u8MS CCnCL1S

1 uaLabase
A daLabase ls a loglcally coherenL collecLlon of daLa wlLh some lnherenL meanlng represenLlng some
aspecL of real world and whlch ls deslgned bullL and populaLed wlLh daLa for a speclflc purpose
2 u8MS
lL ls a collecLlon of programs LhaL enables user Lo creaLe and malnLaln a daLabase ln oLher words lL ls
generalpurpose sofLware LhaL provldes Lhe users wlLh Lhe processes of deflnlng consLrucLlng and
manlpulaLlng Lhe daLabase for varlous appllcaLlons

3 uaLabase sysLem
1he daLabase and u8MS sofLware LogeLher ls called as uaLabase sysLem


4 AdvanLages of u8MS?

C 8edundancy ls conLrolled
C unauLhorlzed access ls resLrlcLed
C provldlng mulLlple user lnLerfaces
C Lnforclng lnLegrlLy consLralnLs
C rovldlng backup and recovery


3 ulsadvanLage ln llle rocesslng SysLem

C uaLa redundancy lnconslsLency
C ulfflculL ln accesslng daLa
C uaLa lsolaLlon
C uaLa lnLegrlLy
C ConcurrenL access ls noL posslble
C SecurlLy roblems


61he Lhree levels of daLa absLracLlon


C hyslcal level 1he lowesL level of absLracLlon descrlbes how daLa are sLored

C Loglcal level 1he nexL hlgher level of absLracLlon descrlbes whaL daLa are sLored ln daLabase and
whaL relaLlonshlp among Lhose daLa

C vlew level 1he hlghesL level of absLracLlon descrlbes only parL of enLlre daLabase


11 uaLa lndependence


uaLa lndependence means LhaL Lhe appllcaLlon ls lndependenL of Lhe sLorage sLrucLure and access
sLraLegy of daLa" ln oLher words 1he ablllLy Lo modlfy Lhe schema deflnlLlon ln one level should noL
affecL Lhe schema deflnlLlon ln Lhe nexL hlgher level

1wo Lypes of uaLa lndependence

C hyslcal uaLa lndependence ModlflcaLlon ln physlcal level should noL affecL Lhe loglcal level
C Loglcal uaLa lndependence ModlflcaLlon ln loglcal level should affecL Lhe vlew level
nC1L Loglcal uaLa lndependence ls more dlfflculL Lo achleve


12 vlew Pow ls lL relaLed Lo daLa lndependence?

A vlew may be LhoughL of as a vlrLual Lable LhaL ls a Lable LhaL does noL really exlsL ln lLs own rlghL buL
ls lnsLead derlved from one or more underlylng base Lable ln oLher words Lhere ls no sLored flle LhaL
dlrecL represenLs Lhe vlew lnsLead a deflnlLlon of vlew ls sLored ln daLa dlcLlonary
CrowLh and resLrucLurlng of base Lables ls noL reflecLed ln vlews 1hus Lhe vlew can lnsulaLe users from
Lhe effecLs of resLrucLurlng and growLh ln Lhe daLabase Pence accounLs for loglcal daLa lndependence


13 uaLa Model
A collecLlon of concepLual Lools for descrlblng daLa daLa relaLlonshlps daLa semanLlcs and consLralnLs


14 L8 model
1hls daLa model ls based on real world LhaL conslsLs of baslc ob[ecLs called enLlLles and of relaLlonshlp
among Lhese ob[ecLs LnLlLles are descrlbed ln a daLabase by a seL of aLLrlbuLes

13 Cb[ecL CrlenLed model
1hls model ls based on collecLlon of ob[ecLs An ob[ecL conLalns values sLored ln lnsLance varlables wlLh
ln Lhe ob[ecL An ob[ecL also conLalns bodles of code LhaL operaLe on Lhe ob[ecL 1hese bodles of code
are called meLhods Cb[ecLs LhaL conLaln same Lypes of values and Lhe same meLhods are grouped
LogeLher lnLo classes

