opoo h
orzetai kai isqei
Metax twn idiottwn pou qei ma sunolosunrthsh, pou enai h bsh kpoiac llhc, enai kai h exc: tan h se aut thc
b enai bsh thc f , tte to fusik pedo orismo thc ja periqetai b enai ma bsh thc f , E Tb me b(E) < na > 0, |f (E)| < .
f.
'Etsi, ja isqei kai h paraktw prtash.
Prtash
11.2
'Otan h sunolosunrthsh
tte gia kje isqei
uprqei
> 0,
ttoio ste gia kje snolo
H nnoia thc bshc ja bohjsei ton sunqeiac me komy trpo.
Radon
na diatupsei ton orism thc apluthc
Orismc
11.9
An sumbolsoume me
E, f.
tte h
ja lgetai apluta
m(E) to mtro Lebesgue enc metrhsmou sunlou suneqc tan h sunolosunrthsh m enai ma bsh thc
205
11.2.2
'Estw kai
Prth genkeush tou oloklhrmatoc
Stieltjes.
E
tou
ma omoimorfa suneqc sunrthsh pou orzetai s na uposnolo
J
n
ma prosjetik sunolosunrthsh pwc sthn enthta 11.2.1 ttoia ste to
ankei sto pedo orismo thc snola tou
Tf .
Jewrome ma diamrish
tou
pou apoteletai ap
T = {E1 , E2 , ..., En } Ei Pi .
kai ap kje snolo
dialgoume tuqaa na shmeo
Sqhmatzoume to jroisma
S =
k=1
'Estw
F (Pk )f (Ek ) .
d() to pltoc thc diamrishc , dhlad h mgisth ap tic diamtrouc twn suEi . H sunrthsh F enai omoimorfa suneqc, ra se kje > 0 antistoiqe na > 0, ttoio ste gia opoiadpote shmea P , P tou E me P P < , na isqei |F (P ) F (P )| < . Jewrome sth sunqeia ma akmh diamrish tou E me = {E1 , E2 , ..., Em } kai na antstoiqo jroisma S autc. Tte, qoume ti
nlwn
S S
=
k=1
F (Pk )f (Ek )
j=1
F (Pj )f (Ej )
=
k,j
(F (Pk ) F (Pj ))f (Ek Ej ) . Ek Ej = ,
Gia ekenouc touc rouc tou ajrosmatoc gia touc opoouc enai
isqei
Pk Pj d() + d( ) .
Parnontac tuqao parnoume
> 0, diamerseic ,
brskoume me
> 0 d(), d( ) <
ap thn omoimorfh sunqeia thc
kai
2.
Ap ta prohgomena sunepgetai ti
|S S |
k,j
|f (Ek Ej )|
E
|df | .
An jewrsoume ma tuqaa akolouja diamersewn
(n )
tou
E,
ttoia ste
n+
lim d(n ) = 0 , F , h akolouja
tte, lgw thc teleutaac anisthtac kai thc omoimorfhc sunqeiac thc
(Sn )
enai
Cauchy
kai to rio
limn+ Sn = l
ja uprqei sto
R.
Lmma
11.1
To rio
limn+ Sn
enai anexrthto thc akoloujac twn diamersewn
(n )
pou dialxame.
206
(n ) ma deterh akolouja diamersewn tou E me limn+ d(n ) = 0. 1 , 1 , 2 , 2 , ... enai ma akolouja diamersewn tou E me thn parapnw idithta kai, epomnwc, uprqei to rio thc S1 , S , S2 , S , . . .. 1 2 Epeid h upakolouja (Sn ) qei rio ton arijm l kai h upakolouja (S ) ja qei n
Apdeixh: 'Estw Tte, kai h akolouja to dio rio. Dexame, epomnwc, ti o epmenoc orismc enai kalc.
Orismc 11.10
O arijmc
rwma
Stieltjes
thc
l ja sumbolzetai me E F (P )df (P ) wc proc th sunolosunrthsh f .
kai lgetai
olokl-
Paratrhsh
11.1
Ap ta parapnw prokptei ti isqei h paraktw anisthta, pou
fusik apotele genkeush antstoiqhc anisthtac pou dexame gia to apl oloklrwma
Stieltjes F (P )df (P ) sup |F |

E E E
|df | .
11.2.3
O
Deterh genkeush tou oloklhrmatoc
Stieltjes.
Radon
orzei sth sunqeia na detero oloklrwma, pio genik ap to prto, mi-
momenoc ton orism tou oloklhrmatoc
metablhtn. Prta ja qreiaste na genikesei thn nnoia thc metrsimhc kat sunrthshc.
Lebesgue gia tic suneqec sunartseic polln Lebesgue
Orismc
me pedo orismo
f ma prosjetik sunolosunrthsh pwc sthn enthta 11.2.1 F ma sunrthsh pou orzetai se kpoio uposnolo E tou J , pou ankei sthn Tf . H F ja lgetai f -metrsimh, tan gia kje pragmatik arijm a, to snolo twn shmewn P me F (P ) > a ankei sto pedo orismo thc f .
11.11
'Estw kai
Tf
Enai profanc ti kje
Borel-metrsimh
sunrthsh ja enai epshc
f -metrsimh
su-
nrthsh. Oi sunartseic pou prokptoun ap
f -metrsimec
sunartseic me tic gnwstc
prxeic, kajc kai to antero kai kattero rio akoloujac enai epshc
Orismc
f -metrhsmwn sunartsewn
f -metrsimec.
'Estw
(yn ) ma gnhswc axousa akolouja arijmn, ttoia ste y0 = 0, limn+ yn = + kai sup (yn+1 yn ) = a, pou a enai nac jetikc arijmc. Ma ttoia akolouja ja lgetai jemelidhc akolouja me mgisth diafor a.
11.12 Orismc 11.13
Jewrome ma axousa kai prosjetik sunolosunrthsh
pwc sthn
enthta 11.2.1 kai ma mh arnhtik kai snolo An
f -metrsimh
sunrthsh
pou orzetai s na
E , to opoo ankei sthn Tf . (yn ) enai ma tuqaa jemelidhc

