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Solving Differential Equations in Terms of Bessel

Functions
Ruben Debeerst

Mark van Hoeij

Wolfram Koepf

- Kassel
Universitat
Kassel, Germany

Florida State University


Tallahassee, FL, USA

- Kassel
Universitat
Kassel, Germany


       

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ABSTRACT

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Categories and Subject Descriptors

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General Terms
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INTRODUCTION

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55D0 5X>/05T\/<;:"0mA 3J7%T)\%<;:"038]3JA:V50..)B8I/3;A3JAm7%."8:.)7%5
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.)BMI%57 U Db5Q.N]S%3J7%58I/5A 550 ]3JNF>?.)0 8,:"7+8m05A \/<8A
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I/5A 58A

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M5Q(:)7Q.NF>/\/85550 R>?.<;:"0C>L:@0 8C.)B[\%>R8.F: |A 3JT7LDb
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3b 5b?3J785D0NFAC."B
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A >%:)Q52=6$ 6P=?$ 6 G63b 5b?8I%5KA >L:"Q5KT57/50,:"85(1S9
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MI/3JQDI3JAQ.)NF>%\/851U:@Ba850 M:"0,1/Ab
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A .NF58 0,:"7%A$Ba.)0NY:"83J.)7%AbmcB?M5ZL7%1_:A .<J\83;.)7F8.8IL:@8=>0.S/<;5NG


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[5mM3J<J<+Z/0A$8m:)A A \/NF5 2W:)7%1M3;<J<1/5:)<M38I]NF."05=T)57%5D0,:)<


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.)B15T)0558M.]M3J8IQ.95 FQ3J5798A3J7kO6Db
5D8 AA \%NFNY:@03;V58I/5A$85>%A.)Bm8I%5]:)<JT."038I%NO8I%:"8CM5KIL:(5
1/51/\%Q5(1U3J7U8I/5>/05+3J.\/AA 5Q83J.7/A

[
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F5m

db goswL~Hnaq%y"oaoax Y[5YQ(:"7^Q.NF>/\/8528I/5RA 3J7/T\%<;:@03J83J5A


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8I%5Y1/57%.NF3J7%:"8.)0AK.)B8I/5F.)8I/502Q.95 FQ3J5798A23J798.k<J3J7%5(:@0
B:)QD8.)0Ab

UX
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 \ G:)7%1f1/3 4650RS?58M557f5X>/05T)\%<;:"0UA 3J7%T\/<;:"0383J5A
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21 b .YM52Q:)7:)<JA .Q.)NF>%\858I/5]NF3JA A 3J7%TRQ.)7%A$8,:)798
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A 58:)A3J7 5Q83J.7k+b E+v
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B :"7L15(:"QDI 6] Q.)N_
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>%\85d

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b
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5(:"QDI 15Q3;1/5]5b T/b\%A 3J7%TUeda=MI%58I/50L
n #
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P=

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6}7+-%."05(:)Q,IK>L:)30%~ Q.)NF>%\/85HA \%Q,I8IL:"8H n? b
7-H3J7%:)<J<9G/Ba.)05(:)Q,I Q,I%5QDY3B9%n # b
c7U>/0,:"Q83JQ5M5Q.N2S/3J7%5A$85>/A w :)7%19b88I/557L1FM5M3J<J<
T5D8
n Ba.)0Kn n E;/+ oP
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n d
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7%5Q(:)7A .)<J5Mm
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7%."8CA .<J5(1RS+R>03;."0:)<JT."03J8I/NFAM3;<J<HS?5T3J573J76m
 X/:)NF>/<J5E+b

:)7%1U3BmA ./G/Q.)NF>%\/858I%58 0,:"7%A$B."0NY:"83J.7b

I/5].)7%<Q:)A 523J7MI/3;Q,Ik8I%3JA:"<JT.)038I/N1/.95A7%."895D8M.)0
3JAMI%57
GLMI/3JQDIM5M3;<J<HI%:)7%1/<J53J78I%57%5DX8CA 5QD83;.)7b
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051/\%Q58I%57+\%N]S?50."BmQ(:)7%1/3;1%:@85AC8I%:"8M5K.)S/8,:"3;7UBa0.NA$85>/A
_:)7L1+b .)05K158,:)3J<JAQ:)7S?5Ba.\/7L13J7e (
b

5D8 ; G3b 5bYU OS@FrBa.)0F:"<J<_Sg

bI/57
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d
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n d] n^E) n^) nPd( @
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) w " @ [
n ))E") / P9d( w )
n  w "Ffd)h

4.1 Integer Case

I%578I%5Ba.<J<J.(M3;7/TYI%.<;1A

=x/i[iq  8oHD ,Ra%


) ;Ya/U+YD$)
);_t
%Da%D _)_rr{/,a/)*_W)LRC]RY_6(t

 rM )a/29)2;a%+YD$)
)dL"?T7
 ,be m a%D
1/5TL7+\%NF5~0(
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K  )K t
  ,be m a%D
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= ~/ ,a)= m )?
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5:)>/>%<Y8I%5:"<;T).)038I%Nv:"S?."58.F A$85>S9UA$85>

r}7I%5RV50.)AF.)BC8I%5R<;5:1/3J7/TQ.95hXFQ3J5798Y:"05dDE9Dk:)7L1

E ))+b-/\/0 8I%5D0NF.)05Ge 3;A:)<JA .Y:2A 3J7/T\%<;:@03J8."Bmb


~7I%52T)57%5D0,:)<J3JV5(15DX/>?.)7%5798A | :"88I/5]>?.)3;798A_
b
E " :@05 :"7L1WE98I%.)A 5:@8
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6. REFERENCES
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