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Chapter 8 Vocabulary Learning- A relatively permanent change in an organisms behavior due to experience. Associative learning- It is when an organism learns by linking two events that occur close together. The animals learn to predict the immediate function. Classical Conditioning- A form of learning in which we associate two stimuli and thus to anticipate events. Behaviorism- The school of thought that stresses the need for psychology to be an objective science. This perspective was first suggested and propagated by John Watson in 1913, who wanted psychology to study only observable behaviors and get away from the study of the conscious mind completely. Watson's primary rationale was that only observable events are verifiable and thus, are the only events that can be proven false. Unconditioned Response (UR)- In classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus(US). Unconditioned stimulus- In classical conditioning, an unconditioned stimulus (US or UCS) is any stimulus that can evoke a response without the organism going through any previous learning; the response to the US (the unconditioned response) occurs naturally. Conditioned Response- the conditioned response (CR) is the learned response (reflexive behavior) to a conditioned stimulus (CS). This response is almost identical to the Unconditioned Stimulus except that now the reflexive behavior occurs in response to a conditioned stimulus as opposed to an unconditioned stimulus. Conditioned stimulus- a formerly neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to produce a conditioned response Acquisition- Initial learning of the stimulus-response relationship. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of reinforced responses. Extinction- the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus; occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced. Spontaneous recovery- The reappearance after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response. Generalization- The tendency, once a response has been conditioned for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses. Discrimination- In classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus. Operant conditioning- a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher. Respondent behavior- Behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus; Skinners term for behavior learned through classical conditioning. Operant behavior- behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences. Law of effect- Thorndikes principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely Operant chamber- A chamber also known as a skinner boxy, containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcement, with attached devices to record the animals rate of bar pressing or key pecking. Used in operant conditioning research. Shaping- An operant conditioning procedure which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior. Reinforcer- in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows. Positive reinforcement- A stimulus which increases the frequency of a particular behavior using pleasant rewards. Negative reinforcement- With negative reinforcement the occurrence of a behavior is increased by removing an unpleasant stimulus. Primary reinforcer- used in conditioning, and it refers to anything that provides reinforcement without the need for learning to an organism. Conditioned reinforcer- A stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer. It is also known as secondary reinforcement. Continuous reinforcement- This is an operant conditioning principle in which an organism is reinforced every single time that organism provides the appropriate operant response. Partial (intermittent) reinforcement- Reinforcing a response only part of the time. This results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement.

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Fixed ratio schedule- In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses. Variable ratio schedule- A variable ratio schedule (VR) is a type of operant conditioning reinforcement schedule in which reinforcement is given after an unpredictable (variable) number of responses are made by the organism. Fixed interval schedule- With this type of operant conditioning reinforcement schedule, an organism must wait for a specific amount of time and then make the operant response in order to receive reinforcement. Variable-interval schedule- In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals. Punishment- an even that decreases the behavior that it follows. Cognitive map- A cognitive map is a mental representation of the layout of one's environment. Latent learning- learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it. Intrinsic motivation- A desire to perform a behavior for its own sake. Extrinsic motivation- a desire to perform threats of punishment. Observational learning- learning by observing others. Modeling- the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior Mirror neurons- frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brains mirroring of anothers action my enable imitation, language learning and empathy. Prosocial behavior- the positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior. Chapter 8 Outline I. Learning a. A relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience.. but not die to maturation/ drugs b. Forerunner- Thorndike: law of effect- any behavior that leads to a satisfying an outcome will be repeated c. Study ofrooted in philosophy and psychology d. Conditioning= process of learning association i. Classical- involuntary ii. Operant- voluntary 1. schedules of reinforcement e .acquisition- 1st phase of learning II. classical conditioning a. learning which involves reflex responses b. Pavlovs dog c. Unconditioned stimulus (US)(UR) reflective action i. Stimulus which produces a reflexive action, introduction of food stimulus to pair with US CS---CR (same action) ii. The CS must occur a second or so before the UCS for optimum results; if presented after- no learning occurs d. everyday examples of classical conditioning i.bell stomach growls e. generalization i. the tendency to produce a CR to both the original CS and to the stimuli which are similar to it in some way f. discrimination i. the ability to distinguish between two stimuli 1. requires training- otherwise generalizations will occur g. extinction- used to know how o do something h. spontaneous recovery- comes back to you III. operant conditioning a. Learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by reinforcement or diminished if followed by punishment b. types of reinforces i. primary- those needed for survival (food, shelter, love) ii. secondary- those that help us get primary (money) c. shaping- reinforcing a series of behaviors until the desired goal is reached

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i. ex- training animals, rehab ii. known as successive approximations d. Schedules of reinforcement i. two basic kinds; 4 total types 1. # of responses = ratios 2. time dependent = intervals ii. fixed ratio (continuous reinforcement is a fixed ratio of 1- rarely happens in everyday life) 1. i.e.) every fifth time- piece work iii. -variable ratio- # of responses required to get a reinforcer to differ 1. i.e.) slot machine, salesman *seems to be the best schedule in maintaining behavior iv. -fixed interval (exact time) 1. i.e.) exact time- medications every 4 hrs v. -variable interval1. time varies as to when the reinforces occur- tends to produce slow but steady response rates 2. partial reinforcement rates tend to produce more work for reinforcer given then continuous reinforcement and seems less susceptible to extinction vi. Discriminative stimuli (when behavior is adjusted knowing that punishment or reinforcement varies with the environment 1. i.e.) people who adjust behavior class to class 2. Non-contingent reinforcement- a ritual in behavior that people develop thinking it brings some kind of reinforcers 3. i.e.) using a favorite or lucky pen to take tests IV. Behavior Modification a. Contemporary application of conditioning techniques to alter human behaviors. i. --positive reinforcement works better than negative reinforcement b. negative enforcement i. both positive and negative tell us what to do ii. known as negative because something bad is taken away iii. ex: 1. running to relieve stress 2.aspirin headache V. Updating a. Some learning is latent b. Over justification effect: an activity you already like is rewarded- sometimes lose interest in the pure joy of doing the task c. There are critical periods in development i. Learning is best at certain times d. very difficult to train a new behavior that is biologically weird e. most industries, schools, parents try to employ operant conditioning techniques- rewards need to be given immediately and given for well defined achievable goals f. being used today with biofeedback to control ADD, blood pressure, etc. through relaxation techniques aka: classical conditioning VI. interrelationship of classical (reflex) and operant (voluntary) conditioning a. many times occurs together as in escape/avoidance learning VII. Preparedness a. Concept developed by Schigma i. States- psychological structures influence the ability to perform certain behavior ii. Some, we seem easily prepared for but others are impossible to learn VIII. observational learning a. learning occurs not just through conditioning, but now we observe/ imitate others= modeling b. Bandura- leader in observational learning (social-learning theory) i. The Bobo Doll