+
akolouja, tte sqhmatzoume th seir
yk f (Ek ) ,
k=0
207
pou
Ek = {P E| yk F (P ) < yk+1 }. F
ja lgetai
En h parapnw seir sugklnei, tte h
ajrosimh wc proc thn
f.
Ja dexoume ti o parapnw orismc enai kalc, dhlad den exarttai ap th jemelidh akolouja pou qoume jewrsei. 'Estw ste
(yn )
ma deterh jemelidhc akolouja, ttoia
sup (yn+1 yn ) = b > 0. Ei Ej den enai ken, tte ekola blpoume ti a yi yj b. Prgmati, ap tic yi F (P ) < yi+1 , y F (P ) < y j j+1 sunepgetai yj < yi+1 yi < yj+1 kai, epomnwc, a yi yi+1 < yi yj < yj+1 yj b . 'Ara,
An to
kai
+ +
+ +
yj f (Ej ) =
j=0 i=0 j=0
yj f (Ej Ei )
i=0 j=0
(yi + a)f (Ej Ei ) =

i=0
yi f (Ei ) + af (E) .
sugklnei gia
H anisthta aut enai anexrthth tou
b,
opte an h seir
+ i=0 yi f (Ei )
kpoia jemelidh akolouja, tte ja sugklnei kai gia kje llh jemelidh akolouja. 'Ara, o prohgomenoc orismc enai kalc. Ap thn dia anisthta enai faner ti gia to
supremum S
lwn twn ajroismtwn
+ i=0 yi f (Ei )
gia kje jemelidh akolouja me tuqaa mgisth diafor isqei
S
i=0
pou
yi f (Ei ) + af (E) , a.
(yn )
enai ma ap autc me mgisth diafor
Epeid
+ i=0 yi f (Ei )
S,
sunepgetai ti
0S
i=0
yi f (Ei ) af (E) . a
thc
Blpoume, loipn, ti an h mgisth diafor stoiqo
+ i=0 yi f (Ei )
(yn )
tenei sto mhdn, tte to ant-
tenei sto
S. (yn ) me mgisth diafor a, ttoia ste kje i enai yi+1 yi + a, ja sugklnei
'Estw tra ma tuqaa jemelidhc akolouja h kai
+ i=0 yi f (Ei ) na sugklnei. + h seir i=0 yi+1 f (Ei ).
Tte, epeid gia
Douleontac akribc pwc kai parapnw, prokptei ti
sumbanei to dio me thn antstoiqh seir kje llhc jemelidouc akoloujac kai ti uprqei to
inmum
lwn autn twn ajroismtwn, to opoo sumbolzoume me
S.
Epshc, ja isqei
0
i=0
opte, an h mgisth diafor tenei sto
yi+1 f (Ei ) S af (E) ,

+ i=0 yi+1 f (Ei )
a thc (yn ) tenei sto mhdn, tte to antstoiqo
S.
+ +
Profanc, epeid
yi f (Ei )
i=0 i=0
208
yi+1 f (Ei ) ,
ja isqei
S S.
+ +
Epeid
S
i=0
an afsoume to
yi+1 f (Ei )
i=0
yi f (Ei ) + af (E) S + af (E) , S = S.
na tenei sto mhdn parnoume
Ap ton orism tou oloklhrmatoc thc enthtac 11.2.2 prokptei amswc ti
S
E
kai, epomnwc,
F (P )df (P ) S
F (P )df (P ) = S .
E
Telik, uprqei nac isodnamoc trpoc na orsoume to oloklrwma miac sunrthshc
wc proc ma sunolosunrthsh
f,
autc pou akolouje paraktw.
Orismc
11.14
'Estw
ma axousa kai prosjetik sunolosunrthsh pwc sthn e-
nthta 11.2.1 kai ma mh arnhtik kai snolo
f -metrsimh
sunrthsh
pou orzetai s na
E,
to opoo ankei sthn
Tf .
To rio twn seirn thc morfc
yi f (Ei ) ,
i=0
Ei = {P E| yi F (P ) < yi+1 }, kajc oi mgistec diaforc twn akoloujin tenoun sto mhdn, efson uprqei sto R, ja enai to oloklrwma Lebesgue-Stieltjes thc F wc proc thn f kai ja sumbolzetai me E F (P )df (P ). Tte, ja lme ti h F enai ajrosimh wc proc thn f .
pou
(yn )
enai jemelidhc akolouja kai
Sthn perptwsh pou h
parnei kai arnhtikc timc, tte mporome na th gryoume
wc diafor do mh arnhtikn sunartsewn exc
F1
kai
F2 ,
pou enai epshc
f -metrsimec,
wc
|F | + F |F | F = F1 F2 . 2 2 Ja jewrome thn F f -ajrosimh, tan oi F1 kai F2 enai f -ajrosimec kai tte orzoume F = F (P )df (P ) =
E E E
F1 (P )df (P )
E
F2 (P )df (P ) .
diatupnetai me th bojeia
Kai s aut thn perptwsh o orismc tou
F (P )df (P )
jemeliwdn akoloujin, me ton trpo pou perigrfetai paraktw. Jewrome ma tuqaa {dipl} jemelidh akolouja me mgisth diafor ma akolouja
a,
dhlad
(yn )
me tic paraktw idithtec:
... < y2 < y1 < y0 < y1 < y2 < ...

