&

:
:
: 16/2/09

&

(.. 5196)

& 16/2/09.

.,
., ., ., ., ., ., .
, . , .
.

.....................................................................................................................1
...................................................................................................................................4

.........................................................................................................................10
......................................................................................................................................10

1......................................................................................................................13
.............................13
1.1.........................................................13
1.2............................................................14
1.2.1........................................................................................................16
1.2.2
....................................................................................................................................18
1.2.3.......................................................20
1.3
(2).........................................................................................................................21
1.4PVSYST(3)..........................................24

1.4.1........................................................24
1.4.2.............................26
1.4.3
...............................................................................................................................27
1.4.4......................................................................27
1.5................................................................................................................29

2......................................................................................................................39
......................................................................................................................................39
2.1...............................................................................................................39
2.1.1(STCStandardTest
Conditions):...................................................................................................................................39
2.1.2.............................................................39
2.1.3(NominalOperatingCell
TemperatureNOCT)....................................................................................................................40
2.1.4
(NOCT):............................................................................................40
2.2.........................................................................................41
2.2.1............................................................41
2.2.2(array).......................................42
2.2.3.........................................................................................................43
2.3PVSYST..................................................................................................................45
2.3.1IAM[IncidenceanglemodifierIAM)]..................................................................45
2.3.2............................................47
2.3.3(ModuleQualityLoss).
......................................................................................................................................................54
2.3.4(Mismatch
Loss).(3)........................................................................................................................................54
2.3.5.(3)..........................................................................55
2.4...............................................................................................................56

3......................................................................................................................60
........................................................................................60
3.1......................................................................................................................................60

3.2......................................................................................61
3.3.(Inputside).........................................................................61
3.3.1.......................................................................................................61
3.3.2MPP..........................................................................................62
3.3.3.......................................................................................................................62
3.3.4(Powerthreshold).....................................................................................62
3.3.5(Ipvmax)................................................................................62
3.3.6.....................................................................................................................63
3.4.................................................................................................63
3.4.1................................................................................................................63
3.4.2AC.................................................................................................................64
3.4.3AC...........................................................................................................64
3.4.4AC.........................................................................................................64
3.4.5....................................................................................64
3.4.6...............................................................................................................64
3.5......................................................................................................................................64

4......................................................................................................................66
.........................................................................................................................66
4.1.................................................................................................................................66
4.1.1.................................66
4.1.2..........................................................................67
4.2..............................................................................................................................69
4.2.1.......................................................................69
4.2.2................................................................................70
4.2.3.........................................................................................................70
4.2.4.......................................71
4.2.5....................................................72
4.2.6MPP.......................................................................................................72
4.2.7.........................................................................................73
4.2.8..........................................................74
4.3.................................................................................................................75
4.4........................................................................................76
4.4.1,,.....................................................................76
4.4.2,..........................................................79

4.4.3......................................................................................................81
4.4.4..........................................................................81
4.5................................................................................................................85
4.5.1.....................................................................................85
4.6....................................................................87

5......................................................................................................................89
..............................................................................................................................89
5.1.........................................................................................................................89
5.1.1......................................................................................................89
5.1.2..........................................................................90
5.1.2.............................................91
5.2...............................................................92
5.2.1...........................................................................................92
5.2.2..........................................................................................................92
5.2.3.......................................................................................................93
5.3..................................................................................................93
5.3.1/
/................................................................................................94
5.3.2...............................................................................................97
5.3.3.(phasejump)......................................................................99
5.4............................................................................................102
5.4.1(Impedancemeasurement)........................................102
5.4.2..................................................104
5.4.3
(Frequencyandphaseshifttechniquespositivefeedback)......................................104
5.4.3..................................................................................................105
5.4.3.(ActiveFrequencyDriftAFD)..............................106
5.4.3.[AFDPF(withpositivefeedback)
orSandiaFrequencyDrift]..........................................................................................................108
5.4.3.SlipModeFrequencyShift(SMS)....................................................................................109
5.4.4TSandiaVoltageShift(SVS)................................112
5.5...........................113

6....................................................................................................................115
.................................................................................................................................115
6.1..........................................................................................................................115
6.2...........................................................................................................116
6.2.1..........................................................................................................................116
6.2.2............................................................................................117
6.3..........................................................................................................119
6.3.1.....................................................................................................................119
6.3.2.........................................................................................................119
6.3.3............................................................................................................122
6.3.4.........................................................................................................................122
6.4...............................................................................................123
6.4.1.........................................................................................................................123
6.4.2..........................................................................................................................123
6.4.3.........................................................................................................124
6.4.4.................................................................125
6.5.......................................................126
6.5.1........................................................................................................................126
6.5.2.....................................................................................................................127
6.5.3().................................................................................127
6.5.4.....................................................................................................................128

7....................................................................................................................133
...................................................................................................133
7.1......................................................................................................133
7.1.1....................................................................................133
7.1.2...........................................................................................133
7.1.4..................................................................................................135
7.1.5...................................................................................................135
7.1.6...........................................................................................................136
7.2......................................................................................137
7.2.1...............................................................................................................137
7.2.2.................................................................138
7.3..............................................................................................138

7.3.1...................................................138
7.3.2......................................................................................................140
7.3.3..................................................................................144
7.3.4............................146

8....................................................................................................................148
.......................................................................................................................148
8.1....................................................................................................................................148
8.2 .....................................................................................................................149
8.3..................................................................................153
8.3.1IEC909...............................................................................................................153
8.3.2.........................................................................................................153
8.3.3k...................................................................................156
8.3.4s................................................................................156
8.3.5.................................................................................157
8.3.6........................................................159
8.4............................................................160
.............................................................................................................................162

................................................................................................................163
............................................................................................................................164

.
500kW
.

