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Chapter 8 Vocabulary

Learning- A relatively permanent change in an organism`s behavior due to experience.
Associative learning- It is when an organism learns by linking two events that occur close together. The animals learn to
predict the immediate Iunction.
Classical Conditioning- A Iorm oI learning in which we associate two stimuli and thus to anticipate events.
Behaviorism- The school oI thought that stresses the need Ior psychology to be an objective science. This perspective
was Iirst suggested and propagated by John Watson in 1913, who wanted psychology to study only observable behaviors
and get away Irom the study oI the conscious mind completely. Watson's primary rationale was that only observable
events are veriIiable and thus, are the only events that can be proven Ialse.
Unconditioned Response (UR)- In classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the
unconditioned stimulus(US).
Unconditioned stimulus- In classical conditioning, an unconditioned stimulus (US or UCS) is any stimulus that can
evoke a response without the organism going through any previous learning; the response to the US (the unconditioned
response) occurs naturally.
Conditioned Response- the conditioned response (CR) is the learned response (reIlexive behavior) to a conditioned
stimulus (CS). This response is almost identical to the Unconditioned Stimulus except that now the reIlexive behavior
occurs in response to a conditioned stimulus as opposed to an unconditioned stimulus.
Conditioned stimulus- a Iormerly neutral stimulus that, aIter association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to
produce a conditioned response
Acquisition- Initial learning oI the stimulus-response relationship. In operant conditioning, the strengthening oI
reinIorced responses.
Extinction- the diminishing oI a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus
does not Iollow a conditioned stimulus; occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinIorced.
Spontaneous recovery- The reappearance aIter a pause, oI an extinguished conditioned response.
Generalization- The tendency, once a response has been conditioned Ior stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to
elicit similar responses.
Discrimination- In classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli
that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.
Operant conditioning- a type oI learning in which behavior is strengthened iI Iollowed by a reinIorcer or diminished iI
Iollowed by a punisher.
Respondent behavior- Behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus; Skinner`s term Ior behavior
learned through classical conditioning.
Operant behavior- behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences.
Law oI eIIect- Thorndike`s principle that behaviors Iollowed by Iavorable consequences become more likely and that
behaviors Iollowed by unIavorable consequences become less likely
Operant chamber- A chamber also known as a skinner boxy, containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to
obtain a Iood or water reinIorcement, with attached devices to record the animal`s rate oI bar pressing or key pecking.
Used in operant conditioning research.
Shaping- An operant conditioning procedure which reinIorcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations
oI the desired behavior.
ReinIorcer- in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it Iollows.
Positive reinIorcement- A stimulus which increases the Irequency oI a particular behavior using pleasant rewards.
Negative reinIorcement- With negative reinIorcement the occurrence oI a behavior is increased by removing an
unpleasant stimulus.
Primary reinIorcer- used in conditioning, and it reIers to anything that provides reinIorcement without the need Ior
learning to an organism.
Conditioned reinIorcer- A stimulus that gains its reinIorcing power through its association with a primary reinIorcer. It is
also known as secondary reinIorcement.
Continuous reinIorcement- This is an operant conditioning principle in which an organism is reinIorced every single
time that organism provides the appropriate operant response.
Partial (intermittent) reinIorcement- ReinIorcing a response only part oI the time. This results in slower acquisition oI a
response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinIorcement.
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Fixed ratio schedule- In operant conditioning, a reinIorcement schedule that reinIorces a response only aIter a speciIied
number oI responses.
Variable ratio schedule- A variable ratio schedule (VR) is a type oI operant conditioning reinIorcement schedule in
which reinIorcement is given aIter an unpredictable (variable) number oI responses are made by the organism.
Fixed interval schedule- With this type oI operant conditioning reinIorcement schedule, an organism must wait Ior a
speciIic amount oI time and then make the operant response in order to receive reinIorcement.
Variable-interval schedule- In operant conditioning, a reinIorcement schedule that reinIorces a response at unpredictable
time intervals.
Punishment- an even that decreases the behavior that it Iollows.
Cognitive map- A cognitive map is a mental representation oI the layout oI one's environment.
Latent learning- learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.
Intrinsic motivation- A desire to perIorm a behavior Ior its own sake.
Extrinsic motivation- a desire to perIorm threats oI punishment.
Observational learning- learning by observing others.
Modeling- the process oI observing and imitating a speciIic behavior
Mirror neurons- Irontal lobe neurons that Iire when perIorming certain actions or when observing another doing so. The
brain`s mirroring oI another`s action my enable imitation, language learning and empathy.
Prosocial behavior- the positive, constructive, helpIul behavior. The opposite oI antisocial behavior.