209
yi+1 yi a ,
n+
Sqhmatzoume to jroisma
gia kje
i Z,
lim yn = + ,
n+
lim yn = .
yk f (Ek ) .
ja enai ajrosimh wc proc thn
ttoia dipl jemelidh akolouja. To oloklrwma thc aut ja isotai me to rio
f , tan h parapnw seir sugklnei apluta gia ma F wc proc thn f sthn perptwsh
k=+
F (P )df (P ) = lim
E
n+
yk f (Ek ) ,
k= (n)
(n)
(n)
kajc oi mgistec diaforc twn dipln jemeliwdn akoloujin Sth genikterh perptwsh pou h
(yk ) tenoun sto mhdn.
den enai montonh, jewrome thn kanonik thc
dispash se do axousec sunartseic
kai . Ja lme ti h F enai ajrosimh wc proc thn f , tan enai ajrosimh wc proc tic kai , dhlad, isodnama, tan enai ajrosimh wc proc thn apluth kmansh thc f . Tte, to oloklrwm thc wc proc thn f ja isotai
me
k=+
F (P )df (P ) =
E E
F (P )d(P )
E
F (P )d(P ) = lim
n+
yk f (Ek ) .
k=
(n)
(n)
Paratrhsh
11.2
To oloklrwma pou rise o
Radon
enai genkeush tou oloklhr-
matoc tou
Lebesgue,
afo arke na jewrsoume sth jsh thc
th sunolosunrthsh
pou orzetai ap to mtro
Lebesgue. Stieltjes,
diti kje pragmatik su-
Epshc, enai genkeush kai tou oloklhrmatoc nrthsh
pou orzetai sto
[a, b]
kai enai suneqc, ja enai omoimorfa suneqc sto
[a, b].
[a, b], h opoa enai suneqc ap arister.6 Tte, gia kje disthma [c, d) n qoume ti f ([c, d)) = f (d) f (c) kai ta ajrosmata S = k=1 F (Pk )f (Ek ) ston on rism tou Radon enai sa me ta antstoiqa ajrosmata F (Pk ) (f (xk+1 ) f (xk )) k=0 tou Stieltjes. Sth genikterh perptwsh pou h f den enai suneqc ap arister, tte ja isqei f ([c, d)) = f (d) f (c). Apodeiknetai ti, an ant gia thn f jewrsoume th me f (x) = f (x), tte ja enai b F (x)df (x) = b F (x)df (x). sunrthsh f a a
epshc sto
'Estw tra ti
enai ma pragmatik sunrthsh fragmnhc kmanshc, orismnh
Me aut thn teleutaa upjesh exasfalzoume thn parxh miac prosjetikc sunolosunrthshc
pou sqetzetai me thn
f.
210
11.2.4
Idithtec tou oloklhrmatoc
Lebesgue-Stieltjes.
apodeiknei ti to oloklrwm tou
Sth sunqeia tou deutrou kefalaou tou o qei idithtec antstoiqec m autc tou
Radon Lebesgue.
Katarqc, enai ekolo na apodeiqje ap ton orism h grammikthta tou oloklhrmatoc. Epshc ekola apodeiknetai ti sthn perptwsh pou h
enai axousa kai
prosjetik sunolosunrthsh, h
mh arnhtik kai ajrosimh wc proc thn
A, B enai f -metrsima B F (P )df (P ).

Prtash 11.3
uposnola tou
J,
me
A B,
tte isqei
f sto J kai F (P )df (P ) A
F enai ajrosimh wc proc thn f sto J , tte orzetai G, h opoa antistoiqe se kje metrsimo wc proc thn f snolo E J ton arijm E F (P )df (P ). H sunolosunrthsh aut enai prosjetik kai qei wc bsh th sunrthsh apluthc kmanshc thc f .
En h sunrthsh ma sunolosunrthsh Apdeixh: Arke na knoume thn apdeixh mno sthn perptwsh pou h kai h
enai axousa
mh arnhtik.
'Estw loipn
uposnola tou
J.
Jtoume
A1 , A2 , ..., An , ... xna A = kN Ak kai Sn = n Ak . k=1 n

ja isqei ti
metax touc metrsima
Ap thn paratrhsh pou prohgjhke thc prtashc petai ti h sunrthsh. Epomnwc, gia kje fusik
enai axousa
F (P )df (P ) =
k=1 Ak + k=1 Ak Sn
F (P )df (P )
A
F (P )df (P ) .
Aut sunepgetai ti h seir sma thc ja isqei
F (P )df (P ) sugklnei kai, mlista, gia to jroi-
F (P )df (P )
k=1
'Estw fusik
F (P )df (P ) .
A
Ak
(yn )nN
ja isqei
ma jemelidhc akolouja me mgisth diafor
a.
Tte, gia kje
n
n
F (P )df (P ) =
k=1
pou
F (P )df (P )
Sn i=0
yi f (Ei Sn )
i=0
yi f (Ei Sn ) ,
Ak
tuqaoc fusikc arijmc.
Epeid h anisthta kajc
enai prosjetik, qoume ti
n +,
n k=1 Ak
F (P )df (P )
limn+ f (Ei Sn ) N i=0 yi f (Ei Sn ) proume

