Orbitales Atmicos

Regla de Madelung para determinar la secuencia energtica de orbitales

The distribution of electrons in an atom, by convention, is always written in terms of electrons which each of the subshells occupies. The number of electrons in the subshell are indicated as superscripts.

The complete electron configuration of any element is written by listing the subshells in the order of increasing energy and the number of electrons occupying each subshell are indicated by superscripts.

Orbital s

Orbital p

Orbital d

Orbital f

The outermost shell is known as the Valence Shell and the electrons that occupy this shell are called the Valence Electron

Energy level diagram of the HYBRIDIZATION of carbon sp3 orbitals

Formation of three equivalent sp2 hybrid orbitals

Formation of two equivalent sp hybrid orbitals. Each sp orbital contains an unpaired electron. The shapes of sp and sp2 orbitals are similar.

BOND LENGTHS: When two atoms are bonded by a covalent bond, the distance between the centers of the two nuclei is called bond length. Bond lengths are measured by X-ray crystallography and by microwave spectroscopy. The unit of bond length is Angstrom (1A=10-10 m). For most bonds the values are 1 to 2 . Some typical bond lengths are given in Table

BOND ENERGIES:

Bond energy or bond strength is defined as the amount of energy required to break a bond in a molecule. Bond energies depend upon the type of bond as well as the structural environment in which the bond is situated. They are determined by quantitative measurements of heats of chemical reactions (calorimetric) and by spectroscopic methods. The unit of bond energy is Kcal/mol.