PVSYST.

.

.

.
.

.

.
.
10

. 2
PVSYST.

.

dc-ac.

.
.


.
.
2 .
.

.

.
.

.
.


.
.

.

11

. .

12

1

.

1.1 .

:

Icell

+ Icell Rs ,cell
Vcell ncell
Vcell + IRs,cell
VT
= I L,cell I0,cell e
1

Rsh,cell

(1.1)

VT: Volt VT = KTc .

q

, 27C = 300K, VT 25,85mV.

K: Boltzmann. = 1.38110-23 J/K.

Tc: Kelvin. (0C = 273K).

13

q: .

ncell:
p-n .
1 2.

Icell: .

Vcell: .

IL,

cell:

I0, cell:

Rs,

cell

: .

,
. 1.

Rsh,cell : .
: pn (),
( ),
. k,
Rs .

1.2 .

.
Ns Np
:

14

V n+VI Rs
V + IRs
T
1
I = I L I0 e

Rsh

(1.2)

Ns: .
.

Np: .

n: Ns ncell.

I = Icell Np , .

V = Vcell Ns , .

IL = IL,cell Np .

I0 = I0,cell Np .

Rs = (Ns / Np) Rs, cell

Rsh = (Ns / Np) Rsh, cell

, I=f(I,V).

. .

1. . .

(1.2)
V= f(I,V). :
15

IL R I R

SH
V = I Rs + nVT ln
+ 1
I0

(1.3)

:
o

R = 1+

Rs
Rsh

(1.4)

Isc 1.2
V=0 = Isc :

I R
1
I L I 0 exp SC S
R
n VT

1 (1.5)

I sc =

Voc 1.3
I = 0 V = Voc :

Voc

RSH

Voc = nVT ln
+ 1
I0

(1.6)

1.2.1
Rsh ( k)
Rs :
V + IRs
0
Rsh

R = 1+

V
0
RSH

Rs
1
Rsh

16

V-I.
1.2 ,1.3,1.5,1.6 :

V n+ I V R S
T
I I L I 0 e
1
(1.7)

I I

V I Rs + nVT ln L
+ 1
I0
(1.8)

I R
I SC I L I 0 exp SC S
n VT

Voc nVT ln L + 1
I0
(1.10)

1
(1.9)

I-V
.
ASE-300DG-FT.

17

2.

I-V
AS
SE-300-DG-F
FT.

:
Isc:
I



V=0.
Voc:
V ,
=
=0.
MPP:
M



I-V

-V.
,

,
PM.
IMPP:
MPP.
M
VMPP:
MP
PP.
1.2..2

18

( ).
1000 W/m2 25C
(STC ).

-V
, : n, I0 , IL , Rsh ,
Rs .



.

.


. :

, Voc.

, Isc.

VMP IMP PMP.

, V/I, V-I (V=Voc, =0),

V
RS0. : (1.11) Rs 0 =

I V =Voc

Voc. ( VMAX , IMIN ).
o

V V
V V
V
Rs 0 =
= oc MAX Rs 0 = oc MAX

I MIN
0 I MIN
I V =Voc
(1.12)

19

V-I (V=0, =sc),

V
Rsh. : Rsh =

I I = Isc (1.13)

(V=0, I=Isc). ( 0,
IMAX ).
o

0 VMIN
VMIN
V
Rsh 0 =
=
Rsh 0 =

I SC I MAX
I SC I MAX (1.14)
I I = Isc

1.2.3 .
,
5
.
.

. :

Rsh  Rsh 0 =

VT

VMIN
I SC I MAX

(1.15)

VMP + I MP Rs 0 Voc
( I I ) R V
I MP
ln sc MP sh MP +
I sc Rsh Voc

I sc Voc
Rsh

Voc
Rsh
I0
V
exp oc
nVT

(1.16)

I sc

RS = RS 0

(1.17)

nVT
V V
Rs 0 = oc MAX
V
I MIN
I 0 exp oc
nVT (1.18)
20

R
I L = I SC 1 + S
R SH

I SC RS

+
I
0 exp

nVT

(1.19)

( )
V-I.

:
Voc: .
Isc:

VMP : .
IMP :

VMIN : .
IMAX : .
VMAX : .
IMIN : (1)

1.3
(2)
Beckmann & Duffie, Rs, IL,0 ,
,
.

:

V +aIRs V + IRs
I = IL ID Ish = IL I0 e
1
Rsh

21

(1.20)

.
Rsh , k,
Rsh>>Rs. Rs 1.


.
.
Ish Rsh.
:
IL = I sc (1.21)
(1.20) V=Voc =0
Rsh
:
Voc

Voc
0 = I L I 0 e a 1 I 0 = I L e a (1.22)

(1.20) (MPP, VMPP),

0 (1.22) (1.21)
RS :
I
a ln 1 mpp Vmpp + Voc
IL

Rs =
I mpp

(1.23)

Rs
. Rs
, ln[1-(Impp/IL)] .
Rs .
.
ref :
22

aref =

VocTcref Vocref + Egap N s

(1.24)
IscTcref
I Lref

Voc
, Isc , gap
, s
, Gref Tcref
.
(1.24) ref
Rsref, ILref I0ref
(Gref )
(Tcref ). STC
Gref=1000 W/m2

Tcref=25C.

:
MPP, VMPP, Voc, Isc, Voc Isc.
Rsh
Rsh
.

(ref, Rsref, ILref I0ref )
IL, 0
(G) (T).
.