N
= f (Ei A).
'Ara, an sthn
ta ria twn do meln,
prokptei ti
F (P )df (P )
k=1 Ak
211
yi f (Ei A)
i=0
kai gia
N +
qoume
F (P )df (P )
k=1 Ak i=0
yi f (Ei A) . a,
ja isqei
(11.1)
Epeid h mgisth diafor thc jemelidouc akoloujac enai
F (P )df (P )
A
'Ara, enai
yi+1 f (Ei A)
i=0 i=0
yi f (Ei A) + af (A) .
F (P )df (P ) af (A)
A
kai lgw thc (11.1) enai
yi f (Ei A)
i=0
F (P )df (P )
k=1
gia osodpote mikr
F (P )df (P ) af (A)
E
Ak
a > 0.
Epomnwc, isqei
F (P )df (P ) =
k=1
kai h apdeixh qei teleisei.
F (P )df (P )
A
Ak
Sth sunqeia, pwc tan anamenmeno, o qei tic paraktw idithtec.
Radon
apodeiknei ti to oloklrwm tou
Prtash
11.4
kai ttoia ste
F sunrthsh orismnh sto f -metrsimo snolo E , f -metrsimh |F | M . Tte h F enai ajrosimh wc proc thn f kai isqei
'Estw
F df M
E
Prtash 11.5
|df | .
E
'Estw
ma prosjetik sunolosunrthsh orismnh sto
kai E na thn
f -metrsimo uposnolo tou. En h F1 enai ajrosimh kai h F2 metrsimh wc proc f kai fragmnh, tte kai h F1 F2 ja enai sunrthsh ajrosimh wc proc thn f .
Prtash 11.6
'Estw
ma prosjetik sunolosunrthsh kai
uposnolo tou
J.
En
(Fn )
enai ma akolouja
f -metrhsmwn
sunartsewn, h opoa sugklnei shmeiak se
kpoia sunrthsh isqei ti
kai enai omoimorfa fragmnh ap kpoio jetik arijm
M,
tte
n+ E
lim
Fn df =
E n+
lim Fn df .
212
Prtash
11.7
xousa akolouja na enai nac ajrosimh wc
f enai ma axousa prosjetik sunolosunrthsh, (Fn ) ma af -oloklhrwsmwn sunartsewn, ttoia ste to rio limn+ E Fn df peperasmnoc arijmc A, tte kai h sunrthsh F = limn+ Fn enai proc thn f kai isqei
En
F df = lim
E
n+ E
Fn df .
Me th bojeia lwn twn prohgomenwn genikeei sto trto keflaio thc ergasac tou to Jerhma Anaparastsewc tou
F. Riesz.
Jerhma
11.2
En
enai na suneqc grammik sunarthsoeidc, me pedo orismo to
snolo lwn twn suneqn sunartsewn uprqei prosjetik sunolosunrthsh
pou orzontai s na sumpagc snolo
E,
tte
f,
ttoia ste gia kje
sto pedo orismo tou
na isqei
U (F ) =
E
kai h nrma tou sunarthsoeidoc na isotai me
F df
U =
E
|df | . Lebesgue. f,
tte uprqei
O epmenoc stqoc tou enai na genikesei to jerhma 11.1 tou En
Jerhma
11.3
enai ma prosjetik sunolosunrthsh me bsh
ma
f -ajrosimh
sunrthsh
ttoia ste gia kje
E Tf
na isqei
g(E) =
E
(P )df .
Sth sunqeia thc ergasac tou asqoletai me th genkeush tou oloklhrmatoc tou
Hellinger,
pou qrhsimopoie la ta prohgomena kai teleinei me thn anaparstash
twn fragmnwn digrammikn morfn.
213
214
Keflaio 12
H zw tou
Thomas-Jan Stieltjes.
gennjhke stic 29 Dekembrou tou 1856 sth
Thomas-Jan Stieltjes
Zwolle,
mia mikr
eparqiak plh thc Ollandac. O patrac tou, pou eqe akribc to dio noma me autn, tan spoudaoc politikc mhqanikc, mloc thc boulc kai didktorac tou panepisthmou tou
Leiden.
'Htan
idiatera agaphtc kai perisstero gnwstc stouc Ollandoc ap to gio tou, afo sunballe sthn kataskeu twn limanin tou
Rotterdam
kai sthn orgnwsh tou sust-
matoc twn kanalin sthn anatolik Ollanda. 'Htan njrwpoc idiatera eufuc kai me arqc. Arket noc, ntac upoloqagc sto sma mhqaniko tou Ollandiko strato, graye sumboulc gia thn kalterh orgnwsh thc munac twn Ktw Qwrn, tic opoec gnwstopohse stouc anwtrouc tou diathrntac thn anwnuma tou. Oi sumboulc autc apodeqjhkan pol qrsimec kai kanan idiaterh entpwsh, mwc o
Stieltjes
pot sth
zw tou den apokluye ti autc tan o suggrafac, par mno lgo prin to jnat tou. Oi jaumastc kai floi tou sthsan proc timn tou na galma se kentrik topojesa tou
Rotterdam. Thomas-Jan Stieltjes junior,
pwc sunjize na upogrfei, eqe lla xi adrfia
kai prase thn paidik tou hlika se diforec pleic thc Ollandac exaitac thc douleic tou patra tou. To 1873 xeknhse tic spoudc tou sto Poluteqneo tou den pre pot to ptuqo tou.
Delft,
ap pou
Ant na phganei stic dialxeic, protimose na pern ton
perisstero qrno tou sth bibliojkh, meletntac ta rga twn
Jacobi kai Gauss ki aut
eqe wc apotlesma na apotqei stic exetseic tou. Prospjhse llec do qronic, to 1875 kai to 1876, mwc kai tte den ta katfere. O patrac tou, apelpismnoc me
thn katstash tou giou tou, zthse bojeia ap na sten tou flo, ton