16 LnLlLy
lL ls a Lhlng ln Lhe real world wlLh an lndependenL exlsLence


17 LnLlLy Lype
lL ls a collecLlon (seL) of enLlLles LhaL have same aLLrlbuLes


18 LnLlLy seL
lL ls a collecLlon of all enLlLles of parLlcular enLlLy Lype ln Lhe daLabase

19 LxLenslon of enLlLy Lype
1he collecLlons of enLlLles of a parLlcular enLlLy Lype are grouped LogeLher lnLo an enLlLy seL

20Weak LnLlLy seL
An enLlLy seL may noL have sufflclenL aLLrlbuLes Lo form a prlmary key and lLs prlmary key compromlses
of lLs parLlal key and prlmary key of lLs parenL enLlLy Lhen lL ls sald Lo be Weak LnLlLy seL

21ALLrlbuLe
lL ls a parLlcular properLy whlch descrlbes Lhe enLlLy

22 8elaLlon Schema 8elaLlon

A relaLlon Schema denoLed by 8(A1 A2 An) ls made up of Lhe relaLlon name 8 and Lhe llsL of
aLLrlbuLes Al LhaL lL conLalns A relaLlon ls deflned as a seL of Luples LeL r be Lhe relaLlon whlch conLalns
seL Luples (L1 L2 L3 Ln) Lach Luple ls an ordered llsL of nvalues L(v1v2 vn)

23 uegree of a 8elaLlon
lL ls Lhe number of aLLrlbuLe of lLs relaLlon schema


24 8elaLlonshlp
lL ls an assoclaLlon among Lwo or more enLlLles


23 8elaLlonshlp seL
1he collecLlon (or seL) of slmllar relaLlonshlps

26 8elaLlonshlp Lype
8elaLlonshlp Lype deflnes a seL of assoclaLlons or a relaLlonshlp seL among a glven seL of enLlLy Lypes

27 uegree of 8elaLlonshlp Lype
lL ls Lhe number of enLlLy Lype parLlclpaLlng

23 uuL (uaLa ueflnlLlon Language)
A daLa base schema ls speclfles by a seL of deflnlLlons expressed by a speclal language called uuL

26 vuL (vlew ueflnlLlon Language)
lL speclfles user vlews and Lhelr mapplngs Lo Lhe concepLual schema






29 uML (uaLa ManlpulaLlon Language)
1hls language LhaL enable user Lo access or manlpulaLe daLa as organlsed by approprlaLe daLa model
C rocedural uML or Low level uML requlres a user Lo speclfy whaL daLa are needed and how Lo geL
Lhose daLa
C nonrocedural uML or Plgh level uML requlres a user Lo speclfy whaL daLa are needed wlLhouL
speclfylng how Lo geL Lhose daLa


30 8elaLlonal Algebra
lL ls procedural query language lL conslsLs of a seL of operaLlons LhaL Lake one or Lwo relaLlons as lnpuL
and produce a new relaLlon

37 8elaLlonal Calculus
lL ls an applled predlcaLe calculus speclflcally Lallored for relaLlonal daLabases proposed by Ll Codd
Lg of languages based on lL are uSL ALPA CuLL

38 ulfference beLween 1upleorlenLed relaLlonal calculus domalnorlenLed relaLlonal calculus
1he LupleorlenLed calculus uses a Luple varlables le varlable whose only permlLLed values are Luples of
LhaL relaLlon Lg CuLL
1he domalnorlenLed calculus has domaln varlables le varlables LhaL range over Lhe underlylng
domalns lnsLead of over relaLlon Lg lLL uLuuCL

39 normallzaLlon
lL ls a process of analyslng Lhe glven relaLlon schemas based on Lhelr luncLlonal uependencles (lus) and
prlmary key Lo achleve Lhe properLles
C Mlnlmlzlng redundancy
C Mlnlmlzlng lnserLlon deleLlon and updaLe anomalles

40 luncLlonal uependency
A luncLlonal dependency ls denoLed by x ? beLween Lwo seLs of aLLrlbuLes x and ? LhaL are subseLs of 8
speclfles a consLralnL on Lhe posslble Luple LhaL can form a relaLlon sLaLe r of 8 1he consLralnL ls for any
Lwo Luples L1 and L2 ln r lf L1x L2x Lhen Lhey have L1? L2? 1hls means Lhe value of x
componenL of a Luple unlquely deLermlnes Lhe value of componenL ?