T
a
= c
aref Tref

IL =

(1.25)

GT
I Lref + I sc (Tc Tcref )

GTref

(1.26)

23

I0
I 0 ref

T
= c
T
cref

gap N s

exp
aref

T
1 c
Tcref

(1.27)

1: Rs

Rs=Rsref.
2: ref 1.24

1.23 Rs=0 . ref
1.24
1.23
.

1.4
PVSYST (3).
1.4.1 .

.

.
.

24

3.

.

, .


.
CIS (Cu,Indio,Se2)

:
( V + I R s)
Ncsq Gamma
V + I R
K T c
I = I ph I 0 e
1

R sh

(1.28)

I: [].

V: [V].

Iph: []. ,
Tc.

ID: [A].

Io:
.
25

Rs: [ohm].

Rsh: [ohm].

q: . q = 1.602 10-19 Coulomb.

K: Boltzmann. = 1.381 E-23 J/K.

Gamma: , 1-2
. .

Ncs: .

Tc: [K].

: VT = KT/q, n = Ns ncell = Ncs Gamma. Ns

= cs ncell = Gamma.
Beckmann&Duffie

Gamma,

a=NsGammaKTc/q Ncs=Ns.
1.4.2 .

.
:
I ph =

G
G ref

T
I ph , ref + muISC c

Tcref

(1.29)

:
G [W/m2]:
.
Gref [W/m2]:
.
Tc [K]: .
Tcref [K]: . 2 [K].
26

muISC: (
). A/K .
Iphref : .
1.29

Iph

Iphref muISC.
:
(STC) Gref =1000W\m2 Tcref =25C.
1.4.3
.

:
I 0 = I 0 ref

T
c
T
cref

q EGap

exp
Gamma K

1
1

(1.30)
T

cref Tc

EGap (1.12 eV Si,

1.03 eV CIS, 1.7 eV Si, 1.5 eV CdTe).
I0
Tcref , Iref Gamma.
1.4.4 .

Rsh. Rsh
I-V
.
-V .
. PVSYST
Rsh.
Vmpp/Isc-Imp. Rsh
Rsh

27

. Rsh
.
PVSYST

Beckmann&Duffie.

.

(Isc,0), (0,Voc), (Impp, Vmpp)

.
Beckman&Duffie. I sc = I ph ,

I 0 = I ph e

Voc

I
a ln 1 mpp Vmpp + Voc
IL
Gamma K Tc

, a =
.
Rs =
q
I mpp

PVSYST Gamma

. Gamma

.

I-V, .
Gamma 1,3.
Gamma
:
Si-Mono Gamma = 1.3
SI-Poly

Gamma = 1.35

a-SI: H

Gamma = 1.4

CdTe

Gamma = 1.5 ( )

28

CIS

Gamma = 1.5 ( )

AsGa

Gamma = 1.3 ( )

Gamma 1 2.
Gamma Rs
Beckmann&Duffie,
Gamma . Rs

. Rs=Rsref.
, ,
. Gamma, Rs, Rsh
.
1.29 1.30
.

1.5

. 4,5,6
V STC. 7 8

I-V

Rs Rsh.
ASE-300-DG-FT
.

29

4 I-V .

25C.

MPP.
.

30

5 I-V .

75C.
(75C > 25 C)
MPP .
.

31

6 I-V

.
1000 W/m2.
MPP .
. Voc
.

32

7. Rs -V
Rsh. Rs ,
0 1.

8. Rsh
I-V . Rsh
MPP.

33

9,10,11,12 ,
, Rs Rsh .

9.
MPP . Vmpp .

10. MPP
.

34

11. Rs (0,01-0.14)
. Rs 0.001 1
.

12. Rsh
.

35

,
Rs Rsh.

13.
.

36

14. Rs
. Rs
.

15. Rsh
.

37

16.
. .

17. RS .

38

2.1 .

2.1.1 (STCStandard Test Conditions):

1kW/m2 1,5. 25C.
2.1.2 .

Pp :
STC.
300Wp.
E=1 kW\m2 ,
1,5 25C
300W.

39

25C
0 1200 W\m.
.

(STC) Pp,
I sc Voc.
2.1.3 (Nominal Operating
Cell Temperature-NOCT ).

.
45C-50C.
2-3
.
Nominal Operating Cell Temperature-NOCT conditions.
2.1.4
(NOCT):

.
GNOCT=800 W\m2 .
= 20C .
1m/sec .
NOCT:
NOCT

. NOCT

40

NOCT.
(4)

2.2 .
2.2.1 .

( nm )
Pm
E S.

nm =

Pm
E S

(4) (5)

E (W/m2)
S (m2) .
nm
nm,stc , o
(STC) .
STC (nm,stc) .
nm
nm,stc .


.




.

nm
41

.
nm nm,stc. , nm


. :
nm = n STC n T n LI n S n P n R n n D , :
n STC : STC.
n T :

25 C
n

LI

.( Low Irradiance losses)

n S :

1,5 (STC).
n P : .
n

. n

0.97 3%.
n

nD : .

.

,

.
2.2.2 (array).

(n)
(nm)
(Mismatch)

42

(n )
(Wiring) (n w). :
n = n m n n w .

I-V
n 0.98.

2% 3%.

n w=0.98.
2.2.3 . (6) (4)

nD
nD =0.99
.


( )
(
)
.

,
.


, ,

.

p-n .
43

0.7V 0.9V. 24V

schottky
.
:

(strings)

.
.
.

.
.

18. .
. (7)

Isc
IMPP.

Isc
44

. ,
Isc ,
.
.
:
Ir = ( nsp 1) Isc
Ir :
nsp :
Isc : /.

.

. .

2.3 PVSYST



STC.