H. G. van de
Sande-Bakhuyzen (1838-1923), pou tan kajhghtc Astronomac sto panepistmio tou Leiden kai dieujuntc tou asteroskopeou thc plhc. 'Etsi, ton Aprlio tou 1877, o Stieltjes junior proslfjhke eke wc bohjc stouc astronomikoc upologismoc. Ap
to 1878 parnei mroc kai se parathrseic kai asqoletai me thn Ournia Mhqanik. Thn dia qroni pejanei o patrac tou. To Nombrio tou 1882 arqzei n allhlografe me ton
C. Hermite
(1822-1901) pnw
se jmata Ourniac Mhqanikc, pol sntoma mwc arqzoun na touc apasqolon mno majhmatik erwtmata. O
Hermite
diathrose allhlografa me polloc epistmonec,
215
mwc kama llh den tan tso taktik kai plhjwrik so aut pou eqe me ton Dirkese ddeka qrnia, mqri ton prwro jnato tou grgora kalo floi kai steno sunergtec.
Stieltjes. Stieltjes, kai oi do ndrec ginan
Sta 432 grmmata pou antallssoun, o
Stieltjes
grfei ston
Hermite
gia ta apotelsmat tou kai o Glloc majhmatikc ta
sqolizei kai tou jtei na erwtmata, sta opoa o prtoc apant me meglh taqthta kai komythta. ekdotik oko H allhlografa touc ekdjhke met to jnato tou Hermite ap ton Gauthier-Villars sto Parsi. Pol grgora o Stieltjes anazht na antikemeno pio jewrhtik ap thn Astronoma S aut ton enjarr-
kai tsi, ap to 1883 strfetai apokleistik sta Majhmatik. noun o
Hermite
kai h
Elizabeth Intveld,
me thn opoa pantreetai thn dia qroni. Gia
kpoio disthma parnei deia ap thn ergasa tou sto asteroskopeo, ste na asqolhje me thn reuna kai ap to Septmbrio tou 1883 antikajist to majhmatik
F. G.
van den Berg,
pou arrwstanei, sta majmata thc Analutikc kai Probolikc Gewme-
trac sto Poluteqneo tou
Delft.
Sto tloc thc 1883 apofaszei na paraithje ap th
doulei tou kai na asqolhje mno me ta Majhmatik. Sto disthma aut melet ton tpo parembolc tou poluwnmwn
Lagrange, apodeiknei me apl kai komy trpo tic idithtec twn Hansen-Tisserand, asqoletai me thn anlush enc arijmo se jroisma Leiden
ephrase idiatera ton trpo me ton
pnte tetragnwn kai tte arqzei to endiafron tou gia ta suneq klsmata. H ergasa tou sto asteroskopeo tou opoo doleue sta Majhmatik.
Ston prlogo thc kdoshc thc allhlografac twn o opooc tan astronmoc kai floc tou prtou
Stieltjes
kai
Hermite,
H. Bourget,
sto panepistmio thc Toulozhc, grfei ti:
{...Oi meltec pou kane aut ta 6 qrnia pou doleue sto Asteroskopeo fanetai na qoun epidrsei arket ston trpo skyhc tou kai, kurwc, ston trpo me ton opoo antimetwpzei ta difora (majhmatik) problmata. Aut h ikanthta pou eqe sto na
qeirzetai al gebrikoc tpouc kai sto na touc qrhsimopoie gia touc polplokouc arijmhtikoc upologismoc, kajc kai oi komyc mjodo tou sto Logism kuriarqon sto rgo tou. Eqe, epshc, th sunjeia na qrhsimopoie poll arijmhtik parade gmata kai thn ikanthta n anakalptei msa ap autoc touc upologismoc ta difora apotelsmat tou. Se poll grmmat tou proc ton
Hermite
mil gia tic eikasec stic opoec
ton odhgon oi arijmhtiko upologismo tou...}
Aut enai kti pou epshc fanetai kai sthn teleutaa tou ergasa.
Oi apodexeic pou
dnei se kpoiec isthtec kai anisthtec, kurwc tou gdoou kefalaou, deqnoun ti tou rese na ermhneei ta apotelsmat tou ap thn pleur thc Mhqanikc kai na qrhsimopoie nnoic thc, pwc oi ropc problmata. To 1884 knei athsh gia ma jsh ston toma thc Anlushc sto panepistmio tou
k -txhc,
wc ergalea gia na meletsei ta majhmatik
Groningen
dektc.
kai parlo pou eqe meglec pijanthtec na prei th jsh, den gine telik
Aut gine pijantata, pwc grfei kai o dioc se grmma tou ston
Hermite,
exaitac thc lleiyhc tupikn prosntwn, afo o didaktorik.
Stieltjes
den eqe ote ptuqo ote
Ton Aprlio tou 1885 egkajstatai me thn oikognei tou sto Parsi. Eke asqoletai
216
gia kpoio disthma me thn katanom twn prtwn arijmn kai th melth thc sunrthshc
tou
Riemann,
mwc grgora egkatalepei to jma aut giat den eqe ikanopoihtik
apotelsmata. To 1886 teleinei to didaktorik tou me ttlo {
Recherches sur quelques sries see
miconvergentes}.
Eke asqoletai me th melth twn asumptwtikn seirn, dhlad twn
apoklinousn dunamoseirn pou qoun th morf
c1 cn c0 + 2 + ... + n+1 + ... , x x x