Chapter 8 Outline

I. Learning
a. A relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience.. but not die to maturation/ drugs
b. Forerunner- Thorndike: 'law oI eIIect- any behavior that leads to a satisIying an outcome will be repeated
c. Study oI.rooted in philosophy and psychology
d. Conditioning process oI learning association
i. Classical- involuntary
ii. Operant- voluntary
1. schedules oI reinIorcement
e .acquisition- 1st phase oI learning
II. classical conditioning
a. learning which involves reIlex responses
b. Pavlov`s dog
c. Unconditioned stimulus (US)(UR) reIlective action
i. Stimulus which produces a reIlexive action, introduction oI Iood stimulus to pair with US CS---CR
(same action)
ii. The CS must occur a second or so beIore the UCS Ior optimum results; iI presented aIter- no learning
occurs
d. everyday examples oI classical conditioning
i.bell stomach growls
e. generalization
i. the tendency to produce a CR to both the original CS and to the stimuli which are similar to it in some
way
I. discrimination
i. the ability to distinguish between two stimuli
1. requires training- otherwise generalizations will occur
g. extinction- used to know how o do something
h. spontaneous recovery- comes back to you
III. operant conditioning
a. Learning in which behavior is strengthened iI Iollowed by reinIorcement or diminished iI Iollowed by
punishment
b. types oI reinIorces
i. primary- those needed Ior survival (Iood, shelter, love)
ii. secondary- those that help us get primary (money)
c. shaping- reinIorcing a series oI behaviors until the desired goal is reached
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i. ex- training animals, rehab
ii. known as successive approximations
d. Schedules oI reinIorcement
i. two basic kinds; 4 total types
1. # oI responses ratios
2. time dependent intervals
ii. Iixed ratio (continuous reinIorcement is a Iixed ratio oI 1- rarely happens in everyday liIe)
1. i.e.) every IiIth time- piece work
iii. -variable ratio- # oI responses required to get a reinIorcer to diIIer
1. i.e.) slot machine, salesman *seems to be the best schedule in maintaining behavior
iv. -Iixed interval (exact time)
1. i.e.) exact time- medications every 4 hrs
v. -variable interval-
1. time varies as to when the reinIorces occur- tends to produce slow but steady response rates
2. partial reinIorcement rates tend to produce more work Ior reinIorcer given then continuous
reinIorcement and seems less susceptible to extinction
vi. Discriminative stimuli (when behavior is adjusted knowing that punishment or reinIorcement varies
with the environment
1. i.e.) people who adjust behavior class to class
2. Non-contingent reinIorcement- a ritual in behavior that people develop thinking it brings some
kind oI reinIorcers
3. i.e.) using a Iavorite or 'lucky pen to take tests
IV. Behavior Modification
a. Contemporary application oI conditioning techniques to alter human behaviors.
i. --positive reinIorcement works better than negative reinIorcement
b. negative enIorcement
i. both positive and negative tell us what to do
ii. known as negative because something 'bad is taken away
iii. ex:
1. running to relieve stress
2.aspirin headache
V. Updating
a. Some learning is latent
b. Over justiIication eIIect: an activity you already like is rewarded- sometimes lose interest in the pure joy oI
doing the task
c. There are critical periods in development
i. Learning is best at certain times
d. very diIIicult to train a new behavior that is biologically weird
e. most industries, schools, parents try to employ operant conditioning techniques- rewards need to be given
immediately and given Ior well deIined achievable goals
I. being used today with bioIeedback to control ADD, blood pressure, etc. through relaxation techniques aka:
classical conditioning
VI. interrelationship oI classical (reIlex) and operant (voluntary) conditioning
a. many times occurs together as in escape/avoidance learning
VII. Preparedness
a. Concept developed by Schigma
i. States- psychological structures inIluence the ability to perIorm certain behavior
ii. Some, we seem easily prepared Ior but others are impossible to learn
VIII. observational learning
a. learning occurs not just through conditioning, but now we observe/ imitate others modeling
b. Bandura- leader in observational learning (social-learning theory)
i. The Bobo Doll