STC.
2.3.1 IAM [Incidence angle modifier-IAM)].

,
.

.

.
45

Fresnel

.
To

(FactorIAM).
ashray,
, b0. (3) :
FIAM = 1 - bo (1/cos 1)
: .

.

bo,

bo = 0.05,

. bo
0.1.

46

19. .

.

.

.
30 .
:
-3%. (6)
4.75 KWh/m2 x (1-0,3) 6
KWh/m2 .
PVSYST .

2.3.2 .

47

(STC)
25C.


.
I-V , MPP
. ,
,
.

.
.


,
,
, . (2)
:
k (Tcell - Tamb) = A Ginc (1-Eta). (3)

:
Tc =

A Ginc (1 Eta ) + k Tamb

k

k :

.
Tc : .
Tamb: .
48

Ginc : .
A:

. 0.9.
Eta:

0, 1.


.

k, kc
kv (3). :
k = kc + kv v
:
v: (m/sec).
k, kc: W / m2 .
kv: (W / m2 ) / (m/sec).

, , .
k 2
.
k ,
.

,

49

.
Si, 1C
0,4%
MPP.
.
:
,


kc kv :
kc = 20 W / m2 k

kv= 6 (W / m2 k) / (m/sec).

.

.

.

.
k
.

.
.
.
k
1.5 m / sec .
50

k = kc + kv v :
k = 20 W / m2 k + 6 (W / m2 k) / (m/sec) x 1.5 (m/sec) = 29 W / m2 k
:
kc = 29 W / m2 k kv = 0 k = kc = 29 W / m2 k.
15 W / m2 k
.
NOCT (Nominal Operation Condition Temperature)
NOCT (Nominal
Operation Condition Temperature),

, standard
:
Ginc = 800
Tamb = 20C
1 m /sec
: Open circuit
Tc =

A Ginc (1 Eta ) + k Tamb

k

NOCT = Tc =

A 800(W / m 2 ) (1 0) + k 20C
k

Rs Rsh

. Rsh Rs IV 1 .

STC.
Vmpp, Impp, Isc, Voc P(W)
51

, Pmax efficiency [ %], .

25C
1000W/m2

.

20. I-V
.

52

21. MPP
.

22. .

53

2.3.3 (Module
Quality Loss).

(Module Quality Loss).


.

STC.


-3%.

.

. Power tolerance = 3%.

2.3.4

(Mismatch Loss). (3)

(I-V) .
, , .

54

MPP.

-2% PP.
2%
.

23

2.3.5 . (3)

, .

(string),
(),
. ,
, dc

.
55

,
3%.

, ,
.
3%.


,
,
.

2.4
I -V
I -V
25C.
MPP .
800 W/m2
, 40,
(Beam / Global) 20%, 20C
1 m/sec.
26
9 .
.

56

24. -V

I-V
I-V 25C.
.

57

25. I-V .

26. I-V .

58

27. I-V .

28. I-V

59

3.1

.
.


.
.

,
.


T/6 .
/3.
.
60

.

. (4)

3.2

, .


.
PVSYST,
2 .

3.3 . ( Input side)

, dc
. dc
, .
3.3.1 .

.
MPP
.
MPP,
.
MPP. (6)
61

3.3.2 MPP .

,
, inverter MPP.
PP
.
PP IMPP VMPP.

(STC)
25C.

MPP .
MPP

50 C 60 C. (3)
3.3.3 .

dc
.
. Voc
.
1000
-10 C . Voc
.
3.3.4 (Power threshold)

inverter .
inverter
.
3.3.5 (Ipvmax)

62

inverter.
Impp
.
3.3.6

:

inverter.
STC .

. .
STC
.

3.4 .

. (AC)
.
ac .
3.4.1

. .
,
PP, ,
I-V .

.
63

3.4.2 AC

.


. .
3.4.3 AC

.
.

0.4 kV. 20kV.
3.4.4 AC

, .
3.4.5

.
3kW
.
3.4.6

50
Hz 60Hz. 50 Hz.

3.5
(93%-97%)
.
, 90% 10%
.
64

29.

65

4.1
4.1.1

STC.

.


15% .
inverter.
500 kW :
500kW x 85% = 425 kW

66

inverter
425 kW.

.
.
:
= (P / P ) 100%
P = P nominal = P x .

5%.

(94+5)%.
94%. :
P = P nominal = P x .
P nominal = 425kW x (0, 94 + 0.05) 420 kW.
4.1.2

. , SMA
60 kW LV, 60kW, Vmpp
600V, 650 V. 7
7 .


.

.

. P = VI.
67

,
P = 2R,
.
.


.
.

.

,
.


.
.

.
.

.

.
.

dc .
.

420kW
68

. (8)
600V
.
Solar Konzept 420kW
Vmpp 400V 600V.

.
.
.
,
.


.

.

.

4.2
4.2.1

.
o
500kW .

.

69

. ASE-300-DG-FT
Pn=300W.
:

500 103 W
= 1666.6667 = 1667
300 W

4.2.2 -

.
.


.
. ,
,
(array) .
4.2.3

.
.
.

(string) .
7 .
,
, .
n .
70

,
,

. : Varray = Vstring =
V , .
4.2.4

.

(inverter input voltage). 2 :
Vmax Vmpp. .
(Vmax )
dc
. (Voc-string),
(Voc-array),
.
dc
.
Vmpp
MPP.