oi opoec prokptoun ap ta oloklhrmata
c0 , c1 , ..., cn , ... R,
a 0
du , log u
+ 0
sin au du , 1 + u2
+ 0
u cos au du , a > 0. 1 + u2
Epomnwc, tan na jma
Oi asumptwtikc seirc qrhsimopoiontai se proseggistikoc upologismoc se polloc kldouc thc Fusikc kai idiatera sthn Ournia Mhqanik. arket oikeo ston
Stieltjes,
o opooc eqe meletsei arket paradegmata seirn autc
thc morfc tan ergaztan sto asteroskopeo. H melth twn asumptwtikn seirn ja prpei na tan aut pou streye to endiafron tou apokleistik sta suneq klsmata. Ton 18o aina o
Euler eqe apodexei ti ma peirh seir mpore na metasqhmatiste

Epomnwc, an qoume katllhlo orismno
se na suneqc klsma kai antistrfwc.
oloklrwma, mporome telik na to metatryoume se suneqc klsma kai aut mac epitrpei, kpoiec forc, na proseggsoume kaltera thn tim tou prtou. ida thn eqe prtoc o Autn thn
E. Laguerre
(1834-1886). Jerhse to oloklrwma
+ x
eu du u
kai me kat pargontec oloklrwsh katlhxe sthn isthta
+ x
eu du = ex u
1 1 12 (n 1)! + 3 + ... + (1)n1 +(1)n n! x x2 x xn

+
+ x
eu du . un+1
H seir
(1)n1
n=1
apoklnei gia kje
(n 1)! xn Laguerre mwc apdeixe ti to parapnw 1