41 When ls a funcLlonal dependency l sald Lo be mlnlmal?
C Lvery dependency ln l has a slngle aLLrlbuLe for lLs rlghL hand slde
C We cannoL replace any dependency x A ln l wlLh a dependency ? A where ? ls a proper subseL of x
and sLlll have a seL of dependency LhaL ls equlvalenL Lo l
C We cannoL remove any dependency from l and sLlll have seL of dependency LhaL ls equlvalenL Lo l








42 MulLlvalued dependency

MulLlvalued dependency denoLed by x ? speclfled on relaLlon schema 8 where x and ? are boLh subseLs
of 8 speclfles Lhe followlng consLralnL on any relaLlon r of 8 lf Lwo Luples L1 and L2 exlsL ln r such LhaL
L1x L2x Lhen L3 and L4 should also exlsL ln r wlLh Lhe followlng properLles
C L3x L4x L1x L2x
C L3? L1? and L4? L2?
C L3Z L2Z and L4Z L1Z
where Z (8(x u ?))

42 Lossless [oln properLy
lL guaranLees LhaL Lhe spurlous Luple generaLlon does noL occur wlLh respecL Lo relaLlon schemas afLer
decomposlLlon

44 1 nl (normal lorm)
1he domaln of aLLrlbuLe musL lnclude only aLomlc (slmple lndlvlslble) values

43 lully luncLlonal dependency
lL ls based on concepL of full funcLlonal dependency A funcLlonal dependency x ? ls full funcLlonal
dependency lf removal of any aLLrlbuLe A from x means LhaL Lhe dependency does noL hold any more

46 2nl
A relaLlon schema 8 ls ln 2nl lf lL ls ln 1nl and every nonprlme aLLrlbuLe A ln 8 ls fully funcLlonally
dependenL on prlmary key

47 3nl

A relaLlon schema 8 ls ln 3nl lf lL ls ln 2nl and for every lu x A elLher of Lhe followlng ls Lrue
C x ls a Superkey of 8
C A ls a prlme aLLrlbuLe of 8
ln oLher words lf every non prlme aLLrlbuLe ls nonLranslLlvely dependenL on prlmary key

48 8Cnl (8oyceCodd normal lorm)
A relaLlon schema 8 ls ln 8Cnl lf lL ls ln 3nl and saLlsfles an addlLlonal consLralnL LhaL for every lu x A x
musL be a candldaLe key

49 4nl
A relaLlon schema 8 ls sald Lo be ln 4nl lf for every MulLlvalued dependency x ? LhaL holds over 8 one
of followlng ls Lrue
C x ls subseL or equal Lo (or) x? 8
C x ls a super key

30 3nl
A 8elaLlon schema 8 ls sald Lo be 3nl lf for every [oln dependency 81 82 8n LhaL holds 8 one Lhe
followlng ls Lrue
C 8l 8 for some l
C 1he [oln dependency ls lmplled by Lhe seL of lu over 8 ln whlch Lhe lefL slde ls key of 8


31 ALomlclLy and AggregaLlon
ALomlclLy
LlLher all acLlons are carrled ouL or none are users should noL have Lo worry abouL Lhe effecL of
lncompleLe LransacLlons u8MS ensures Lhls by undolng Lhe acLlons of lncompleLe LransacLlons
AggregaLlon
A concepL whlch ls used Lo model a relaLlonshlp beLween a collecLlon of enLlLles and relaLlonshlps lL ls
used when we need Lo express a relaLlonshlp among relaLlonshlps