MPP .

inverter .
MPP
.
Sunny Central
60 KVA LV Vmax =650 V (maximum pv voltage = 650 V)
Vmmp 300V 600V
= 9.
71

4.2.5

. :

V max,inv

=

Voc,

650V
9.5

=

68,1V

9 .
( group
)
:
Voc,array = Voc,string = 9 Voc, = 9 68.1V = 612.9V < 650 V

10 :
Voc,array = Voc,string = 10Voc, = 10 68.1V = 681 > 650 V

dc
inverter. .
Voc =
-10 C.
4.2.6 MPP

Vmpp

MPP.
n .
. :
72

Vmpp,array = Vmpp,string = 9

Vmpp,

= 942.5V = 383V,

inverter Sunny
Central 60 KVA LV Vmpp. ( 300V < 383V < 600V ).

, = 9.
Vmpp
50 C 60 C. 60 C.
4.2.7

.

:

1667
= 185

7 .
.
.
.

:

185
= 26.4 = 26

=
7

73

, 26
9 .
.
9267= 1638
492W.
4.2.8

. .
Imp

pv,max .


. 60 C
mmp 6.05 . mmp, =
mmp, = 6.05 . 26

MPP

mmp,array =26 mmp, = 6.05 = 157 A.

pv,max = 215 A. mmp,array ( = 157 A ) <
pv,max (= 215 A).
.

.
sc, = 6.61 60 C sc,array = 26 sc, = 172 A.
sc,array < pv,max.
:
26 9
,
, .

74

4.3

.

30. 7 / .
2 .
. dc/ac.
,

75

31. . 7
.
. /
. .

4.4
4.4.1 , , .

76

(array Yield,Ya)
( )
. : Ya = Earray / Pp Wh/Wp/day.
kWp
.
(final Yield,Yf)
. ( )
.
: Yf = Eoutsyst / Pp Wh/Wp/day.
kWp .
(reference system Yield, Yr)
.



.
. : Yr = Earray,optimum / Pp. Yr

kWh/m2/day.
1000/m2 .
(Performance Ratio) (PRa)
(PRs)
E array (Gt, nSTC) ,

.
:
PRarray = Earray / Earray (Gt, nSTC)
PRs = Es / Earray (Gt, nSTC)

(8)

PRs = Yf / Yr (4).
:
77

Lc = Collection Loss = Yr Ya.

.
Ls = System Loss = Ya Yf .
,
.

32.
.
.

78

33. PR .
.
.

4.4.2 , .

GlobHor:

(Global

Horizontal)

. KWh/m2 .
.
GlobInc: (Global Incident)
.
GlobHor .
KWh/m2 .
.
GlobalEff:

(Effective

Global)

. GlobInc
() . KWh/m2
.
.
79

Tamb: (ambient) .
.
Earray:
.
KWh. .
EOutInv: ,
, .
KWh. .
EffArrR: (Array Efficiency Rough area)
.
: EffArrR = Earray / (GlobIncSarray).
.
EffSysR: (System Efficiency Rough area)

. : EffSysR = EOutInv /
(GlobIncSarray). .

80

34. ,
, ,
.

4.4.3

35. .

4.4.4

.
.
.

81

82

83

84

4.5
4.5.1

,
,
5%.
.
22
.
.

21 .

.

r = d / h. r
.
d. 38 r
2.6.

5%.
S0 36.

36

85

r = 2.6 36
S0 b.
,
,
1.892 m.
30. :
r = 2.6, b = 1892mm = 30
h = b sin30 = 1892 sin30 = 946mm
d = r h = 2.6 946 mm = 2459, 6 mm
a = b cos30 = 1892 cos30 = 1638.5mm
S0= a+d = 1638.5 + 2459.6 = 4098.1mm 4m

37. .
5%
.

86

13
9 51m 11.5m.
586.5m2. 14

8204m2.

4.6
Sunny Central 60KVA LV

PV , MPP (Vpv)

300V-600V

Vpv,max

650V

Ipv,max

215A

string ()
pv Ppv

3
70kWp

AC

60kW

AC

87A

< 3%

(cos )

94%

87

ASE 300 DG FT Si poly

Pmpp

300kWp

Vmpp

51.2V

Impp

5.9A

Isc

6.4A

Voc

60V

1892x1283

8mm

50.8mm

50kgr

216

-0.41 %/C

-233 mV/C

sc

6.1mA mV/C

88

5.1
5.1.1

( MT )
.

.
() .

38.

89

39.
5.1.2

,
.


.

.

.

40
. /
/ dc/ac.
.
.

90

/ .

5.1.2 .

,
.


.

. ,
.


.
.



.

. inverters
.

. (9)

91

41. .

5.2
5.2.1

, ()
-inverters(dc-ac)
.

.
.
2 : (passive)
(active). (10)
5.2.2

,
.
92

.

,
.
,
( large
NDZ).
5.2.3 .

: ,
. ,
.
,

.

,
(NDZ).


, .


.

5.3

. :
93

/ ().

5.3.1

inverter
(OVP/UVP) (OFP/UFP).
,
,
,
. inverter


.

94

( / )
.
(utility breaker)
:
inverter : S PV = P PV + j Q PV

S load = P load + j Q load .

: P = P load - P PV Q = Q load - Q PV .

cos =
1 , , Q PV = 0
Q = Q load . P = P load - P PV .

P Q
. :
P 0 :

. , P ,
V
. /
.
.
Pload =

Va2
R

RLC . R
.
.
95

Va

. Va Pload = PPV .
Va
/
.
Q 0 :
,
.

Q .
inverter.

.
.

Qload = Va2 [( L) 1 C ]
RLC
.

( Va )
.
Qload = QPV .
inverter
, cos = 1 sin = 0.
: QPV = VIsin = 0.

. Q=0
.
Qload = QPV. QPV = Qload = 0.
Qload = 0 inverter
RLC .
96

/
.