1 x+3
x+5 4 1 1 4 1 x+7 9 9 .. .
x, ra enai asumptwtik.
+ x
oloklrwma isotai telik me na suneqc klsma pou sugklnei.
eu du = ex u x+1
Smfwna me ton
T. H. Kjeldsen
sto [8], to gegonc ti mpore kanec na sundsei
do tso anmoia majhmatik antikemena, na orismno oloklrwma me na suneqc
217
klsma, ja prpei na goteuse idiatera to
tou asqoletai me th genkeush autc thc paratrhshc tou
Stieltjes, gi aut kai sthn teleutaa ergasa Laguerre.
To 1886, met th dhmoseush thc didaktorikc tou diatribc, arqzei na ergzetai sto panepistmio thc Toulozhc. Didskei ta majmata tou Diaforiko kai Oloklhrwtiko Logismo. Sthn arq niwje kpwc amqana, exaitac thc glssac, mwc, gine grgora agaphtc stouc majhtc tou, giat eqe thn ikanthta na parousizei me pol apl trpo tic pio dskolec jewrec kai na touc ekplssei. To 1889 diorsthke kajhghtc sto dio panepistmio. Ap ton Oktbrio tou 1890 arqzei na kourzetai kai na nijei ta prta sumptmata thc arrstiac tou. Parnei deia ap th didaskala sto panepistmio kai touc qeimnec twn etn 1892 kai 1893 touc pern sthn Algera, giat h ugea tou epideinnetai sqhma. 'Oson afor ta endiafront tou met th melth twn asumptwtikn seirn, aut strfontai se jmata sqetik me th sunrthsh wn, ta polunuma
, th jewra twn elleiptikn sunartse-
Legendre,
tic sfairikc sunartseic kai fusik ta suneq klsmata.
Parllhla me tic llec tou dhmosieseic, sto disthma 1884-1894, douleei thn teleutaa tou ergasa sta suneq klsmata. To prto mroc thc ergasac autc dhmosiethke to 1894 me ton ttlo {
Recherches sur les fractions continues}
kai to tloc thc
to 1895, met to jnato tou. 'Opwc grfei ton Ionio tou 1885 se grmma tou proc ton
Hermite,
arqik skpeue na qwrsei thn ergasa tou se do mrh:
{...Krioc stqoc mou enai na teleisw kai na teleiopoisw th doulei pou knw tra sta suneq klsmata, mwc gia na mhn periqei poll prgmata anmoia ja qwrsw thn ergasa mou se do mrh: to prto ja enai to al gebrik, en sto llo ja asqolomai me to prblhma thc sgklishc tou suneqoc klsmatoc...}.
Telik, ta apotelsmata pou sqetzontan me to kommti thc Anlushc tan tso shmantik, pou episkasan to algebrik kommti. Aut pou ton empdize na dhmosiesei ta apotelsmat tou tan h apdeixh tou prtou jewrmatoc tou pmptou kefalaou thc telikc ergasac tou,
to opoo argte-
ra, genikeontc to katllhla, tou epitrpei na epektenei thn analutik sunqish tou klsmatoc pou melet se megaltero snolo tou migadiko epipdou. Katfere na to apodexei austhr thn teleutaa qroni, to 1894. H ergasa tou aut enai spoudaa qi mno epeid prkeitai gia na pol morfo majhmatik rgo, all kai giat tan h arq thc analutikc jewrac twn suneqn klasmtwn. Prtoc o Ollandc majhmatikc jerhse na suneqc klsma sa migadik sunrthsh miac metablhtc kai melthse thn analutik sumperifor tou ap thn pleur thc migadikc anlushc. 'Omwc, h ergasa aut enai gnwst kai gia to oloklrwma pou smera qei to noma tou
Stieltjes,
all kai gia to prblhma twn ropn. Molonti kai
ta duo touc qrhsimopoijhkan ap ton
Stieltjes
wc ergalea gia na meletsei kaltera
thn analutik sumperifor tou suneqoc klsmatc tou, argtera apodeqjhkan pol shmantik, afo pollc nec ergasec thc Anlushc asqoljhkan m aut. To 1893 h Akadhma Episthmn tou Parisio brbeuse ton
Stieltjes
gia ta apotel-
Prkeitai gia to jerhma sth selda 79 autc thc ergasac.
218
smat tou sta suneq klsmata me to brabeo O
Petit d Ormoy.
T.-J. Stieltjes
pjane stic 31 Dekembrou tou 1894 sthn Toulozh.
Smera uprqei proc timn tou sthn Ollanda na druma gia ta Majhmatik pou frei to nom tou.
219
220
Bibliografa
[1]
Apostol T., 1974. Mathematical Analysis, Addison-Wesley, second edition, New York.
[2] Giannpouloc A., Delhginnh E., 2002. Shmeiseic Pragmatikc Anlushc, Tmma Majhmatikn, Panepistmio Krthc.
(http://users.uoa.gr/ apgiannop/real.ps)
[3]
Hardy G.H., Wright E.M., 1979. An Introduction to the Theory of Numbers, Oxford University Press, fth edition, Oxford. Hawkins T., 1975. Lebesgue s theory of integration. It s origins and development., Chelsea Publishing Company, second edition, New York. Hermite C., 1905. Correspondance d Hermite et de Stieltjes, tome 1 et tome 2, Gauthier-Villars, Paris. (http://historical.library.cornell.edu/math/title C.html) Hobson E.W., 1826. The theory of functions of a real variable and the theory of Fourier s series, volume II (rst edition), Dover Publications, New York. Hobson E.W., 1827. The theory of functions of a real variable and the theory of Fourier s series, volume I (second edition), Dover Publications, New York. Kjeldsen T.-H., 1993. The Early History of the Moment Problem, Historia Mathematica 20, 19-44. Lebesgue H., 1910. Sur l intgrale de Stieltjes et sur les oprations linaires, e e e Comptes Rendus hebdomadaires des Sances de l Acadmie des Sciences, 150, e e 86-88. Lebesgue H., 1910. Sur l intgration de fonctions discontinues, Annales Sciee ntiques de l Ecole Normale Suprieure (3), tome 27, 361-450. e (http://www.numdam.org/item?id=ASENS 1910 3 27 361 0) Lebesgue H., 1973. Leons sur l intgration et la recherche des fonctions pric e mitives, Chelsea Publishing Company, New York.
221
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
Math Archives. Continued Fractions...An introduction., University of Tennessee, Knoxville. (http://archives.math.utk.edu/articles/atuyl/confrac/) Mac Tutor History of Mathematics, Biographies Index, School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St. Andrews, Scotland. (http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/ history/BiogIndex.html)
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[14] Xenikkhc P., 1999. Pragmatik Anlush, ekdseic ZHTH, deterh kdosh, Jessalonkh.
[15]
Papadimitrakis M., 2004. Notes on Measure Theory, Department of Mathematics, University of Crete. (http://www.math.uoc.gr/ papadim/Measure Theory 2.pdf) Radon J., 1913. Theorie und Anwendungen der absolut additiven Mengenfunctionen, Sitzungsberichte der kairerlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften. Mathematisch-Naturwissenschaftliche Classe, 122IIa , 1295-1438. Riesz F., 1909. Sur les oprations fonctionelles linaires, Comptes Rendus hee e bdomadaires des Sances de l Acadmie des Sciences, 149, 974-977. e e Riesz F., 1911. Sur certains syst`mes singuliers d quations intgrales, Annales e e e Scientiques de l Ecole Normale Suprieure (3), tome 28, 33-62. e (http://www.numdam.org/item?id=ASENS 1911 3 28 33 0) Riesz F., 1914. Dmonstration nouvelle d un thor`me concernant les e e e oprations fonctionnelles linaires, Annales Scientiques de l Ecole Normae e le Suprieure (3), tome 31, 9-14. e (http://www.numdam.org/item?id=ASENS 1914 3 31 9 0) Stieltjes T.-J., 1889. Sur la rduction en fraction continue d une srie e e procdant suivant les puissances descendantes d une variable, Annales de la e Facult des Sciences de Toulouse (1), tome 3, p. H1-H17. e (http://www.numdam.org/item?id=AFST 1889 1 3 H1 0) Stieltjes T.-J., 1894. Recherches sur les fractions continues, Annales de la Facult des Sciences de Toulouse (1), tome 8, p. J1-J122. e (http://www.numdam.org/item?id=AFST 1894 1 8 4 J1 0) Stieltjes T.-J., 1895. Recherches sur les fractions continues, suite et n, Annales de la Facult des Sciences de Toulouse (1), tome 9, p. A5-A47. e (http://www.numdam.org/item?id=AFST 1895 1 9 1 A5 0) Stieltjes T.-J. 1914-18. uvres compl`tes de Thomas Jan Stieltjes, publi par e e les soins de la Socit mathmatique dAmsterdam, Groningen. ee e (http://name.umdl.umich.edu/AAS8082.0001.001)
222
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[19]
[20]
[21]
[22]
[23]
[24]
Van Dijk G., About the life of Thomas Joannes Stieltjes, Thomas Stieltjes Institute for Mathematics, Leiden, The Netherlands. (http://www.math.leidenuniv.nl/ stieltjes/life.html) Wall H.S., 1973. Analytic Theory of Continued Fractions, Chelsea Publishing Company, second edition, New York. Wikipedia. Continued Fractions. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continued fractions)
[25]
[26]
223

