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Theoretical Foundations: Unit One
Theoretical Foundations: Unit One
CHAPTER THREE
PREVIEW
Classical Theories of Organizations (p. 36) Taylors Theory of Scientific Management (tasks) Fayols Administrative Theory (mgmt) Webers Theory of Bureaucracy (org structure) All 3 theories attempt to enhance managements ability to predict and control the behavior of their workers Considered only the task function of communication (ignored relational and maintenance functions of communication) Designed to predict and control behavior in organizations
Classical theories emphasized coercion, control, and punishment (FOCUS ON TASKS /PRODUCTION).
Maintain predictability and control Decision-making power at top of hierarchy Minimize input from lower-level employees Rely on science and rules to guide behavior Regulate communication to increase predictability and decrease misunderstandings Result:
Workers feel they have no control over their work situation Management does not care about their ideas Feelings and ideas of workers are unimportant
Humanistic theories were developed to promote the CONCERNS of the individual worker in an atmosphere that was too focused on production (FOCUS ON RELATIONAL & MAINTENANCE FUNCTIONS)
Human relations theory is characterized by a shift in emphasis from TASK to WORKER Go beyond physical contributions to include creative, cognitive, and emotional aspects of workers Based on a more dyadic (two-way) conceptualization of communication. SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS are at the heart of organizational behavior--effectiveness is contingent on the social well-being of workers Workers communicate opinions, complaints, suggestions, and feelings to increase satisfaction and production Origins (Hawthorne Studies & work of Chester Barnard) Human Relations School of Management - Elton Mayo (Harvard
Hawthorne Works of Western Electric Company 1924 - Chicago Research focus: Relation of quality and quantity of illumination to efficiency in industry Four Important Studies
Designed to test the effect of lighting intensity on worker productivity Heuristic value: influence of human relations on work behavior Assembly of telephone relays (35 parts - 4 machine screws) Production and satisfaction increased regardless of IV manipulation Workers increased production and satisfaction related to supervisory practices Human interrelationships are important contributing factors to worker productivity Bottom Line: Supervisory practices increase employee morale AND productivity Investigate connection between supervisory practices and employee morale Employees expressed their ideas and feelings (e.g., likes and dislikes) Process more important than actual results Social groups can influence production and individual work behavior RQ: How is social control manifested on the shop floor? Informal organization constrains employee behavior within formal organizational structure
The mere practice of observing peoples behavior tends to alter their behavior (Hawthorne Effect) Relationships between workers and their supervisors are powerful Human interrelationships increase the amount and quality of worker participation in decision making Demonstrated powerful influence of upward communication Workers were asked for opinions, told they mattered, and positive attitudes toward company increased Led future theorists to account for the existence of informal communication
Taken together, these studies helped to document the powerful nature of social relations in the workplace and moved managers more toward the interpersonal aspects of organizing.
Not conducted with the appropriate scientific rigor necessary Too few subjects (N=5) No control groups Subjects replaced with more cooperative participants WORTHLESS GROSS ERRORS INCOMPETENCE
Chester Barnard Considered a bridge between classical and human relations theories The Functions of the Executive (1938) Argues for . . . strict lines of communication - classical theory a human-based system of organization The potential of every worker and the centrality of communication to the organizing process Six Issues Relevant to Organizational Communication Formal vs. Informal Organization Cooperation Communication Incentives Authority Zone of Indifference
Formal Organization - a system of consciously coordinated activities or forces of two or more persons. (definite, structured, common purpose)
Persons are able to communicate with one another Willing to contribute action To accomplish a common purpose
Informal Organization - based on myriad interactions that take place thourghout an organizations history.
Indefinite Structureless No definite subdivisions of personnel Results: customs, mores, folklore, institutions, social norms, ideals -- may lead to formal organization
Cooperation
Necessary component of formal organization The expression of the net satisfactions or dissatisfactions experienced or anticipated by each individual in comparison with those experienced or anticipated through alternative opportunities Critical to cooperation The most universal form of human cooperation, and perhaps the most complex, is speech The most likely reason for the success of cooperation and the reason for its failure System of communication: known, formal channels which are as direct (short) as possible, where the complete line of communication is used, the supervisory heads must be competent, the line of communication should not be interrupted, and every communication should be authenticated. Barnards system lacks relationship formation and maintenance mechanisms
Communication
Incentives
Should be available Not discussed in detail Associated with securing cooperation for organizational members The interrelationship among the originator of the communication, the communication itself, and the receiver Authority of position OVER Authority of Leadership (knowledge & ability). Marks the boundaries of what employees will consider doing without question, based on expectations developed on entering the organization.
Authority
Barnard drew attention away from formal organizational structures toward communication, cooperation, and the informal organization. His work was integrated by other theorists in the human relations movement.
Articulated basic principles of human relations theory The Human Side of Enterprise (1960, 1985) To understand human behavior, one must discover the theoretical assumptions upon which behavior is based Especially interested in the behavior of managers toward workers Every managerial act rests on assumptions, generalizations, and hypotheses--that is to say, on theory . . . Theory and practice are inseparable. Two Objectives: Predict and control behavior Tap Unrealized potential
Theory X - Classical Theory Theory Y - Human Relations Theory FOCUS: Managers assumptions about HUMAN NATURE
Three Assumptions
The average human being has an inherent dislike of work and will avoid it. Most people must be coerced, controlled, directed, and threatened with punishment The average human being prefers to be directed, wishes to avoid responsibility, has relatively little ambition, wants security.
A more positive perspective of human nature The KEY to control and quality production is commitment to organizational objectives
Difficult to adopt principles of human relations theory -- misapplications and misunderstandings of both classical theory and human relations theory led to Human Resources Theory The key element to Human Relations Theory, participation, was used only to make workers feel as if they were part of the organizational decision-making processes Key to classical and human relations theory is compliance with managerial authority Workers are told that they are important but were not treated as such Major Distinctions between Human Resources and Human Relations Theory
All people (not just managers) are reservoirs of untapped resources - manager responsibility to tap physical and creative resources Many decisions can be made more effectively and efficiently by workers most directly involved with their consequences Relationship between employee satisfaction and performance - improved satisfaction and morale contribute back to improved decision making and control
Increased satisfaction is related to the improved decision making and self-control that occurs due to participation that is genuinely solicited and heard Two prevalent Human Resources Theories
Management is crticial to all organizational activities and outcomes Continuum that ranges from more classically oriented system to one based on human resources theory Of all the tasks of management, managing the human component is the central and most important task High producing departments and organizations tend toward System IV; low producing units favor System I
System I - Exploitative Authoritative System II - Benevolent Authoritative System III - Consultative System IV - Participative
Stresses interrelationship between production (task) and people Managements main purpose is to promote a culture in the organization that allows for high production at the same time that employees are fostered in their professional and personal development Managerial Grid - now Leadership Grid (Blake & McCanse) (Figure 3.3, p. 59) FOCUS: Mangers Assumptions about CONCERN for PEOPLE and CONCERN for PRODUCTION Concern for PEOPLE
Degree of personal commitment to ones job Trust-based accountability (vs. obedience-based accountability) Self-esteem for the individual Interpersonal relationships with co-workers Use of people and technology to accomplish organizational tasks Concern for is not about quantity or quality
Assessment instrument does not represent personality traits of the manager -instead, indicate a specific orientation to production and people
SUMMARY
The principles of human resources theory attempt to integrate the concern for production from classical theory with the concern for the worker from human relations theory -- more effective and satisfying!