L // C V:
: (11)
Q = V2 B
QL = V2 BL = V2 (L)-1

QC = V2 BC = - V2 (C)
L // C V :
QLC = QL + QC = V2 (BL+BC) = V2 [(L)-1 - (C)]
:
QLC = V2 [(L)-1 - (C)] = 0
[(L)-1 - (C)] = 0
= (1/ LC)


.


. .
5.3.2 .

(THD)
. (THD)
THD .

97

(THD )
. inverter
.


.
.
THD .

(12) (10)

.

.


.

(10)

.
. RLC
(low pass)

-. .
THD :

inverter dc

. fourier
. (50 Hz)
.

98

inverter

.
inverter
THD
.
THD =

V 2 2 + V32 + ... + V 2 n
V1

5.3.3. (phase jump)

.

.

()
(cos 1 0 ) .

99

.

.

va (zero
crossings).
PLL.
va .

. va
, . PLL

2
() .

42. Phase Jump Detection

100

PLL
. PLL
. PLL


. PLL

. PLL


. 2
( ). 2
( )
VCO. fref fvco
vco fref. vco

fref

43. PLL (13)

101

5.4

. :

(Impedance measurement)

(Sandia Voltage
Shift)

5.4.1 (Impedance measurement)

,
.
.
- .


.
dva / di
.
= dva / di 0.5-1 ohm
.
0.5 sec.
()

:

i = I sin(2 f + )

102

: ,
f .
, .

.

R . :
P = V2/R V2 = PR V = (PR)1/2
dV/dP = R1/2 (P1/2 ) / dP dV/dP = () R1/2 P -1/2

V =

P
2

R
P

(9)

V.
V
.
Va ,

.
. V/
.

.
.


.

103

44.
5.4.2

inverter.


inverter .


.


.


.
.

.
RLC . (10) (9) (12)
5.4.3

(Frequency and phase shift techniques-positive feedback)

104

5.4.3.

, .


.



.
inverter

(),

/.


.

inverter ,
( )
.

,

.

. (12)
,
[AFDPF(with positive feedback) or
Sandia Frequency Drift] Slip Mode Frequency Shift (SMS).
105

(FD)

.
5.4.3. (Active Frequency Drift - AFD)

.

() .
.

.
Va


.
inverter

.
:
vutil ,
TIpv
inverter,
Tz
cf (chopping fraction)

cf =

T v u til
2
106

cf o
.
.
cf
.

45.
- AFD .
.

: (vutil / 2)
inverter

( TIpv /2 vutil / 2) .
inverter
, Tz .
(vutil / 2)
. inverter

( Tz).

107

:


.

(vutil - Tz vutil).

V ipv-inv .
i

pv-inv

( )
. inverter
.

/ .
.

5.4.3. [AFDPF(with
positive feedback) or Sandia Frequency Drift]

, .
va
. cf ,

108

7,
.
cf :
cf = cf0 + K ( fa fline )
cf0 cf
(accelerating gain)
fa va
fline .
,


.
fa
. cf inverter
. inverter
(
)

.

NDZ.
5.4.3. Slip Mode Frequency Shift (SMS)

. ()
V .
.
inverter ,

109

, .
-, ,
(V)
5 ( -S). 5 inverter (-S) RLC
( ).

: inverter
RLC .
inverter

.
inverter,

60 Hz

0.

inverter
- inverter (-S)
- ( ).
:
( Va ) , -S ( ) .
.
inverter 0
inverter.
, C, .
- inverter
RLC C
/
inverter .
SMS
PLL. PLL
110

SMS. -
.
, PLL

.
PLL SMS
PLL SMS- 6.

SMS- PLL, PLL
. PLL
.
-
( C).
SMS.

. (9) (10) (12)

46. -
SMS

111

5.4.4 T - Sandia Voltage Shift (SVS)

. SVS
Va. Va
.
.
Va
Va RLC
Ohm .
Va

.


. ,
,
.
.


112

.

.
0.5%, 1%, 2% ,4%, 8%, 16%,
32% .
, ( 1% )
,
.



. (10) (9)

5.5
.


.
DINVDE0126
.
(MSD)

(-) .
2 MSD
. , ,
.
.

. (9)
113

.


SMA.

SMA
. .
3 .
( )
. 1 Ohm. ( 0.5 ohm).
( ) . . (14)

DINVDE0126
.

47.

114

6.1


,
.
:
) ) .
:
.


. \


.
115

.

.


.


.
.


. (15)

6.2
(
) :

.

.
.

( ).

. : ,
( ) .
6.2.1

116

. ()

. ,
, .
.

.
.
2 .
:
o In :

.
o :

.
.
o 2

1.3 In.
o 2

1.6 In.
,
Is.
Is
ID .
6.2.2

.
, .

,
117

, ,
, .
20 5000 .

.
, .
:
400V
() , 2000 .
, 1 sec,
40 kA. >800 .
k=110kA cos
cos=0,4.
. 3 Vn Ik.
I=f(t), (
1100-2000A).
() , (
6000 24000 ).
, .
, .
. .
, .
4000 .

.
3 .

.
>400 .
118

. (15) (16)

6.3
6.3.1

(-)

.
, 1kV
Vn 35kV. , 35 kV Vn 150 kV .

.

Is. s
D

.
min

n . n = 40 ,
1kV Vn 35kV, min=340 = 120 .

.
S. () :
= S / Vn 3 .

6.3.2

119

(circuit breakers, Leustungsschalter)

.
, .
.
20 kV 7 kA .
7 kA 20 kA.

20 kV.

() .
.
.

, ,SF6.

.

( )
.



.
.



.
:
120

(rated voltage), Vr = 20/24 kV.