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ISTORIKES RIZES TOU OLOKLHRWMATOS

FWTEINH TSIFOUNTIDOU TMHMA MAJHMATIKWN PANEPISTHMIO KRHTHS IOUNIOS 2006

H teleutaa ergasa tou

sta suneq klsmata.

Pn (z) kai Qn (z). Qn (z) pou den

Sqsh twn rizn tou To prshmo thc

(2n) P2n (z).

Melth twn anaptugmtwn qoc klsmatoc .

2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6

'Ena akmh kritrio sgklishc thc seirc

Qn (z) idithtec tou S

wc sunartseic twn sqetikc me ta

+ ... ci . . . . . . . . Pn (u), Qn (u). . . .

3.1 3.2 3.3

Melth tou suneqoc klsmatoc sugklnei.

sthn perptwsh pou h

4.1 4.2 4.3

Sunpeiec thc omoimorfhc sgklishc twn Melth twn rizn

4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8

(k ) enai gnhswc axousa. . . . . q(z) me th morf apeiroginmenou.

p(z) p1 (z) q(z) kai q1 (z) me th morf seirn. ci wc peira ajrosmata. . . . . .

To prblhma twn ropn. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Melth twn auxousn sunartsewn wc proc th sunqeia.

fragmnhc kmanshc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2 6.3 To orismno oloklrwma

Melth twn sunartsewn thc morfc

7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7

shmeo sun119 121 125 127 129

Upologismc twn oloklhrwmtwn

7.10 Merikc akmh idithtec thc 7.11 Ermhnea tou

+ d(u) z+u . 0 + pou n=1 n

Suneq klsmata pou orzontai ap axousec sunartseic. . . . . . . . . Sqsh twn

+ d(u) z+u 0 + d(u) x+u 0

sthn perptwsh pou to

enai 135 140 143 145 147 148 151

jetikc arijmc. 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.8 8.9

Sqsh twn oloklhrwmtwn Prto pardeigma.

Detero pardeigma. ' lla paradegmata. A

Upologismc thc mzac pou sugkentrnetai sto 0. Sqetik me ton hmixona

twn arnhtikn arijmn.

Melth tou suneqoc klsmatoc pou antistoiqe sto oloklrwma

II To oloklrwma Stieltjes H. Legesgue kai J. Radon.

msa ap tic ergasec twn

sqetik me thn uf twn suneqn grammikn 165

Basikc idithtec tou oloklhrmatoc

Anaparstash suneqoc grammiko sunarthsoeidoc me th bojeia tou oloklhrmatoc

Sqlia gia to uploipo thc dhmoseushc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10.1 H anagwg tou oloklhrmatoc

10.2 Endiafrousec parathrseic ap to biblo

Lebesgue Lebesgue. . . . {Leons sur l intgration et c e

la recherche des fonctions primitives.}

11.1 H nnoia thc sunolosunrthshc. 11.2

J. Radon, Theorie und Anwendungen der absolut additiven Mengenfunktionen. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

203 203 206 207 211

Deterh genkeush tou oloklhrmatoc Idithtec tou oloklhrmatoc

Stieltjes. . Stieltjes. Lebesgue-Stieltjes.

Historical Roots of Stieltjes Integral.

Recherches sur les fractions continues}

Sth dhmoseus tou

enai h melth thc analutikc sumperi-

. . . enai jetiko arijmo kai

tuqaoc migadikc arijmc. Kje

suneqc klsma thc parapnw morfc onomzetai, proc timn tou,

tan nac ap touc pio

S aut to teleutao kommti, pou enai kurwc algebrik, melet