(rated current), Ir
(=In) = 630A.
, , 20 kA .
.
, 3sec.
Sk = Ik Vk 3, 350,..560 VA.
. 500
1000 .
, 50 kV 1min.
125 kV.
:
.
.
.
.
.
. .
(), .
, .
.
,
.

.

. :
: .
: .
. (16)
121

6.3.3

.
.
.
.
.
SF6.

.
.
.
-.
:
(rated voltage), Vr=20/24 kV.
, Ir (=In) = 400A, .
, 400 cos=0.7, :
cos , 500 .
, 40 .
: .
40 .
1sec, 16kA :
sec.
, 40kA.
6.3.4

. ,
.

122

,
.

.
.
.
.
:

: .

: .

6.4


.
,
.
6.4.1

Sn 1000 kVA
,
.
.

.
min= 3 n ,
n .
6.4.2

.
123

:


. .
:
.
.
.

.
6.4.3

( )
.
,
,
( ) . .
.
Iz = 12 In
t 0.1 sec I= 12 In.
500kVA , 0.4/20 kV (20kV)

In =

Sn
3Vn

In = 500 / 3 20 A = 14.4A
Iz = 1214.4 A =173A, Iz .

Iz = 173A t 0.1sec 63 .
124

63
0.1sec Iz = 173A.

Iz = 173A 0.1sec.
Iz 0.1sec.

48.

6.4.4

Uk , o

.
uk = Uk / Un .
.

Un Ik :

125

Ik =

Un
1
1
In =
In =
In
Uk
Uk
uk
Un

500 kVA ,
20/0.4 uk = 4% = 0.04 :
Ik = (1 / 0.04) In = 25 In .



.

6.5
.
.
.
.



.

. .




.
. .
6.5.1

126

Sn = 500 kVA

()

Vn = 20 kV

()

Vn = 0.4 kV

uk = 4% = 0.04

Sn

I n =

3Vn

I n =

Sn
3Vn

=
=

500kVA
= 14.4 A
320kV
500kVA
= 721.6 A
30.4kV

I k =

o 20 kV

o 0.4 kV

I k =

1
1
14, 4 = 360 A
I n =
0.04
uk

1
1
721 = 18025 A = 18kA
I n =
0.04
uk

6.5.2

ac :
:

Iinv = 87A
I inv =

P
V 3

60kW
= 87 A
400 3V

In=100 A. , Iinv =
87A,
100
(In>100 )

6.5.3 ()

127

7
.
=787 = 609 .
.
=787 = 609 .

()

( ).
n = 609
A. n = 630 (Schneider),

.
n=630 A

6n=6630A=3780A .

.

( )
.

.
100

100ms.
.
6.5.4

63

. ( k =18 kA ).
128

, ,
..
.

. ( k =18 kA ).
63
.
.
t 0.1 sec
I = 12 In .
500kVA , 0.4/20 kV (20kV)
In =

Sn
3Vn

In = 500 / 3 20 A = 14.4A
Iz = 1214.4 A = 173A

Iz = 173A t 0.1sec
63 . 63
0.1sec Iz = A .

40 , .
25
Iz = 173A 0.1sec.
Iz 0.1sec.

:
.

.
129

()
. :
1,25 Imin I.
n =63 Imin = 189 ,
1,25 Imin = 1.25 189 = 236 ,
1,25 Imin = 236 < 360 = I .
n = 63 A.

S.
= S / Vn 3. 63 S = 1400 VA
20 kV. = 1400 VA / 20 kV 3 = 40.4 kA.
40.4 kA.
,
,
(, , )

.

.

130

49. .

131

50. .

100A.

. .

132

7.1
7.1.1

.

.

.
.

.
7.1.2

, ( )
( ).
133

.

.
.

.
.
7.1.3 -

.
( ).
,
,
.

134

51.
.
.

7.1.4

,
.

.
7.1.5

135

.

.
.
7.1.6

GS

GS

//

()

52.
.

136

7.2
,
,

.
7.2.1

.
,
,

.

,
. 100 kW
20 kW .


/,
.
.
5MW
. 8MW

/.
137

20W
/ /
. / / (
/ /) 10 W.
7.2.2

.


,
.




.

, .
.

7.3
7.3.1

:
A.

.

.
138

B.

,
.

.
.

.
.

.

.

C, D, .
.
C.

(
). C
.
D.

.

.


. -
-
.
139

,
.
.
E.

, ,
, .


.
7.3.2

.

.
1.

, /
/. 3
.
.
/
.
.

140

0.70Un 1.00Un

0.85Un

0.8 s

0.80Un

1.2s

1.00Un 1.15Un

1.10Un

0.8 s

1.15Un

1.2 s

47 50 Hz

49.5 Hz

0.8 s

47.5 Hz

1.2 s

50 52 Hz

50.5 Hz

0.8 s

51.5 Hz

1.2 s

2.

:
o

.

.

.
o

. ( )
o

141

3.

,

,
.


.
, ,
.
,
, .


.
2 :

, 5W,

.

() /,
.
. /
()
.
0.8 sec


.
.
.
142

(>5W):

/ /.
, .

/.
( ) ,
, /
.
/
/ / .

,

(
).
4.

, ..
, ,
.
,
,
. ,
, (transfer trip)
.


.
5.

, ,
.

143

, .
,

,
. ,
.
7.3.3

,
.

,

.

.
.

,
.


.
.
( ),
( )
.

144

,
,
.
500 kVA
,

. ( )
.
/
.
.



, .
.
2
. (17) (18)

145

53. 2

7.3.4

)
() 2 .


.
146

.
7 ( 9 s X 26 p)

ARRAY 1

DC
AC

ARRAY 2

ARRAY 7

DC
AC

100

DC
AC

.. 0.4 kV

0.4 kV
/
20 kV
63

54. .

.

147

8.1

.


. ,
.
15 100km .


.

.
.
()

148

.


.


.

,
.

8.2
2 :
) ) .

. 2
2 :
.
.

I I (
). I = I = I .
55. .
.
.
) ) .
I : .
s : .
I : .

149

: .
1 2

e(t)
e(t) / t 0.


. = I 2 .

, e(t) / t = 0
=0. t.

150

56. .
.

2 2Ik (t)

2 2Ik (t)

) ) .

2 2Ik (t)

VDE0102:
1. i(t)
.
2. i~(t) i(t)
. k~ i~ (t).
3. I i~ (t)
.
4. s
i(t).
.
5. I

.
6. ID
.
7. Ia

.
8. E:
(-)
.
151

9. Xd:

.
Vn

.
.
:

Vn
V V V2
Zn = 3 = n n = n
In
I n 3 Vn Sn
Xd
n pu %:
X d" =

X d" X d" Sn
=
Zn
Vn

10. : Ei = c Vn / 3
.
Vn :
c:

11. Sk : Sk = 3p Vn 3.

3p : .
Vn : .
12. Sa : Sa = Ia3p Vn 3.
Ia3p: .
Sk Sa
.

, Sk Sa
.

152

8.3
8.3.1 IEC 909

IEC 909.


.
IEC 909 :


Ei = cVn / 3.
.

Petersen.

.
c


G KT, .
.
8.3.2

Va
, .
1 V1
Va :
153

V
Z a = Z1 a
V1

, :
V2:
V1:
1:
1 :
V
Z 2 = Z1 2
V1

(
) : , ,
, .
: ,
.
. .
IEC 909 :
,
.
.
Q:
Z Q = 1.1

VnQ
S kQ ''

Vn>1 kV

VnQ
Q
SkQ Q
RQ/XQ = 0.1 Q=0.995 ZQ

154


RL = RL l

XL :

XL = XL l

RL :

l:

Z T (2) = uk

RT ( 2 ) = u r

Sn

V n2( 2 )
Sn

Vn2( 2 )
Sn

Vn
In

2
PknT Vn ( 2 )
=
Sn Sn

PknT

X T (2) =

Z T2 ( 2 ) RT2 ( 2 )

uk
ur uk

uk = ur2 + u X2

ux uk

:
X d " = xd''

Vn
Sn

Vn

Sn

R/Xd=0.05 Sn 100 MVA

xd

R/Xd=0.07 Sn 100 MVA

R/Xd=0.15

()

(<1kV)

8.3.3 k

k ( )
.
k,
, Thevenin

Ei = 1.1Vn / 3 Z1
. :
: Ik3p = i / Z1
: Sk= Vn Ik3p 3.


,
.
8.3.4 s

(
) Ik.
s = Ik2.
:

156

57. R/X(
)

: =1.02+0.98e-3R/X . Is

(.. , ,
).
8.3.5

. ,
,
k.

k.

:
:
: = k,
.

157

58.
n.

t m i n
,
/
( ).
.
:
:

= q ,

q
. q
, PM, p.
t m i n .
IK = 0.

158

q
. PM p .
8.3.6

k
,

.
max
min ,

.
Ik,max = max In.
max .

. max :
k3p : ( ) .
n : .
xd : .
159

max : .

xd
.
.


.
max
. max
max.
: kmin=min In.
min
.

8.4

IEC909 .

, ,

. Z Q = 1.1

VnQ
S kQ ''

, 0.4kV, :
I

"
k3p

E"
X +R 3
2
T

2
T

0.4kV
X + RT2 3
2
T

i=Vn/3,
Vn=0.4 kV.
160

XT RT .
PCU
Sn

Vn2
RT = ur
Sn

ux = uk2 ur2

Vn2
X T = ux
Sn

ur =

RT XT
uk PCU
. Vn=0.4kV
Sn=500KVA uk=4%=0.04

PCU=7100W :

ur=1,42%=0,0142, ux=3,75%=0,0375, XT=0,012=12m RT=0,004=4m.

I k" 3 p =

E"
X T2 + RT2 3

0.4kV
X T2 + RT2 3

0.4
122 + 42 3

kA = 18kA

:
I k =

1
1
721 = 18025 A = 18kA
I n =
0.04
uk

.

.

.
C909

.

. (19)

161

162

1. 03-400- 8.3.1.
2. W.A.Beckman, J.A.Duffie &. Solar engineering of thermal processes. s.l. :
Wiley, 1991.
3. PVSYST. Documentation. 2003.
4. ... . 2006.
5. .. . 1992.
6. , . 2. 2005.
7. ABB Switzerland Ltd. CMC Low Voltage Products..
8. 2003, PVSYST- . PVSYST-
2003.

9. M.ROPP. EVALUATION OF ISLANDING DETECTION METHODS FOR

PHOTOVOLTAIC UTILITY-INTRACTIVE SYSTEMS. s.l. : IEA, 2002.

10. REWIEU OF ANTI-ISLANDING TECHNIQUES. NAXAKIS-LAZAROY.

s.l. : MEDPOWER.
11. ..&...
. : , 2005.

12. Wilsun Xu, Konrad Mauch,Sylvain Martel,. An Assessment of

Distributed Generation Islanding Detection. s.l. : CETC, 2004.

13. Roon, Van. April 2006.

14. support, SMA technical.

163

15. ... .
: s.n., 2004.
16. .. . 2005.
17.

.
2004.
18. ...
. s.l. : , 2003.
19. ...
. : , 2003.

164